2015

EEE 203 ELECTRONICS,

MEASUREMENT AND
TRANDUCERS
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
University of Jos

G. R. Rimven
University of Jos
6/15/2015
 UNIT 1: CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Electronics is an important branch of Science and Engineering which deals with the study of cur-
rent conduction in vacuum or gas or semiconductors. Vacuum and gas tubes were the dominant
electronic devices in use before the advent of the transistor. This brought about the invention of
many important semiconductor devices bringing to existence new branches of Electronic Engi-
neering and Technology. Electronics today finds a wide range of applications in various fields
like communication, control, automation of many industrial processes, medicine, computers etc.
Germanium, Silicon and Arsenide are some important semiconductor materials which form the
back-bone of solid-state electronics. This chapter deals with the principle of operation and ap-
plication of some semiconductor devices.

1.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

i) Discuss the principle of conductors, insulators and conductors

ii) Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
iii) Discuss semiconductor diodes, Zener diodes, Vacuum diodes and other two-port elec-
tronic devices.
iv) Discuss the principle of operation of Vacuum triodes

1.3 DEFINITIION OF TERMS

Valence electrons: Electrons present in the outermost orbit of an atom

Energy band: The range of energies possessed by electrons in an atom. The electron energy is
expressed in Electron Volts (eV). 1eVie equivalent to 1.6 x10-19 Watt-second

Valence band: The range of energies possessed by valence electrons

Conduction electrons: The electrons that are free to move and thereby conduct current in a ma-
terial

Conduction band: The range of energies possessed by conduction electrons

Forbidden band: The gap between the conduction and valence bands. It is also called forbidden
gap.

Hole: A vacant space or void created when an electron leaves the valence band
Breakdown voltage: If the reverse bias applied to a P-N junction is increased, a point in reached
when the junction breaks down and reverse current rises sharply to a value limited only by the
external resistance connected in series with the junction. This critical value is known as the
breakdown voltage.

Recombination: Merging of a free electron and a hole

Doping: Intentionally adding impurities to a pure semiconductor in order to enhance its electri-
cal properties

1.4 CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

To understand how electronic devices operate, we have to learn about the atomic structure of
matter. The atom is composed of electrons, protons and neutrons. The neutrons and protons re-
side in the nucleus in intimate association, with the electrons spread out in space around the nu-
cleus in shells just like planets in orbit around the sun. The electron has a negative charge, the
proton has a positive charge equal and opposite to the charge of the electron while the neutron
has no charge and is therefore electrically neutral just as its name implies. Each element has a
certain number of protons and an equal number of electrons to keep the atom electrically neutral.
The element is characterized by its atomic number which is its number of electrons. Electrons
can be stripped off the atom easily leaving it naturally positively charged. The nucleus on the
other had cannot be broken up so easily.

The differences in conducting properties of materials arise from their different energy band
structures. A typical energy band diagram is shown in Figure 1.1 below.

Band Conduction band

Energy
Energy gap (eV)

Valence band

Fig. 1.1 Typical energy band diagram [1]

The outermost electrons of an atom (those on the shell that are furthermost from the nucleus) i.e.
the valence electrons have the highest energy or the least binding energy. It is these electrons that
are most affected when atoms are brought close together as in the formation of solids. Valence
electrons occupy the valence band which is the highest occupied band. It may be completely or
partially filled with electrons but is never empty. The next higher permitted energy band is the
conduction band and may be empty or partially filled with electrons. It may be defined as the
lowest unfilled energy band. In the conduction band, electrons move freely and hence are known
as conduction electrons. The gap between these two bands is known as the forbidden energy gap
[2].

1.4.1 Conductor
The energy band diagram of a good conductor is shown in Figure 1.2. The valence and conduc-
tion band overlap hence there is no forbidden band. At room temperature therefore, the electrons
can become free. In the case of copper for example, one electron per atom becomes free, hence
plenty of electrons are available for conduction. Application of small electric field results in the
movement of free electrons which constitute an electric current. In this case, resistivity is very
low.

Conduction band
Band
energy

Valence band

Fig. 1.2 Energy band diagram of a conductor [1]

1.4.2 Insulator
The energy band diagram of an insulator shown in Figure 1.3 exhibits a filled valence band, an
empty conduction band and a large gap separating them. All the valence electrons are tightly
bound to their parent atoms and the large gap ensures that no electron at room temperature can
jump from the valence band to the conduction band. Thus the insulator is a bad conductor. Resis-
tivity in this case is very high; however, application of strong electric field can result in the flow
of current. This is because the valence electrons are set free by the large force exerted by the
field. Under this condition, the insulator is said to have ‘broken down’ i.e. it has become conduc-
tive [1].
 Band
energy Conduction band
Energy gap (wide)
Valence band

Fig. 1.3 Energy band diagram of an insulator [1]

1.4.3 Semiconductor
Semiconductors such as Germanium and Silicon possess almost filled valence band and nearly
empty conduction band, with a very small energy gap (1.1eVin the case of silicon and 0.7eV in
the case of Germanium) separating them. The narrow gap indicates that only a small amount of
energy is needed to take the valence electrons to the conduction band. At room temperatures
therefore, a few electrons acquiring thermal energy can get detached from the parent atom and
jump into the conduction band to take part the conduction of current. The number of electrons
getting into the conduction band in this manner increases with temperature, however the semi-
conductor behaves like an insulator at absolute zero as the conduction band is completely empty.

Band
energy
Conduction band
Energy gap(narrow)
Valence band

Fig. 1.4 Energy band diagram of a semiconductor [1]

1.5 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Conduction of semiconductors takes place by electrons just as in metals, but unlike metals,
the resistance increases as temperature falls. The resistance of the semiconductor material is
called a bulk resistance. Since the resistance decreases as the temperature increases, it is a
negative resistance and the semiconductor is said to have a negative temperature coefficient.
At room temperature, a semiconductor has few thermally produced free electrons. Any tem-
perature rise will result in thermal motion of atoms. This process is called the thermal ioniza-
tion [3].
The classification of semiconductors is shown in Figure 1.5.
 Semi-conductor

Intrinsic(pure) Extrinsic(doped)

P-type N-type

Fig 1.5 Classification of semiconductors [1]

1.5.1 Intrinsic semiconductor

The semiconductor in its purest form is called an intrinsic semiconductor. Common examples of
such semiconductors are pure Germanium and Silicon. The energy gap is so small (0.7eV and
1.1eV for Germanium and Silicon respectively) that even at ordinary room temperature, there are
many electrons which possess sufficient energy to jump across the gap between the valence and
conduction bands. It is important to note that for each electron liberated into the conduction
band, a appositively charged hole is created in the valence band. When an electric field is applied
to an intrinsic semiconductor at a tem erature above K, conduction electrons move to the an-
ode and the holes in the valence band move to the cathode. Hence semiconductor current consists
of movement of electrons and holes in opposite directions. Electron current is due to movement
of electrons in the conduction band while hole current is within the valence band as a result of
holes ‘jum ing’ from one atom to the other.

As stated above, electric conduction in pure semiconductors is due to thermally-generated elec-

tron-hole pairs. Thermally generated charge carriers are the only means of conduction. The
number of such carriers per unit volume (also referred to as intrinsic carrier density) is given by

ni
where N is constant for a given semiconductor
Eg is the band gap energy in joules
k is Boltzmann’s constant( )
is the tem erature in [2]

Example 1 ind the intrinsic carrier concentration in ilicon at K for which N = 3 x 1025m-3.
Eg = 1.1eV, μe = 0.14m2/V-s and µh =0.05m2/V-s. Also, find the conductivity of silicon [2].

Solution: The intrinsic carrier concentration in pure silicon is given by

ni
 Now, , T = 300K
Eg = 1.1eV
=
=

k=

ni =
= 2 x 1016m-3

= (0.14 +0.05)

= 0.61 x 10-3S/m

1.5.2 Extrinsic semiconductor

Extrinsic or impurity semiconductors are intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impu-
rity or doping agent or dopant has been added in extremely small amounts (about 1 part in10 8)
[2]. The usual doping agents are

- Pentavalent atoms having five valence electrons (arsenic, antimony, phosphorus) or

- Trivalent atoms having three valence electrons (gallium, indium, aluminium, boron).

The pentavalent doping atom is known as a donor atom because it donates or contributes one
electron to the conduction band of pure germanium. The trivalent atom is called an acceptor at-
om because it accepts one electron from the germanium atom.

Depending on the type of doping materials used, extrinsic semiconductors can be sub-divided
into two classes;

i) N-type semiconductors and

ii) P-type semiconductors

N-type extrinsic semiconductor

This type of semiconductor is obtained when a pentavalent material like antimony (Sb) is added
to pure germanium crystal. Each antimony atom forms covalent bonds with the surrounding four
germanium atoms with the help of four of its five electrons. The fifth atom is loosely bound to
the antimony atom; hence it can be easily excited from the valence band to the conduction band
by application of an electric field or increase in thermal energy. Thus, practically every antimony
atom introduced into the germanium lattice, contributes one conduction electron into the germa-
nium lattice without creating a positive hole. Antimony is called donor impurity and makes the
pure germanium an N-type (N for negative) extrinsic semiconductor. An easy way to remember
is N in doNor , N-type material and Negative charge carrier. Hence in N-type semiconductors,
electrons are the majority carriers while holes are the minority carriers. Therefore, an N-type
semi- conductor conducts primarily by electrons in the nearly empty conduction band and the
rocess is called ‘excess’ conduction.

Note: Even though N- type semiconductor has excess electrons, it is still electrically neutral be-
cause even though the number of electrons available for conduction becomes more than the holes
available intrinsically, the total charge of the semiconductor does not change because the donor
impurity brings in as much negative charge (by way of electrons) as positive charge (by way of
protons in the nucleus) [2].

P-type extrinsic semiconductor

This type of semiconductor is obtained when traces of a trivalent like boron (B) are added to a
pure germanium crystal. In this case, the three valence electrons of the boron atom form covalent
bonds with four surrounding germanium atoms but one bond is left incomplete and gives rise to a
hole. Thus, boron which is called an acceptor impurity causes as many positive holes in a germa-
nium crystal as there are boron atoms thereby producing a P-type (P for positive) extrinsic semi-
conductor. To remember: P in accePtor, P-type material and Positive charge carrier.

In this type of semiconductor, conduction is by the movement of holes in the valence band. Ac-
cordingly, holes form majority carriers whereas electrons constitute minority carriers. The pro-
cess of conduction is called ‘deficit’ conduction. Again, even though P-type semiconductor has
excess of holes for conduction purposes, on the whole it is electrically neutral for the same rea-
sons given above.

1.5.3 Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors

In this case, current flow is due to the movement of electrons and holes in opposite directions.
However, since their charges are of the opposite sign, the current due to each is in the same di-
rection. The total current flow which is due to the sum of electron flow and hole flow is given by

+
Let drift velocity of electrons (m/s)
= drift velocity of holes (m/s)
ni = density of free electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor (per m3)
= density of holes in an intrinsic semiconductor (per m3)
e = electron charge (coulomb)
A = cross-section of the semiconductor (m2)
Since in an intrinsic semiconductor =
∴ I= e ( + )A
= e( + ) EA
where = electron mobility = /E
= hole mobility = /E
 Since applied electric field E = V/ l (V/m) where l is the length of the intrinsic semicon-
ductor,
∴ I= e μe + )AV/l
∴ = . =
where ρ is the resistivity of the semiconductor . It is given by
ohm-m
The electrical conductivity which is the reciprocal of resistivity is given by
= ni μe + ) S/m
Now, current density, J = I/A
∴ J= μe + )E = E
∴ = J/E [2]
Conductivity of semiconductors depends on two factors i) number of current carriers pre-
sent per unit volume and ii) the mobility of the current carriers.

1.5.4 Conductivity of extrinsic semiconductors

The general expression for current density (derived for intrinsic semiconductors) in the case
of an extrinsic semiconductor when an electric field is employed is given by
J=( + )E
a) If it is an N-type semiconductor, then the above expression becomes
= e( μe + )E
where represent the electron and hole densities in the N-type semiconductor
after doping
b) If it is a P-type semiconductor, then
= e( + )E . . . .(i)
where represent the electron and hole densities in the P-type semiconductor
after doping.

The conductivity is given by σ = J/E

∴ σ= +
or = + ) for N-type
and = + ) for P-type
However, since electron density in N-type extrinsic semiconductors is much more than
the hole density i.e. , the expressions above become
= μe E and = . . .(ii)

In P-type semiconductors, conduction is by means of holes in the valence band which form ma-
jority carriers. Electrons are available as minority carriers. In this case, , hence
 = E and = . . .(iii) [2]

1.6 P-N JUNCTION

A P-N junction as shown in Fig 1.6 is the boundary region between N -type material on the right
and P-type material on the left of a continuous and single crystalline structure[1]. They are usual-
ly manufactured by planar diffusion process. The study of the P-N junction is important as it
forms the building block of diodes and other more versatile semiconductor devices like transis-
tors [1].

P N

Junction
Fig 1.6 P-N junction [2]

As soon as the P-N junction is formed, the highly concentrated holes in the P-region move to-
wards the N-region and highly concentrated electrons in the N-region move in the opposite direc-
tion towards the P-region. This process is called diffusion. During the diffusion process, elec-
trons and holes recombine in the neighbouring areas of the junction. In fact, recombination
leaves open fixed charges i.e. positive donor ions in the N-region and negative acceptor ions in
the P-region lying adjacent to the junction. The ions are fixed in the crystal structure and cannot
move around like free electrons and holes [1][3] Further diffusion of holes and electrons is pre-
vented by the positive and negative fixed charges. The positive charge in the N-side repels holes
that come from the P-side to the N-side and similarly, the negative charge in the P-side repels
free electrons that come from the N-side to the P-side. Thus, a barrier is set up against the further
movement of carriers. This is called the potential barrier or junction barrier. The electric field
set up by this barrier potential prevents further flow of majority carriers across this junction. The
region on either side of the junction contains only fixed charges and is depleted of electrons and
holes. Hence this region is called the depletion region.

1.6.1 The P-N junction with Forward Bias

A forward biased P-N junction is shown in Fig 1.7 .The positive terminal of the battery is con-
nected to the P-type layer and the negative terminal is connected to the N-type layer. Electrons
get repelled by the negative terminal and holes by the positive terminal of the battery. As a re-
sult, both electrons and holes move toward the junction, thus reducing the potential barrier. A
small voltage is sufficient to wipe off this potential barrier by which a low resistance path is es-
tablished in the circuit. Hence a considerable amount of forward current results. In forward bias-
ing, current conduction is due to majority carriers only [1].

P N

Fig 1.7 P-N junction under forward bias [1]

1.6.2 The P-N junction with Reverse Bias

In this case, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N-type and the negative ter-
minal to the P-type layer. Hence electrons are attracted by the positive terminal and holes by the
negative terminal. As a result, there is a widening of the depletion region accompanied by an in-
crease in the barrier potential which prevents the flow of majority carriers across the junction.
Therefore there should be no current in the external circuit. In practice however, there is a small
current in a magnitude of microamperes as the electrons forming the covalent bonds of the semi-
conductor atoms absorb energy by the rise in temperature and free themselves from the covalent
bonds. As a result, hole-electron pairs are produced under reverse biased condition. Holes in the
P-region and holes in the N-region being the minority carriers easily drift across the junction un-
der the influence of the barrier potential [1].

P N

Fig 1.8 P-N junction under reverse bias [1]

1.7 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

The semiconductor diode also referred to as a P-N junction diode is formed by the metallurgical
junction of N-type and P-type materials (Recall that a P-type material is a group-IV element
doped with a small quantity of a group-V material while an N-type material is a group-IV base
element doped with a group-III material). The P- and N-type regions are referred to as anode and
cathode respectively.
 The Fig 1.9 shows the functional block diagram and the circuit symbol of a diode. The direction
of current flow is the same as the direction in which hole flow takes place.

P N
anode cathode
(a) (b)

Fig 1.9 a) block diagram b) circuit symbol [2]

The low-current diodes whose body is about 3mm long can carry a forward current of about
1 mA, have a saturation current of 5μA at room tem erature ( 5C) and can withstand a reverse
voltage of 75v without breaking down. The medium-current diodes can pass a forward current
of about 500mA and can withstand a reverse voltage of 250V. The high-current diodes or power
diodes can pass a forward current of many amperes and can survive several hundred volts of re-
verse voltage [2].

A P-N junction diode is a unidirectional or one way device offering low resistance when for-
ward-biased (Fig 1.10a) and behaving almost as an insulator when reverse-biased (Fig 1.10b).
Hence, such diodes are mostly referred to as rectifiers for the conversion of alternating current to
direct current.

10 10000
Ω MΩ

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.10 P-N junction diode a) Forward bias b) Reverse bias [2]

The static voltage-current characteristic for a low-power P-N junction diode is shown in Fig.
1.11. They are static because they describe the d.c. behaviour of diode.
 mA
Forward
characteristic

I
V

-V Current due to
majority carriers

Break down I0 +V
Current due
to minority
carriers

i
I0
V
Reverse
characteristic A

Fig 1.11 voltage-current characteristics for a low-power P-N junction diode [2]

Forward characteristic: When the diode is forward-biased and the applied voltage is increased
from zero, hardly any current flows through the device at first because the external voltage is be-
ing opposed by the internal barrier voltage (0.7V for Si and 0.3 for Ge). As soon as is neu-
tralized, current through the diode increases rapidly with increasing battery voltage. It is found
that as little as 1.0V produces a forward current of about 50mA. A burnout is likely to occur if
the forward voltage is increased beyond a certain safe limit [2].

Reverse characteristic: When the diode is reverse biased, majority carriers are blocked and only
a small current (due to minority carriers) flows through the diode. As the reverse voltage is in-
creased from zero, the reverse current very quickly reaches its maximum or saturation value
(or which is also known as leakage current. It is of the order of nanoamperes (nA) for Si and
microam eres (μA) for Ge. he value of is independent of the applied reverse voltage but de-
pends on a)temperature b)degree of doping and c)physical size of the junction.

As seen from Fig. 1.11, when the reverse voltage exceeds a certain value called break-down
voltage (or Zener voltage ), the leakage current suddenly and sharply increases, the curve
indicating zero resistance at this point. Any further increase in voltage is likely to produce burn-
out unless protected by a current-limiting resistor. The two mechanisms that are responsible for
breakdown under increasing reverse voltage include
 i. Zener breakdown
ii. Avalanche breakdown

Zener breakdown occurs in junctions that are heavily doped therefore have narrow depletion
layers. The breakdown voltage sets up a very strong electric field (about 108V/m) across this nar-
row layer. This field is strong enough to break the covalent bonds thereby generating electron-
hole pairs. Even a small further increase in reverse voltage is capable of producing large number
of current carriers. That is why the junction has very low resistance in the breakdown region.

Avalanche breakdown: Occurs in junctions which are lightly-doped, have wide depletion layers
where the electric field is not strong enough to produce Zener breakdown. Instead, the minority
carriers accelerated by this field collide with the semiconductor atoms in the depletion region,
breaking down covalent bonds and generating electron-hole pairs. These newly-generated charge
carriers are also accelerated by the electric field resulting in more collisions and further produc-
tion of charge carriers. This leads to a flood or avalanche of carriers resulting in low reverse re-
sistance.

The static voltage-current relationship can be described using the Fermi-Dirac probability func-
tion equation or diode junction current [2]:

where ,V

= diode terminal voltage, V

= temperature-dependent saturation point current, A
= absolute temperature of p-n junction, K
= Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10-23 K)
= electron charge (1.6 x 10-19C)
= an empirical constant, 1 for Ge and 2 for Si

Other diode parameters of great importance include:

a) Bulk resistance ( )
It is the sum of the resistance values of the P- and N-type semiconductor materials of
which the diode is made of.

Usually, it is very small. Also,

It is the resistance offered by the diode well above the barrier voltage i.e. when current is
large. This resistance is offered in the forward direction.
b) Junction resistance ( )
 Its value for forward-biased junction depends on the magnitude of forward d.c. current
= 25mV/ (mA) for Ge and 50mV/ (mA) for Si
c) Dynamic or a.c resistance
or

For large values of forward current, is negligible. Hence, . For small values
of , is negligible as compared to . Hence =

d) Forward voltage drop which is =

The main applications of semiconductor diodes in modern electronic circuitry are:

i. As power or rectifier diodes. They convert ac into dc for dc power supplies of elec-
tronic circuits
ii. As signal diodes in communication circuits for modulation and demodulation of small
signals
iii. As Zener diodes in voltage stabilizing circuits
iv. As varactor diodes for use in voltage-controlled tuning circuits as may be found in ra-
dio and TV receivers
v. In logic circuits used in computers

1.7.1 Zener diodes

It is a reverse-biased heavily doped Silicon (or Germanium) P-N junction diode which is operat-
ed in the breakdown region where current is limited by both external resistance and power dissi-
pation of the diode. Silicon is preferred to Germanium because of its higher temperature and cur-
rent capability. When a diode breaks down, both Zener and avalanche effects are present alt-
hough usually one or the other predominates depending on the value of the reverse voltage
(Zener predominates at less than 6V, while avalanche is predominant above 6V). Zener break-
down produces a large number of electrons and holes which constitute the reverse saturation cur-
rent called Zener current whose value is limited only by the external resistance in the circuit.

A typical V-I characteristic of the Zener diode is shown in Fig. 1.12

 IF

VZ
VF

IZ min

IZ

IZ max

Fig.1.12 V-I characteristic of Zener diode [2]

= Zener breakdown voltage

= minimum current to sustain breakdown
= maximum Zener current limited by maximum power dissipation

The diode possesses some resistance called Zener dynamic impedance which will be ne-
glected so that the voltage value does not change once the diode goes into breakdown.
This means that remains constant even when increases considerably.
The schematic symbol of a Zener diode and its equivalent circuit are shown in Fig 1.13

Cathode

ZZ

VZ

Anode
(a) (b)

Fig. 1.13 Zener diode a)Schematic symbol b)equivalent circuit [2]

Zener diodes have Zener voltages of 2.4V to 200V which is temperature dependent. Their pow-
er dissipation is given by the product with maximum ratings varying from 150mW to 50W.

For proper working of a Zener diode in any circuit, it is essential that it must be i)reverse-biased
ii)have a voltage across it greater than and iii) be in a circuit where current is less than .

Zener diodes have numerous uses which include

i. As voltage regulators
 ii. As a fixed reference voltage in a network for biasing and comparison purposes
and for calibrating voltmeters
iii. As peak clippers or voltage limiter
iv. For meter protection against damage from accidental application of excessive
voltage
v. For reshaping a waveform

1.8 VACUUM DIODES

Electron devices fall into two broad classes, vacuum and gas-filled. For their operation, vacuum
devices or tubes depend on the motion of electrons in a vacuum without collision with gas mole-
cules. Gas-filled devices on the other hand are filled with some gas or metal vapour and for their
operation, depend on the motion of ions.

A vacuum diode is the simplest of all vacuum tubes. It has two electrodes, the cathode which
supplies electron emission and the other is the plate or the anode which serves to control the cur-
rent through the tube. The plate is in effect, a collector – it collects the electrons emitted by the
cathode. The two electrodes are enclosed in an envelope most often made of glass, although ce-
ramic and metal envelopes are also used in some cases. The envelope is evacuated to a vacuum
of 10-6 – 10-7mm Hg. The plate is made of some refractory metal having a high work function,
such as nickel or molybdenum. The circuit symbol for a vacuum diode is shown in Fig. 1.14 [4].

K
H-H

Fig. 1.14 Vacuum diode circuit symbol [4]

When the heating current is turned on, the cathode is raised to the required temperature and emits
electrons. The electrons escaping from the cathode have some initial velocities differing in both
magnitude and direction. When no voltage is applied between the plate and the cathode, these
electrons gang up in front of the cathode and form a space-charge cloud. This space charge gives
rise to a region of negative potential near the cathode which drives the electrons back into the
cathode. Suppose a voltage is applied to the plate, positive with respect to the cathode, . The
positive potential at the plate sets up an accelerating field which drives the electrons forming the
space-charge toward the plate. This gives rise to a plate current in the tube circuit. When a
negative voltage is applied to the plate with respect to the cathode, a retarding field is set up for
the emitted electrons, and no plate current can flow. Thus, the vacuum diode has the property of
unidirectional conduction similar to the semiconductor circuit.
1.8.1 The plate (Volt-Ampere) characteristics of the vacuum diode
Fig. 1.15 is a plot of the function with as the parameter, where is the heating
voltage which controls the cathode temperature and consequently the emitted current. When =
0, practically no current is flowing and only some electrons having a sufficiently high energy are
able to attain the velocity required to overcome the retarding electric field set up by the space
charge and to reach the plate. Thus the plate current is limited by the space charge. As in-
creases from zero, the space charge gradually disperses and the plate current increases. At
some value of + , the space charge disappears completely and all the electrons escaping from
the cathode reach the plate as fast they are emitted. This is known as saturation. At saturation,
thus, there are two operating regions for the vacuum diode: the space-charge-
limited region and the saturation region. The basic mode of operation is within the space-
charge-limited region because it is here that the electric field at the plate effects its controlling
action and the plate current varies in proportion to the plate voltage, . In the saturation re-
gion, this proportionality does not hold because a change in does not cause a proportionate
change in [4].

IP

Saturation
region
ted
i o n l i mi
reg rge-
ha
e -c
ac
Sp

0 VP

Fig. 1.15 Plate characteristic of a vacuum diode [4]

1.8.2 Applications of the vacuum diode

Vacuum diodes are mainly used for a.c. rectification owing to their property of unidirectional
conduction. Their efficiency as rectifiers is however lower than that of semiconductor diodes be-
cause some power has to be expended to heat the cathode, the a.c. resistance is higher, and more
voltage is dropped across the diode. More importantly however, vacuum diodes have a much
shorter service life than do semiconductor diodes. That is why they are used to a limited extent
and mainly at very high voltages (especially at high levels of power) such as in industrial power
circuits and in rectifiers for X-ray units – in which case they are known as kenotrons [4].

1.9 OTHER TWO-PORT ELECTRONIC DEVICES

There are a number of two–terminal devices having a single p-n junction like the semiconductor
or zener diode but with different modes of operation, terminal characteristics and areas of appli-
cation. These include the Schottky barrier, varactor, solar cell, photodiode, IR emitter and tunnel
diodes. Others are the photoconductive cell, LCD (liquid- crystal display) and the thermistor [5].

1.9. 1 The Schottky barrier diode

It is also known as a surface-barrier or hot-carrier diode. Its areas of application were first lim-
ited to the very high frequency range and lower noise figure. in recent years, however, it is ap-
pearing in low voltage/high-current power supplies and ac-to-dc converters. Other areas of appli-
cation of the device include radar systems, Schottky TTL logic for computers, mixers and detec-
tors in communication equipment, instrumentation and analogue-to-digital converters.

Its construction is quite different from the conventional p-n junction in that a metal-
semiconductor junction is created. The semiconductor is normally n-type silicon, although p-type
silicon is sometimes used whereas different metals such as molybdenum, platinum, chrome or
tungsten. Different construction techniques result in a different set of characteristics for the de-
vice such as increased frequency range, lower forward bias etc. In general, however, Schotkky
diode construction results in a more uniform junction region and a high level of ruggedness [5].

1.9.1 Varactor diodes

Varactor diodes also called varicap, VVC (voltage-variable capacitance) or tuning diodes are
semiconductor, voltage-dependent, variable capacitors. Their mode of operation depends on the
capacitance that exists at the p-n junction when the element is reverse-biased. Some of the high-
frequency areas of application include FM modulators, automatic-frequency-control devices, ad-
justable bandpass filters and parametric amplifiers. The varactor diode is also employed in a tun-
ing network [5].

