Non-Probability Sampling
Alison Galloway
Queen Margaret University College, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Glossary
population The group of people/items/units under
investigation, about which the researcher wishes to draw
conclusions.
probability sample A sample in which each member of the
population has a quantifiable or calculable equal chance of
selection.
sampling frame A list of the names and/or addresses of the
population under investigation; the data should be com-
prehensive and up-to-date.
simple random sample A sample in which each element of
the population is allocated its own number or identifier, and
then random number tables or computer-generated ran-
dom numbers are used to select a sample; often used as
a standard against which other sampling methods are
evaluated.
stratified sample A sample whereby the final selection is
made to represent the same proportion with which the
selected strata (or stratum) occur in the population as
a whole.
stratum/strata Group/groups, often demographic, that are
identifiable within a sampling frame; may be categorized by
age, gender, socioeconomic grouping, income, etc.
systematic sample A form of random sampling whereby,
instead of random numbers being selected, the researcher
moves through the sampling frame, picking every nth
entry.
When undertaking any survey, it is essential to obtain data
from people who are as representative as possible for the
group being studied. Even with the perfect questionnaire
(if such a thing exists), survey data will be regarded as
useful only if it can be demonstrated that the respondents
used are as representative as possible. As with probability
methods, non-probability sampling encompasses a range
of techniques. The choice of method will depend on
Encyclopedia of Social Measurement, Volume 2 Ó2005, Elsevier Inc. All Rights Reserved.
the nature of the research problem, the availability
(or otherwise) of a good sampling frame, money, time,
required level of accuracy in the sample, and data collec-
tion methods. Each form has its advantages, each its
disadvantages.
Introduction
Definition
In a non-probability sample, some members of the pop-
ulation, compared to other members, have a greater but
unknown chance of selection. There are five main types of
non-probability sample: convenience, purposive, quota,
snowball, and self-selection.
Comparison with Probability Samples
The main feature present in a probability sample, but
generally absent in a non-probability sample, is
a sampling frame. Probability samples are possible only
when there is a complete and up-to-date list of the mem-
bers (names and/or addresses) of the population under
investigation. There are, of course, many situations in
which it is not possible to obtain a sampling frame. For
example, when researching football supporters, it is not
feasible to obtain a list of names or addresses of people
who attend games. It should be possible to obtain a list of
people who are official members of the team, but this
is unlikely to comprise all supporters. Similarly, there is
not a sampling frame easily available to researchers of
all the elderly in a population. Non-probability tech-
niques therefore have to be used whenever there is no
readily available and complete list of the population under
investigation.
859
860 Non-Probability Sampling
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Non-Probability Sampling
The most obvious advantage in non-probability samp-
ling is clearly the ability to target particular groups
of the population. Non-probability methods are often
dismissed or criticized because they do not have the sta-
tistical foundations of probability methods. However,
a survey using, for example, random, systematic, or
stratified sampling may adopt methods such as postal
delivery, which characteristically has extremely poor
response rates. It could certainly be argued that as
many valid conclusions can be drawn from a well-
constructed study using non-probability methods, com-
pared with a probability survey to which only 10% of
the sample responded. Researchers would need to be
confident that those 10% were truly representative of
the population as a whole.
Non-probability methods also have the advantage in
typically being less expensive to conduct. Savings, in terms
of both money and time, can be achieved not so much by
the sampling method per se, but rather by the forms of
delivery that are available for these methods. For exam-
ple, face-to-face delivery can be cheaper than postal
approaches, particularly where oversampling has had to
be used to compensate for the typically poor response
rates of a mailed survey.
Convenience Sampling
Definition
Convenience sampling involves using respondents who
are ‘‘convenient’’ to the researcher. There is no pattern
whatsoever in acquiring these respondents—they may
be recruited merely asking people who are present in
the street, in a public building, or in a workplace, for ex-
ample. The concept is often confused with ‘‘random sam-
pling’’ because of the notion that people are being stopped
‘‘at random’’ (in other words, haphazardly). However,
whereas the correct definition of random sampling
(using random numbers to pick potential respondents
or participants from a sampling frame) generally results
in a statistically balanced selection of the population, a
convenience sample has an extremely high degree of bias.