1.9.2 Solar cells

The basic construction of a silicon p-n junction solar cell appears in the figure below.
 Incident sunlight

Outer ring contact

Glass Top view

Outer ring contact

+ p
VOC +
_ n Junction P-type layer
VOC
_
Metallic contact
(a) (b)

Fig 1.16 Solar cell a) cross-section b)top view [5]

As shown in the top view, every effort is made to ensure that the surface area perpendicular to
the sun is a maximum. The metallic conductor connected to the p-type material and the thick-
ness of the p-type material are such that they ensure that a maximum number of photons of light
energy will reach the junction. A photon of light energy in this region may collide with a valence
electron and impart to it sufficient energy to leave the parent atom, resulting in a generation of
free electrons and holes. The level of current that results in a solar cell is directly related to the
absorption characteristics of the material (referred to as the absorption coefficient), the wave-
length of the incident light and the intensity of the incident light. The most common material in
use today in the full range of bulk and thin-film solar cells is silicon in its various forms [5].

1.9.3 Photodiodes

The photodiode is a semiconductor p-n junction device whose region of operation is limited to
the reverse-bias region. The basic biasing arrangement, construction and symbol for the device
appear in the figure below.

_ p n
+ Vλ
+ _
Ireverse λ
R
_ +
V Iλ
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.17 Photodiode a) basic biasing arrangement and construction b) symbol [5]

The reverse saturation current is normally limited to a few microamperes. It is solely due to the
thermally generated minority carriers in the n- and p-type materials. The application of light to
the junction will result in a transfer of energy from the incident travelling light waves (in the
form of photons) to the atomic structure, resulting in an increased number of minority carriers
and an increased level of reverse current. he ‘dark’ current is that current that will exist with no
applied illumination. The photodiode is employed in an alarm system. The reverse current will
continue to flow as long as the light beam is not broken. If the beam is interrupted, drops to
the dark current level and sounds the alarm. A photodiode is used to count items on a surveyor
belt. As each item passes, the light beam is broken, drops to the dark current level and the
counter is increased by one [5].

1.9.4 Photoconductive cells

The photoconductive cell is a two-terminal semiconductor device whose terminal resistance var-
ies (linearly) with the intensity of the incident light. It is also called a photoresistive device. The
photoconductive materials most frequently used include cadmium sulfide(CdS) and cadmium
selenide (CdSe). As the illumination on the device increases in intensity, the energy state of a
larger number of electrons in the structure will also increase because of the increased availability
of the photon packages of energy. This results in an increasing number of relatively free elec-
trons in the structure and a decrease in the terminal resistance. It is used in voltage-regulator sys-
tems [5].

1.9.5 IR Emitters

Infrared-emitting diodes are solid-state gallium arsenide devices that emit a beam of radiant flux
when forward-biased. Electrons from the n-region recombine with excess holes of the p-material
in a specially designed recombination region sandwiched between the p- and n-type materials.
During this recombination process, energy is radiated away from the device in the form of pho-
tons which are either reabsorbed in the structure or leave the surface of the device as radiant en-
ergy. Areas of application for such devices include card and paper-tape readers, shaft encoders,
data-transmission systems and intrusion alarms [5].

1.9.6 Liquid-Crystal Displays

The liquid-crystal display (LCD) has the distinct advantage of having a lower power requirement
than the LED, microwatts for the dis lay com ared to milliwatts for the s. It does however
re uire an external or internal light source and is limited to a tem erature range of about to
C. Lifetime is an area of concern because LCDs can chemically degrade. A liquid crystal is a
material, normally organic, that flows like a liquid but whose molecular structure has properties
normally associated with solids.

1.9.7 Thermistors

The thermistor is a temperature-sensitive resistor, that is, its terminal resistance is related to its
body temperature. It is not a junction device and is constructed of germanium, silicon, or a mix-
ture of oxides of cobalt, nickel, strontium, or manganese. The compound employed determines
whether the device has a positive or a negative temperature coefficient. There are fundamentally
two ways to change the temperature of the device: internally and externally. A simple change in
current through the device will result in an internal change in temperature A small applied volt-
age will result in a current too small to raise the body temperature above that of the surroundings.
In this region, the thermistor acts as a resistor and has a positive temperature coefficient. Howev-
er, as the current increases, the temperature also rises to the point where the negative temperature
coefficient will appear as shown in Fig. 1.18. The fact that the rate of internal flow can have such
an effect on the resistance of the device makes it useful for applications in control, measuring
techniques etc. An external change requires changing the temperature of the surrounding medi-
um or immersing the device in a hot or a cold solution [5].

Power(mW) Resistance(Ω)

6
10

10

10
0.

10
1
1

100

Ambient 0ºC
Potential(V)

10 25ºC

60ºC

1.0

0.1
10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3
Current(A)

Fig 1.18 Steady-state voltage-current characteristics of a thermistor [5]

1.9.8 Tunnel diodes

The tunnel diode was first introduced by Leo Esaki in 1958. Its characteristics are different from
any diode discussed thus far in that it has a negative-resistance region. In this region, an increase
in terminal voltage results in a reduction in diode current. The tunnel diode is fabricated by dop-
ing the semiconductor materials that will form the p-n junction at a level 100 to several thousand
times that of a typical semiconductor diode. This results in a greatly reduced depletion region of
the order of magnitude of 10-6cm or typically about the width of this region for a typical sem-
iconductor diode. It is this thin de letion region through which many carriers can ‘tunnel’ rather
than attempt to surmount, at low forward-bias potential that account for the peak in the current.
his reduced de letion region results in carriers ‘ unching through’ at higher velocities than in
conventional diodes, making the tunnel diode useful in high-speed applications such as comput-
ers. Tunnel diodes are also useful in oscillators [5].

1.10 VACUUM TRIODES

A vacuum triode has three electrodes: the plate (or anode), the cathode and a third electrode
called the control grid placed between the first two. By slightly varying the voltage between the
control grid and the cathode, we can vary the plate current over a fairly broad range of values.
This amplifying effect of the grid arises from the fact that it is located much nearer to the cathode
than the plate and partly shields the cathode against the action of the plate field [6].

A vacuum triode may be connected in a common-cathode circuit, a common-plate circuit or a

common-grid circuit. Emphasis will be made the common-cathode configuration as it is the most
commonly used in practice [6].

The operating conditions in a vacuum triode are determined by two mutually independent volt-
ages – plate voltage and grid voltage, . is applied between the plate and the cathode while
is applied between the grid and the cathode.

The main static characteristic of the vacuum triode are those relating any one current to one of
the two voltages with the other voltage held constant. Thus, four sets of static characteristics can
be plotted.

i) Plate characteristics (Fig 1.19(a))

ii) Plate current-vs-grid voltage (mutual or transfer) characteristics (Fig. 1.19(b))

iii) Grid current-vs-plate voltage characteristics

iv) Grid characteristics

 (mA) IP IP(mA)
A
15 VP 15

0
Vg G
C
Vg =

0V
00
10 10

=1

20
V

Vg
-12
∆IP

V
∆IP
V

0V
-1
-6
5 Q 5 Q

10
∆Vg
∆VP

0 100 200 300 400 VP (V) Vg(V) -18 -12 -6 0

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.19 Vacuum triode characteristics [6]

In most cases, vacuum triodes draw no grid current in operation ( ), so the grid charac-
teristics will not be considered.
In small-signal operation, that is, when , and are changing by small amounts each,
the operating conditions in a vacuum triode can be described by the following two equations
∆

In addition to the static characteristics, the properties of a vacuum diode can be stated in
terms of three dynamic factors or parameters:
i) The amplification factor

ii) The a.c. (or dynamic) or plate resistance

iii) The transconductance (or mutual conductance)

From the definition of the triode parameters, it follows that:
=μ[ ]
The advantage of vacuum triodes is that their parameters are more stable towards external
factors (above all, temperature variations) than those of their semiconductor counterparts.
Vacuum triodes suffer from a number of disadvantages which limit their use for signal ampli-
fication, above all the decrease in the amplification factor at frequencies of several Kilohertz
and higher due to the capacitive coupling between the plate and the grid. The grid-plate ca-
pacitance, , usually 1 or 2 pF causes feedback owing to which the a.c. component of the
plate voltage, which is the output voltage of the triode, may go back to its input and com-
pletely upset the operation of the tube [6].
EXERCISES

1. The purpose of doping is to:

A. Make the charge carriers move faster.

B. Cause holes to flow.
C. Give a semiconductor material certain properties.
D. Protect devices from damage in case of transients.

2. A semiconductor material is made into N type by:

A. Adding an acceptor impurity.

B. Adding a donor impurity.
C. Injecting electrons.
D. Taking electrons away.

3. Which of the following does not result from adding an acceptor impurity?

A. The material becomes P type.

B. Current flows mainly in the form of holes.
C. Most of the carriers have positive electric charge.
D. The substance has an electron surplus.

4. In a P-type material, electrons are:

A. Majority carriers.
B. Minority carriers.
C. Positively charged.
D. Entirely absent.

5. Holes flow from:

A. Minus to plus.
B. Plus to minus.
C. P-type to N-type material.
D. N-type to P-type material.

6. When a P-N junction does not conduct, it is:

A. Reverse biased.
B. Forward biased.
C. Biased past the breaker voltage.
 D. In a state of avalanche effect.

7. Holes flow the opposite way from electrons because:

A. Charge carriers flow continuously.

B. Charge carriers are passed from atom to atom.
C. They have the same polarity.
D. No! Holes flow in the same direction as electrons.

8. If the reverse bias exceeds the avalanche voltage in a P-N junction:

A. The junction will be destroyed.

B. The junction will insulate; no current will flow.
C. The junction will conduct current.
D. The capacitance will become extremely high
9. List the principal limitations of the vacuum diode as compared to the semiconductor diode.

SUMMARY

This unit has discussed the principle of conductors, insulators and conductors as well as the dif-
ferences between intrinsic and doped semiconductors. Semiconductor diodes, Zener diodes,
Vacuum diodes and other two-port electronic devices have also been discussed. Vacuum triodes
have also been dealt with.

SELF-REFLECTION

1. What makes a material a semi-conductor?

2. Why is it that the plate current can flow in the vacuum diode at = 0?

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

[1] K.M. Kumar, V. Jagannathan, Basic Electrical Electronics Engineering, New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 1999

[2] A.K. Theraja, B.L. Thereja, S.G. Tarnekar, A textbook of Electrical Technology, 23rd ed,
New Delhi: S. Chand and Company Ltd., 2005
[3] V. Vodovozov, Introduction to Electronic Engineering, Valery Vodovozov
&bookboon.com, 2010

[4] F. Weissburd, G. Panayev, B. Savelyev, Electron devices and Amplifiers, Moscow: Mir
Publishers, 1990

[5] R.L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11th ed, Eng-
land: Perason Education Limited, 2014

[6] A.S. Kasatkin, M.V. Nemstov, Electrical Engineering, 2nd ed, Moscow: Mir Publish-
ers, 1990
 UNIT 2: BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The transistor is an essential component of an electronic circuit, from the simplest amplifier or
oscillator to the most elaborate digital computer. Integrated circuits (ICs), which have largely
replaced circuits constructed from discrete transistors, are themselves merely an array of transis-
tors and other components from a single chip of semi-conductor material. A good understanding
of transistors is therefore very important. This chapter deals with the principle of operation, dif-
ferent configurations and characteristics of bipolar junction transistors.

2.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

i) Describe the bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

ii) Discuss biasing, currents and types o f a BJT
iii) Discuss the static characteristics of a BJT
iv) Discuss the operating regions of a BJT
v) Perform a dc load line analysis
vi) Discuss the h-parameters of a BJT
vii) Discuss the ideal and approximate hybrid equivalent circuits of a BJT

2.3 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

The transistor was invented by a team of three scientists at Bell Laboratories, USA in 1947.
There are two basic types of transistors: 1) the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and 2) the field-
effect transistor (FET) which will be treated subsequently.

The BJT consists of two back-to-back P-N junctions manufactured in a single piece of semi-
conductor crystal. These two junctions give rise to three regions called the emitter, base and col-
lector. A PNP transistor as shown in Fig. 2.1 has a layer of N-type material sandwiched between
two layers of P-type material. The NPN-transistor in Fig. 2.2 consists of a layer of P-type mate-
rial sandwiched between two layers of N-type material. The emitter, base and collector are pro-
vided with terminals which are labelled as E, B and C. The two junctions are: emitter-base (E/B)
junction and collector-base (C/B) junction.

Emitter Collector
P N P
E C

Base
B
 Fig 2.1 Structure of a PNP transistor [1]

Emitter
N P N
E C

Base
B

Fig 2.2 Structure of an NPN transistor [1]

The symbols employed for PNP and NPN are also shown in Fig. 2.3. The arrowhead is always at
the emitter and its direction indicates the conventional direction of current flow.

The Emitter – is more heavily doped than any of the other regions because its main function
is to supply majority charge carriers (either electrons or holes) to the base
The Base – forms the middle section of the transistor. It is very thin (10-6m) as compared to
either the emitter or collector and is very lightly-doped.
The Collector – Its main function as its name implies is to collect majority carriers coming
from the emitter and passing through the base [1].

E C E C

B B
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.3 Transistor symbols a) PNP b) NPN [1]

In most transistors, collector region is made physically larger than the emitter region because it
has to dissipate much greater power. This makes it impossible to invert the transistor i.e. making
the collector the emitter and vice-versa.

2.4 TRANSISTOR BIASING

For proper working of the transistor, it is important to apply voltages of correct polarity across its
two junctions:

- The E/B junction is always forward biased

- The C/B junction is always reverse-biased.
 This type of biasing is referred to as FR biasing.

As shown in Fig. 2.4, two batteries provide the dc emitter supply voltage and collector sup-
ply voltage for properly biasing the two junctions of the transistor for both PNP and NPN-
transistors,

IE IC IE IC

VEE IB VCC VEE IB VCC

Fig. 2.4 Transistor biasing [1]

2.5 TRANSISTOR CURRENTS

The three primary currents which flow in a properly-biased transistor are . The direc-
tion of flow as well relative magnitudes of theses currents for a PNP transistor connected in the
common-base mode and common-emitter modes are shown in Fig. 2.5

IC

IE IC
IB
VCC

VEE VCC VBB

IB
IE

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.5 Flow of current in a) Common-base mode b) Common-emitter mode [1]

= +

By normal convention, currents flowing into a transistor are taken as positive and those flowing
out as negative. Hence, is positive whereas both and are negative. A lying irchoff”s
Current Law, we have

+(- +(- )=0 or - - =0 or = +

This statement is true regardless of transistor type or configuration.

The collector current however comprises two components – the majority and minority carriers.
The minority-current component is called leakage current and is given the symbol ( with
emitter terminal open) [2]. The collector current therefore is determined by

= +

is temperature sensitive and can affect the stability of a system at very high temperatures.
Improvements in construction techniques however have resulted in a great reduction in the levels
of to the point where its effect can be ignored [2].

2.6 TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS

Basically, there are three types of circuit connections for operating a transistor:
- Common-base(CB)
- Common-emitter(CE) and
- Common-collector(CC)

he term ‘common’ is used to denote the electrode that is common to the in ut and output cir-
cuits. Because the common electrode is generally grounded, these modes of operation are also
referred to as grounded-base, grounded-emitter and grounded-collector configurations as shown
in Fig. 2.6 for a PNP-transistor

C E

E C B output B output

input output input input

B E C

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.6 Transistor configurations for a PNP-transistor [1]

2.6.1 CB Configuration

In this configuration, emitter current is the input current and the collector current is the out-
put current. The input signal is applied between the emitter and base whereas output is taken out
from the collector and base as shown in Fig. 2.6(a).
In the dc mode, the ratio of the collector current to the emitter current is called alpha ( ) of a
transistor.

∴ =

where and are the levels of current at the point of operation [2].

The negative sign is due to the fact that flows out of the transistor while flows in. Consider-
ing the magnitude of the currents, the negative sign is omitted.

Actually, =α + but is usually so small and is neglected.

In ac mode, = while remains constant. is known as the common-base, short-

circuit, amplification factor and is written as -

In most situations, the magnitudes of and are quite close, permitting the use of the mag-
nitude of one for the other.

α is called the forward current transfer ratio(- ) where the F signifies forward and B,
commom-base. α is a measure of the uality of a transistor. he higher its value, the better the
transistor, in the sense that the collector current more closely equals the emitter current. Its value
ranges from 0.90 to 0.998

Example 1: The following current readings are obtained in a transistor connected in CB con-
figuration: = 2mA and = mA. Com ute the values of α and .

Solution: = -

= 2 x 103 – 20 x106

=1.98mA

α= = = 0.99

2.6.2 CE Configuration

Here, the input signal is applied between the base and emitter and the output signal is taken out
from the collector and emitter circuit. As seen from Fig. 2.6(b), is the input current and is
the output current. The ratio of the dc collector current to dc collector current to dc base current
is called dc beta ( ) or just β of the transistor.

∴ β= =

or =β
 β is also called common-emitter d.c. forward transfer ratio and is written as .

In ac mode, = with constant. is formally called the common-emitter, short-

circuit, amplification factor. It is also written as [1][2].

A relationshi can be develo ed between β and α using the basic relationships introduced thus
far. Using β = and α =

∴ =

Recall = +

∴ = +

Dividing through by , we have

=1+ or β = αβ + α

= (β + 1)α

o that α = or β=

2.6.3 CC Configuration

In this case, the input signal is applied between base and collector and the output is taken out
from the emitter-collector circuit as shown in Fig. 2.6(c). is the input current and is the out-
put current . The current gain of the circuit is

= = (1 + β)

The flow paths of various currents in a CC configuration are shown in Fig. 2.7
 IE IE

PNP NPN
IB IB

IC IC

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.7 Flow paths of current in CC configuration [1]

It is seen that

=
=
∴

NOTE: The relationship between transistor currents are expressed bearing in mind that

α= ,β= ,α= and β =

 =β =α =

 = = = (1 -α)

 = = =(1 +β ) =
 The three transistor d.c. currents always bear the following ratio

For a.c. currents, and are used [1].

2.7 TRANSISTOR STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

The relationship between different d.c. currents and voltages of a transistor are represented by
curves. These are useful in the studying its operation when connected in a circuit. The three im-
portant characteristics of a transistor are:
- Input characteristics
- Output characteristics
- Constant-current transfer characteristics [1]
2.7.1 Common Base static characteristics
a) Input characteristics

It shows how varies with when voltage is kept constant. This is determined as fol-
lows:

First, voltage is adjusted to a suitable value with the help of as shown in Fig. 2.8.

IE IC

VEE R2 VCB R1 VCC

VBE IB

Fig. 2.8 Determining CB static characteristics [1]

Next, voltage is increased in a number of discrete steps and corresponding values of are
noted from the milliammeter connected for the purpose. When plotted, we get the input charac-
teristic shown in Fig. 2.9 one for Ge and the other for Si. Both curves are exactly similar to the
forward characteristics of a PN diode which in essence is what the emitter-base junction is. This
characteristic may be used to find the input resistance of the transistor. Its value is given by re-
ciprocal of its slope.

mA

8 Ge Si

IE 4
IE

2
VBE

0
V
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
VBE

Fig. 2.9 Input characteristic of CB [1]

 --- constant

a) Output characteristic

It shows the way varies with when is held constant. This characteristic is obtained as
follows: First, the movable contact on (Fig. 2.8 above) is changed to get a suitable value of
and hence that of . While keeping constant at this value, is increased from zero in a
number of steps and the corresponding collector current that flows is noted. Next, is re-
duced back to zero, is increased to a value a little higher than before and the whole procedure
is repeated. In this way, a family of curves is obtained as shown in Fig. 2.10

Breakdown region

IE=8mA
mA 6mA
8
D B
6 4mA

E C
4 2mA

2
IC 0
A
ICBO Cut-off region

-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12V
Saturation region
VCB

Fig. 2.10 Output characteristic of CB [1]

The reciprocal of the near horizontal part of the characteristic gives the output resistance

b) Current transfer characteristic

It shows how varies with changes in when is held constant. For plotting this character-
istic, first is set to a convenient value and then is increased in steps and corresponding
values of noted. A typical transfer characteristic is shown in Fig. 2.11(a). Fig. 2.11(b) shows a
more detailed view of the portion near the origin.
 VCB constant VCB constant
mA mA

6 6

4 IC 4
IC IC
IE
2 2

ICBO
0
5 10 mA 0 5 10 mA
IE
IE
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.11 Transfer characteristic of CB [1]

Usually, is found from the output characteristic than from this characteristic.

NOTE: CB connection is rarely employed for audio-frequency circuits because i) its current gain
is less than unity ii) its input and output resistances are so different.

2.7.2 Common Emitter static characteristics

a) Input characteristic

It shows how varies with changes in when is held constant at a particular value. A
typical input characteristic is shown in Fig. 2.12

mA

75

50
IB
IB
25
VBE

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 V

VBE

Fig. 2.12 Input characteristic of CE [1]

Like CB connection, the overall shape resembles the forward characteristic of a PN diode. The
reciprocal of the slope gives the input resistance of the transistor

b) Output or Collector characteristic

It indicates the way in which varies with changes in when is held constant. To obtain
this characteristic, first is set to a convenient value and maintained constant and then is
increased from zero in steps, being noted in each step. Next is reduced to zero and in-
creased to another convenient value and the whole procedure is repeated to give a family of
curves as shown in Fig. 2.13.

M
Saturation line
Saturation

Break-down
mA region IB=80mA

60
8 A
C
IC 40 B
6

4 VCE IC 20
A
2 Cut-off
ICEO 0
region

5 10 15 20 25V
VC

Fig. 2.13 Output characteristic of CE [1]

It is seen that as increases from zero, rapidly increases to a near saturation level for a fixed
value of . As shown, a small amount of collector current flows even when = 0. It is
called . Since main collector current is zero, the transistor is said to be cut-off. If is al-
lowed to increase too far, the C/B junction completely breaks down and due this avalanche
breakdown, increases rapidly and may cause damage to the transistor.

When has very low value (ideally zero), the transistor is said to be saturated and it operates in
the saturation region of the characteristic. Here a change in does not produce a corresponding
change in .

This characteristic can be used to find at a specific value of and . It is given by

=
c) Current transfer characteristic
It indicates how varies with changes in when is held constant at a given value. A typical
characteristic is shown in Fig. 2.14(a).

VCE constant VCE constant

mA mA

IC
IC IC
IB

ICEO
0
µA 0 µA
IB
IB
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.14 Transfer characteristic of CE [1]

Its slope gives

From Fig. 2.14(b) it is seen that a small collector current flows even when

is the common-emitter leakage current and . It is also due to the flow of

minority carriers across the reverse-biased C/B junction.

2.7.3 Common Collector static characteristics

The output characteristic is versus for several fixed values of . Since , this char-
acteristic is practically identical to that of the CE circuit and is shown in Fig. 2.15(a)
 mA µA

100
IB=100µA
6 80
80
5

V CE =
60 60
4 IB

V CE =
IE 40

4V
3
40

2V
20
2
0 20
1

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6V
1 2 3 4 5 6V

VCE VCB
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.15 CC characteristics [1]

In like manner, its current gain characteristic versus for different values of is similar to
that of a CE circuit because The CC input characteristic is a plot of versus for
different values of and is shown in Fig. 2.15(b) it is quite different from those for CB or CE
circuit. This difference is due to the fact that input voltage is largely determined by the value
of CE voltage.

2.8 BJT OPERATING REGIONS

A BJT has two junctions i.e. base-emitter and base-collector junctions either of which could be
forward-biased or reverse-biased. These give four possible combinations of bias conditions

i. Both junctions reverse-biased

ii. Both junctions forward-biased
iii. BE junction forward-biased, BC junction reverse-biased
iv. BE junction reverse-biased, BC junction forward-biased
Condition (iv) is generally not used, so the remaining three conditions will be tabu-
lated as follows

Table 2.1 Transistor operation regions [1]

BE junction BC junction Operation region
RB RB Cut-off
FB FB Saturation
FB RB Active
Key: RB - Reverse-biased FB – Forward-biased
a) Cut-off: This condition corresponds to reverse-bias for both base-emitter and base collector
junctions. In fact, both diodes act like open circuits under these conditions. The reverse
leakage current has been neglected and the three transistor terminals have been uncoupled
from each other. In cut off

b) Saturation: This condition corresponds to forward-bias for both base-emitter and base-
collector junctions. The transistor becomes saturated i.e. there is perfect short-circuit for both
base-emitter and base-collector diodes. The ideal case is where the three terminals have been
connected together thereby acquiring equal potentials. In this case, .

c) Active region: This condition corresponds to forward-bias for base-emitter junction and re-
verse-bias for base-collector junction. In this case, > 0.

2.9 TRANSISTOR D.C. LOAD LINE

To draw the dc load line of a transistor, one needs to know only its cut-off and saturation points.
It is the straight line joining these two points. For the CE circuit shown below in Fig. 2.16(a), the
load line is shown in Fig. 2.16(b). A is the cut-off point and B is the saturation point.

+VBB = 10V +VCC = 15V

Saturation
IB IC VCC/RL B

RL 10K
E Active region
RB 1M
IC D

VCE C
Cut-off
VBE IE
A
0
VCC
VCE
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.16 a) CE circuit b) Load line [1]

The voltage equation of the collector-emitter is

∴
Considering the following two particular cases:

i) When = 0, = - cut-off point A

ii) When = 0, = - saturation point B

Obviously, load line can be drawn if only and are known. Incidentally, the slope of the
load line AB = - . The above equation can be written as:

which is a linear equation similar to .

The graph of this equation is a straight line whose slope is m =

Active region - All operating points (such as C, D, E etc in Fig. 2.16) lying between cut-off and
saturation points from the active region of the transistor. In this region, the E/B junction ids for-
ward-biased and the C/B junction is reverse-biased – conditions necessary for the operation of a
transistor.

Quiescent point - It is a point on the dc load line which represents the values of and that
exist in a transistor when no input signal is applied. It is also known as the dc operating point or
working point. The best position for this point is midway between cut-off and saturation points
where (like point D in Fig. 2.16) [1]

Example 2:

For the circuit shown below, draw the dc load line and locate its quiescent or dc working point.

mA
+VBB = -30V +VCC = 20V 4 B

IE IC
3
RE 15K
RL 5K IC
2 Q-point

A
IB VCB
0
5 10 15 20
VCB
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.17
Solution: The cut-off point is easily found because it lies along the X-axis where
i.e. point A. At saturation point B, saturation value of collector current is
mA

The line AB represents the load line for the given circuit. The actual operating point is as fol-
lows:

2mA

mA;

∴ V

Hence the Q-point is located at (10V; 2mA)

Example 3:

In the CB circuit shown in Fig. 2.18(a) below, find the dc operating point and dc load line

mA
-10V 20V 2.0 B

IE IC
1.5
RE 20K
RL 10K IC
1.0

0.5 Q-point
RS 1K
A
VS VCB
0
5 10 15 20
VCB
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.18

Solution: a) mA - point B

at cut-off = = 20C – point A

Hence AB is the dc load line as shown in Fig. 2.18(b)

mA
 = 0.5mA

= –

= 20 – 0.5 × 10

= 15V

The Q-point is located a (15V, 0.5mA)

2.10 TRANSISTOR A.C. LOAD LINE

It is the line along which Q-point shifts up and down when changes in output voltage and current
of an amplifier are caused by an ac signal. This line is steeper than the dc line but the two inter-
sect at the Q-point determined by biasing dc voltage and currents. AC load line takes into ac-
count the ac load resistance whereas d load line considers only the dc load resistance [1].

i) DC Load Line
The cut-off point for this is where . It is also written as .
Saturation point is given by . It is also written as . It is represented by
the straight line AQB in Fig. 2.19.

ICQ + VCEQ/Rac D

VCC/RL B

IC

ICQ Q

C A
0
VCEQ VCEQ + VCC
ICQRac
VCE

Fig. 2.19 DC and AC Load lines

ii) AC Load Line

 The cut-off point is given by where is the ac load re-
sistance.

Saturation point is given by the straight line CQD in Fig. 2.19. The slope of the ac load line
is given by . It is seen from Fig. 2.19 that maximum positive signal swing =
. Similarly, maximum possible negative signal swing is . In other words, peak-
signal handling capacity is limited to or whichever is smaller [1].

Example 4:

Draw the dc and ac load lines for the CE circuit shown in Fig. 2.20(a). What is the maximum
peak-to-peak signal that can be obtained?

mA
VCC = 20V 5.13 ac Load Line

4 B dc Load line
RL 3K

R1 16K
C2
IC
C1
ICQ Q
2

V2
R2 4K RE 2K
VE
VS VCEQ A
0 5 10 15 16 20V

VCE
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.20

Solution: DC Load line (Fig. 2.20(b))

20V (point A) and 20/5=4mA (point B).

Hence, represents dc load line for the given circuit.

Approximate bias conditions can be quickly found by assuming that is too small to affect the
base bias in Fig. 2.20 (a)

If we neglect , ; .

Also,

Hence
The corresponding value of can be found by drawing the dotted line in Fig. 2.20(b) or may
be calculated as shown below:

AC Load line

Cut-off point

Now, for the given circuit, ac load resistance is =

Cut-off point = 10 + (2 3) = 16V

Saturation point,

Hence, the line joining the 16V point and the 5.13mA point gives the ac load line as shown in
Fig. 2.20(b). As expected, this line passes through the Q-point.

Now, =2 = 6V and . Taking the smaller quantity, maximum peak out-

put signal = 6V. Hence, peak-to-peak value = 2 6 = 12V

2.11 TRANSISTOR H-PARAMETERS

2.11.1 What are h-parameters?

These are four constants which describe the behaviour of a two-port linear network. A linear
network is one in which resistances, inductances and capacitances remain fixed when voltage
across them is changed [1].

Consider a linear network as shown in Fig. 2.21

i1 i2
+ +
V1 Linear V2
- circuit -

Fig. 2.21 A linear network [1]

As a matter of convention, currents flowing in are taken as positive, whereas those flowing out
are considered negative. Voltages from upper to lower terminals are positive and negative the
other way around. The electrical behaviour of such a circuit can be described with the help of
four hybrid parameters or constants designated as . Subscript 1 refers to quanti-
ties on the input side and 2 to the quantities on the output side. The double-number subscript im-
plies that the first variable is always divided by the other. he letter ‘h’ comes from the word hy-
brid which means a mixture of distinctly different items with different units. Two of the four h-
parameters are found by short-circuiting the output terminals and the other two by open-
circuiting the input terminals.
 a) Finding and from short-circuit test

i1 i2
+ +

short
V1 Linear
- circuit -
V2 = 0

Fig. 2.21 Short-circuit test [1]

The output terminals are shorted so as no voltage exists on a short. The linear circuit is
driven by an input voltage It produces an input current whose magnitude depends on the
type of circuit.

and =

These two constants are known as forward parameters. represents input impedance with
the output shorted and has the unit of ohm. represents the current gain of the circuit with
output shorted and has no unit since it is the ratio of two similar quantities.

The voltages and currents of such a two-port network are related by the following sets of equa-
tions or V/I relations.

(1)

+ (2)

he ‘h’s are constants for a given circuit but change if the circuit is changed. nowledge of a-
rameters enables us to find the voltages and currents with the help of the above two equations.

b) Finding and from open-circuit test

As shown in the figure below, the input terminals are open so that but there does ap-
pear to be a voltage across them. The output terminals are driven by an ac voltage
which sets up current .

Open i2
+ +
V1 Linear V2
- circuit -
I1= 0

Fig. 2.22 Open-circuit test [1]

and
 represents voltage gain(in contrast to forward gain which is ) so it has no units.
represents admittance (a reverse of resistance) and has the unit of mho or Siemens, S. It is the
admittance looking into the output terminals with the input terminals open. The two constants
are referred to as reverse parameters.

A summary of the h-parameters is as follows:

= input impedance and forward current gain (with output shorted)

reverse voltage gain and output admittance ( with input open )

2.11.2 Input impedance of a two port network

The two-port linear network shown in the figure below has a load resistance across its output
terminals. The voltage source on the input side drives the circuit and sets up current .

i1 i2

V1 Zin Two port V2 r1

network

Fig. 2.23 Two-port network [1]

= . Substituting the value of from equation (1) we have

= (3)

As seen from the figure = (the minus sign is used because actual load is oppo-
site to that shown in figure)
Substituting the value of from equation (2) above,
= or = (4)
Substituting this in equation (3) above,

2.11.3 Voltage gain of a two port network

The voltage gain of such a circuit is = / .But . Hence,

Substituting the value of as found in equation (4),

Example 5:

Find the h-parameters in Fig. 2.24(a) below

i1 A i2 = i1/2
A +
1
2 4 2
2 4 2

V1

short
4 4

2 _ B
1
V2 = 0

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.24 [1]

Solution: First, find the forward parameters and . To do this, a short is put across the out-
put terminals as in b) above

i) = 4Ω
ii) As seen from Fig. 2.24(b), input current divides into two equal parts at point A.
The output current =- (he negative sign is because it is actually flowing out
of the circuit)
∴ = = -0.5
iii) To find reverse parameters, keep input terminals open and apply across the
output terminals as shown in Fig. 2.25 below.

A i2
+
4 2
2

V1 +
4 V2
-
_ B
i1 = 0
Fig. 2.25 [1]
 It will produce a current which will roduce e ual dro s across the two 4Ω resis-
tors. The voltage which appears across input terminals as is the drop across the ver-
tical 4Ω resistor connected at point A. hence , = /2
∴ = = 0.5
iv) The input impedance of the network when viewed from output terminals with input t
terminals o en is 4+4 =8Ω
∴ Siemens(i.e. mho)
2.11.4 The h-parameter notation for transistors
While using the h-parameter for transistor circuits, their numerical subscripts are replaced
by the first letters for defining them.
input impedance and forward current gain (output shorted)
reverse voltage gain and output admittance (input open)
A second subscript is added to the above parameters to indicate the particular configura-
tion. For example, for CE connection, the four parameters are and For
CB connection, these are written as and and for CC and
[1].
2.11.5 The h-parameters of an ideal transistor
With small ac signals, a transistor behaves like a linear device because its output ac signal
varies directly as the input signal. Hence for small ac signals, each transistor has its own
characteristic set of h-parameters or constants. The h-parameters depend on a number of
factors such as i) transistor type ii) configuration iii) operating point iv) temperature v)
frequency
2.11.6 The h-parameters of an ideal CB transistor
Fig. 2.26 (a) and (b) give a CB-connected transistor and its equivalent circuit.

re ie

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.26 CB transistor and its equivalent circuit [1]

i) Forward parameters: With a short across the output as shown in Fig. 2.27(a),the input
impedance is simply
 ∴

The output current equals the input current (but is negative since it flows out of the box).
The forward current gain

. It is also called the ac α of the CB circuit.)

ie
+ +
re ie re Open V2

- -

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.27 [1]

ii) Reverse parameters: With the input terminals open as in Fig. 2.27(b), there can be no ac
emitter current. Because of the open, no voltage can appear across the input terminal no
matter how large may be, hence

The equivalent hybrid circuit is shown in Fig. 2.28

ie ic
E C

hib
hfbie

B B

Fig. 2.28 Equivalent hybrid circuit of CB transistor [1]

2.11.7 The h-parameters of an ideal CE transistor

Figs. 2.29(a) and (b) show a CE-connected ideal transistor and its equivalent circuit in
terms of its β and resistance values.
 B C B C

βre βib

E E

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.29 CE transistor and its equivalent circuit [1]

i) Forward parameters: With the output terminals shorted as shown in Fig. 2.30(a), the input
impedance,

The forward current gain = 1. It is also called the ac β of the C circuit.

B C B C

ib +
βre βib βre Open V2

-
E E

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.30 [1]

i) Reverse parameters:

With the input terminals open and the output terminals driven by a voltage source as in Fig.
2.30(b), base current = 0. If , then collector current source has zero value and looks
like an open, hence there can be no .

∴ =

The impedance looking into the output terminals is infinite, so conductance is zero

∴ =0

The hybrid equivalent circuit of transistor is shown in Fig. 2.31

 ib ie
B C

hie
hfeie

E E

Fig. 2.31 Equivalent hybrid circuit of CE transistor [1]

2.11.8 Approximate hybrid equivalent circuits

In discussing the ideal transistors above, the following factors which exist in actual transistors
were not considered

i) The transistor has a non-unilateral behaviour so there is a feedback of the output

voltage into the input voltage (due to the unavoidable interaction between the in-
put and output circuits of a real transistor). This feedback is represented by a volt-
age- controlled generator .
ii) Even when the input circuit is open, there is some effective value of conductance
when looking into the transistor from its output terminal. It is represented by .
a) Hybrid CB circuit

Figs. 2.32(a) and (b) show a CB-connected NPN transistor and its equivalent h-parameter circuit.

ie hib ic C
E

E ie ic C +
Veb - hob Vcb
hrbVcb hfb ie
Veb Vcb
ib
B B
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.32 CB-connected NPN transistor and its equivalent h-parameter circuit [1]

The VI relationships are given by the following

= +

= +
 b) Hybrid CE circuit

The transistor connected in CE configuration and its hybrid equivalent are shown in Fig.
2.33

B ib
B ib hie ic C
ic C

Vbe +
ib Vce Vbe - hoe Vce
hreVce hfe ib

E
E
(a) (b)
Fig.
2.33 CE-connected NPN transistor and its equivalent h-parameter circuit [1]

Its VI-characteristics are described as follows

= +

= +

Hybrid CC circuit

The CC configuration and its hybrid equivalent circuits are shown in Figs. 2.34(a) and (b).

B ib
B hic ib ie E
ic

Vbc +
ib E Vbc hoc Vec
-
hrcVec hfc ib
Vec

C
C
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.34 CC-connected NPN transistor and its equivalent h-parameter circuit [1]

The VI- characteristics are given as

= +

= +
EXERCISES

1. In many cases, a PNP transistor can be replaced with an NPN device and the circuit will do the
same thing, provided that:

A. The supply polarity is reversed.

B. The collector and emitter leads are interchanged.

C. The arrow is pointing inward.

D. No. A PNP device cannot be replaced with an NPN.

2. A bipolar transistor has:

A. Three P-N junctions.

B. Three semiconductor layers.

C. Two N-type layers around a P-type layer.

D. A low avalanche voltage.

3. In a common-base circuit, the output is taken from the:

A. Emitter.

B. Base.

C. Collector.

D. More than one of the above

4. In a PNP circuit, the collector:

A. Has an arrow pointing inward.

B. Is positive with respect to the emitter.

C. Is biased at a small fraction of the base bias.

D. Is negative with respect to the emitter.

5. The dc load line of a transistor circuit

A. has a negative slope

B. is a curved line
 C. gives graphic relation between and

D. does not contain the Q-point

SUMMARY

This unit has dealt with bipolar junction transistors, their principle of operation, the different
types of configurations and static characteristics. The operating regions have also been discussed
as well as dc and ac load-line analysis. The h-parameters of the transistor have also been dis-
cussed along with the ideal and approximate hybrid equivalent circuits.

SELF-REFLECTION

What is the main use of an emitter follower?

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

[1] A.K. Theraja, B.L. Thereja, S.G. Tarnekar, A textbook of Electrical Technology, 23rd ed,
New Delhi: S. Chand and Company Ltd., 2005

[2] R.L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11th ed, Eng-
land: Pearson Education Limited, 2014
 UNIT 3: FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) was studied in detail. In this chap-
ter we shall be learning about the Field Effect Transistor (FET). The FET is used for a variety of
applications that match to large extent those of the BJT. Although there are important differ-
ences between the two types of devices, there are also many similarities. The primary difference
between the two is that the BJT is a current controlled device whereas the JFET is a voltage con-
trolled device. This is shown in Fig 3.1 below.

IC ID

(Control current) IB

BJT FET
+

(Control voltage) VGS

_

(a) (b)

Fig 3.1 a) Current-controlled and b) voltage –controlled [1]

The Current in Fig. 3.1a is a direct function of the level of . For the FET, the current will
be a function of applied to the input circuit as shown in Fig. 3.1b. In each case the current of
the output is controlled by the parameter at the input – current e one case, and applied voltage in
the other. Just as there are npn and pnp BJTs, there are n-channel and p-channel FETs. How-
ever it is important to note that the BJT is bipolar – indicating that the conduction level is a func-
tion of two charge carriers, electrons and holes while the FET is unipolar, depending solely on
either electrons in the n-channel or holes in the p-channel [1]. he term ‘field effect’ is due to the
electric field established by the charge present which controls the conduction path of the output
circuit without the need for direct contact between the controlling and controlled quantities [1].
One of the most important characteristics of the FET is its high input impedance at a level of
1MΩ to several hundred megohms. his far exceeds the ty ical in ut resistance of the B , an
important requirement in the design of linear ac amplifier systems. On the other hand, BJTs have
a much higher sensitivity to changes in the applied signal. For this reason, typical ac voltage
gains mean a lot for BJT amplifiers than for FETs. FETs are more temperature stable than BJTs
and FETs are usually smaller than BJTs making them useful in integrated circuit chips [1].
3.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

i) Discuss the types of FETs

ii) Discuss the theory of operation of JFETs and their drain characteristics
iii) Discuss the theory of operation of MOSFETs and their drain characteristics

3.3 TYPES OF FETs

A FET is a three-terminal unipolar solid-state device in which current is controlled by an electric

field as is done in vacuum tubes [2]. There are three types of FETs:

a. Junction FET (JFET)

b. Metal-Oxide Semi-conductor FET (MOSFET)
c. Metal Semi-conductor FET (MESFET) [1]
The MOSFET also called Insulated-Gate FET (IGFET) may be further subdivided in-
to
i. Depletion-Enhancement MOSFET (DEMOSFET)
ii. Enhancement-only MOSFET(E-only MOSFET)

The MESFET is a more recent development and takes full advantage of the high speed character-
istics of GaAs as the semi-conductor base material. It is very expensive but offers high speeds
needed in RF And computer designs [1].

As already stated, FETs can be either P-channel or N-channel devices.

3.4 JFET

3.4.1 Basic construction

It can be fabricated with either an N-channel or P -channel though the former is generally pre-
ferred. To fabricate an N-channel JFET, a narrow bar of N-type semi-conductor material is tak-
en and two P-type materials are diffused on either side. The two P-N junctions are the gates and
the area between the gates is called the channel. The two P-regions are internally connected to-
gether and to the gate terminal [2]. The top of the N-type channel is connected through an
ohmic contact (direct electrical connections) to a terminal referred to as the drain (D) and the
lower end is connected through an ohmic contact to a terminal referred to as the source (S) [1].
In essence, therefore, the drain and the source are connected to the ends of the n-type channel
and the gate to the two layers of the P-type material.
 Ohmic contacts Drain (D)

Gate(G) P P
N

Depletion region
Source (S)

Fig. 3.2 Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) [1]

In the absence of any applied potential, the JFET has two PN-junctions under no bias conditions.
The result is a depletion region at each junction that resembles the same region of a diode under
no-bias conditions. Recall that the depletion region is void of free carriers and is therefore unable
to support conduction.

When a potential difference is established between the drain and source, current flows along the
length of the ‘bar’ through the channel located between the two P-regions. The current consists
of only majority carriers (electrons in this case). The P-channel JFET is similar in construction
except it uses a P-type bar and two n-type junctions. The majority carriers are holes which flow
through the channel located between the two N-regions or gates [2].

The following FET notations are worth remembering:

i. Source – It is the terminal through which majority carriers enter the bar. Since carriers
come from it, it is called the source.
ii. Drain – It is the terminal through which majority carriers leave the bar i.e. they are
drained out from this terminal. The drain-to-source voltage drives the drain cur-
rent .
iii. Gate: These are two internally-connected heavily-doped impurity regions which form two
PN-junctions. The gate-source voltage reverse-biases the gates.
iv. Channel – It is the space between two gates through which majority carriers pass from
source to drain when is applied. The schematic symbols for the N-channel and P-
channel JFET are shown in Fig. 3.3. It is important to note that the gate arrow always
points to the n-type material.
 D D

G G

S S

Fig. 3.3 Symbols for JFETs [2]

3.4.2 Theory of operation

For understanding the physical operation of the n-channel JFET, consider Fig 3.4 (a) where a
positive voltage has been applied across the channel and both the gate terminals are com-
bined to directly connect with the source to establish The application of causes
electrons to move from source to drain terminal establishing the conventional current to flow
from the drain to source. The resistance of the n-channel between the source and drain limits the
flow of charge. It may be noted that the depletion region is wider near the top of both materials.

ID +
Depletion
region
D

e VDS VDD
G P n P
+ e
e
VGS = 0

_ S IS _

(a)
 +
Pinch-off
D

VDS =VP
G P P
+ n

VGS = 0

_ S _

(b)

Fig 3.4 (a) JFET at 0V and V (b) Pinch-off 0V, [1]

Assuming a uniform resistance in the n-channel, will establish different voltage levels across
the channel with the voltage increasing as we move along the channel from the source to the
drain. It follows that the reverse-bias voltage between the gate and channel acquires a tapered
shape and the characteristic becomes non-linear with increase of . Since the p-n
junction is reverse-biased for the length of the channel, the gate current is zero, which is an
important characteristic of JFET. As increases keeping , the depletion region wid-
ens causing a noticeable reduction in the channel width. The reduced path of conduction causes
the channel resistance to increase a roaching ‘infinite’ ohms at higher values. If in-
creases to a level where it a ears that the two de letion regions would ‘touch’ as shown in ig.
3.4(b). This condition is known as pinch-off phenomena. The level of that establishes this
condition is referred to as pinch-off voltage and is denoted by . It should however be noted
that pinch-off does not mean that is pinched off and drops to 0mA. Infact, is maximum
(maintains a saturation level) at pinch-off. In reality, a small channel exists with a current of very
high density. If would have been zero at pinch-off condition, the possibility of reverse-bias
voltage levels across the channel would have been removed. The result would be loss of the de-
pletion region distribution that caused the pinch-off condition. As is increased beyond ,
the pinch-off region will increase in length along the channel, but the level of remains essen-
tially the same.

The voltage from gate-to-source ( ) is the controlling voltage for the JFET. When a negative
is applied, the depletion region of the gate-channel junction widens and the channel becomes
narrower; thus the channel resistance increases and the current decreases (for a given ).
The JFET is simply operating as a resistance whose value is controlled by . With more nega-
tive values of , the saturation level of reduces and the pinch-off voltage continues to drop
in a parabolic manner . If we keep increasing in the negative direction, a value is reached at
which the depletion region occupies the entire channel. At this value of , the channel is com-
pletely depleted of charge carriers and effectively it disappears. This value of (negative for n-
channel JFET) is therefore the threshold voltage of the device and sometimes referred to as or

The discussion above clearly indicates that the JFET is a depletion-type device and it is not pos-
sible to use it in an enhancement mode because a positive forward biases the junction and the
gate will lose control over the channel current. Thus the maximum current is limited to nearly 0V
[3].

As a summary, we have that:

a) Keeping at a fixed value(either zero or negative), as is increased, ini-

tially increases till channel pinch-off when it becomes constant and finally in-
creases excessively when the JFET breaks down under high value of . As
is kept fixed at progressively higher negative values, the values of as well
as breakdown voltage decrease.
b) Keeping at a fixed value, as is made more and more negative, decreas-
es till it is reduced to zero for a certain value of called [2].

Since gate voltage controls the drain current, a JFET is called a voltage-controlled device. A P-
channel JFET operates exactly in the same manner as an N-channel JFET except that current car-
riers are holes and both and are reversed. Since only one type of majority carrier- either
electrons or holes –is used in JFETs, they are called unipolar devices unlike BJTs which use both
electrons and holes a carriers [2].

3.4.3 Current – Voltage characteristics of a JFET

The circuit arrangement for obtaining the output characteristics of an N-channel JFET is given in
Fig. 3.5
 ID
mA

D +
G
S _

+ +
V VGS VDS V
_ _

Fig. 3.5 Circuit for obtaining JFET characteristics [4]

These characteristics plotted in Fig.3.7 relate the drain current to drain source for differ-
ent values of gate to source voltage . This characteristic is also known as drain character-
istics of the JFET [4]. From the figure, we see that as voltage increases from 0 to a few volts, the
current increases as determined by Ohm’s law. he straight line nature of the curve at low values
of reveals that for this region, the resistance is essentially constant for a fixed value of .
But the slope of the curve near the origin is a function of the gate voltage. This region of
operation is known as the linear or ohmic region. As increases and approaches a value (re-
ferred to as pinch-off voltage), the slope of the curve changes and the channel resistance increas-
es. If increases beyond pinch-off value, the characteristic curve becomes more horizontal (re-
sistance a roaches ‘infinite’ value) and maintains a saturation level. For = 0V, the satu-
rate value of is designated as , which is the drain-to-source current with source-gate short
circuit. Thus, is the maximum drain current for a JFET, obtained under the conditions =
0V and . As increases beyond , the level of remains essentially the same and
this region of the characteristic is known as the saturation region. It may also be noted that once
> , the JFET has the characteristics of a current source. Thus the current-voltage charac-
teristics displayed in the figure can be divided into the ohmic (linear) and saturation regions with
the pinch-off condition as the boundary [4].

As the negative bias of increases, depletion region forms similar to those with = 0V, but
at a lower level of . Thus, the result of applying a negative bias to the gate is to reach the sat-
uration level at a lower level of , as shown in the Fig. 3.6 As is made more and more
negative, saturation level of reduces further and the pinch-off voltage continues to drop in a
parabolic manner as shown in Fig. 3.6. it is seen that when , the saturation level of
is essentially 0mA and the devices have been turned off. The region to the right of the pinch-
off locus in Fig. 3.7 is normally employed in linear amplifiers. The region to the left is referred
to as the voltage controlled resistance region, where the JFET can be used as a voltage-controlled
resistor [4].
The channel resistance increases with increase of values and the empirical relation be-
tween the two is given by

ID(mA)
Locus of pinch-off values

Saturation region
Ohmic
region
VGS = 0V
IDSS 8

VGS = -1V
4

VGS = -2V
2
VGS = -3V VGS = -4V = VP

0 5 10 15 20 25 VDS (V)

VP (for VGS = 0V)

Fig 3.6 JFET Current-voltage (drain) characteristics [4]

3.4.4 JFET advantages

i) It has much higher input impedance than BJT enabling high degree of isolation between input
and output

ii) It is less noisy than BJT

iii) It is easier to fabricate and are particularly suitable for ICs

iv) It is normally less sensitive to temperature

FETs are preferred in phase-shift oscillators. They can also serve as buffers bridging amplifier
stages [4].
3.5 MOSFET

The major difference between JFET and MOSFET is that MOSFET has a much larger resistance
than the JFET. It also has low power consumption [4]. In the last decade, the MOSFET has
emerged as the most important electronics device, superseding the BJT in sales volume and ap-
plication. Because of its simple structure and low fabrication cost, it has continued to be the most
popular device for VLSI. MOS technology has been applied extensively in designing digital and
analog ICs and ICs that combine both digital and analog circuits. As the enhancement-type
MOSFET is the most widely used FET, discussions in this section will be centred on the en-
hancement-type MOSFET [3].

3.5.1 Theory of operation of Enhancement MOSFET

The cross-section schematic of an n-channel type MOSFET is shown in Fig. 3.7

IG = 0 VGS
_
G
ID VDS
SiO2
S D

n+ n+

n-channel

p-substrate

Fig. 3.7 An n-channel enhancement mode MOSFET [3]

The substrate forms the p-n junctions with the source and drain regions. In normal operation,
these p-n junctions are kept reverse-biased at all times. Since the drain will be at a positive volt-
age relative to the source, the two p-n junctions can be effectively cut-off by simply connecting
the substrate terminal to the source terminal. Thus, the substrate will have no effect on the device
operation and the MOSFET may be considered as a three terminal device, with the terminals be-
ing the gate (G), the source (S) and the drain (D). With no voltage applied to the gate, the two
back-to-back p-n junctions between the drain-substrate and source-substrate prevent current flow
in either direction when a drain-to-source voltage ( ) is applied. In fact, the path between the
drain and source has a very high resistance (~ ) [3].

Consider a case when the source is grounded and a positive voltage is applied to the gate with
respect to the source. The gate causes the free holes (positively charged) to be repelled from the
channel region and pushed downward into the substrate, leaving behind a carrier depletion re-
gion. Thus the channel region below the semiconductor-oxide interface is populated with in-
duced mobile negative charges. The negative carriers provide a conduction channel between the
source and the drain. If a positive voltage is applied between the drain and source ( ), current
flows through this induced n- region. For the MOS transistor shown in Fig. 3.7, the induced
charge in the channel is n-type, and the device is designated as an n-channel MOSFET or simply
an NMOS. A p-channel transistor is obtained by interchanging the n- and p-regions. The value of
at which sufficient number of mobile electrons (minority carriers) tends to accumulate in the
channel region form a conducting channel is called the threshold voltage and is designated as ,
which is positive for an n-channel device. The layer so formed is called an inversion layer. The
value of threshold voltage is adjusted during fabrication process. The gate and the body of the
MOSFET form a parallel-plate capacitor with the oxide layer acting as the capacitor dielectric.
The induced negative charge on the bottom plate of this capacitor is controlled by the positive
voltage at the gate ( ). So the channel conductivity is controlled by . The voltage caus-
es a current ( ) to flow through the induced n-channel. The current is carried by free electrons
moving from source to drain and so the current direction ( ) in the channel will be from drain to
source (opposite to movement of electrons). As exceeds , the charge carriers in the chan-
nel increases, which in turn increase the channel conductance. In fact, conductance of the chan-
nel is proportional to the excess gate voltage ( ), also known as the effective voltage. In-
creasing the threshold voltage enhances the channel, hence the name enhancement-mode
operation [3].

The circuit symbol of the NMOS is shown in Fig. 3.8(a)

D D

B
G

S S
(a) (b)

Fig.3.8 (a) circuit symbol (b) simplified circuit symbol of an n-channel enhancement mode
MOSFET [3]
The vertical solid line denotes the gate electrode whereas the broken line denotes the channel,
with the broken lines indicating that the device is of the enhancement type whose channel does
not exist without the application of an appropriate gate voltage and the spacing between the gate
and channel represents that the gate electrode is insulated from the body (B) of the device. The
arrowhead in the line representing the body indicates the polarity of the NMOS.

A simplified circuit symbol is shown in Fig.3.8 (b). The arrowhead on the source terminal
points in the normal direction of current flow and accomplishes two purposes; it distinguishes the
source from the drain and it indicates the polarity of the device (here, n-channel) [3]

3.5.2 Theory of operation of Depletion MOSFET

The basic construction of the n-channel depletion-type MOSFET is shown in Fig.3.9

VGS = 0V

S G D
SiO2 Channel

N+n+
n n+ n+

p-substrate

Body contact (B)

- VDD +

Fig. 3.9 An n-channel depletion MOSFET [3]

Its structure is similar to that of the enhancement type with one important difference – the deple-
tion MOSFET has a physical implanted channel. Thus, an n-channel depletion MOSFET has an
n-type silicon layer connecting the source and the drain regions at the top of the p-type
substrate. There is no need to induce a channel, unlike the case of the enhancement MOSFET.
Even for , a current flows if a voltage is applied between drain and source.

Just like the enhancement type, the channel depth and hence the conductivity of the depletion
MOSFET can be controlled by . A negative causes electrons to be repelled from the
channel. Also, the induced positive charge in the channel neutralises existing free negative
charges (electrons). The channel becomes shallower and its conductivity decreases. The negative
is said to deplete the channel of its charge carriers, and this mode of operation is called the
depletion mode. As the value of is increased in the negative direction, a value is reached at
which the channel is completely depleted of charge carriers and the channel current is reduced to
zero even though is applied. This negative value of is the threshold voltage of the n-
channel depletion type MOSFET.

Applying a positive enhances the channel by attracting more electrons into it. Thus, a deple-
tion-type MOSFET can be operated in the enhancement mode by applying a positive and in
the depletion mode by applying a negative .