Application
Typically, somebody undertaking a convenience sample
will simply ask friends, relatives, colleagues in the work-
place, or people in the street to take part in their research.
One of the best ways of considering the pitfalls of this
form of sampling is to look at this last approach—stopping
people in the street. On a typical weekday morning in the
shopping area of an average town, the people on the
street at that time are likely to result in an overrepre-
sentation of the views of, for example, the unemployed
and the elderly retired population. There will be a cor-
responding underrepresentation of those working in
traditional ‘‘9-to-5’’ jobs. This can, of course, be
counterbalanced to some extent by careful selection of
different times and days of the week to ensure a slightly
more balanced sample.
Despite the enormous disadvantage of convenience
sampling that stems from an inability to draw statistically
significant conclusions from findings obtained, conve-
nience sampling does still have some uses. For example,
it can be helpful in obtaining a range of attitudes and
opinions and in identifying tentative hypotheses that
can be tested more rigorously in further research.
Nevertheless, it is perhaps the weakest of all of the
non-probability sampling strategies, and it is usually pos-
sible to obtain a more effective sample without a dramatic
increase in effort by adopting one of the other non-
probability methods. The following examples of conve-
nience sampling from published research represent the
wide range of applications in the social sciences and in
business research:
 A convenience sample of 1117 undergraduate stu-
dents in American universities explored associations
between perceptions of unethical consumer behavior
and demographic factors. Instructors on two campuses
were contacted to obtain permission to administer the
surveys during scheduled classes.
 Questionnaires were distributed using convenience
methods in a study of the motives and behaviors of back-
packers in Australia. The 475 surveys were delivered in
cafes and hostels in areas popular with backpackers.
 Differences in bargaining behavior of 100 American
and 100 Chinese respondents were explored using the
Fishbein behavioral intention model.
Purposive Sampling
Definition
Purposive sampling is sometimes also referred to as
a judgment sample. Whereas convenience sampling in-
volves asking people who happen to be convenient to the
researcher (on the street, or using friends and family),
those using a purposive sample will endeavor to direct
their survey at a range of respondents who are ultimately
representative of at least the extremes of variables under
consideration. For example, a researcher using purposive
methods may strive to ensure that older age groups as well
as younger ones are contained within the sample selected.
This can be done as a ‘‘topping-up’’ procedure, whereby
the researcher can start with what is more or less

a convenience sample and may decide that there are in-
sufficient respondents in a particular age category.
Some respondents who will fit into the category are then
deliberately sought. A number of criteria may be pertinent
in accessing a purposive sample. Researchers may, for ex-
ample, wish to obtain a balanced range of socioeconomic
groupings or even incomes, although these are clearly
more difficult variables to predict when looking at potential
respondents on the street or in another public place.
Application
Purposive samples do not have to be undertaken in public
places or even face to face. Potential respondents can be
contacted in a variety of ways and it is perfectly feasible to
use several of these methods to select a range of charac-
teristics. For example, a researcher wishing to contact
a good sample of the elderly to determine any problems
they were experiencing with their housing would want to
ensure that a range of demographic factors could be
encompassed; this can be achieved with a purposive
sample. It would clearly be important to include both
male and female respondents in such a sample. It could
also be considered critical that both the ‘‘young old’’ (the
newly retired) and the ‘‘old old’’ (over 80, say) were in-
cluded. It might also be important to ensure that all hous-
ing tenure forms were encompassed when selecting
respondents. Accessing such a broad range of variables
might require more than one sampling strategy. For ex-
ample, access may be given to age/sex registers of medical
practices, whereby a range of ages of males and females
could be located. Renters could be accessed through hous-
ing associations or similar organizations, and owners could
be located in private housing developments for the elderly.
Social clubs for the elderly could also be used as an access
point, but this would generally lead to those elderly who
might be considered more gregarious.