The circuit symbol of the n-channel depletion MOSFET is shown in Fig. 3.10(a). The simplified
version when the body (B) is connected to the source (S) is shown in Fig. 3.10(b). This symbol
differs from that of the enhancement type in that the shaded area is included to denote the im-
planted channel.

D D

S S
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.10(a) circuit symbol (b) simplified circuit symbol of an n-channel depletion mode
MOSFET [3]

3.5.3 Current – Voltage characteristics of a MOSFET

The Fig. 3.11 shows a sketch of versus for various values of .

 ID(mA)

VDS≤VGS - VT
VDS ≥ VGS - VT
Triode region
Saturation region VGS = VT + 8

VGS = VT + 6
VDS = VGS - VT

VGS = VT + 4

VGS = VT + 2

VDS(V)
0
VGS ≤ VT(cut-off)

Fig. 3.11 Current-voltage (drain) characteristics of a typical enhancement-type transistor [3]

This is also known as the drain characteristics of the n-channel enhancement-type MOSFET (al-
so referred to as NMOS). For small values of , we find that the NMOS operates as a linear
resistance whose value is controlled by . The resistance is infinite for and its value
decreases as exceeds . For large values of , the curve does not continue as a
straight line but bends as shown in Fig.3.11. When increases to a value that reduces the
voltage between the gate and channel at the drain end to , the channel depth at the drain end
decreases to almost zero and the channel is said to be pinched-off. Increasing beyond this
value has effectively no effect on channel shape and the current through the channel remains
constant at the value reached for . The drain current thus saturates at this value
of and the NMOS is said to have entered the saturation region of operation. The device oper-
ates in the saturation region if a value at which saturation occurs. The region of the
characteristic obtained for is called the triode region. The device is cut-off
when . The characteristics curve of the figure indicates the three distinct regions of op-
eration, namely, the cut-off region, the triode region and the saturation region. The triode and
cut-off regions are utilized for operation as a switch. For operation In the triode region, we in-
duce a channel ( ) and then keep small enough so that the channel remains continu-
ous. The current voltage relation in the saturation region of NMOS is given by
where is a constant determined by the MOS processing technology and is known as the
process transconductance parameter. is electron mobility and is the capacitance per unit
area of the MOS parallel-plate capacitor formed by the gate and channel [3].

The drain characteristics of depletion type n-channel MOSFET ( is shown in Fig.3.12

with the NMOS current and voltage polarities shown in Fig. 3.13.

ID(mA)

Triode region Saturation region

VDS≤VGS - VT VDS ≥ VGS - VT

VGS = 2V (VT + 6)

VDS = VGS - VT
VGS =1V (VT + 5)

IDSS VGS = 0V (VT + 4)

VGS = -1V (VT + 3)

VGS =-2V (VT + 2)
VGS = -3V ( VT + 1)
0 VDS(V)
4
VGS ≤ VT(cut-off)
VT

Fig. 3.12 Drain characteristics of depletion type n-channel MOSFET [3]

ID D

VDS
IG = 0 B

+ G
VGS S
_ _

Fig. 3.13 NMOS with current and voltage polarities [3]

Because is negative, depletion NMOS will operate in the triode region as long as the drain
voltage does not exceed the gate voltage by more than . For it to operate in saturation, the
drain voltage must be greater than the gate voltage by at least volts.
A special parameter for depletion NMOS is the value of drain current obtained in saturation with
and is known as where

EXERCISES

1. Beyond pinch-off voltage, the drain to source resistance of a JFET is

a) Zero b) low c)high
2. In an n-channel enhancement operation of a MOSFET, drain current increases when
a) b) c)
3. The JFET has characteristics of a current source when
a) b) c) d)
4. MOSFET can be used as a
a) current controlled capacitor b)voltage controlled capacitor
c) current controlled inductor b)voltage controlled inductor

SUMMARY

This unit has discussed the types of FETs, their theory of operation and drain characteristics

SELF-REFLECTION

1. Give reasons why MOSFETs dominate in VLSI over BJTs?

2. Why are NMOS devices preferred to PMOS transistors?

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

[1] R.L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11th ed, Eng-
land: Pearson Education Limited, 2014

[2] A.K. Theraja, B.L. Thereja, S.G. Tarnekar, A textbook of Electrical Technology, 23rd ed,
New Delhi: S. Chand and Company Ltd., 2005

[3] S. Kal, Basic Electronics. Devices, Circuits and IT Fundamentals, Delhi: PHI Learning
Private Limited, 2002

[4] K.M. Kumar, V. Jagannathan, Basic Electrical Electronics Engineering, New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.,1999
 UNIT 4: PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES

4.1 INTRODUCTION
he term ‘electronics’ has been coined from electron - the key particle, flow of which through a
conductor gives rise to an electric current. The flow of electrons has been regulated and con-
trolled under the stimuli of external influences. The controlled flow of electrons has been used
through various techniques and forms what is known as electronics [1]. This unit deals with
some electronic devices and their principles of operation.

4.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to

i) Discuss the basic features and classifications of amplifiers

ii) Discuss the types of rectifiers and their characteristics
iii) Discuss the types of filters
iv) Discuss the principle of modulators
v) Discuss the linear modes of electronic devices
vi) Discuss the characteristics of components used in electronic circuits
vii) Discuss the care of amplifiers
viii) Discuss the transistor as a circuit element

4.3 AMPLIFIERS

Signal amplification is the simplest and most important signal processing task because signals
may be too small to be processed reliably without error. The majority of amplifiers are primary
intended to operate on very small input signal with the objective of making the signal magnitude
larger [1]. One of the basic features of the amplifier is that the output waveform must be identi-
cal in nature to that of the input. The amplifier preserves the details of the signal waveform and
any deviation of the output waveform from that of the input is considered a distortion [1]. A
transistor with proper biasing network and arrangements to couple the input signals and output
across loads make a practical amplifier.

4.3.1 Basic features of an amplifier

i. Biasing of an amplifier

The purpose is to set a dc operating point i.e. to fix base current, collector current and collector-
emitter voltage such that the transistor operates in the linear region of the output characteristics
even after superposition of ac voltage at the base. Both the forward-bias voltage at the base-
emitter junction and the reverse-bias voltage at the collector-base junction are derived from the
single dc supply voltage . The circuit diagram of a transistor CE amplifier is shown in Fig 4.1
below
 +VCC

R1 RC
C2
C1 C +
B
Q1

RS E
RL V0 (t)
R2
VS (t) RE CE
_

Fig 4.1 Diagram of a Common Emitter (CE) amplifier using an npn transistor [1]

The bias voltage at the base-emitter junction is given by

(4.1) [1]

The ac input voltage causes the output voltage to vary above and below the bias voltage. The
output voltage is of the form

(4.2) [1]

where is e bias voltage or dc component of the output

is the peak value of the sinusoidal ac component

The amplitude of varies from ( + ) to ( ). The values of and are adjusted

such that ( + ) is not very large and ( ) is not much less, otherwise the output wave-
form will be flattened. This is called clipping. If clipping is formed by a large amplitude , the
amplifier is said to be overdriven [1].

ii. Amplifier gain

An amplifier is characterised by the linear relationship between input ( ) and output ( ) signals
given by

(4.3) [1]

where A is a constant known as the amplifier gain. As long as equation (5.3) is valid, the ampli-
fier is said to be a linear amplifier. If the relationship between and contains higher powers
of , the output waveform will no longer be identical to that of the input and the amplifier is
then said to exhibit nonlinear distortion [1].

iii. Input and output resistance

The total equivalent resistance at the input terminals of the amplifier is known as the input resis-
tance. The dc input resistance is the resistance that a dc source would see when connected to
the input terminals, and the ac resistance , is the resistance that an ac input source would see at
the terminals. In either case, the input resistance can be computed as the ratio of the input voltage
to the input current.

(for dc), (for ac) (4.4) [1]

The output resistance of an amplifier is the total equivalent resistance at its output terminals. It is
the same as the Thevenin equivalent resistance that would appear in series with the output if the
amplifier were replaced by its Thevenin equivalent circuit. Output resistance can be defined as a
dc resistance , or as an ac resistance, and can be determined as the ratio of output voltage to
output current.

(for dc), (for ac) (4.5)[1]

iv. Signal handling capacity

The schematic of an amplifier is shown in Fig. 4.2. below.

C1 C2
AV
+
RS RL
V0(t)
VS(t)
_

Fig 4.2 Block schematic of an amplifier with voltage source and load along with external cou-
pling capacitances [1]

In order to prevent the distortion of the amplifier output, one must restrict below a certain up-
per limit which is referred to as signal handling capacity of the amplifier. The linear rela-
tionship between input and output voltages of the amplifier will not be satisfied as the input volt-
age exceeds the signal handling capacity limit. For faithful functioning of the amplifier, the in-
put signal amplitude should always be much less than the signal handling capacity of the small
signal amplifier [1].
v. Frequency response and bandwidth

An important characterisation of an amplifier is in terms of its response to input sinusoids of dif-

ferent frequencies. Such a characterisation of an amplifier performance is known as its fre-
quency response. Referring to Fig. 4.2, it is assumed that input voltage with am-
plitude and radian frequency ω. The output voltage with amplitude
and a hase shift of φ relative to the in ut. he ratio of the am litude of the out ut sinusoid to
the am litude of the in ut sinusoid is the magnitude of the am lifier gain at the test fre uency ω.

4.5[1]

and ‹ 4.6[1]

uation 4.5 is the fre uency res onse of the am lifier to a sinusoid of fre uency ω. If the values
of and ‹ are measured at different frequencies of the input sinusoid and the gain magni-
tude , hase angle ‹ are plotted with frequency, the two plots together constitute
the frequency response of the amplifier, the first being the amplitude response and the second,
the phase response.

A typical amplitude response of the amplifier is shown in Fig.4.3.

Gain in dB

Am
3dB

Bandwidth

ω1 ω2
ω

Fig. 4.3 A typical amplitude response of an amplifier [1]

It indicates that the gain is almost constant ( ) over a wide frequency range, roughly between
and . The gain decreases below and above . The voltage gain in decibel (dB) may be
expressed as

Voltage gain = 20 dB 4.7[1]

The band of frequencies over which the amplifier gain is almost constant, up to a certain number
of decibels (usually 3dB), is called the amplifier bandwidth.
4.3.1 Amplifier classifications

Requirements of amplifiers may range from amplifying a very small input voltage or current sig-
nal (a few microvolts/microamperes) into a moderately large voltage signal(or current signal in
some cases) to produce a large voltage current product ( a few watts to kilowatts) at the output
for moderately large input voltage swing( a usually few volts to a few tens of volts). The first
category is referred to as small signal amplifiers while the second category is termed large sig-
nal or power amplifiers. The large electrical power is used in general to drive suitable trans-
ducer devices [1].

An example to help understand the two categories is the schematic of a public address (PA) sys-
tem shown in Fig. 4.4.

Small signal Power

Speaker amplifier amplifier

Microphone
Loudspeaker

Fig. 4.4 Schematic of a PA system [1]

The microphone operates as a transducer to convert the acoustic signal into an equivalent voltage
waveform of small amplitude, which in turn is converted into a moderately large volt e swing
using the small signal amplifier. However, such an amplifier, although offering a large voltage
swing at the output, cannot directly produce adequate current-voltage product (i.e. electrical
power) needed by the loudspeaker for loud speech. This is accomplished by a second stage of
amplification using a power amplifier that produces a large current-voltage product at the output.
It also efficiently transfers this electrical power to the speaker which in turn transforms the elec-
trical power into its acoustic equivalent [1].

4.3.2 Small signal amplifier

Its task is to amplify a weak electrical signal (voltage or current) into a larger voltage or current
swing with amplitude that becomes adequate for subsequent signal processing. This leads to the
following classification corresponding to four possible combinations of input and output signals
as shown in Table 4.1 below

Table 4.1 Amplifier classifications

Amplifier type Input signal Output signal Transfer ratio

Voltage amplifier Voltage Voltage Voltage gain (dimen-
sionless)
Transimpedance am- Current Voltage Transimpedance
plifier (dimension:ohm)
Transadmittance am- Voltage Current Transadmittance
plifier (dimension: mho)
Current amplifier Current Current Current gain (dimen-
sionless)

4.3.3 Large signal or power amplifier

These amplifiers are usually designed to produce large electrical power output for moderately
large voltage input. Thus power amplifiers are large signal amplifiers which raise the power level
of the signals. Power amplifiers are classified into two categories a) audio power amplifiers
which raise the power level of the signal that have audio frequency range (from 20Hz to
20KHz), b) radio power amplifiers or tuned power amplifiers, which amplify a specific fre-
quency or narrow band of frequencies [1].

Since power amplifiers are designed to obtain maximum power, the following features are incor-
porated into them [1]:

i. large transistor size to dissipate heat produced in transistor during operation

ii. transistor with com aratively smaller β ( – 50) is used i.e. the base of the transistor
is made thicker to handle large currents
iii. collector resistance is made low (~ Ω)
iv. transformer coupling is used
v. collector current is high (~100mA)
vi. input voltage is high (a few volts)
vii. power output is high

Small signal amplifiers usually handle input and output signals whose fluctuations remain
confined to a small range of I-V characteristics of the constituent transistors leading to the
assumption that increments of output voltage and current signals are linearly related to the
increments to the input voltage and current signals. These amplifiers can therefore be ana-
lysed theoretically with the knowledge of a set of linear parameters (h-parameters). The
analysis of power amplifiers however needs a different approach because the transistors work
with large signals which stretch their operation into non-linear regions resulting in distortion
at the output. As a result, linear parameter matrix representation of transistors cannot be used
for power amplifier analysis, hence their performance is evaluated through graphical tech-
niques and using transistor characteristics and load line consideration [1].

Another important performance feature of power amplifiers is their efficiency in converting

the dc power from the dc biasing power supply into useful ac power delivered to the load.
The upper limit of conversion efficiency is however frequently limited by tolerable signal
distortion. Hence, power amplifiers are of different classes:
 i. Class A power amplifier is one in which the output current flows during the entire
cycle of the input signal i.e. the conduction angle is 36 . For this reason the power
amplifier is biased in such a way that no part of the signal is cut-off i.e. the operating
point is so selected so that the collector current flows throughout the the full cycle of
the applied signal.
ii. In class B amplifiers, the collector current flows only during the positive half cycle of
the input signal. The transistor bias is so adjusted so that at zero signals, collector cur-
rent is zero, i.e. no biasing circuit is required. During the positive half cycle of the in-
put signal, the circuit is forward-biased i.e. collector current flows; while during the
negative half cycle of the input signal, the circuit is reverse-biased i.e. no collector
current flows. Thus the operating point is located at the collector cut-off voltage. In
this amplifier, the negative half-cycle is totally absent from the output hence the dis-
tortion is very high.
iii. A class AB am lifier o erates between the two extremes defined for class A and class
B. ence the out ut signal exists for more than 18 but less than of the input sig-
nal cycle.
iv. In class C operation, the quiescent operating point is chosen such that the output sig-
nal (voltage or current) is zero for more than one-half of an input sinusoidal signal
cycle [1].

4.4 RECTIFIERS

A rectifier is an electronic module which converts alternating waveforms into unidirectional di-
rect voltage. It achieves this using diodes [1]. Junction diodes can conduct current only in one
direction and this property is made use of in designing various rectifier circuits. The rectifier
circuits are classified as follows

i. Half-wave rectifier
ii. Full-wave rectifier
iii. Bridge rectifier

4.4.1 The Half-wave rectifier

The half-wave rectifier utilises alternate half-cycles of the sinusoidal input wave. The circuit dia-
gram is shown in Fig. 4.5.
 Diode

Power VS =Vm Sin ωt Vo (dc output)

main RL

Fig. 4.5 Circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier [1]

It consists of a step-down transformer at the input. A diode is connected in series with the secon-
dary of the transformer and the load resistance . The primary of the transformer is connected
to the power mains. An ac voltage is induced in the secondary of the transformer which is repre-
sented by sin ωt as the in ut voltage, where is the peak value of the alternating volt-
age. As is large, the diode drop may be neglected assuming the diode to be ideal. In the posi-
tive half-cycle of the input voltage, the polarity of the secondary voltage is as shown in Fig. 4.5
which makes the diode forward-biased, allowing current to flow through . The applied volt-
age appears across since the forward bias offers low resistance by the diode. In the negative
half-cycle, the polarity of the input voltage is reversed and the diode is reverse-biased, behaving
as an open switch and stopping current to flow in the circuit. All the input voltage appears across
the diode itself. The voltage waveforms at the input and output of the rectifier are shown in Fig.
4.6.
 VS

Vm

ωt
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π

(i)

Vo

Vm

Vdc

ωt
π 2π 3π 4π 5π

(ii)

Fig. 4.6 Voltage waveforms of the half-wave rectifier i) input ii) output [1]

The output voltage of the rectifier is not a perfect dc, but it is unidirectional and has an average
value. As the current flows only in the half periods of the input waveform, the circuit is called a
half-wave rectifier [1].

Using a battery-plus-resistance diode model, the equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 4.7 and is
represented as

(4.1)

Ideal Vγ rd
+

VS +
_ RL VO
_

Fig. 4.7 Battery-plus-resistance model [1]

- , (4.2)
where and represent diode forward resistance and diode voltage drop (cut-in voltage)

The transfer characteristic represented by these equations is sketched in Fig. 4.8

VO

Slope =RL /(RL + rd)

0 Vγ

Fig. 4.8 Transfer characteristic of a half-wave rectifier [1]

In many applications, . Eq. (4.2) can be simplified to

(4.3)

where =0.7 or 0.8V.

NOTE: For the half-wave rectifier

1. Peak inverse voltage (PIV) = . It is the maximum voltage that appears across the di-
ode during the negative half-cycle since the diode is reverse biased and there is no volt-
age across . It represents the maximum voltage the diode must withstand during the
negative half-cycle of input. In selecting diodes for rectifier design, specifications are
made for the PIV that the diode must be able to withstand without breaking down, and
the current-handling capacity (determined by the largest current the diode can handle ). It
is wise to choose a diode whose reverse voltage is at least 50% more than the expected
PIV.
2. As , hence is neglected, so
Therefore, for 0 and
for π (4.4)
where peak value of current ( is resistance of transformer secondary
winding)
Average or dc value of current

( )
 Thus (4.5)

and (4.6)

3. The r.m.s value of current

Therefore (4.7)

This is the r.m.s value of the total current (dc and ac component)

The instantaneous value of ac component is the difference between the instantaneous to-
tal value and dc value i.e. ( )

Now = value of ac component of the current

Then =

= (4.8)

But , (4.9)

Hence, = (4.10)

4. Ri le factor (γ) = =

Therefore, γ

=
 but 1.57

ence, γ= = 1.21 (4.11)

Thus the r.m.s. ripple voltage exceeds the dc output voltage and this shows that the half-
wave rectifier is a relatively poor circuit for converting ac into dc

4. Rectifier efficiency ( ) is a figure used as a measure of merit to compare rectifiers. It in-

dicates the percentage of total input ac power converted into useful dc input power.
Thus η =

(4.12)

= (4.13)

Total input power = (4.14)

= 40.5 %

If , then η = 4 .5%. his means that under the best condition (no diode
loss), only 40.5% of the ac input power is converted into dc power. The rest exists as ac
power in the load.

The disadvantages of the half-wave rectifier may be summarised as follows:

i. xcessive ri le (γ = 1. 1)
ii. ow rectification efficiency [ η = 4 .5% for ]
iii. dc saturation of transformer secondary winding [1]
iv.
4.4.2 The Full-wave rectifier

By the full-wave rectifier arrangement in Fig. 4.9, it is possible to drive the load during the posi-
tive and negative half-cycles of the input. The full-wave rectifier thus utilises both halves of the
input sinusoidal.
 Centre tapped
transformer
id1 id = id1+ id2
+
+
D1
VS RL
Power _
_
main +

VS id2
_

D2

Fig. 4.9 Circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier [1]

There are two types of the full-wave rectifier i) centre-tapped rectifier and ii) bridge rectifier.

The centre-tapped rectifier is as shown in Fig4.8. The transformer is centre-tapped at the sec-
ondary winding to provide two equal voltages VS across the two halves of the winding with
the polarities indicated. It consists of two diodes ( and ). During the positive half-cycle,
is forward-biased and conducts. The current flows into the load . The voltage at the
anode of is negative (reverse-biased) throughout the positive cycle and hence it is cut-off.
The circuit behaves like a half-wave rectifier, and the output during the positive half cycles
will be identical to that produced by the half-wave rectifier. During the negative half-cycle,
the voltage at the anode of is positive (forward-biased) and conducts with current . The
current conducted by will flow through and back to the centre tap. It also follows that
during the negative half cycle, the circuit behaves like a half-wave rectifier except that diode
is the one conducting. Thus the load current and voltage across is unidirectional as
shown in Fig. 4.10.
 VS

Vm

0 ωt

(i)
Id

Im

ωt
0

(ii)

Fig. 4.10 i) Input voltage and ii) output current waveforms of a full-wave rectifier [1]

Assuming the diodes are ideal ( ) and the transformer secondary windings offer neg-
ligible resistance, i.e. , the currents through the load are as follows:

, for 0 (4.15)

and , for π (4.16)

where the peak value of current

The two currents and voltages are combined in the load resistance . The input and output
waveforms are shown in Fig. 4.9. The full-wave rectifier roduces a more ‘energetic’ waveform
than that produced by the half-wave rectifier so in almost all rectifier applications, a choice for
the full-wave type is made [1].

The PIV of the diodes in the full-wave rectifier is found considering the positive half-cycles
where is conducting and is cut-off. The voltage at the cathode of is and that at the
anode id - . Thus the reverse voltage across will be ( + ) which reaches its maximum
when is at its peak value of ( ) and at its peak value of .

Thus PIV = 2 (4.17)

which is approximately twice that of the half-wave rectifier [1].

4.4.3 The Bridge rectifier

An alternative implementation of the full-wave rectifier is shown in Fig. 4.11.

+ +
D4 D1

_ Vo
ac line VS +
voltage
RL

D2 D3
_ _

Fig. 4.11 Circuit diagram of a bridge rectifier [1]

The circuit, known as the bridge rectifier because of the similarity of its configuration to that
of the Wheatstone’s bridge, does not re uire a centre-tapped transformer - a distinct advan-
tage over the full-wave rectifier. It however requires four diodes as compared to two in the
centre-tapped which cannot be counted as a disadvantage since diodes are inexpensive and a
diode bridge can be obtained as a unit.

During the positive half cycles of the input voltage, is positive. Thus current is conducted
through diode , resistor , and diode . Meanwhile, diodes and are reverse-
biased. Two diodes and are in the conduction path, thus will be lower than by
two diode drops as against one in the centre-tap circuit – somewhat a disadvantage of the
bridge rectifier. During the negative half-cycles of the input voltage, the secondary voltage
is negative thus - will be positive, forcing current through , , and . Diodes
and will then be reverse-biased. The important point to note is that during both half-
cycles, current flows through , in the same direction(from left to right) and thus will
always be positive as indicated in Fig. 4.12(assuming diode drop )
 V VS
-VS
Vm
2Vγ
Vo

ωt

Fig. 4.12 Input and output voltage waveform of bridge rectifier [1]

PIV is determined considering the positive half-cycles. The reverse voltage across can be
determined from the loop formed by and as

(reverse) = (forward).

The maximum value of occurs at the peak of and is given by

PIV = (4.18)

which is about half the value for the full-wave rectifier with a centre-tapped transformer.
Another advantage of the bridge rectifier circuit over that utilising the centre-tapped trans-
former is that only half as many turns are required for the secondary winding of the trans-
former, making the bridge rectifier the most popular rectifier circuit configuration.

For the full-wave rectifier:

1. Average or dc current is obtained as

(4.19)

or (4.20)

2. R.M.S value of current is

(4.21)

or
 (4.22)

3. Ri le factor γ = = 0.482
So the ripple factor has dropped from 1.21 in the half-wave rectifier to 0.482 in the full-
wave.
4. Rectifier efficiency η =

but

and

η (4.23)

η = 81% if ( ) (4.24)

Thus the rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is twice that of a half-wave rectifier
under identical condition. Efficiency goes down if the forward resistance of the diode
( ) becomes comparable to the load resistance ( ) [1].

4.5 FILTERS

A filter network is designed to pass signals within certain bands (called pass-bands) with little
attenuation , but greatly attenuates signals within other bands(called attenuation bands or stop-
bands) [2]. A filter is frequency sensitive; hence its components are reactive. Since certain fre-
quencies are to be passed with minimal loss, the inductors and capacitors ideally need to be pure
components since the presence of resistance results in some attenuation at all frequencies. A fil-
ter network containing no source of power is said to be passive while that with one or more
power sources is known to be active. The cut-off frequency of a filter is that between the pass-
band (where ideally attenuation is zero) and the attenuation band (where ideally the attenuation is
infinite). Filters are used for a variety of purposes in nearly every type of electronic communica-
tions and control equipment. The bandwidths of filters used in communications systems vary
from a fraction of a hertz to many megahertz, depending on the application.

There are four basic types of filter sections: low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and band-stop.

4.5.1 Low-pass filters

 Fig. 4.13 shows simple unbalanced T- and π-section filters using series inductors and shunt ca-
pacitors.

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.13 a) T- and b) π –section of filters [2]

If either is connected into a network and a continuously increasing frequency is applied, each
would have a frequency-attenuation characteristic shown in Fig. 4.14.
Attenuation

Attenuation
Pass-band
band

0 Frequency
fc

Fig. 4.14 Frequency-attenuation characteristics of low-pass filters [2]

This is an ideal characteristic and assumes pure reactive elements. All frequencies are seen to be
passed from zero up to a certain value without attenuation, this value being shown as , the cut-
off frequency. All values of frequency above are attenuated which is why the filters are known
as low-pass filters. The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a low-pass filter is shown in Fig.
4.15.

Fig. 4.15 Electric circuit symbol for a low-pass filter [2]

In summary, a low-pass filter is one designed to pass signals at frequencies below a specified
cut-off frequency.

In practise, the characteristic curve of a low-pass filter is shown in Fig. 4.16

 Attenuation
0
fc Frequency

Pass-band Attenuation
band

Fig. 4.16 Characteristic curve of a low-pass filter [2]

When rectifiers are used to produce the d.c. supplies of electronic systems, a large ripple intro-
duces undesirable noise and may even mask the effect of the signal voltage. Low-pass filters are
added to smooth the output voltage waveform, this being one of the most common applications
of filters in electrical circuits. Filters are employed to isolate various sections of a complete sys-
tem and thus prevent undesired interactions. For example, the insertion of low-pass decoupling
filters between each of several amplifier stages and a common power supply reduces interaction
due to the common power supply impedance.

A low-pass symmetrical T-network and a low- ass symmetrical π-network are shown in Fig.
4.17 below

L/2 L/2 L

Ro Ro C/2
C Ro C/2 Ro

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.17 Low-pass symmetrical a) T-network b) π-network [2]

The cut-off frequency for each section is the same and is given by

(4.25)

When the frequency is very low, the characteristic impedance (ratio of voltage to current) is
purely resistive. This value of characteristic impedance is known as the design impedance or the
nominal impedance of the section and is given the symbol where
 (4.26)

If the values of nominal impedance and cut-off frequency are known for a low-pass T- or
-section, the values of inductance and capacitance can be determined as follows[2]:

Capacitance (4.27)

and Inductance (4.28)

Example 1: Determine the cut-off frequency and the nominal impedance for the low-pass T-
connected section shown in Fig 4.18 below

100mH 100mH

0.2μF

Fig. 4.18

Solution: Comparing Fig. 4.18 with the low-pass section of Fig. 4.17a) shows that

i.e. inductance and

capacitance

= 1592Hz

= 1.592KHz

=1 or 1 Ω

4.5.2 High-pass filters

 Fig. 4.19 shows simple unbalanced T- and filters using series capacitors and shunt inductors.