Another example of the useful application of purposive
sampling would be in a study of healthy eating. If the
researcher were to resort to convenience sampling, re-
spondents might be of a fairly narrow age band and
a limited range of socioeconomic groupings. A purposive
sample would ensure that people falling within a good
range of ages (e.g., from 18 to 80 years) were contacted
and that the group included professionals as well as man-
ual workers. It might even be considered useful to make
sure that the sample included people who take plenty of
exercise (by delivering some surveys in a health club, for
example), as well as those who do not, by contacting social
organizations with a more sedentary focus. The following
examples of purposive sampling have been reported in
research literature:
 A study of nonsmoking parents of adolescents
who smoke. A purposive sample of 25 respondents
Non-Probability Sampling 861
encompassed different ages, levels of education, and gen-
ders, and whether the parents had smoked in the past.
 Research into the effectiveness of drama in primary
schools in the introduction of sensitive concepts such as
child protection and personal safety. Participants who
were recruited into focus group research included
teachers, actors, and health promotion staff.
 A purposive sample of respondents from different
levels of service staff. Persons from senior management,
the supervisory level, and front-line operations were
used in semistructured interviews with local authority
employees to explore the implications and perceived
benefits of achieving the ‘‘Investors in People’’ standard
(a national quality standard of business practices in the
United Kingdom).
Quota Sampling
Definition
There are a number of commonalities between quota and
purposive sampling, but a critical difference lies in the fact
that the former is invariably undertaken by groups of
researchers, whereas the latter can be undertaken by
an individual researcher. Quota sampling tries to replicate
proportions of demographic factors whereas, in purposive
sampling, researchers may be satisfied merely to include
a reasonable range of the variables being examined.
Quota sampling is an extremely common technique
employed by market research companies, particularly
when they are adopting a face-to-face on-street interview-
ing methodology. It is generally used for large-scale sam-
ples of 2000 or more and is a useful alternative to
probability samples, such as a random stratified sampling.
As with a stratified sample, it is necessary to know certain
demographic factors about the sample population (for
example, proportions of males/females, age composition,
or socioeconomic grouping). This information can be ob-
tained easily through census data. The data are used to
calculate quotas for each of the demographic groups that
are considered pertinent to the subject of the research
being undertaken. Each researcher can then be given
a brief that specifies the number of people to interview
with these characteristics. Complex quotas can be devel-
oped to incorporate all of the critical demographic or
other variables.
Application
The main objective in a quota sample is to try to repli-
cate the proportions of particular critical variables in
the population as a whole. Imagine, for example, that
researchers want to undertake a survey in a town with
a population of 64,746 people. They wish to ensure that
their sample is representative with respect to three
862 Non-Probability Sampling

main variables: gender, age, and housing tenure (owner-
occupiers, social renters, and private renters). Using cen-
sus or similar data, they can determine the numbers of
people representing these variables in a particular area
Tables I and II). Researchers would not necessarily be
targeting a particular percentage of the population and
could start instead with a total sample number (e.g., 500 or
1000). For the sake of simplicity, though, imagine that
a 1% sample is the goal. This would mean that, for their
quota sample, the entire group of researchers would have
to find the numbers of people shown in Tables III and IV.
These figures would be divided up among the team un-
dertaking the fieldwork (perhaps based in different parts
of the town). Although gender is usually quite apparent
and an approximation of age can be made by the re-
searcher, as the fieldwork progressed and the different
quotas were met, the researcher would have to establish
housing tenure and confirm age fairly early on in the
interview with a short filtering question. The following
examples of quota sampling have been reported in re-
search literature:
 Research into the perceived efficacy of sales promo-
tions in UK supermarkets. This research used a quota
sample that took account of gender and age. The popu-
lation profile in the United Kingdom was used to ensure
that the study’s sample would reflect the general popula-
tion in these demographic variables.