(a) (b)

Fig 4.19 Unbalanced a) T-section b) π-section filters [2]

If either section is connected into a network and a continuously increasing frequency is applied,
each would have a frequency-attenuation characteristic as shown in Fig. 4.20 with the assump-
tion that the elements are purely reactive
Attenuation

Attenuation
Pass-band
band

0 Frequency
fc

Fig. 4.20 Frequency-attenuation characteristic [2]

All frequencies below are seen to be attenuated and all frequencies above it are passed without
loss, making the networks to be known as high-pass filters. A high-pass filter therefore, is one
designed to pass signals at frequencies above a specified cut-off frequency. The symbol for a
high-pass filter is shown in Fig. 4.21

Fig 4.21 Electric circuit symbol for a high-pass filter [2]

The characteristic shown in Fig. 4.20 is ideal, as it is assumed that there is no attenuation at all in
the pass-bands and infinite attenuation in the attenuation band. These two conditions are impos-
sible to achieve in practice. Due to resistance, mainly in the inductive elements the attenuation in
the pass-band will not be zero, and in a practical filter section the attenuation in the attenuation
band will have a finite value. In addition to the resistive loss there is often an added loss due to
mismatching. Ideally when a filter is inserted into a network, it is matched to the impedance of
that network. However, the characteristic impedance of a filter section will vary with frequency
and the termination of the section may be an impedance that does not vary with frequency in the
same way. While Fig. 4.20 shows an ideal high-pass filter section characteristic of attenuation
against frequency, in practise, the characteristic curve would look like that shown in Fig. 4.22

Attenuation

0 fc Frequency
Attenuation Pass-band
band

Fig. 4.22 Characteristic curve of a high-pass filter [2]

A high-pass symmetrical T-network and a high- ass symmetrical π-network are shown in Fig.
4.23.

C
2C 2C

Ro Ro
Ro L Ro 2L 2L

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.23 High-pass symmetrical a) T-network b) π-network [2]

The cut-off frequency for each section is the same and is given by

(4.29)

When the frequency is very high, the characteristic impedance is purely resistive. Nominal im-
pedance , is given as

(4.30)
 Capacitance (4.31)

Inductance (4.32)

4.5.3 Band-pass filters

A band-pas filter is one designed to pass signals with frequencies between two specified cut-off
frequencies. The characteristics of an ideal band-pass filter is shown in Fig. 4.24
Attenuation

Attenuation Pass-band Attenuation

band band

0 Frequency
fCH fCL

Fig. 4.24 Frequency-attenuation characteristic of a band-pass filter [2]

Such a filter may be formed by cascading a high-pass and a low-pass filter. is the cut-off fre-
quency of the high-pass filter and is the cut-off frequency of the low-pass filter. As can be
seen, for a band-pass filter, , the pass-band being given by the difference between
these values. The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a band-pass filter is shown in Fig. 4.25

Fig. 4.25 Electrical symbol for a band-pass filter [2]

A typical practical characteristic for a band-pass filter is shown in Fig 4.26

 High-pass

Attenuation
characteristic Low-pass
characteristic

fCH fCL Frequency

Attenuation Pass-band Attenuation
band band

Fig. 4.26 Practical frequency-attenuation of a band-pass filter [2]

Crystal and ceramic devices are used extensively as band-pass filters. They are common in the
intermediate –frequency amplifiers of v.h.f radios where a precisely defined bandwidth must be
maintained for good performance.

4.5.4 Band-stop filters

A band-stop filter is one designed to pass signals with all frequencies except those between two
specified cut-off frequencies. The characteristic of an ideal band-stop filter is shown in Fig. 4.27
Attenuation

Pass-band Stop-band Pass-band

0 fCH Frequency
fCL

Fig 4.27. Characteristic of an ideal band-stop filter [2]

Such a filter may be formed by connecting a high-pass and a low-pass filter in parallel. As can be
seen, for a band-stop filter, , the stop-band being given by the difference between
these values. The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a band-stop filter is shown in Fig. 4.28
 Fig. 4.28 Electric circuit diagram symbol for a band-stop filter [2]

A typical practical characteristic for a band-stop filter is shown in Fig. 4.29

Attenuation

Low-pass High-pass
characteristic characteristic

0
fCL fCH

Pass-band Stop-band Pass-band

Fig. 4.29 Characteristic of a practical band-stop filter [2]

4.6 MODULATORS
A modulator is a device that performs modulation. Modulation is the process of varying one
or more properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating sig-
nal that typically contains information to be transmitted. The carrier wave is necessary as we
cannot change the any of the characteristics (e.g frequency, phase, amplitude) of the modu-
lating signal as it would amount to a change in the message to be communicated. But the
characteristic of the carrier wave is modified in accordance with the modulating signal so
that the resultant wave called the modulated wave inherits the signal [1].

Modulation is also defined as the process by which some characteristics of a high-frequency

wave such as amplitude, frequency or phase is altered in accordance with the instantaneous
value of a modulating signal. Let a carrier voltage be expressed as

where is the peak amplitude,

is the angular frequency and
is the phase angle of the carrier voltage[1].
 There are three cases of modulation. When the amplitude is changed in accordance with
the modulating signal but and remain constant, the process is known as amplitude
modulation. When the instantaneous frequency varies in accordance with the modulating
wave, while and remain constant, the process is known as frequency modulation. When
changes in accordance with the modulating wave, while and remain constant, the
process is known as phase modulation [1].

4.7 LINEAR MODES OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Some electronic devices are linear, meaning that their current is directly proportional to their
voltage. The reason they are called linear is that a graph of current plotted against voltage is a
straight line. Resistors are commonly described as having linear characteristics, whereas capaci-
tors, and inductors, which store energy in magnetic fields, are non-linear electronic elements.
Diodes, transistors, and thyristors are normally classified as non-linear devices and their behav-
iour is represented on a graph by curved lines or lines which do not pass through the zero-
voltage, zero-current point. Such behaviour can be caused by temperature changes, by voltage-
generating effects, and by conductivity being affected by voltage [3].

4.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPONENTS USED IN ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

An electronic circuit is composed of various types of components. Some of these components

are termed as active components because they take part in the transformation of the energy
while other components , which only dissipate or store energy, are called passive elements. The
vacuum tubes, diodes (rectifiers), transistors are some of the common active elements while the
resistances, which dissipate the power and energy storing elements such as capacitances and
inductances are known as passive elements. The transformers may be regarded as a matching
device. The success of any electronic circuit depends not only on proper selection of the active
elements but on the passive and matching elements too. The proper function, of an active device
is decided by the proper values of these passive elements. Hence the selection of these ele-
ments such as resistances, inductances, capacitance, and transformers not only require the
proper attention, but also decide the proper function of the active devices as well as the circuit
as a whole.

4.8.1 Classification of components

Passive Components: Components like resistance, capacitance and inductance fall in this class.
Active Components: They can be further classified as
i) Semiconductor Devices: Semiconductor diode, zener diode, and varactor diode etc.
Uni-junction transistor, Bipolar junction transistor (BJT), FET, silicon-controlled rec-
tifier etc.
ii) Vacuum Tube Devices : Vacuum tube diode, triode, tetrode, pentode, hexode,
heptode etc.
iii) Gas Tube Devices: Gas diodes, Thyratons etc.
iv) Photo Sensitivity Devices : Gas photodiodes, photo multiplier tubes, photodiodes,
light emitting diode, photosensitive transistor etc.
There are other devices, which are specific to particular frequency range and applications like
microwave devices etc.
4.8.2 Resistors
Resistors can be made to control the flow of current, to work as Voltage dividers, to dissipate
power and it can shape electrical waves when used in combination of other components. Basic
unit is ohms (Ω).
Resistors can be (i) fixed resistors with two ends, (ii) variable resistor or potentiometers. The
fixed resistances are those whose values cannot be changed. In case of semi-variable types of
resistances their values can be changed with help of a screwdriver. Semi-variable type resistanc-
es are known as preset. In case of the variable resistances their values can be changed from zero
to maximum with the help of a movable arm.

4.8.3 Capacitors
A capacitor stores the charge across its two plates. It opposes the change of voltage across its
plates; the electric field developed across the plate opposes the rapid change in voltages. It pro-
duces phase difference between voltage applied to it and the current, which passes through it.
The current leads the voltage by 90º in the ideal capacitance with infinite resistance across the
plates.

Design of capacitor is connected to the choice the proper electric material for a particular type of
application. The dielectric material used for capacitors may be grouped in various classes. The
value of capacitor never remains constant except under certain fixed conditions. It changes with
temperature, frequency and ageing. The capacitance value marked on the capacitor strictly ap-
plies only at specified room temperature and at low frequencies. The behavior of capacitor at
various frequencies may be grouped into the following seven classes:
- Mica, glass, air, and low loss ceramic capacitors are used from few kHz to few hundred MHz.
- Paper and metalized paper capacitor cover the frequency range from few Hz to few hundred
KHz
- High dielectric constant ceramic capacitor can only be used between the frequency ranges from
few kHz to few hundreds of KHz; however, they can find use from very low frequency to 1000
kHz.
- Aluminum electrolytic capacitor can find use at power frequency from 10Hz to 1000Hz but can
be used up to 10 kHz. -Tantalum
electrolytic capacitor may be used from dc to few hundred Hz. - Polyeth-
ylene, tere-phthalate (Mylar), cellulose acetate capacitor may find use from few hundred Hz
to few MHz. - Polystyrene,
polyethylene, poly-tetra-fluoro-ethylene (Teflon) capacitors are used from dc to 1000 MHz
range. They are reported to give satisfactory performance even at higher frequencies.

The ca acitance units in farads are μF, pF, nF

Value of the capacitance is given by its value and the max specified voltage which can be safely
applied to it.

4.8.4 Inductors
Like capacitors, inductors also store energy in one part of an a.c. cycle and return it during the
next part of the cycle. Inductance is that property of a device that reacts against a change in cur-
rent through the device. Inductors are components designed for use in circuits to resist changes in
current and thus serve important control functions.
Inductor designed is based on the principle that a varying magnetic field induces a voltage in any
conductor in that field. Thus, a practical inductor may simply be a coil of wire. The current in
each loop of the coil produces a magnetic field that passes through neighboring loops. If the cur-
rent through the coil is constant the magnetic field is constant and no action takes place. A
change in the current, however, produces a change in the magnetic field. The energy absorbed or
released from the changing magnetic field reacts against the change in current, and this is exhib-
ited as an induced voltage (electromotive force, emf), which is counter to the change in applied
voltage. The inductor thus behaves as an impedance to ac current.

The counter emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of current through the coil
. The proportionality constant is the inductance L, which has the unit of Henrys (H).
In an ac circuit, the inductor offers reactance to alternating current. The inductive reactance XL
has the units of ohms and is given by

4.8.5 Semiconductor devices

From unit1, we learnt that semiconductors are special elements having conductivity between
that of a good conductor and an insulator. The three semiconductors most frequently used in the
construction of electronic devices are Ge, Si and GaAs. Pure (intrinsic) semiconductors have lit-
tle use except in the manufacture of heat and light sensitive resistance. The process of adding
impurity to a pure semiconductor in a process called doping alters its characteristics giving rise
to two types of extrinsic semiconductor; n-type and p-type [1].

For their operation, most semiconductor devices depend on the processes that occur at the
boundary or junction between an n-type and p-type material. Devices such as diodes, transistors
and thyristors consist of p-n junctions. The working principles of some diodes, Bipolar and Field
Effect transistors have been discussed in Units 1, 2 and 3.

4.9 SIMPLE TREATMENT OF AMPLIFIERS

The key to building more efficient amplifiers is to derate (reduce) the unwanted power losses.
One way is to reduce the power losses is to reduce the power rating when the ambient tempera-
ture increases in accordance with the specified derating factor. Another way is to get rid of the
heat faster. That is why heat sinks are used. Large power transistors have a collector connected
directly to the case to allow heat escape as easily as possible [3].

4.10 THE TRANSISTOR AS A CIRCUIT ELEMENT

The transistor is a three lead semiconductor device that acts as

- an electrically controlled switch, or

- a current amplifier.

The transistor is analogous to a faucet. Turning the faucet’s control knob alters the flow rate of
water coming out from the faucet. In like manner, a small voltage current a lied at transistor’s
control lead controls a larger current flow through its other two leads.

Transistor types include:

• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) – NPN and PNP

• Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) – N-channel and P-channel

• Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET) – Depletion type (n- and p-channel) and en-
hancement type (n- and p-channel)

4.10.1 BJT

In an NPN-type, a small input current and a positive voltage applied at its base (with )
allows a large current to flow from collector to emitter.

In a PNP-type, a small output current and a negative voltage at its base (with ) allows a
much larger current to flow from emitter to collector.

The NPN BJT works as follows:

• When no voltage is a lied at transistor’s base, electrons in the emitter are prevented from
passing to the collector side because of the pn junction.

• If a negative voltage is applied to the base, things get even worse as the pn junction between
the base and emitter becomes reverse biased resulting in the formation of a depletion region that
prevents current flow.

• If a positive voltage (>0.6V) is applied to the base of an npn transistor, the pn junction between
the base and emitter becomes forward-biased. During forward bias, escaping electrons are drawn
to the positive base.

• ome electrons exit through the base, but because the p-type base is so thin, the onslaught of
electrons that leave the emitter get close enough to the collector side that they begin jumping into
the collector. Increasing the base voltage increases the emitter-to collector electron flow.

• Recall, ositive current flow is in the direction opposite to the electron flow current flows
from collector to emitter
The NPN transistor in a complete circuit is:

•Normally O .

•No current asses from collector to emitter when base is not activated.

• When we have an operating circuit.

• Current passes from collector to emitter when base is activated.

4.10.2 JFET

The Junction field effect transistors like BJTs are three lead semiconductor devices. JFETs are
used as

- electrically controlled switches,

- current amplifiers, and
- voltage-controlled resistors.

Unlike BJTs, JFETs do not require a bias current and are controlled by using only a voltage.

• s are normally on when

• When , then JFETs become resistive to current flow through the drain-source pair
. “ s are de letion devices.”

There are two types of JFETs: n-channel and p-channel types.

In n-channel JFET, a negative voltage applied at its gate (with ) reduces current flow
from drain to source. It operates with ).

In p-channel JFET, a positive voltage applied at its gate (with ) reduces current flow
from source to drain. It operates with )..

JFETs have very high input impedance and draw little or no input current if there is any cir-
cuit/component connected to the gate of a JFET, no current is drawn away from or sunk into this
circuit.

4.10.3 MOSFET

The Metal oxide semiconductor FET is similar to the JFET. A metal oxide insulator is placed at
the gate to obtain a high input impedance at the gate. The gate input impedance is approximately
Ω. The use of an insulator as described yields a low gate-to-channel capacitance. If too
much static electricity builds up on the gate, then the MOSFET may be damaged.

There are two types of MOSFETs:

 - Enhancement type: It is normally off, thus no current flows through drain-source channel
when . When a voltage applied at the gate causes the drain-source
channel reduces resistance to current flow.
- Depletion type: It is normally on, thus maximum current flows through drain-source
channel when . When a voltage applied at the gate causes the drain-
source channel increases resistance to current flow.

In the enhancement type, current flow increases for the n-channel when and for the
p-channel when .

In the depletion type, current flow decreases for the n-channel when and for the p-
channel when .

EXERCISES

1. efine the ‘fre uency res onse’ characteristics and ‘bandwidth’ of an am lifier
2. Distinguish between class A, B, and C amplifiers
3. The voltage gain of a amplifier is given by

Calculate the bandwidth frequency if =50 and 100

4. If is the peak voltage across secondary of a transformer in a half-wave rectifier with
shunt capacitance filter, the maximum voltage on reverse-bias diode is
a) b)2 c) d)
5. The r.m.s. voltage to be applied to a simple half-wave rectifier to get an average output of
12Volts is ____________
6. A network designed to pass signals with all frequencies except those between two speci-
fied cut –off frequencies is called ____________
7. A high-pass T-connected symmetrical filter section has capacitances of 400nF in each of
its series arms and an inductance of 200mH in its shunt arm. The cut-off frequency of the
filter is:
a) 1592Hz b)1125Hz c)281Hz d)398Hz

SUMMARY

This unit has discussed the basic features and classifications of amplifiers, the types of rectifiers
and their characteristics, the types of filters, the principle of modulators and the linear modes of
electronic devices. The characteristics of components used in electronic circuits, the care of am-
plifiers and the transistor as a circuit element have also been discussed.

SELF REFLECTION

‘Ri le factor of a full wave rectifier is .48 ’. ustify

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

[1] S. Kal, Basic Electronics: Devices, Circuits and IT Fundamentals, Delhi: PHI Learning
Private Limited, 2013
[2] J. Bird, Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology, 2nd ed, Oxford: Newnes,
2003
[3] V. Vodovozov, Introduction to Electronic Engineering, Valery Vodovozov
&bookboon.com, 2010
 UNIT 5: BASIC LOGIC CIRCUITS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

A digital circuit is one which has only two types of output voltages, that is, a high (5V) or a low
(0.5V) voltage. Digital circuits process and store binary electrical signals and find their applica-
tion in communications, data processing, control systems and computers, etc. Digital systems are
complex, but they use a fairly limited number of building components (blocks). These basic de-
vices can be classified into gates which process digital signals and multivibrators which generate
or store digital signals [1]. An important use of transistors is in the construction of Integrated
Circuits (ICs) which in turn are building components for digital systems.

5.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

i) Discuss the basic logic operations and their mathematical representations and truth tables
ii) Discuss Boolean Laws
iii) Discuss De Morgan’s theorems

5.3 BASIC LOGIC GATES AND TRUTH TABLES

The simplest digital signals are binary signals having two levels. The two levels may be defined
arbitrarily to any set of two values of voltages, but the signal is confined to these two values only
e.g. the presence or absence of voltage may be used as the two-level signals; the on and off states
of electronic devices like diodes and the BJT are also a very convenient way of setting up binary
signals. Binary variables have been represented by symbols such as on and off, true and false,
positive and negative, high and low; but 0 and 1 are mostly used. Thus if a logical statement A is
true, we say A = 1 and if it is false then A = 0.Only the logical significance to 0 and 1 is consid-
ered rather than their numerical significance [2].

Logic gates are digital devices that convert binary inputs into binary based on the rules of math-
ematical logic operations. They are basically constructed using diodes, transistors and resistors
and are called gates because they control the flow of signals from the inputs to the single output.
There are three basic logic operations: OR, AND and NOT. The others which include NOR,
NAND and XOR are realized from the basic logic operations. In these logic operations, each
combination of the input variables gives an output depending on the operation and this is pre-
sented in a tabular form called the truth table. A truth table is a means of describing how the out-
put of a logic circuit depends on the logic levels present at the inputs. Usually, the combination
of inputs is written as the ascending list of binary numbers whose number of bits corresponds to
the number of inputs. e.g. 00,01,10,11 for a two-input gate [2].
5.3.1 OR operation

An OR operation with two independent logic variables A, B gives an output of 1 when either A
or B is 1. Such a gate can be visualized as an electrical circuit involving two switches in parallel
as shown in Fig 5.1(a). There is a current when either switch A or B id closed. OR is represented
by the equation

(5.1)

where + is not addition but an OR operation.

Fig 5.1(b) and 5.1 (c) show the logic symbol and the truth table of a two-input OR gate. OR gates
can also have more than two inputs where the output is 0 if and only if all the inputs are 0, oth-
erwise it is 1.

V Lamp

(a)

A
OR y=A+B
B
(b)

Inputs Output
A B y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

(c)

Fig. 5.1 OR gate: (a) analogue electrical circuit (b) logic symbol (c) truth table [2]

5.3.2 AND operation

 Here the output is high (logic 1) only when both inputs A and B are high; for all other condi-
tions, it gives a low output (logic 0). The electrical circuit equivalent of a two-input AND
gate is realized using two switches s shown in Fig 5.1(a). Current flows only when both
switches A and B are closed. An AND gate is represented by

(5.2)

where dot (.) represents the AND operation.

The logic symbol and the truth table are shown in Fig 5.2(b) and (c) respectively. It is apparent
that the AND operation is the same as ordinary multiplication. Whenever A or B is zero, their
product is 0; when both are 1, their product is 1. For multiple input AND gate, the output, y is 1
if and only if all the inputs are 1, otherwise it is 0.

A B

V Lamp

(a)

A
AND y=A.B
B
(b)

Inputs Output
A B y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

(c)

Fig. 5.2 AND gate: (a) analogue electrical circuit (b) logic symbol (c) truth table [2]

5.3.3 NOT operation

Unlike the OR and AND operation, the NOT operation is performed on a single input variable.
Thus the NOT gate has just one input and one output, giving an output of 1 when the input is 0
and an output of 0 when the input is 0 i.e. an output which is an inversion of the input. Hence,
the NOT gate is called an inverter, and the NOT operation is referred to as inversion or comple-
mentation expressed as

(5.3)

where the bar over A represents the NOT operation.

The analogue electrical circuit, the logic symbol and the truth table are shown in Fig 5.3 a), b)
and c) respectively. The circle at the output in the logic symbol depicts the inverse operation. If a
time varying digital input is applied at the input of a NOT gate, the output will be the inversion
of the input as shown in Fig 5.3(d)

V Lamp
A

(a)

A NOT y= A

(b)

Input Output
A y
0 1
1 0

(c)

(d)
Fig. 5.3 NOT gate: (a) analogue electrical circuit (b) logic symbol (c) truth table and d)
time varying operation [2]

5.3.4 NAND operation

It is considered as a combination of an AND and a NOT operation as shown in Fig. 5.4(a). The
logic symbol is shown in Fig 5.4(b). It is an AND symbol followed by a circle to indicate inver-
sion. When inputs A and B are both 1, there is an output of 0, all other input combinations giving
an output of 1. The truth table is as shown in Fig.5.4 (c). In the case of multiple input NAND
gate, the output is 0 if and only if all the inputs are 1, otherwise, the output is 1. The electrical
analogue is in Fig. 5.4(d). The bulb stops illumination (logic 0) only when both switches A and B
are closed (logic 1). A NAND gate can be expressed as

(5.4)

A A.B
y = A .B

B
(a)

A
NAND y=A.B
B
(b)

Inputs Output
A B y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

(c)

A
V Lamp
B

(d)
Fig 5.4 NAND gate: (a) AND + NOT = NAND (b) logic symbol (c) truth table (d) analogue
electrical circuit [2]

5.3.5 NOR operation

A combination of the OR operation followed by a NOT operation results in a NOR operation as

shown in Fig. 5.5(a). Thus when a NOT gate is combined with an OR gate in cascade, the result
is a NOR gate represented symbolically in Fig. 5.5(b) which is the OR symbol followed by the
circle to indicate inversion. The truth table is shown in Fig. 5.5(c). When either input A or B is
1, the output will be 0. For multiple-input NOR gate, the output is 1 if and only if all the inputs
are 0; otherwise, it is 0. The NOR operation is expressed as

(5.5)

The electrical analogue is shown in Fig 5.5(d). If any one of the switches is in state 1i.e. closed,
the lamp will not glow (0 state)
 A A+B
y=A+B
B

(a)

A
NOR y=A+B
B
(b)

Inputs Output
A B y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

(c)

V A B Lamp

(d)

Fig. 5.5 NOR gate: (a) OR + NOT = NOR (b) logic symbol (c) truth table (d) analogue electri-
cal circuit [2]

5.3.6 Exclusive-OR (XOR) operation

The XOR operation is a special type of logic operation which is realised by combining several
basic logic operations. The logic equation for XOR gate is expressed as

(5.6)

The symbol represents the XOR-gate. Equation (5.6) may be realized using basic gates as
shown in Fig. 5.6(a). The XOR logic symbol and its truth table are shown in Figs. 5.6(b) and
5.6(c) respectively. The truth table indicates that y = 1 for two cases: A = 0, B = 1( term) and
A =1, B = 0( term). Thus the XOR operation produces a high output (logic 1) whenever the
two inputs are complementary. In other words, the output of XOR is 0 if all of the inputs are 0 or
if all of the inputs are 1; otherwise it is 1.

A
A
Y = AB + AB

B
B
(a)

A
XOR y

(b)

Inputs Output
A B y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

(c)

Fig. 5.6
XOR gate: (a) XOR realization using basic gates (b) logic symbol (c) truth table [2]

There is an Exclusive-NOR (XNOR) operation which is opposite to the XOR operation. The log-
ical equation for the XNOR gate is expressed as

(5.7)

Fig. 5.7(a) shows an XNOR circuit using basic logic gates. The XNOR operation produces a
high output (logic 1) whenever the two inputs are at the same level (either logic 0 or logic 1).
The logic symbol and truth table are given in Figs. 5.7(b) and 5.7(c) respectively. The XNOR
logic symbol is obtained by simply adding a small circle at the output of the XOR symbol.
 A

A
AB
B
Y = AB + AB
B

B
AB

A
(a)

A
y=A B

(b)

Inputs Output
A B y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

(c)

Fig.5.7 XNOR gate:(a)XNOR realization using basic gates (b)logic symbol (c)truth table [2]

5.4 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND De MORGAN’S THEOREM

Much of our everyday lives are filled with conditions of true or false, right or wrong, positive or
negative etc. Aristotle the great thinker and philosopher evolved precise methods to find truth
from the idea of two-state logic. Mathematicians on the other hand have evolved some algebraic
processes with the help of logic to solve problem. In 1854, George Boole found a link between
logic and mathematics and developed a new kind of algebra named Boolean Algebra.
Boolean algebra involves binary digits 0 and 1 and its rules differ from those of ordinary algebra.
It does not involve fractions or negative numbers. The two Boolean variables, true or false, may
be represented by on and off states of electronic switching circuits. The algebraic operations on
the two variables of Boolean algebra are limited to those defined as AND, OR and NOT [2].

5.4.1 Boolean laws

Various Boolean laws help us simplify logic expressions and logic circuits. In the following the-
orems, A, B, and C are logic variables which can either be 0 or 1. The output logic variable is
represented by y. Each law is accompanied by a logic circuit diagram that validates it.

1. Laws of Complementation (NOT laws)

(Complement of 0 is 1)
(Complement of 1 is 0)
() (Double complement of a variable equals the variable)
If A = 0, then If A = 1, then = 0.
2. AND Laws
Any variable ANDed with 0 equals 0

The last law implies that if at one input is logic 1, then the other input is 0. The output
therefore will be 0.
3. OR Laws
Any value ORed with 1 will always result in 1. The law can be expressed as

4. Commutative laws
(a)In a two-input OR gate, the input signals can be transposed without changing the out-
put as in Fig. 5.8 below

B
y y
=
A

Fig. 5.8 A+B=B+A

In Boolean algebra,
(5.8)

(b)The input signals of a two-input AND gate can be transposed without affecting the
output as in Fig. 5.9
 B
y
=
A
Fig.
5.9
The Boolean equivalent of this is
(5.9)

5. Associative Laws
Logical elements may be grouped in any combination provided the same sign connects
them. The associative law for OR operation as shown in Fig. 5.10 is:
(5.10)

A y
B A
=
C B
C

Fig. 5.10 A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C

The associative law for ANDing in Fig 5.11 is:

(5.11)

A
A y y
B B
= C

Fig. 5.11

In general, Figs 5.10 and 5.11 show that how variables in OR and AND operations are
grouped has no effect on the output. For either gate in the figures, the outputs are

and respectively.