 The way in which students shop for food. This
demographic was explored in a questionnaire-based
survey. A quota sample ensured that gender as well as
proportional student faculty membership were reflected
in the final choice of respondents.
Snowball Sampling
Definition
Just as a snowball gets bigger when rolled in snow,
a snowball sample increases in size as a small number
of potential respondents suggest the names and/or ad-
dresses of other people who fulfill particular criteria. It
is a particularly useful technique when looking for re-
spondents with unusual interests/faiths/medical condi-
tions and so on. The researcher begins by contacting
two or three people who are thought to fulfill the criteria
being sought and asking them if they know of other people
with the same interest/condition, etc. If each of three
people supplies the names of another three, and those
contacts subsequently supply names of potential respond-
ents, a healthy number of participants soon results.
Application
There are countless situations in which a snowball sample
can be considered an appropriate strategy, particularly
where a criterion for research may be very widely
dispersed and difficult to track down using conventional

Table III Number of Respondents Required for a 1% Sample

Table I Quota Sample of Housing Tenure Data for Malesa of Malesa
Age (years) Owner-occupier Social renter Private renter Age (years) Owner-occupier Social renter Private renter
18 25 2149 788 645 18 25 21 8 6
26 35 2338 857 701 26 35 23 9 7
36 45 4573 1677 1372 36 45 46 17 14
46 55 2869 1254 659 46 55 29 13 7
56 65 2845 1435 2241 56 65 28 14 22
Over 65 1865 1697 1611 Over 65 19 17 16
a a
Number of people in the sample who represented a particular Relative to quota sample data in Table I.
variable.

Table IV Number of Respondents Required for a 1% Sample

Table II Quota Sample of Housing Tenure Data for Femalesa of Femalesa

Age (years) Owner-occupier Social renter Private renter Age (years) Owner-occupier Social renter Private renter
18 25 2053 920 566 18 25 21 9 6
26 35 2247 1007 620 26 35 22 10 6
36 45 4217 1890 1163 36 45 42 19 12
46 55 2859 1282 789 46 55 29 13 8
56 65 4104 1673 1299 56 65 41 17 13
Over 65 3759 1884 838 Over 65 38 19 8
a a
Number of people in the sample who represented a particular variable. Relative to quota sample data in Table II.

approaches. The following examples are again taken from
the literature:
 An exploration of the ethical precepts held by
a sample of Chinese professionals. This study used a snow-
ball sample by asking participants in a management de-
velopment program to complete a questionnaire and to
persuade their peers to do the same.
 A study of factors influencing substance use in 16- to
22-year olds. This study used snowballing techniques to
include students and even a drug seller as their contact
points.
 Two studies of professional women with children
(one focusing on lone mothers). This research drew on
snowball techniques to acquire sufficient numbers of
respondents.
 A cross-cultural study of consumer decision making.
This research used a snowball sample because of the dif-
ficulty in contacting Indian-Tamil wives located in India.
Initial contacts were asked to provide referrals of female
married friends and relatives who would be willing to
participate.
Self-Selection
Definition
A self-selected sample is simply one in which the respond-
ents put themselves forward for participation in a survey
or similar form of research. The possibility of bias in the
sample is extremely high, because those most likely to put
themselves forward are those who have a particular
interest in the subject. Whereas this interest can
be a necessary criterion for some research, there may
be instances when only those respondents who have ex-
tremely positive or extremely negative experiences per-
taining to the study subject volunteer for the study, and
the ‘‘average’’ viewpoint may thus not emerge.
Application
Self-selection can be implemented in a number of ways.