6. Distributive laws
Expressions can be expanded by multiplying terms as in ordinary algebra. Thus,
(5.12)

Fig. 5.12 shows the meaning of distributive law in terms of gates

 B
A y y
B A
=
C

Fig 5.12

5.4.2 De Morgan’s Theorems

The first theorem states that
(5.13)

The second theorem is

(5.14)

The equivalent logic symbol representation of the theorems are shown in Figs. 5.13 and 5.14 be-
low

A
A A+B A A.B
B =
B
B

Fig. 5.13 De Morgan’s first theorem:

A A.B A
A
A+B
B =
B
B

Fig 5.14 De Morgan’s second theorem:

EXERCISES

1. If X is low, what is the state of X AND Y?

A. There is not enough information to tell.
B. Low.
C. High.
 D. This logic statement makes no sense.
2. If X is high, what is the state of X NOR Y?
A. There is not enough information to tell.
B. Low.
C. High.
D. This logic statement makes no sense.
3. If X and Y are both high, what is the state of X NAND Y?
A. There is not enough information to tell.
B. Low.
C. High.
D. This logic statement makes no sense.
4. If X is high and Y is low, what is the state of X NOT Y?
A. There is not enough information to tell.
B. Low.
C. High.
D. This logic statement makes no sense.
5. If X = 1 and Y =1, then X YZ is:
A. Always 0.
B. 0 if Z = 0, and 1 if Z =1.
C. 1 if Z =0, and 0 if Z =1.
D. Always 1.
6. If X =0 and Y =1, then X(Y + Z) is:
A. Always 0.
B. 0 if Z = 0, and 1 if Z = 1.
C. 1 if Z = 0, and 0 if Z =1.
D. Always 1.
7. im lify the following ex ression by e Morgan’s theorem

a)

b)
8. Implement the logic circuit y= (AB + C)(AB + D) using any three basic logic gates
9. Construct a 2-input NAND gate using NOR gates only
10. Using Boolean laws, prove the following
a)
b)
c)

SUMMARY

This unit has discussed the basic logic operations and their mathematical representations and
truth tables. Boolean Laws and De Morgan’s theorems have also been discussed.

SELF-REFLECTION

What is the difference between positive and negative logic?

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

[1] D.D. Dajab, Notes on Basic Logic Circuits; unpublished

[2] S. Kal, Basic Electronics. Devices, Circuits and IT Fundamentals, Delhi: PHI Learning
Private Limited, 2002
 UNIT 6: MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTS

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Measurement is an essential activity in every branch of technology and science. We need to
know the speed of a car, the temperature of our working environment, the flow rate of liquid in a
pipe, the amount of oxygen dissolved in river water. Electrical measurements involve all electric
and magnetic quantities such as current, voltage, power, energy, magnetic flux and so on. Elec-
trical measuring instruments are also used to measure non-electric quantities such as tempera-
ture, pressure etc. Knowledge of the magnitude of these quantities is essential for proper func-
tioning/control of electric devices, circuits and systems.

6.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this topic, you should be able to
i) Discuss the general principle of measuring instruments
ii) Discuss the sources of error in a measuring instrument
iii) Describe the structure of a measurement instrument
iv) Explain the types of torques in analog measuring instruments

6.3 GENERAL PRINCIPLOF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

A measuring instrument serves as a useful tool in engineering. It could be as simple as a ruler or
a stopwatch or much more complex. The purpose of a measuring instrument also referred to as a
measurement system, is to link an observer to a process. A process can be defined as a system
which generates information, while the observer is a person who needs this information from
the process [1]. The observer could also be a device that needs such information to feed into an-
other process. Examples of a process could include a chemical reactor, a jet fighter, a gas plat-
form, a submarine, a car, a human heart, and a weather system. An observer could be the car
driver, the plant operator or the nurse. Table 6.1 gives a list of some information variables that
are commonly generated by processes.

Table 6.1 Common information variables [1]

Acceleration (m/s2) Volume(m3)
Density(kg/m3) Temperature(K)
Velocity (m/s) Light intensity(cd)
Viscosity(Pas) Mass (kg)
Displacement(m) Current(A)
Force(N) Capacitance(F)
Pressure(N/m2) Inductance(H)
Torque(Nm) Mass flow rate (kg/s)
Electric charge(c) Flow rate(m3/h)
Electric field strength (Vm) Voltage level(V)
Frequency(Hz) Power(W)

In a measurement system, the observer is presented with a number which corresponds to the cur-
rent value of the information variable. The information variable can also be referred to as the
measured variable. Fig 6.1 gives an illustration of a measurement system.
 Process Input Output
Measurement system
True value of Measured value
variable of variable
Observer

Fig. 6.1 A measurement system [1]

The input to the measurement system is the true value of the variable while the system output is
the measured value of the variable. In an ideal measurement system, the measured value would
be equal to the true value. An ideal system is only theoretical, therefore accuracy comes into
consideration. The accuracy of the real system can be defined as the closeness of the measured
value to the true value and quantified using measurement system error E, where
E = measured value - true value
E = system output - system input[1]

Example1: If the measured value of the flow rate of gas in a pipe is 11.0 m3/h and the true value
is 11.2 m3/h, then the error E = −0.2 m3/h.

Example 2: If the measured value of the rotational speed of an engine is 3140 rpm and the true
value is 3133 rpm, then E = +7rpm.

Accuracy is also the extent to which the value indicated by a measurement system or element
might be wrong. For example, a thermometer may have an accuracy of ±0.1C. Accuracy is often
expressed as a percentage of the full range output or full-scale deflection (f.s.d). For example, a
system might have an accuracy of ±1% of f.s.d. If the full-scale deflection is, say, 10 A, then the
accuracy is ±0.1 A. The accuracy is a summation of all the possible errors that are likely to oc-
cur, as well as the accuracy to which the system or element has been calibrated [2].

Error is the main performance indicator for a measurement system. Errors can arise in a number
of ways and the following describes some of the errors that are encountered in specifications of
instrumentation systems.
i) Hysteresis error
The term hysteresis error (Fig. 6.2) is used for the difference in outputs given from the same
value of quantity being measured according to whether that value has been reached by a continu-
ously increasing change or a continuously decreasing change. Thus, you might obtain a different
value from a thermometer used to measure the same temperature of a liquid if it is reached by the
liquid warming up to the measured temperature or it is reached by the liquid cooling down to the
measured temperature[2].
 decreasing

Instrument increasing
reading
Hysteresis error

Value measured
Fig. 6.2 Hysteresis error [2]

ii) Non-linearity error

The term non-linearity error (Fig. 6.3) is used for the error that occurs as a result of assuming a
linear relationship between the input and output over the working range, i.e. a graph of output
plotted against input is assumed to give a straight line. Few systems or elements, however, have
a truly linear relationship and thus errors occur as a result of the assumption of linearity. Lineari-
ty error is usually expressed as a percentage error of full range or full scale output.

Assumed
Measured relationship Actual
value relationship

Non-linearity error

True value

Fig. 6.3 Non-linearity error [2]

iii) Insertion error

When a cold thermometer is put in to a hot liquid to measure its temperature, the presence of the
cold thermometer in the hot liquid changes the temperature of the liquid. The liquid cools and so
the thermometer ends up measuring a lower temperature than that which existed before the ther-
mometer was introduced. The act of attempting to make the measurement has modified the tem-
perature being measured. This effect is called loading and the consequence is an insertion error
[2].
Loading is a problem that is often encountered when measurements are being made. For exam-
ple, when an ammeter is inserted into a circuit to make a measurement of the circuit current, it
changes the resistance of the circuit and so changes the current being measured (Fig. 6.4). The
act of attempting to make such a measurement has modified the current that was being measured.
If the effect of inserting the ammeter is to be as small as possible and for the ammeter to indicate
the original current, the resistance of the ammeter must be very small when compared with that
of the circuit.

(a)

Ammeter
RA
(b)

Fig. 6.4 Loading with an ammeter: (a) circuit before meter introduced, (b) extra resistance in-
troduced by meter [2]

When a voltmeter is connected across a resistor to measure the voltage across it, then what we
have done is connected a resistance, that of the voltmeter, in parallel with the resistance across
which the voltage is to be measured. If the resistance of the voltmeter is not considerably higher
than that of the resistor, the current through the resistor is markedly changed by the current pass-
ing through the meter resistance and so the voltage being measured is changed (Fig. 6.5). The act
of attempting to make the measurement has modified the voltage that was being measured. If the
effect of inserting the voltmeter in the circuit is to be as small as possible, the resistance of the
voltmeter must be much larger than that of the resistance across which it is connected. Only then
will the current bypassing the resistor and passing through the voltmeter be very small and so the
voltage not significantly changed.

I R

p.d = I.R
(a)

R
I p.d=(I- Iv)R

Iv
Voltmeter
(b)

Fig 6.5 Loading with a voltmeter: (a) before meter (b) with meter present [2]
Example 3: Two voltmeters are available, one with a resistance of 1kΩ and the other 1MΩ.
Which instrument should be selected if the indicated value is to be closest to the voltage value
that existed across a 2kΩ resistor before the voltmeter was connected across it?

Solution: The 1MΩ voltmeter should be chosen. This is because when it is in parallel with 2kΩ,
less current will flow through it than if the 1kΩ voltmeter had been used and so the current
through the resistor will be closer to its original value. Hence the indicated voltage will be closer to the
value that existed before the voltmeter was connected into the circuit

6.3.1 Structure of a measurement system

A measuring system exists to provide information about the physical value of some variable be-
ing measured. It consists of several elements or blocks. It is possible to identify four types of el-
ements, although in a given system one type of element may be missing or may occur more than
once. In some systems these elements might be contained within one or more boxes, and the
boxes holding individual measurement elements might be either close together or physically sep-
arate. The four types are shown in Fig. 6.6.

Signal Signal Data

Input Sensing Output
conditioning processing presentation
True element Measured
element element element
value value

Fig. 6.6 General structure of measurement system [1]

6.3.1.1 Sensing element

It is also called the sensor. This is in contact with the process and gives an output which depends
in some way on the variable to be measured. Examples are:
• hermocou le where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature (Fig. 6.7(a))
• Resistance element where resistance change depends on temperature (Fig. 6.7(b))
• train gauge where resistance de ends on mechanical strain
• Orifice late where ressure dro de ends on flow rate.

sensor: sensor:
Input: thermocouple Output: Input: resistance Output:
temperature e.m.f temperature element resistance change
(a) (b)

Fig. 6.7 Sensors: (a) thermocouple (b) resistance thermometer element [3]

If there is more than one sensing element in a system, the element in contact with the process is
termed the primary sensing element, the others secondary sensing elements.
6.3.1.2 Signal conditioning element
It is also known as the variable conversion element. This takes the output of the sensing element
and converts it into a form more suitable for further processing, usually a d.c. voltage, d.c. cur-
rent or frequency signal. Examples are:
• eflection bridge which converts an impedance change into a voltage change
• Am lifier which am lifies millivolts to volts (Fig. 6.8(a))
• Wheatstone bridge, which transforms the resistance change into a voltage change Fig.6.8(b))
• Oscillator which converts an im edance change into a variable frequency voltage.

Input: amplifier Output:

small voltage larger voltage
(a)

Wheatstone amplifier
Input: bridge voltage Output:
resistance change change larger voltage change

(b)

Fig. 6.8 Examples of signal processing [3]

In some cases, the primary sensor and variable conversion element are combined, and the com-
bination is known as a transducer [2].
6.3.1.3 Signal processing element
This takes the output of the conditioning element and converts it into a form more suitable for
presentation. Signal processing elements exist to improve the quality of the output of a meas-
urement system in some way. A very common type of signal processing element is the electronic
amplifier, which amplifies the output of the primary transducer or variable conversion element,
thus improving the sensitivity and resolution of measurement. This element of a measuring sys-
tem is particularly important where the primary transducer has a low output. For example, ther-
mocouples have a typical output of only a few millivolts. Other types of signal processing ele-
ment are those that filter out induced noise and remove mean levels etc. In some devices, signal
processing is incorporated into a transducer, which is then known as a transmitter. Other exam-
ples are:
• Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a voltage into a digital
form for input to a computer
• Com uter which calculates the measured value of the variable from the incoming digital data.
Typical calculations are:
• Com utation of total mass of roduct gas from flow rate and density data
• Integration of chromatogra h eaks to give the composition of a gas stream
• Correction for sensing element non-linearity [1].
6.3.1.4 Data presentation element
This presents the measured value in a form which can be easily recognised by the observer. Ex-
amples are: simple pointer–scale indicator, chart recorder, alphanumeric display, visual display
unit (VDU) [1].
Example 4: With a resistance thermometer, element A takes the temperature signal and trans-
forms it into resistance signal, element B transforms the resistance signal into a current signal,
element C transforms the current signal into a display of a movement of a pointer across a scale.
Which of these elements is (a) the sensor, (b) the signal processor, (c) the data presentation?

Solution: The sensor is element A, the signal processor element B and the data presentation ele-
ment is C [3].

6.3.2 Application of measurement systems

Present-day applications of measuring instruments can be classified into three major areas.
i) In regulating trade, applying instruments that measure physical quantities such as length, vol-
ume and mass in terms of standard units.
ii) In monitoring functions. These provide information that enables human beings to take some
prescribed action. One other important use of monitoring instruments is in calibrating the in-
struments used in the automatic process control systems described below.
iii) As part of automatic feedback control systems. Fig. 6.9 shows a functional block diagram of
a simple temperature control system in which the temperature Ta of a room is maintained at a
reference value Td. The value of the controlled variable Ta, as determined by a temperature-
measuring device, is compared with the reference value Td, and the difference E is applied as an
error signal to the heater. The heater then modifies the room temperature until Ta = Td. The char-
acteristics of the measuring instruments used in any feedback control system are of fundamental
importance to the quality of control achieved. The accuracy and resolution with which an output
variable of a process is controlled can never be better than the accuracy and resolution of the
measuring instruments used. This is a very important principle.

Comparator
Reference value
Td Error Heater Room Room
signal temperature
Ta
(Td-Ta)

Ta

Temperature measuring device

Fig.1.9 Elements of a simple closed-loop control system [2]

6.4 TORQUES AND SPRING RELATIONSHIP

Analogue instruments like ammeters, voltmeters and wattmeters consist essentially of a mov-
ing system with a pointer attached to it. For satisfactory operation, the moving system is piv-
oted by jewelled bearings and is subjected to the following three distinct torques:
i) Deflecting torque

ii) Controlling torque

 iii) Damping torque [4]

6.4.1 Deflecting torque

This causes the moving system and the pointer of the instrument to get the required deflec-
tion. This is produced by the magnetic and electromagnetic effects of the current flowing
through the instrument. The amount of torque is proportional to the quantity to be measured
[4].

6.4.2. Controlling torque

This controls the movement of the moving system and the pointer over the scale. This torque
always opposes the deflecting torque and is made to increase with the deflection of the point-
er. The deflection of the pointer ceases when the controlling torque becomes equal to the de-
flecting torque. It also ensures that the pointer returns to its initial zero position when the de-
flecting torque is removed. The controlling torque is usually provided by either i) spring con-
trol or ii) gravity control.

In the spring control method, two hair springs spiralled in opposite directions are used to de-
velop a controlling torque. The use of two springs avoids errors due to temperature varia-
tions. The springs are made up of phosphor-bronze. One end of the spring is attached to a sta-
tionary point on the body of the instrument whereas the other end is attached to the moving
system as shown in Fig. 6.10 below [4]

Jewel
bearing

spring

Pointer
Spindle

Figure 6.10 Spring Control [4]

 In this type,

where is the controlling torque,

is the angular deflection of the instrument and

is the spring constant in Nm per unit deflection

In gravity control method, a small weight Wc, called control weight, is attached to the moving
system and produces the controlling torque due to the gravitational force acting on it when there
is deflection in the system.

Here,

[4]

The instrument must always be mounted vertical as the movement of must be in the verti-
cal plane. Fig. 6.11 shows the arrangement for gravity control.

Pointer

Ɵ Balance
weight

WC WC

Control
weight

Fig. 6.11 Gravity control [4]

6.4.3. Damping torque

When the moving system of an instrument is subjected to deflecting and controlling torques, due
to its inertia, the pointer oscillates around its final position before it settles down there. This type
of oscillation makes it difficult to obtain the accurate readings quickly. Damping torque helps the
instrument to damp out the oscillations and brings the pointer to its final deflected position
quickly. The damping should oppose the movement of the pointer but should be at the same time
dependent on it so that it ceases to operate once the pointer comes to rest and hence does not af-
fect its final deflection.

The methods commonly used for developing damping torque are i) air friction damping and ii)
eddy current damping [4].
In air friction damping method, a light aluminium piston, which is attached to the moving sys-
tem, moves in an air chamber closed at one end as shown in Fig. 6.12.
Pointer

Spindle

Cylindrical air
chamber

Piston

Fig. 6.12 Air friction damping [4]

There is very little clearance between the piston and air chamber. When the spindle moves due
to a deflecting torque, the piston also moves along with it, say out of the cylinder, the air pres-
sure inside the cylinder falls and thus the outward movement of the piston is opposed by the air
outside air at atmospheric pressure. Similarly, when the piston is moved into the cylinder, the air
trapped inside the chamber is compressed and opposes the movement. Thus the suction and
compression on the air inside the chamber produces the necessary damping torque thereby arrest-
ing the oscillation of the pointer [4].

In eddy-current damping, a thin disc of conducting and non-magnetic material like aluminium or
copper is attached to the instrument spindle as shown in Fig. 6.13. The disc is allowed to move
along with the spindle inside the magnetic field provided by a permanent magnet. The movement
of the disc causes an eddy e.m.f to get induced in it causing an eddy current to flow. The flux set
u by this eddy current interacts with the magnetic field thereby exerting a force (by enz’s law)
on the disc, providing the necessary damping torque [4].

Spindle

Disc Permanent
magnet

Fig. 6.13 Eddy-current damping

EXERCISES

1. List and explain the functional elements of a measurement system.

2. The following lists the types of signals that occur in sequence at the various stages in a par-
ticular measurement system:
(i) Temperature
(ii) Voltage
(iii) Bigger voltage
(iv) Movement of pointer across a scale
The signal processor is the functional element in the measurement system that changes the signal
from:
A (i) to (ii)
B (ii) to (iii)
C (iii) to (iv)
D (ii) to (iv)

3. How are measuring instruments classified?

4. Name the torques to which the moving system of an indicating instrument is subjected?

SUMMARY
This unit has defined the principle of a measurement system and explained the importance of
system error. It has shown that, in general, a system consists of four types of element: sensing,
signal conditioning, signal processing and data presentation elements. Typical examples have
been given. Sources of error in measuring instruments have also been discussed as well as the
types of torques in analog measuring instruments.

SELF-REFLECTION

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

[1] J.P. Bentley, Principles of Measurement Systems, 4th ed, Pearson Education Limited,
2005.

[2] A.S. Morris, Measurement and Instrumentation Principles, Butterworth-Heinemann (A

division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd), 2001.

[3] W. Bolton, Instrumentation and Control Systems, Elsevier Science & Technology Books,
2004

[4] K.M. Kumar, V. Jagannathan, Basic Electrical Electronics Engineering, New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 1999
 UNIT 7: TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
An instrument is a device designed to collect data from an environment, or from a unit under
test, and to display information to a user based on the collected data. An instrument may employ
a transducer to sense changes in a physical parameter, such as temperature or pressure, and to
convert the sensed information into electrical signals, such as voltage or frequency variations. It
could also be a physical or software device that performs an analysis on data acquired from an-
other instrument and then outputs the processed data to be displayed or recorded. Electrical
measuring instruments are used to measure electrical quantities like voltage, current, power, re-
sistance etc.
7.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should have learnt the following
i) The different classes of measuring instruments
ii) The working principle of ammeters, ohmmeters, voltmeters, wattmeters and watt-hour
meters
iii) The parts of a CRO and its applications
7.3 CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Instruments can be subdivided into separate classes according to several criteria. These sub-
classifications are useful in broadly establishing several attributes of particular instruments such
as accuracy, cost, and general applicability to different applications [1].
7.3.1 Active and passive instruments
Instruments are divided into active or passive ones according to whether the instrument output is
entirely produced by the quantity being measured or whether the quantity being measured simply
modulates the magnitude of some external power source.
An example of a passive instrument is the pressure-measuring device shown in Figure 7.1.
 Scale
Pointer

Spring

Pivot
Piston

Fluid

Fig. 7.1 Passive pressure gauge [1]

The pressure of the fluid is translated into a movement of a pointer against a scale. The energy
expended in moving the pointer is derived entirely from the change in pressure measured: there
are no other energy inputs to the system.
An example of an active instrument is a float-type petrol tank level indicator as sketched in Fig.
7.2.

Float Pivot

Output
voltage

Fig 7.2 Petrol-tank level indicator [1]

Here, the change in petrol level moves a potentiometer arm, and the output signal consists of a
proportion of the external voltage source applied across the two ends of the potentiometer. The
energy in the output signal comes from the external power source: the primary transducer float
system is merely modulating the value of the voltage from this external power source.
In active instruments, the external power source is usually in electrical form, but in some cases, it
can be other forms of energy such as a pneumatic (containing air or gas under pressure) or hy-
draulic (containing liquid under pressure) one.
7.3.2 Null-type and deflection type instruments
The pressure gauge just mentioned is a good example of a deflection type of instrument, where
the value of the quantity being measured is displayed in terms of the amount of movement of a
pointer. An alternative type of pressure gauge is the deadweight gauge shown in Fig. 7.3, which
is a null-type instrument.
weights

Datum level
Piston

Fig. 7.3 Deadweight pressure gauge [1]

Here, weights are put on top of the piston until the downward force balances the fluid pressure.
Weights are added until the piston reaches a datum level, known as the null point. Pressure
measurement is made in terms of the value of the weights needed to reach this null position. The
accuracy of these two instruments depends on different things. For the first one it depends on the
linearity and calibration of the spring, whilst for the second it relies on the calibration of the
weights. As calibration of weights is much easier than careful choice and calibration of a linear-
characteristic spring, this means that the second type of instrument will normally be the more
accurate. This is in accordance with the general rule that null-type instruments are more accurate
than deflection types.
In terms of usage, the deflection type instrument is clearly more convenient. It is far simpler to
read the position of a pointer against a scale than to add and subtract weights until a null point is
reached.
7.3.3 Analogue and digital instruments
An analogue instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the quantity being measured
changes. The output can have an infinite number of values within the range that the instrument is
designed to measure. The deflection-type of pressure gauge described earlier (Fig 7.1) is a good
example of an analogue instrument.
As the input value changes, the pointer moves with a smooth continuous motion. A digital in-
strument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so can only have a finite number of values
[1]
7.3.4 Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output
The final way in which instruments can be divided is between those that merely give an audio or
visual indication of the magnitude of the physical quantity measured and those that give an out-
put in the form of a measurement signal whose magnitude is proportional to the measured quan-
tity.
The class of indicating instruments normally includes all null-type instruments and most passive
ones. Indicators can also be further divided into those that have an analogue output and those that
have a digital display. A common analogue indicator is the liquid-in-glass thermometer. Another
common indicating device, which exists in both analogue and digital forms, is the bathroom
scale [1]. One major drawback with indicating devices is that human intervention is required to
read and record a measurement. This process is particularly prone to error in the case of analogue
output displays, although digital displays are not very prone to error unless the human reader is
careless [1]

The advent of the microprocessor has created a new division in instruments between those that
do incorporate a microprocessor (smart) and those that do not (non-smart) [1].

7.4 AMMETERS
Current is measured using either an ammeter in amps, milliamps or microamps [2]. A multime-
ter is also used in the same way as the ammeter. The circuit is broken at the point where the cur-
rent is to be measured and the meter is connected in series with the other components of the cir-
cuit as shown in Fig.7.4. The positive terminal of the meter is connected to the positive side of
the circuit while the negative terminal is connected to the negative side.
 +
A
_

Fig. 7.4 Measuring current [2]

7.5 VOLTMETERS
In electronics, most voltage measurement is in fact a measure of the difference in voltage be-
tween two regions of a circuit. This is called the potential difference or p.d. and is measured in
volts. Potential is measured with respect to zero, ground or the negative side of the circuit.
To measure a voltage or a p.d. the voltmeter is connected across (in parallel with) the component
as shown in Fig. 7.5. Note that the negative side of the meter is connected to the negative side of
the component and the positive side of the meter to the positive of the component.

+
V
_

Fig. 7.5 Measuring voltage [2]

7.6 WATTMETERS
The measurement of electrical power requires that voltage and current both be measured simul-
taneously. Remember that power is the product of the voltage and current. That is, watts (P)
equals volts (V) times amperes (I), written as . In fact, watts are sometimes called volt-
amperes in a dc circuit [3].
A voltmeter could be connected in parallel and an ammeter in series with a circuit, thereby get-
ting a reading of the voltage across it, and the current through the circuit, and then the volts mul-
tiplied by the amperes to get watts consumed by the circuit. This, as shown in Fig. 7.6 is in fact,
for practically all dc circuits, an excellent way to measure power.
 Ammeter

Bulb
Voltmeter V P = VI

Fig.7.6 Power can be measured with a voltmeter and an ammeter [3]

Specialized wattmeters are necessary for the measurement of radio-frequency (RF) power, or for
peak audio power in a high-fidelity amplifier, or for certain other specialized applications. But
almost all of these meters, whatever the associated circuitry, use simple ammeters as their indi-
cating devices [3].
7.7 WATT-HOUR METERS
Electrical energy is measured in watt hours, or, more commonly for utility purposes, in kilowatt
hours (kWh). The device that indicates this is the watt-hour meter or kilowatt-hour meter [3].
The most often-used means of measuring electrical energy is by using a small electric motor de-
vice, whose speed depends on the current, and thereby on the power at a constant voltage. The
number of turns of the motor shaft, in a given length of time, is directly proportional to the num-
ber of kilowatt hours consumed. The motor is placed at the point where the utility wires enter the
house, apartment or building.
Kilowatt-hour meters count the number of disk turns by means of geared, rotary drums or point-
ers. The drum type meter gives a direct digital readout. The pointer type has several scales cali-
brated from 0 to 9 in circles, some going clockwise and others going counterclockwise.
Reading a pointer type utility meter is a little tricky, because you must think in whatever direc-
tion (clockwise or counterclockwise) the scale goes. An example of a pointer type utility meter is
shown in Fig. 7.7. Read from left to right. For each little meter, take down the number that the
pointer has most recently passed. Write down the rest as you go. The meter in the figure reads
66498kWh [3].
 Fig. 7.7 An example of a utility meter [4]

7.8 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE AND ITS APPLICATIONS

The cathode ray oscilloscope is probably the most versatile and useful instrument available for
signal measurement. In its basic form, it is an analogue instrument and is often called an ana-
logue oscilloscope. The analogue oscilloscope is widely used for voltage measurement, especial-
ly as an item of test equipment for circuit fault-finding, and it is able to measure a very wide
range of both a.c. and d.c. voltage signals. Besides measuring voltage levels, it can also measure
other quantities such as the frequency and phase of a signal. It can also indicate the nature and
magnitude of noise that may be corrupting the measurement signal [1].

One particularly strong merit of the oscilloscope is its high input impedance, typically 1MΩ,
which means that the instrument has a negligible loading effect in most measurement situations.
As a test instrument, it is often required to measure voltages whose frequency and magnitude are
totally unknown. The set of rotary switches that alter its timebase so easily, and the circuitry that
protects it from damage when high voltages are applied to it on the wrong range, make it ideally
suited for such applications. However, it is not a particularly accurate instrument and is best used
where only an approximate measurement is required. In the best instruments, inaccuracy can be
limited to 1% of the reading but inaccuracy can approach 10% in the cheapest instruments.
Further disadvantages of oscilloscopes include their fragility (being built around a cathode ray
tube) and their moderately high cost [1].

The most important aspects in the specification of an oscilloscope are its bandwidth, its rise time
and its accuracy. The bandwidth is defined as the range of frequencies over which the oscillo-
scope amplifier gain is within 3 dB of its peak value, as illustrated in Fig.7.8. The -3dB point is
where the gain is 0.707 times its maximum value.
 G
Voltage gain -3dB
0.707G

Bandwidth

10 100 1000 10000

Frequency(Hz)

Fig. 7.8 Bandwidth [1]

In most oscilloscopes, the amplifier is direct coupled, which means that it amplifies d.c. voltages
by the same factor as low-frequency a.c. ones. For such instruments, the minimum frequency
measurable is zero and the bandwidth can be interpreted as the maximum frequency where the
sensitivity (deflection/volt) is within 3 dB of the peak value. In all measurement situations, the
oscilloscope chosen for use must be such that the maximum frequency to be measured is well
within the bandwidth. The -3 dB specification means that an oscilloscope with a specified inac-
curacy of 2% and bandwidth of 100MHz will have an inaccuracy of 5% when measuring
30MHz signals, and this inaccuracy will increase still further at higher frequencies. Thus, when
applied to signal-amplitude measurement, the oscilloscope is only usable at frequencies up to
about 0.3 times its specified bandwidth.

The rise time is the transit time between the 10% and 90% levels of the response when a step in-
put is applied to the oscilloscope. Oscilloscopes are normally designed such that:
Bandwidth Rise time 0.35

Thus, for a bandwidth of 100 MHz, rise time = = 3.5ns

An oscilloscope is a relatively complicated instrument that is constructed from a number of sub-

systems, and it is necessary to consider each of these in turn in order to understand how the com-
plete instrument functions [1].
7.8.1 Cathode ray tube
The cathode ray tube, shown in Fig. 7.9, is the fundamental part of an oscilloscope. The cathode
consists of a barium and strontium oxide coated, thin, heated filament from which a stream of
electrons is emitted. The stream of electrons is focused onto a well defined spot on a fluorescent
screen by an electrostatic focusing system that consists of a series of metal discs and cylinders
charged at various potentials. Adjustment of this focusing mechanism is provided by controls on
the front panel of an oscilloscope. An intensity control varies the cathode heater current and
therefore the rate of emission of electrons, and thus adjusts the intensity of the display on the
screen. These and other typical controls are shown in the illustration of the front panel of a sim-
ple oscilloscope given in Fig. 7.10.

Heater

Cathode

Focusing plates
Deflecting plates

Fluorescent
screen

Fig. 7.9 Cathode ray tube [1]

 Intensity Focus

Horizontal
Vertical position
position

Volts / div time / div

0

Line

Ext. Int. Trigger level +

_

Trigger slope
Trigger

V On
H
Vertical input Horizontal input
Ext. sync
Off

Fig. 7.10 Controls of a simple oscilloscope [1]

Application of potentials to two sets of deflector plates mounted at right angles to one another
within the tube provide for deflection of the stream of electrons, such that the spot where the
electrons are focused on the screen is moved. The two sets of deflector plates are normally
known as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates, according to the respective motion caused
to the spot on the screen. The magnitude of any signal applied to the deflector plates can be cal-
culated by measuring the deflection of the spot against a crossed-wire graticule etched on the
screen.

In the oscillosco e’s most common mode of usage measuring time-varying signals, the unknown
signal is applied, via an amplifier, to the y-axis (vertical) deflector plates and a timebase to the x-
axis (horizontal) deflector plates. In this mode of operation, the display on the oscilloscope
screen is in the form of a graph with the magnitude of the unknown signal on the vertical axis
and time on the horizontal axis [1].
7.8.2 Channel

One channel describes the basic subsystem of an electron source, focusing system and deflector
plates. This subsystem is often duplicated one or more times within the cathode ray tube to pro-
vide a capability of displaying two or more signals at the same time on the screen. The common
oscilloscope configuration with two channels can therefore display two separate signals simulta-
neously [1].

7.8.3 Single-ended input

This type of input only has one input terminal plus a ground terminal per oscilloscope channel
and, consequently, only allows signal voltages to be measured relative to ground. It is normally
only used in simple oscilloscopes [1].

7.8.4 Differential input

This type of input is provided on more expensive oscilloscopes. Two input terminals plus a
ground terminal are provided for each channel, which allows the potentials at two non-grounded
points in a circuit to be compared. This type of input can also be used in single-ended mode to
measure a signal relative to ground by using just one of the input terminals plus ground [1].

7.8.5 Timebase circuit

The purpose of a timebase is to apply a voltage to the horizontal deflector plates such that the
horizontal position of the spot is proportional to time. This voltage, in the form of a ramp known
as a sweep waveform, must be applied repetitively, such that the motion of the spot across the
screen appears as a straight line when a d.c. level is applied to the input channel. Furthermore,
this timebase voltage must be synchronized with the input signal in the general case of a time-
varying signal, such that a steady picture is obtained on the oscilloscope screen. The length of
time taken for the spot to traverse the screen is controlled by a time/div switch, which sets the
length of time taken by the spot to travel between two marked divisions on the screen, thereby
allowing signals at a wide range of frequencies to be measured.

Each cycle of the sweep waveform is initiated by a pulse from a pulse generator. The input to the
pulse generator is a sinusoidal signal known as a triggering signal, with a pulse being generated
every time the triggering signal crosses a preselected slope and voltage level condition. This
condition is defined by the trigger level and trigger slope switches. The former selects the volt-
age level on the trigger signal, commonly zero, at which a pulse is generated, whilst the latter
selects whether pulsing occurs on a positive- or negative-going part of the triggering waveform.

Synchronization of the sweep waveform with the measured signal is most easily achieved by de-
riving the trigger signal from the measured signal, a procedure that is known as internal trigger-
ing. Alternatively, external triggering can be applied if the frequencies of the triggering signal
and measured signals are related by an integer constant such that the display is stationary. Exter-
nal triggering is necessary when the amplitude of the measured signal is too small to drive the
pulse generator, and it is also used in applications where there is a requirement to measure the
phase difference between two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency. It is very convenient to
use the 50 Hz line voltage for external triggering when measuring signals at mains frequency,
and this is often given the name line triggering [1].

7.8.6 Vertical sensitivity control

This consists of a series of attenuators and pre-amplifiers at the input to the oscilloscope. These
condition the measured signal to the optimum magnitude for input to the main amplifier and ver-
tical deflection plates, thus enabling the instrument to measure a very wide range of different
signal magnitudes. Selection of the appropriate input amplifier/attenuator is made by setting a
volts/div control associated with each oscilloscope channel. This defines the magnitude of the
input signal that will cause a deflection of one division on the screen [1].

7.8.7 Display position control

This allows the position at which a signal is displayed on the screen to be controlled in two ways.
The horizontal position is adjusted by a horizontal position knob on the oscilloscope front panel
and similarly a vertical position knob controls the vertical position. These controls adjust the po-
sition of the display by biasing the measured signal with d.c. voltage levels [1].

7.8.8 Structure of a CRO [5]

7.8.9 Applications of a CRO

(a) In radio work

1. To trace and measure a signal throughout the RF, IF and AF channels of radio and television
receivers
2. To provides the only effective way of adjusting FM receivers, broadband high-frequency RF
amplifiers and automatic frequency control circuits
3. To test AF circuits for different types of distortions and other spurious oscillations
4. To give visual display of waveshapes such as sine waves, square waves and their many differ-
ent combinations
5. To trace transistor curves
6. To visually show the composite synchronised TV signal
7. To display the response of tuned circuits [6]
(b) Scientific and Engineering Applications
1. Measurement of ac/dc voltages
2. Finding B/H curves for the hysteresis loop
3. For engine pressure analysis
4. For study of stress, strain, acceleration etc
5. Frequency and phase determination using Lissajous figures
6. Radiation patterns of antenna
7. Amplifier gain
8. Modulation percentage
9. Complex waveform as a short-cut for Fourier analysis
10. Standing waves in transmission lines [6]

EXERCISES

1. Explain what is meant by (a) active instruments (b) passive instruments. Give examples of
each and discuss the relative merits of these two classes of instruments.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of null and deflection types of measuring instru-
ment. What are null types of instrument mainly used for and why?

SUMMARY
This unit has discussed the the different classes of measuring instruments; the working principle
of ammeters, ohmmeters, voltmeters, wattmeters and watt-hour meters. The parts of a CRO and
its applications have also been discussed.

SELF-REFLECTION
Discuss the normal operation of a CRO.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

[1] A.S. Morris, Measurement and Instrumentation Principles, Butterworth-Heinemann (A
division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd), 2001.
[2] L. Jones, Basic Electronics for Tomorrow’s World, Cambridge University Press, 1993
[3] S. Gibilisco, Teach yourself Electricity and Electronics, 3rd ed, McGraw-Hill, 2002
[4] http://www.masonpud3.org/customerservice/meterreading.aspx
[5] http://smartcontrol.blogspot.com.ng/2012/04/cathode-ray-oscilloscope-cro-system.html
[6] A.K. Theraja, B.L. Thereja, S.G. Tarnekar, A textbook of Electrical Technology, 23rd ed,
New Delhi: S. Chand and Company Ltd., 2005
 UNIT 8: TRANSDUCERS AND BRIDGE MEASUREMENTS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
A transducer serves as the link between the physical process and its instrumentation system,
extracting information from the physical process by converting the physical parameters into
electrical signals. In a broad sense, a transducer can be defined as a device that receives energy
from one system (usually the process) in one form and retransmits it to another system (usually
the instrumentation system) in another form [1]. In practice, transducers that convert non-
electrical signals to electrical signals are commonly used because electrical signals are usually
processed by different signal conditioning circuits and displayed by devices like the Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope.
8.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should:
i) understand the classes of transducers
ii) be able to discuss the measurement of resistance
iii) be able to discuss the measurement of frequency
iv) be able to discuss displacement transducers
v) be able to discuss temperature transducers
vi) be able to discuss pressure transducers
vii) be able to discuss the measurement of speed
8.3 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
In basic terms, transducers are of two types, active transducers and passive transducers.
An active transducer converts energy directly from one form to another and does not require
any external power source or excitation for this conversion. Hence they are also referred to as
self-generating transducers. Passive transducers derive power required for energy conversion
from an external source and so are referred to as externally powered transducers. Table 8.1
gives a few examples of active and passive transducers [1].
Table 8.1 Active and Passive Transducers [1]
Active transducers Passive transducers
i)Thermocouple i)Resistance transducer
Thermistor
Photoconductive cell
 Resistance strain gauge
ii)Piezoelectric transducer ii)Inductance transducer LVDT*
iii)Photovoltaic cell iii)Capacitance transducer
iv)Moving coil generator iv)Photoemissive cell
*LVDT - Linear Variable Differential Transformer
For satisfactory operation, a transducer has to meet the following requirements:
i) Linearity – the output of the transducer should maintain a straight line relationship with
its input
ii) Accuracy – its output should confirm the actual value to be measured
iii) Sensitivity – it should be highly sensitive if its resolving power is to be high
iv) Ruggedness – it should be able to withstand overloads and shocks
v) Frequency response – its gain should remain constant over the measurement range of
frequencies and it should respond to changes in its input as fast as possible to ensure
good dynamic response
vi) Repeatability – it should produce identical output signals when the same input signal is
applied at different times under the same environmental conditions [1].
8.4 MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE
Resistance is the opposition presented by a component to the flow of current [2]. It is
measured in Ohms (Ω).
Devices that convert the measured quantity into a change in resistance include the resistance
thermometer, the thermistor, the wire-coil pressure gauge and the strain gauge. The standard
devices and methods available for measuring change in resistance include the d.c. bridge
circuit, the voltmeter–ammeter method, the resistance-substitution method, the digital
voltmeter and the ohmmeter. Apart from the ohmmeter, these instruments are normally only
used to measure medium values of resistance in the range of 1Ω to 1M Ω [3].
8.4.1 DC bridge circuit
D.C. bridge circuits provide the most commonly used method of measuring medium value
resistance values. The best measurement accuracy is provided by the null-output-type
Wheatstone bridge, and inaccuracy figures of less than 0.02% are achievable with
commercially available instruments. Deflection-type bridge circuits are simpler to use in
practice than the null-output type, but their measurement accuracy is inferior and the non-
 linear output relationship is an additional difficulty. Bridge circuits are particularly useful in
converting resistance changes into voltage signals that can be input directly into automatic
control systems [3].
8.4.2 Voltmeter-ammeter method
The voltmeter–ammeter method consists of applying a measured d.c. voltage across the
unknown resistance and measuring the current flowing. Two alternatives exist for connecting
the two meters, as shown in Fig. 8.1. In Fig. 8.1(a), the ammeter measures the current
flowing in both the voltmeter and the resistance. The error due to this is minimized when the
measured resistance is small relative to the voltmeter resistance. In the alternative form of
connection, Fig. 8.1(b), the voltmeter measures the voltage drop across the unknown
resistance and the ammeter. Here, the measurement error is minimized when the unknown
resistance is large with respect to the ammeter resistance. Thus, method (a) is best for
measurement of small resistances and method (b) for large ones. Having thus measured the
voltage and current, the value of the resistance is then calculated very sim ly by Ohm’s law.
This is a suitable method wherever the measurement inaccuracy of up to % that it gives is
acceptable [3].
Voltmeter Voltmeter

Ammeter RU Ammeter RU
(a) (b)

Fig. 8.1 Voltmeter-ammeter method of measuring resistance [3]

8.4.3 Resistance-substitution method
In the voltmeter–ammeter method above, either the voltmeter is measuring the voltage across
the ammeter as well as across the resistance, or the ammeter is measuring the current flow
through the voltmeter as well as through the resistance. The measurement error caused by
this is avoided in the resistance-substitution technique. In this method, the unknown
resistance in a circuit is temporarily replaced by a variable resistance. The variable resistance
is adjusted until the measured circuit voltage and current are the same as existed with the
unknown resistance in place. The variable resistance at this point is equal in value to the
unknown resistance [3].
8.4.4 Use of digital voltmeter to measure resistance
The digital voltmeter can also be used for measuring resistance if an accurate current source
is included within it that passes current through the resistance. This can give a measurement
inaccuracy as small as 0.1%.
8.4.5 The ohmmeter
The ohmmeter is a simple instrument in which a battery applies a known voltage across a
combination of the unknown resistance and a known resistance in series, as shown in Fig.
8.2. Measurement of the voltage , across the known resistance, R, allows the unknown
resistance, , to be calculated from:

= where is the battery voltage

RV

R1
RU

Fig. 8.2 Ohmmeter [3]

Ohmmeters are used to measure resistances over a wide range from a few milliohms up to 50 M.
The measurement inaccuracy is 2% or greater, and ohmmeters are therefore more suitable for
use as test equipment rather than in applications where high accuracy is required. Most of the
available versions contain a switchable set of standard resistances, so that measurements of
reasonable accuracy over a number of ranges can be made.
Most digital and analogue multimeters contain circuitry of the same form as in an ohmmeter, and
hence can be similarly used to obtain approximate measurements of resistance [3].
8.4.6 Codes for resistor values
When standard resistors are being used as part of bridge circuits, and also in other applications, it
is often useful to know their approximate value. To satisfy this need, coded marks are made on
resistors during manufacture. The two main styles of marking are a four-band colour system and
an alphanumeric code.
In the four-band coding system, the resistance value and the maximum possible tolerance about
that value are defined by a set of four coloured bands. These are displaced towards one end of
the resistor, as shown in Fig. 8.3, with band one defined as the band that is closest to the end of
the resistor.
Alphanumeric coding indicates the resistance value using two, three or four numbers plus one
letter. The letter acts both as a decimal point and also as a multiplier for the value specified by
the numbers in the code. The letters R, K, M, G, T define multipliers of , , ,
, respectively. For example: 6M8 means 6.8 , i.e. .8 MΩ . 5 R 4 means
50.04. A separate letter indicating the tolerance is given after the value coding. The meaning of
tolerance codes is as follows:
B= .1%; C = 0.25%; D = 0.5%; F = 1%; G = 2%; J = 5%; K = 10%; M
= 20%; N = 30%.
 Most sig. fig.
of value
Tolerance
Least sig. fig. Multiplier
of value

Codes for bands 1 - 3 Codes for bands 4

Black 0 Green 5 Brown ± 1%
Brown 1 Blue 6 Red ± 2%
Red 2 Purple 7 Gold ± 5%
Orange 3 Grey 8 Silver ± 10%
Yellow 4 White 9

Example

Green
Red
Blue Brown

560Ω ±2 %

Fig. 8.3 Four-band resistance marking system with example [3]

8.5 MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY

Frequency is measured in units of hertz (Hz). The digital counter-timer is the most common
instrument for measuring frequency. The oscilloscope is also commonly used for obtaining
approximate measurements of frequency, especially in circuit test and fault-diagnosis
applications. Within the audio frequency range, the Wien Bridge is a further instrument that
is sometimes used [3].
8.5.1 Digital counter-timers
A digital counter-timer is the most accurate and flexible instrument available for measuring
frequency. Inaccuracy can be reduced down to 1 part in 108, and all frequencies between d.c.
and several gigahertz can be measured. The essential component within a counter-timer
instrument is an oscillator that provides a very accurately known and stable reference
 frequency, which is typically either 100 kHz or 1 MHz. This is often maintained in a
temperature-regulated environment within the instrument to guarantee its accuracy. The
oscillator output is transformed by a pulse-shaper circuit into a train of pulses and applied to
an electronic gate, as shown in Fig.8.4. Successive pulses at the reference frequency
alternately open and close the gate. The input signal of unknown frequency is similarly
transformed into a train of pulses and applied to the gate. The number of these pulses that get
through the gate during the time that it is open during each gate cycle is proportional to the
frequency of the unknown signal [3].

Display

Shaper Divider Memory

Oscillator

Gate Counter

Control Shaper

Fig.8.4 Digital counter-timer system [3]

8.5.2 Phase-locked loop
A phase-locked loop is a circuit consisting of a phase-sensitive detector, a voltage controlled
oscillator (VCO), and amplifiers, connected in a closed-loop system as shown in Fig.8.5. In a
VCO, the oscillation frequency is proportional to the applied voltage. Operation of a phase-
locked loop is as follows. The phase-sensitive detector compares the phase of the amplified
input signal with the phase of the VCO output. Any phase difference generates an error
signal, which is amplified and fed back to the VCO. This adjusts the frequency of the VCO
until the error signal goes to zero, and thus the VCO becomes locked to the frequency of the
input signal. The d.c. output from the VCO is then proportional to the input signal frequency
[3].
 Mesurement Amplifier Phase-
Signal sensitive Amplifier
detector

Voltage-
Output controlled
oscillator
Fig.
8.5 Phase-locked loop [3]

8.5.3 Cathode ray oscilloscope

The cathode ray oscilloscope can be used in two ways to measure frequency. Firstly, the internal
timebase can be adjusted until the distance between two successive cycles of the measured signal
can be read against the calibrated graticule on the screen. Calculation of the unknown frequency
from this measured time interval is relatively simple. For example, suppose that the distance
between two cycles is 2.5 divisions when the internal timebase is set at 10 ms/div. The cycle
time is therefore 25 ms and hence the frequency is 1000/25, i.e. 40 Hz.
The alternative way of using an oscilloscope to measure frequency is to generate Lisajous
patterns. These are produced by applying a known reference-frequency sine wave to the y input
(vertical deflection plates) of the oscilloscope and the unknown frequency sinusoidal signal to
the x input (horizontal deflection plates). A pattern is produced on the screen according to the
frequency ratio between the two signals, and if the numerator and denominator in the ratio of the
two signals both represent an integral number of cycles, the pattern is stationary. Examples of
these patterns are shown in Fig. 8.6, which also shows that phase difference between the
waveforms has an effect on the shape. Frequency measurement proceeds by adjusting the
reference frequency until a steady pattern is obtained on the screen and then calculating the
unknown frequency according to the frequency ratio that the pattern obtained represents.
 Frequency
ratio
y/x

0º 45º 90º 135º 180º

Phase difference x - y

Fig. 8.6 Lisajous patterns [3]

8.5.4 The Wien bridge

The Wien bridge, shown in Fig. 8.7 is a special form of a.c. bridge circuit that can be used to
measure frequencies in the audio range. An alternative use of the instrument is as a source of
audio frequency signals of accurately known frequency.
A simple set of headphones is often used to detect the null-output balance condition. Other
suitable instruments for this purpose are the oscilloscope and the electronic voltmeter. At
balance, the unknown frequency is calculated according to:

R3
R1 C3

Unknown
frequency
signal R4
R2
C4

Fig. 8.7 Wien bridge [3]

8.6 DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCERS
Displacement is defined as the change in position or location of an object with respect to a fixed
point [1]. It can either be linear or rotational (angular). Displacement transducers which produce
electrical signals in proportion to mechanical displacement are very important considering that
many physical variables are first converted to mechanical displacement and then to electrical
signals. Examples of transducers used to convert mechanical displacement s to electrical signals
include the resistance strain gauge, the resistive potentiometer, linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT), the capacitance transducer etc [1].
8.6.1 Electrical strain gauge
If tensile or compression stress is applied to a metal conductor, it becomes elongated or
compressed with a resultant change in resistance due to change in its dimensions, namely length,
l and cross-sectional area A.
If the length of a wire changes from to + ∆L due to tensile stress, the resistance increases
from R to R + ∆R. The strain that is produced by the change in length is given by

elongation/length ( ). The sensitivity of a strain gauge is described in terms of a characteristic

variable called Gauge Factor, G. G is the unit change in resistance to unit change in length. i.e

Gauge Factor G = = [1]

For better performance, G should be high, the material of the strain gauge wire should have a
low temperature coefficient of resistance and there should be a linear relationship between the
stress and the strain [1].
8.6.2 The resistive potentiometer
The resistive potentiometer is perhaps the best-known displacement-measuring device. It
consists of a resistance element with a movable contact as shown in Fig.8.8. A voltage is
applied across the two ends A and B of the resistance element and an output voltage is
measured between the point of contact C of the sliding element and the end of the resistance
element A [3]. A linear relationship exists between the output voltage and the distance AC,

which can be expressed by: [3]

 VS

C
B

Resistance
V0 element
Sliding
contact

Fig. 8.8 The resistive potentiometer [3]

The body whose motion is being measured is connected to the sliding element of the
potentiometer, so that translational motion of the body causes a motion of equal magnitude of the
slider along the resistance element and a corresponding change in the output voltage .
8.6.3 Linear variable differential transformer
The linear variable differential transformer, which is commonly known by the abbreviation
LVDT, consists of a transformer with a single primary winding and two secondary windings
connected in the series opposing manner shown in Fig.8.9. The object whose translational
displacement is to be measured is physically attached to the central iron core of the transformer,
so that all motions of the body are transferred to the core. For an excitation voltage given by
, the e.m.f.s induced in the secondary windings and are given by:

The parameters and depend on the amount of coupling between the respective secondary
and primary windings and hence on the position of the iron core. With the core in the central
position, = and we have:

Because of the series opposition mode of connection of the secondary windings,

, and hence with the core in the central position, . Suppose now that the core
is displaced upwards (i.e. towards winding A) by a distance . If then = and
= , we have:

If, alternatively, the core were displaced downwards from the null position (i.e. towards winding
B) by a distance , the values of and would then be equal to and respectively and
we would have:
[3]
 A
Va

VS
V0

B Vb

Displacement

Fig. 8.9 The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) [3]

8.6.4 Variable capacitance transducers
The principle of variable capacitance is used in displacement measuring transducers in various
ways. The three most common forms of variable capacitance transducer are shown in Fig. 8.10.
In Fig. 8.10(a), the capacitor plates are formed by two concentric, hollow, metal cylinders. The
displacement to be measured is applied to the inner cylinder, which alters the capacitance. The
second form, Fig. 8.10(b), consists of two flat, parallel, metal plates, one of which is fixed and
one of which is movable. Displacements to be measured are applied to the movable plate, and the
capacitance changes as this moves. Both of these first two forms use air as the dielectric medium
between the plates. The final form, Fig. 8.10(c), has two flat, parallel, metal plates with a sheet of
solid dielectric material between them. The displacement to be measured causes a capacitance
change by moving the dielectric sheet.

(a)
 Solid dielectric
Air dielectric

Dispalcement Displacement

Movable metal Fixed metal Fixed metal Movable metal

plate plate plate plate

(b) (c)

Fig 8.10 Variable capacitance transducer [3]

8.7 ELECTRICAL TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCERS

Temperature transducers are usually used to monitor, record and control temperatures in
industrial processes. The different types of temperature transducers are resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs), thermocouples and thermistors.
8.7.1 RTDs
RTDs rely on resistance change in a metal, with the resistance rising more or less linearly with
tem erature. he most common R ’s are made of latinum, nickel, or nickel alloys. The
economical nickel derivative wires are used over a limited temperature range. They are quite
non-linear and tend to drift with time. For measurement integrity, platinum is the obvious choice.
A typical RTD consists of a fine platinum wire wrapped around a mandrel and covered with a
protective coating (also abbreviated PRTD). It is the most stable temperature transducer.
In the newest construction technique, a platinum or metal-glass slurry film is deposited or
screened onto a small flat ceramic substrate, etched with a laser-trimming system, and sealed to
form the film RTD. It offers substantial reduction in assembly time and has the further advantage
of increased resistance for a given size. Due to the manufacturing technology, the device size
itself is small, which means it can res ond uickly to ste changes in tem erature. ilm R ’s
are less stable than their wire-wound counterparts, but they are more popular because of their
advantages in size, production cost and ruggedness [4].
8.7.2 Thermocouples
One of the most commonly used devices for measuring temperature in science and industry is the
thermocouple. It is has a junction between two dissimilar metals or semiconductors that
generates a small voltage typically in the millivolt range, with a coefficient of about 5 μV/ C
[1].
Fig. 8.11 shows a typical thermocouple circuit for temperature measurement
Iron
Reference
junction
Constantan

+ Iron
Millivolt Sensing
meter junction
_
Constantan

Fig. 8.11 A thermocouple circuit [1]

It consists of two junctions, namely the reference junction and the sensing junction each made by
welding two dissimilar metals together and maintained at different temperatures. Usually, the
reference junction is maintained at a fixed temperature and the output voltage is dependent on
the temperature of the sensing junction. Considering that the output is in millivolt range,
amplification is required for calibration measurement [1].
If the sensing junction of the thermocouple is kept at a temperature of C and that of the
reference junction is C, then the emf of the thermocouple is approximately given as
– – [1]
where and are the thermocouple constants.
hermocou les are made from a number of different metals or metal alloys covering a wide
range of tem eratures from as low as - 7 C (-418 ) to as high as 7 C (~5 F). The
copper-constantan thermocouple can be used for the tem erature measurement over a range of -
184 to 4 C and the chromel-constantan thermocou le junction can be used for the tem erature
measurement over a range of to 8 C [1].

Example 1:
A copper-constantan thermocouple has and
. If =1 C and the cold junction is kept in ice, compute the resultant emf.
Solution: – –

8.7.3 Thermistors
A thermistor is a semiconductor device having negative temperature coefficient of resistance. It
is also known as a temperature-sensitive resistor whose resistivity strongly depends on
temperature. When a current passes through a thermistor, it becomes heated and the ionization of
the semiconductor is enhanced, thereby lowering the resistivity [2]. Materials used in the
manufacture of thermistors include oxides of cobalt, nickel, copper, iron and manganese. The
resistance at a temperature T can be theoretically estimated from the equation

where is = thermistor resistance at temperature T (K)

= thermistor resistance at temperature (K)
β = a constant determined by calibration
AT high temperatures, the equation reduces to

8.8 ELECTRICAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

Pressure measurement is a very common requirement for most industrial process control systems
and many different types of pressure-detecting and pressure-measurement systems are available
[3]. Pressure-detecting systems can be joined to an electrical device to form a pressure transduc-
er. Transducers can produce a change in resistance, inductance, or capacitance [5]. Pressure-
detecting systems are of two types [5]:

i) Bellows –type detectors and ii) Bourdon-type detectors

In a bellows-type detector, system pressure is applied to the internal volume of a bellows and
mechanical linkage assembly. As pressure changes, the bellows and linkage assembly move to
cause an electrical signal to be produced or to cause a gauge pointer to move (Fig. 8.12). The
need for a pressure sensing element that was extremely sensitive to low pressures and provided
power for activating recording and indicating mechanisms resulted in the development of the
metallic bellows pressure sensing element.

Input Pressure

Fig. 8.12 Basic Metallic Bellows

In a bourdon tube-type detector, system pressure is applied to the inside of a slightly flattened
arc-shaped tube. As pressure increases, the tube tends to restore to its original round cross-
section. This change in cross-section causes the tube to straighten. - Since the tube is permanent-
ly fastened at one end, the tip of the tube traces a curve that is the result of the change in angular
position with respect to the center. The tip movement can then be used to position a pointer or to
develop an electrical signal.