When research is in the form of a survey, questionnaires
can simply be left in a variety of appropriate locations (e.g.,
medical practice waiting rooms and public libraries). This
relies to a high extent on altruism, although incentives such
as a prize drawing can play an important part in increasing
the size of a self-selected sample. Another form of self-
selected sampling involves publicizing through posters or
flyers. Details of projects can be given with a request for
volunteers to contact the researcher by telephone, post, or
email. Finally, self-selection can be incorporated into In-
ternet-based surveys. Emails can be sent to appropriate
distribution lists or newsgroups, although care has to be
taken to avoid doing this in an inappropriate manner
Non-Probability Sampling 863
(‘‘spamming’’). Similarly, Web pages can be used, provided
that they are publicized sufficiently to encourage respond-
ents to participate. The following examples of self-selec-
tion sampling have been reported in research literature:
 Research into international mobility among business
and education professionals. Self-selection sampling was
accomplished by the use of institution-wide emails to all
academic staff in a sample of higher educational institu-
tions in four different countries.
 Major Internet surveys. These surveys have adopted
self-selection as a sampling strategy, the most notable
being that done by the Georgia Institute of Technology’s
Graphics, Visualization, and Usability (GVU), in which
Internet usage is monitored on a regular basis.
Conclusions
Although researchers may feel constrained when the lack
of an available sampling frame rules out the possibility of
a probability sample, there are still a number of options
available in the range of non-probability samples.
Although non-probability samples do not carry the same
weight as probability samples, in statistical terms, they do
still provide the opportunity to draw from a representative
selection of the population. A true random sample with an
extremely low response rate may have no greater chance
of being representative than, for example, a carefully
constructed quota sample. Not all research requires
high degrees of accuracy, and for exploratory research,
in particular, a non-probability sample may be a perfectly
appropriate strategy.
See Also the Following Articles
Population vs. Sample  Randomization  Sample Size 
Snowball Sampling  Stratified Sampling Types
Further Reading
Boys, A., et al. (2002). The relative influence of friends and
functions: Modelling frequency of substance use in a non-
treatment sample of 16 22 year olds. Health Edu. 102(6),
280 288.
Callen, K. S., and Ownbey, S. F. (2003). Associations between
demographics and perceptions of unethical consumer
behaviour. Int. J. Consumer Stud. 27(2), 99 110.
Douglas, A., et al. (1999). The impact of Investors in People on
Scottish Local Government services. J. Workplace Learn.
11(5), 164 169.
Ganesh, G. (1997). Spousal influence in consumer decisions:
a study of cultural assimilation. J. Consumer Market 14(2),
132 155.
Gilbert, D. C., and Jackaria, N. (2002). The efficacy of sales
promotions in UK supermarkets: A consumer view. Int. J.
Retail Distrib. Mgmt. 30(6), 315 322.
864 Non-Probability Sampling
Gill, S., and Davidson, M. J. (2001). Problems and pressures
facing lone mothers in management and professional
occupations—A pilot study. Women Mgmt. Rev. 16(8),
383 399.
Gordon, J. R., et al. (2002). The midlife transition of
professional women with children. Women Mgmt. Rev.
17(7), 328 341.
Lee, D. Y. (2000). Retail bargaining behaviour of American
and Chinese customers. Eur. J. Market 34(1), 190 206.
Mohnsin, A., and Ryan, C. (2003). Backpackers in the
Northern Territory of Australia—Motives, behaviours and
satisfactions. Int. J. Tourism Res. 5, 113 131.
Ness, M., et al. (2002). The student food shopper: Segmenta-
tion on the basis of attitudes to store features and shopping
behaviour. Br. Food J. 104(7), 506 525.
Orme, J., and Salmon, D. (2002). Child protection drama in
primary school—An effective educational approach? Health
Edu. 102(4), 187 196.
Richardson, J., and McKenna, S. (2002). Leaving and
experiencing: Why academics expatriate and how they
experience expatriation. Career Dev. Int. 7(2), 67 78.
Small, S. P., et al. (2002). Struggling to understand: the
experience of non-smoking parents with adolescents who
smoke. Qual. Health Res. 12(9), 1202 1219.
Ward, M. R., and Lee, M. J. (2000). Internet shopping,
consumer search and product branding. J. Product Brand
Mgmt. 9(1), 6 20.
Wright, P. C., et al. (2003). Ethical perceptions in China: The
reality of business ethics in an international context. Mgmt.
Decis. 41(2), 180 189.