8.8.1 Resistance-type transducers

Included in this category of transducers are strain gauges and moving contacts (slidewire varia-
ble resistors). Fig. 8.13 illustrates a simple strain gauge. A strain gauge measures the external
force (pressure) applied to a fine wire. The fine wire is usually arranged in the form of a grid.
The pressure change causes a resistance change due to the distortion of the wire. The value of the
pressure can be found by measuring the change in resistance of the wire grid. The pressure to
resistance relationship is given by:

[5]

where

R = resistance of the wire grid in ohms

K = resistivity constant for the particular type of wire grid
L = length of wire grid
A = cross sectional area of wire grid [5]

Force Force

Grid
wire

Lead
wires Flexible
blocking

Fig. 8.13 Strain gauge [5]

As the wire grid is distorted by elastic deformation, its length is increased, and its cross-sectional
area decreases. These changes cause an increase in the resistance of the wire of the strain gauge.
This change in resistance is used as the variable resistance in a bridge circuit that provides an
electrical signal for indication of pressure. Fig. 8.14 illustrates a strain gauge pressure transducer.

Strain gauge
Flexible beam

Temperature
compensating gauge

Bellows

Pressure

Fig. 8.14 Strain gauge pressure transducer [5]

An increase in pressure at the inlet of the bellows causes the bellows to expand. The expansion
of the bellows moves a flexible beam to which a strain gauge has been attached. The movement
of the beam causes the resistance of the strain gauge to change. The temperature compensating
gauge compensates for the heat produced by current flowing through the fine wire of the strain
gauge.

Other resistance-type transducers combine a bellows or a bourdon tube with a variable resistor,
as shown in Fig. 8.15. As pressure changes, the bellows will either expand or contract. This ex-
pansion and contraction causes the attached slider to move along the slidewire, increasing or de-
creasing the resistance, and thereby indicating an increase or decrease in pressure.

Pressure

Bellows

Slidewire
Slider

Spring
Lead wires

Fig. 8.15 Bellows resistance transducer [5]

8.8.2 Inductance-type Transducers

The inductance-type transducer consists of three parts: a coil, a movable magnetic core, and a
pressure sensing element. The element is attached to the core, and, as pressure varies, the ele-
ment causes the core to move inside the coil. An AC voltage is applied to the coil, and, as the
core moves, the inductance of the coil changes. The current through the coil will increase as the
inductance decreases. For increased sensitivity, the coil can be separated into two coils by utiliz-
ing a center tap, as shown in Fig.8.16. As the core moves within the coils, the inductance of one
coil will increase, while the other will decrease [5].

Non-conductive
tube

AC Coils

AC

Centre tap
Movable
iron core

Fig. 8.16 Inductance-type Pressure Transducer Coil [5]

8.8.3 Capacitive-Type Transducers

Capacitive-type transducers, illustrated in Fig. 8.17, consist of two flexible conductive plates and
a dielectric. In this case, the dielectric is the fluid. As pressure increases, the flexible conductive
plates will move farther apart, changing the capacitance of the transducer. This change in capaci-
tance is measurable and is proportional to the change in pressure [5].
Fluid pressure

Flexible
plate C1 Flexible
plate C2
 Fig. 8.17 Capacitive Pressure Transducer [5]

8.9 MEASUREMENT OF SPEED BY ELECTRICAL MEANS

Translational velocity cannot be measured directly and therefore must be calculated indirectly by
other means as set out below [3].

8.9.1 Differentiation of displacement measurements

Differentiation of position measurements obtained from any of the translational displacement
transducers described in section 8.6 can be used to produce a translational velocity signal.
Unfortunately, the process of differentiation always amplifies noise in a measurement system.
Therefore, if this method has to be used a low-noise instrument such as a d.c. excited carbon film
potentiometer or laser interferometer should be chosen. In the case of potentiometers, a.c.
excitation must be avoided because of the problem that harmonics in the power supply would
cause [3].
8.9.2 Integration of the output of an accelerometer
Where an accelerometer is already included within a system, integration of its output can be
performed to yield a velocity signal. The process of integration attenuates rather than amplifies
measurement noise and this is therefore an acceptable technique [3].
8.9.3. Conversion to rotational velocity
Conversion from translational to rotational velocity is the final measurement technique open to
the system designer and is the one most commonly used. This enables any of the rotational
velocity measuring instruments such as tachometers, mechanical flyballs, gyroscopes etc to be
applied [3].

EXERCISES
1. What is a transducer? What is its need?
2. Classify the transducers and give examples of each
3. What are the requirements of a transducer?
4. What is gauge factor? What is its significance in strain gauge transducer?
5. Write brief notes on the following temperature transducers i) thermocouples
ii)thermistors
SUMMARY
This unit has successfully dealt with the classes of transducers and the measurement of
resistance and frequency. Displacement, temperature and pressure transducers have also been
discussed. Measurement of speed has also been covered.

SELF-REFLECTION
How does a transducer differ from a sensor?

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

[1] K.M. Kumar, V. agannathan, “Basic lectrical lectronics ngineering”, Vikas Publish-
ing House Pvt Ltd.,1999
[2] . ones, “Basic lectronics for omorrow’s World”, Cambridge University Press, 1
[3] A.S. Morris, Measurement and Instrumentation Principles, Butterworth-Heinemann (A
division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd), 2001.
[4] B. aragozoglu, “ lectrical ngineering echnologies Notes”, Un ublished
[5] Instrumentation and Control Notes, Module 2, Pressure detectors, Unpublished
 UNIT 9: POWER SUPPLIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Most electronic equipment needs direct current (dc) to work. Batteries produce dc, but there is a
limit to how much energy and how much voltage a battery can provide. The same is true of solar
panels. The energy from a wall outlet is practically unlimited, but it must be converted from ac to
dc, and tailored to just the right voltage, to be suitable for electronic equipment.

9.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVE

At the end of this unit, you should be able to discuss the different parts of a dc power supply and
their functionalities

9.3 PARTS OF A POWER SUPPLY

A power supply provides the proper voltage and current for electronic apparatus. Most
power supplies consist of several stages, always in the same order as shown in Fig. 9.1

Transformer Rectifier Filter Regulator

ac input dc output

Fig 9.1 Block diagram of a power supply [1]

First, the ac encounters a transformer that steps the voltage either down or up, depending on the
exact needs of the electronic circuits.

Second, the ac is rectified, so that it becomes pulsating dc with a frequency. This is almost al-
ways done by one or more semiconductor diodes.

Third, the pulsating dc is filtered, or smoothed out, so that it becomes a continuous voltage hav-
ing either positive or negative polarity with respect to ground.

Finally, the dc voltage might need to be regulated. Some equipment insist on just the right
amount of voltage all the time. Other devices can put up with some voltage changes so regulation
is not required.

Power supplies that provide more than a few volts must have features that protect the user from
receiving a dangerous electrical shock. All power supplies need fuses and/or circuit -breakers to
minimize the fire hazard in case the equipment shorts out [1].

9.3.1 The power transformer

Power transformers can be categorized as step-down or step-up. The output or secondary voltage
of a step-down unit is lower than the input, or primary voltage. The reverse is true for a step-up
transformer.
Step-down
Most solid-state electronic devices, such as radios, need only a few volts. The power supplies for
such equipment use step-down power transformers. The physical size of the transformer depends
on the current. Some devices need only a small current and a low voltage. The transformer in a
radio receiver, for example, can be quite small physically. A hi-fi amplifier needs much more
current. This means that the secondary winding of the transformer must be of heavy-gauge wire,
and the core must be bulky to contain the magnetic flux. Such a transformer is massive [1].
Step-up
Some circuits need high voltage. The picture tube in a TV set needs several hundred volts. Some
radio power amplifiers use vacuum tubes working at kilovolts dc. The transformers in these ap-
pliances are step-up types. They are moderate to large in size because of the number of turns in
the secondary, and also because high voltages can spark, or arc, between wire turns if the wind-
ings are too tight. If a step-up transformer needs to supply only a small amount of current, it need
not be big. But for some radio transmitters and radio/TV broadcast amplifiers, the transformers
are large and heavy - and expensive [1].
Transformer ratings
Transformers are rated according to output voltage and current. For a given unit, the volt-ampere
(VA) capacity is often specified. This is the product of the voltage and current. A transformer
with a 12V output, capable of delivering 10 A, would have

of capacity. The nature of power-supply filtering, to be discussed a bit later makes it necessary
for the power-transformer VA rating to be greater than just the wattage needed by the load. A
high-quality, rugged power transformer, capable of providing the necessary currents and/or volt-
ages, is crucial in any power supply. The transformer is usually the most expensive component to
replace. When designing a power supply, it is wise to spend a little extra to get a reliable trans-
former [1].

9.3.2 The Diode

Rectifier diodes are available in various sizes, intended for different purposes. Most rectifier di-
odes are made of silicon and are therefore known as silicon rectifiers. A few are fabricated from
selenium, and are called selenium rectifiers.
Two important features of a power-supply diode are the average forward current (Io) rating and
the peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating. There are other specifications that engineers need to know
when designing a specialized power supply, but in this course, we only need to be concerned
about Io and PIV.
Average forward current
Electric current produces heat. If the current through a diode is too great, the heat will destroy
the P-N junction. Generally speaking, when designing a power supply, it is wise to use diodes
with an Io rating of at least 1.5 times the expected average dc forward current. If this current is
4.0 A, the rectifier diodes should be rated at Io = 6.0 A or more. Of course, it would be wasteful
of money to use a 100-A diode in a circuit where the average forward current is 4.0 A. While it
would work, it would be under-utilising the diode.
Note that Io flows through the diodes. The current drawn by the load is often quite different from
this. Also, note that Io is an average figure. The instantaneous forward current is another thing,
and can be 15 or even 20 times Io, depending on the nature of the power-supply filtering circuit-
ry. Some diodes have heat-sinks to help carry heat away from the P-N junction. Diodes can be
connected in parallel to increase the current rating. When this is done, small-value resistors are
placed in series with each diode in the set to equalize the current burden among the diodes
(Fig.9.2). Each resistor should have a voltage drop of about 1 V.

Fig 9.2 Diodes connected in parallel with resistors to help equalize the current load [1]

Peak inverse voltage

The PIV rating of a diode is the instantaneous inverse, or reverse-bias, voltage that it can with-
stand without avalanche taking place. A good power supply has diodes whose PIV ratings are
significantly greater than the peak voltage of the ac at the input.
If the PIV rating is not great enough, the diode or diodes in a supply will conduct for part of the
reverse cycle. This will degrade the efficiency of the supply; the reverse current will oppose the
forward current. Diodes can be connected in series to get a higher PIV capacity than a single di-
ode alone. This scheme is sometimes seen in high-voltage supplies. High-value resistors, of
about 5 Ω for each peak-inverse volt, are placed across each diode in the set to distribute the
reverse bias equally among the diodes (Fig. 9.3). Also, each diode is shunted by a capacitor of
0.005 μF or 0.1 μ [1].
 Fig 9.3 Diodes in series should be shunted by resistors and capacitors

9.3.3 The half-wave rectifier

The simplest rectifier circuit uses just one diode (or a series or parallel combination) to “chop
off” half of the ac input cycle. The circuit was discussed in Unit 4. In a half-wave circuit, the
average output voltage is approximately 45 percent of the rms ac input voltage. But the PIV
across the diode can be as much as 2.8 times the rms ac input voltage. It is a good idea to use di-
odes whose PIV ratings are at least 1.5 times the maximum expected PIV; therefore, with a half-
wave supply, the diodes should be rated for at least 4.2 times the rms ac input voltage.
Half-wave rectification has some shortcomings:
1. The output is hard to smoothen out, because the waveform is so irregular.
2. The voltage output tends to drop when the supply is connected to a load. (This can be
overcome to some extent by means of a good voltage regulator.
3. It puts a disproportionate strain on the power transformer and the diodes.
Half-wave rectification is useful in supplies that do not have to deliver much current, or that do
not need to be especially well regulated. The main advantage of using a half-wave circuit in the-
se situations is that it costs a little less than full-wave or bridge circuits.

Fig. 9.4 Wave diagram of a half-wave rectifier circuit [1]

The full-wave, center-tap rectifier

A much better scheme for changing ac to dc is to use both halves of the ac cycle. Suppose you
want to convert an ac wave to dc with positive polarity. Then you can allow the positive half of
the ac cycle to pass unchanged, and flip the negative portion of the wave upside-down, making it
positive instead. This is the principle behind full-wave rectification.
One common full-wave circuit uses a transformer with a center-tapped secondary, (as shown in
Fig. 4.8 in Unit 4). The center tap, a wire coming out of the exact middle of the secondary wind-
ing, is connected to common ground. This produces out-of-phase waves at the ends of the wind-
ing. These two waves can be individually half-wave rectified, cutting off the negative half of the
cycle. Because the waves are 180 degrees (half a cycle) out of phase, the output of the circuit has
positive pulses for both halves of the cycle (Fig. 9.5)

Fig 9.5 Wave diagram of a full-wave rectifier [1]

In this rectifier circuit, the average dc output voltage is about 90 percent of the rms ac input volt-
age. The PIV across the diodes can be as much as 2.8 times the rms input voltage. Therefore, the
diodes should have a PIV rating of at least 4.2 times the rms ac input.
Compare Fig. 9.5 with Fig. 9.4 Can you see that the waveform of the full-wave rectifier ought to
be easier to smooth out? In addition to this advantage, the full-wave, center-tap rectifier is kinder
to the transformer and diodes than a half-wave circuit. Furthermore, if a load is applied to the
output of the full-wave circuit, the voltage will drop much less than it would with a half-wave
supply, because the output has more “substance.”
The bridge rectifier
Another way to get full-wave rectification is the bridge rectifier. It is diagrammed in Fig. 4.10 in
Unit 4. The output waveform is just like that of the full-wave, center-tap circuit. The average dc
output voltage in the bridge circuit is 90 percent of the rms ac input voltage, just as is the case
with center-tap rectification. The PIV across the diodes is 1.4 times the rms ac input voltage.
Therefore, each diode needs to have a PIV rating of at least 2.1 times the rms ac input voltage.
The bridge circuit does not need a center-tapped transformer secondary. This is its main practical
advantage. Electrically, the bridge circuit uses the entire secondary on both halves of the wave
cycle; the center-tap circuit uses one side of the secondary for one half of the cycle, and the other
side for the other half of the cycle. For this reason, the bridge circuit makes more efficient use of
the transformer. The main disadvantage of the bridge circuit is that it needs four diodes rather
than two. This does not always amount to much in terms of cost, but it can be important when a
power supply must deliver a high current. Then, the extra diodes - two for each half of the cycle,
rather than one—dissipate more overall heat energy. When current is used up as heat, it cannot go
to the load. Therefore, center-tap circuits are preferable in high-current applications [1].

9.3.4 The voltage multiplier

By using diodes and capacitors connected in certain ways, a power supply can be made to deliver
a multiple of the peak ac input voltage. Theoretically, large whole-number multiples are possible,
but it is not so common to see power supplies that make use of multiplication factors larger than
2.
In practice, voltage multipliers are practical only when the load draws low current. For a good
high-voltage power supply, the best approach is to use a step-up transformer, not a voltage mul-
tiplier.
A voltage-doubler circuit is shown in Fig. 9.6 This circuit works on the whole ac input wave cy-
cle, and is therefore called a full-wave voltage doubler. Its dc output voltage, when the current
drawn is low, is about twice the peak ac input voltage, or about 2.8 times the rms ac input volt-
age.

+
Out
In
+ _
_

+
_

Fig. 9.6 A full-wave voltage doubler [1]

Notice the capacitors in this circuit. The operation of any voltage multiplier is dependent on the
ability of these capacitors to hold a charge, even when a load is connected to the output of the
supply. Thus, the capacitors must have large values. If the intent is to get a high dc voltage from
the supply, massive capacitors will be necessary. Also, notice the resistors in series with the di-
odes. These have low values, similar to those needed when diodes are connected in parallel.
When the supply is switched on, the capacitors draw a huge initial charging current. Without the
resistors, it would be necessary to use diodes with astronomical Io ratings. Otherwise the surge
current would burn them out.
This circuit subjects the diodes to a PIV of 2.8 times the rms ac input voltage. Therefore, they
should be rated for PIV of at least 4.2 times the rms ac input voltage. In this circuit, each capaci-
tor charges to the peak ac input voltage when there is no load (the output current is zero). As the
load draws current, the capacitors will have trouble staying charged to the peak ac input voltage.
This is not much of a problem as long as the load is light, that is, if the current is low. But, for
heavy loads, the output voltage will drop, and it will not be smooth dc.
The major difference between the voltage doubler and the supplies discussed previously, besides
the increased output voltage, is the fact that the dc output is filtered.
The capacitors serve two purposes: to boost the voltage and to filter the output. Additional filter-
ing might be wanted to smooth out the dc still more, but the circuit of Fig.9.6 is a complete, if
crude, power supply all by itself

9.3.5 The filter

Electronic equipment does not like the pulsating dc that comes straight from a rectifier. The rip-
ple in the waveform must be smoothed out, so that pure, battery-like dc is supplied. The filter
does this.
Capacitors alone
The simplest filter is one or more large-value capacitors, connected in parallel with the rectifier
output as shown in Fig. 9.7. Electrolytic capacitors are almost always used. They are polarized;
they must be hooked up in the right direction. Typical values range in the hundreds or thousands
of microfarads.

+
+ Out
C
_
_

Fig. 9.7 A simple filter. The capacitor, C, should have a large capacitance [1]

The more current drawn, the more capacitance is needed for good filtering. This is because the
load resistance decreases as the current increases. The lower the load resistance, the faster the
filter capacitors will discharge. Larger capacitances hold charge for a longer time with a given
load.
Filter capacitors work by “trying” to keep the dc voltage at its peak level (Fig. 9.8). This is
easier to do with the output of a full-wave rectifier shown in a) as compared with a half-wave
circuit in b).
Slight ripple

(a)

More severe ripple

(b)

Fig. 9.8 Filtered output for a) full-wave rectification and b) half-wave rectification [1]
The remaining waveform bumps are the ripple. With a half-wave rectifier, this ripple has the
same frequency as the ac, and with a full-wave supply, the ripple is twice. The capacitor gets re-
charged twice as often with a full-wave rectifier, as compared with a half-wave rectifier. This is
why the ripple is less severe, for a given capacitance, with full-wave circuits.
Capacitors and chokes
Another way to smooth out the dc from a rectifier is to use an extremely large inductance in se-
ries with the output. This is always done in conjunction with parallel capacitance. The induct-
ance, called a filter choke, is on the order of several henrys. If the coil must carry a lot of current,
it will be physically bulky. Sometimes the capacitor is placed ahead of the choke. This circuit is
a capacitor-input filter (Fig. 9.9a). If the coil comes ahead of the capacitor, the circuit is a choke-
input filter (Fig. 9.9b).

+ + + +
From + From +
filter -_ Out _ Out
filter
_ _ _ _

(a) (b)

Fig. 9.9 a) Capacitor-input and b) choke-input filtering [1]

Engineers might use capacitor-input filtering when the load is not expected to be very great. The
output voltage is higher with a capacitor-input circuit than with a choke-input circuit. If the sup-
ply needs to deliver large or variable amounts of current, a choke-input filter is a better choice,
because the output voltage is more stable.
If a supply must have a minimum of ripple, two or three capacitor/choke pairs might be cascad-
ed, or connected one after the other as shown in Fig. 9.10. Each pair is called a section. Multi-
section filters can consist of either capacitor-input or choke-input sections, but the two types are
never mixed.

+ + +
From + +
_ _ Out
filter
_ _

Fig. 9.10 Two choke-input filter sections in cascade [1]

9.3.5 Voltage regulation
A full-wave rectifier, followed by a choke-input filter, offers fairly stable voltage under varying
load conditions. But voltage regulator circuitry is needed for electronic devices that are particu-
lar about the voltage they get.
Zener diodes
You learned about Zener diodes in the last chapter. If a reverse-biased Zener diode is connected
across the output of a power supply, as shown back in Fig. 9.11, the diode will limit the output
voltage of the supply by “brute force” as long as it has a high enough power rating.
+

In Out

Fig. 9.11 Connection of Zener diode for voltage regulation [1]

Zener/transistor regulation
A Zener-diode voltage regulator is not very efficient if the load is heavy. When a supply must
deliver high current, a power transistor is used along with the Zener diode to obtain regulation
(Fig. 9.12). This greatly reduces the strain on the Zener diode, so that a lower-power (and there-
fore less costly) diode can be used.

+ +
From filter Out
_ _

Fig. 9.12 Voltage regulator circuit using a Zener diode and a power transistor
Integrated circuits
In recent years, voltage regulators have become available in integrated-circuit (IC) form. You
just connect the IC, perhaps along with some external components, at the output of the filter.
This method provides the best possible regulation at low and moderate voltages. Even if the out-
put current changes from zero to maximum, the output voltage stays exactly the same, for all
practical purposes.
Regulator tubes
Occasionally, you’ll find a ower su ly that uses a gas-filled tube, rather than solid-state com-
ponents, to obtain regulation. The tube acts something like a very-high-power Zener diode. The
voltage drop across a gaseous tube, designed for voltage regulation, is nearly constant. Tubes are
available for regulation at moderately high voltages.

9.4 Surge current

At the instant a power supply is switched on, a sudden current surge occurs, even with no load at
the output. This is because the filter capacitor(s) need an initial charge, and they draw a lot of
current for a short time. The surge current is far greater than the operating current. This can de-
stroy the rectifier diodes. The phenomenon is worst in high-voltage supplies and voltage-
multiplier circuits. Diode failure can be prevented in at least four different ways.
The first method uses “brute force.” You can simply use diodes with a current rating of many
times the operating level. The main disadvantage is cost. High-voltage, high-current diodes can
get expensive.
A second method involves connecting several units in parallel wherever a diode is called for in
the circuit. This is actually a variation on the first method. The overall cost might be less. Cur-
rent-equalizing resistors are necessary.
A third scheme for surge protection is to apply the input voltage little by little. A variable trans-
former, called a Variac, is useful for this. You start at zero input and turn a knob to get up to the
full voltage. This can completely get rid of the current surge.
A fourth way to limit the current surge is to use an automatic switching circuit in the transformer
primary. This applies a reduced ac voltage for a second or two, and then switches in the full input
voltage.
Which of these methods is best depends on the overall cost, the operating convenience, and the
decision of the design engineer.

9.5 Transient suppression

The ac on the utility line is a sine wave with a constant rms voltage. But there are spikes known
as transients, lasting microseconds or milliseconds that attain peak values of several hundred or
even several thousand volts.
Transients are caused by sudden changes in the load in a utility circuit. Lightning can also pro-
duce them. Unless they are suppressed, they can destroy the diodes in a power supply. Transients
can also affect the operation of sensitive equipment like personal computers.
The simplest way to get rid of most transients is to place a capacitor of about 0.01μF, rated for
600 V or more, across the transformer as shown in Fig 9.13.

C
ac To rectifier
in

Fig 9.13 A capacitor, C, in parallel with the primary of the transformer, helps suppress tran-
sients

Commercially made transient suppressors are also available. In the event of a thunderstorm lo-
cally, the best way to protect equipment is to unplug it from the wall outlet. This is inconvenient,
of course but it suffices if one has a personal computer, hi-fi set, or other electronic appliances
that are of value.
9.6 Fuses and breakers
A fuse is a piece of soft wire that melts, breaking a circuit if the current exceeds a certain level.
Fuses are placed in series with the transformer primary as shown in Fig 9.14. Any component
failure, short circuit, or overload that might cause catastrophic damage (or fire) will burn the fuse
out. Fuses are easy to replace, although it is aggravating if a fuse blows and there is no replace-
ment on hand.

ac To rectifier
in

Fig 9.14 A fuse, F, in series with the ac input protects the transformer and diode, in case of over-
load

If a fuse blows, it must be replaced with another of the same rating. If the replacement fuse is
rated too low in current, it will probably blow out right away, or soon after it has been installed.
If the replacement fuse is rated too high in current, it might not protect the equipment.
Fuses are available in two types: quick-break and slow-blow. You can usually recognise a slow-
blow fuse by the spring inside. A quick-break fuse has only a wire or foil strip. When replacing a
fuse, use the right kind. Quick-break fuses in slow-blow situations might burn out needlessly;
slow-blow units in quick-break environments will not provide the proper protection.
Circuit breakers do the same thing as fuses, except that a breaker can be reset by turning off the
power supply, waiting a moment, and then pressing a button or flipping a switch. Some breakers
reset automatically when the equipment has been shut off for a certain length of time.
If a fuse or breaker keeps blowing out often, or if it blows immediately after it has been replaced
or reset it, then something is wrong with the supply or with the equipment connected to it.
9.7 Personal safety
Power supplies can be dangerous. This is especially true of high-voltage circuits, but anything
over 12 V should be treated as potentially lethal. A power supply is not necessarily safe after it
has been switched off. Filter capacitors can hold the charge for a long time. In high-voltage sup-
plies of good design, bleeder resistors of a high ohmic value (Fig. 9.15) are connected across
each filter capacitor, so that the capacitors will discharge in a few minutes after the supply is
turned off. But one should not rely on that as sometimes components do fail.

From R To
rectifier regulator

Fig. 9.15 bleeder resistor, R, allows filter capacitors to discharge when a supply is shut off
Most manufacturers supply safety instructions and precautions with equipment carrying hazard-
ous voltages. But it should not be assumed that something is safe just because dangers
are not mentioned in the instructions.
Warning: If there is any doubt about the ability to safely work with a power supply, then it
should be left to a professional.

EXERCISES
1. An advantage of full-wave bridge rectification is:
A. It uses the whole transformer secondary for the entire ac input cycle.
B. It costs less than other rectifier types.
C. It cuts off half of the ac wave cycle.
D. It never needs a regulator.
2. In. a supply designed to provide high power at low voltage, the best rectifier design would
probably be:
A. Half-wave.
B. Full-wave, center-tap.
C. Bridge.
D. Voltage multiplier.
3. The part of a power supply immediately preceding the regulator is:
A. The transformer.
B. The rectifier.
C. The filter.
D. The ac input.
4. Voltage regulation can be accomplished by a Zener diode connected in:
A. Parallel with the filter output, forward-biased.
B. Parallel with the filter output, reverse-biased.
C. Series with the filter output, forward-biased.
D. Series with the filter output, reverse-biased.
5. A current surge takes place when a power supply is first turned on because:
A. The transformer core is suddenly magnetized.
B. The diodes suddenly start to conduct.
C. The filter capacitor(s) must be initially charged.
D. Arcing takes place in the power switch.
6. Transient suppression minimizes the chance of:
A. Diode failure.
B. Transformer failure.
C. Filter capacitor failure.
D. Poor voltage regulation.
7. If a fuse blows, and it is replaced with one having a lower current rating, there is a good
chance that:
 A. The power supply will be severely damaged.
B. The diodes will not rectify.
C. The fuse will blow out right away.
D. Transient suppressors won’t work.
8. A fuse with nothing but a straight wire inside is probably:
A. A slow-blow type.
B. A quick-break type.
C. Of a low current rating.
D. Of a high current rating.
9. Bleeder resistors are:
A. Connected in parallel with filter capacitors.
B. Of low ohmic value.
C. Effective for transient suppression.
D. Effective for surge suppression.
20. To service a power supply with which you are not completely familiar, you should:
A. Install bleeder resistors.
B. Use proper fusing.
C. Leave it alone and have a professional work on it.
D. Use a voltage regulator.

SUMMARY

This unit has discussed parts of a power supply. Fuses, circuit breakers and personal safety have
also been discussed.

SELF-REFLECTION

Design a circuit of a complete power supply. What can be assumed?

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

[1] . Gibilisco, ‘Teach yourself Electricity and Electronics’, 3rd ed, McGraw-Hill, 2002.