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 Elective Paper – Horticulture

UNIT- I : Horticulture-Importance and scope of Horticulture- Classification of horticultural

crops- fruits, vegetable crops, climate, soil, water and nutritional needs of horticultural crops

UNIT- II: Plant propagation methods, cutting, layering, grafting, budding, stock-scion
relationship. Use of plant growth regulators in horticulture.

UNIT- III: Garden designs, types of gardens - formal, informal and kitchen gardens, units of
garden, hedge, border, topiary, arches and lawn maintenance.

UNIT- IV: Floriculture, cultivation of commercial flowers- rose and jasmines. Cultivation of
important fruit trees- Mango and Banana.

UNIT- V: Green house, Indoor gardening - Bonsai- flower arrangements- nursery

Management and maintenance.

Text Books

1. K. Manibushan Rao (1991), Textbook of Horticulture M.C. Millan Publishers

Reference Books:

1. Introduction to Horticulture - N. Kumar (1986), Rajalakshmi Publishers

2. Breeding Asian Fields Crops - J.M. Pochiman& d. Borthakur.
3. Introduction to Cytogenesis and plant breeding - D.D. Srmdaraj&G.Tulasida
Unit- I
Horticulture-Importance and scope of Horticulture- Classification of horticultural crops-
fruits, vegetable crops, climate, soil, water nutritional needs of horticultural crops.

Contents
1.1. Introduction
1.1.1. Definition of horticulture
1.1.2. Importance of horticulture
1.1.3. Scope of horticulture
1.2. Division of horticulture
1.2.1. Classification of horticultural crops
1.2.2. Types of classification
1.2.3. Rules of classification
1.3. Classification based on fruits
1.4. Vegetable crops
1.5. Climate
1.6. Soil
1.7. Water
1.1. Introduction
The term “Horticulture” first appeared in written language in the seventeenth century.
The word horticulture is derived from the latin words ”hortus” means garden and “cultura”
means to cultivate. Horticulture means garden cultivation. Thus, Horticulture is a part of plant
agriculture which is concerned with cultivation of “garden crops”. Garden crops traditionally
include fruits, vegetables and all the plants grown for ornamental purposes as well as spices,
plantation, medicinal and aromatic purposes. The cultivation of garden plant is in contrast to
the cultivation of field crops which is practiced in an extensive manner. Horticulture relies on
growing and manipulating plants in a relatively intensive manner.

The horticultural crops require very intense care in planting, carrying out cultural
operation, manipulating growth, harvesting, packing, marketing, storage and processing.
Many horticultural products are highly perishable, their water content is essential to their
quality and hence mostly utilized in living stage. In contrast, the products of field crop and
forestry are often utilized in non-living state and are usually high in dry matter.

1.1.1. Definition of Horticulture

Horticulture can be very broadly defined as the science with deals with the production
utilization and improvement of (fruits, vegetables, ornamental plant spices and condiments,
medicinal and aromatics, plantation crops) as well as gardening, protective cultivation and
value addition.

Horticulture as a science
Over and above agriculture it involves the application of physics, chemistry and other
fundamentals sciences and plant sciences viz. biochemistry, plant physiology, botany,
genetics and plant breeding etc.

Horticulture as an art
Artistic application of technical knowledge gained e.g. raising flowering plants in
small pot, budding roses with varied colours, pruning trees for shapes, designing gardens,
growing flowers of matching colours and according to the seasons etc.

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1.1.2. Importance of horticulture
• Fruits and vegetables play an important role in the balance diet of human being by
providing vital protective nutrients.
• They not only adorn the table but also enrich health from the most nutritive menu and
tone up the energy and vigour of man.
• Fruits and vegetables have a key role in neutralizing the acid produced during
digestion of protein rich and fatty foods.
• They provide valuable roughages which promote digestion and helps in preventing
constipation.
• From unit are of land more income is obtained by growing fruits and vegetables
crops.
• From energy point of view the fruit crops give very high amount of calories per acre
e.g. wheat 1034880 calories/acre and banana 15252800 calories/acre.
• Horticulture is mother of several industries like canning, essential oil, dehydration,
refrigeration, wine, cashew nut, transport etc. which provide work for many people.
Farmers and labours can keep themselves engaged busy throughout year.
• Growing of horticultural crops is an art as well as science which help in mental
development of farmers.
• The fruits and vegetables are chief source of vitamins and minerals which help in
proper health and resistant to disease.
• The flowers, ornamental plants and gardens play a very important role in refreshing
the minds of people and reducing air pollution.
• The growing of horticultural crops also contributes to the aesthetic side of rural and
home life of community.
• Generate employment opportunities and wide source of medicine.
• Effective utilization of wasteland through hardy fruits and medicinal plants.

1.1.3. Scope of Horticulture

• India has great variety of climate and edaphic conditions which can be exploited by
growing horticultural crops.
• Climates are varying from tropical, subtropical and temperate regions. From this
humid, semi-arid, arid and varying temperature trees are also grown.

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 • Likewise soils like loamy, alluvial, laterite, medium black, rocky shallow heavy black
sandy etc are also available. From this, large crop areas can be grown with very high
level of adaptability.
• To meet the requirements in terms of vitamins and minerals, minimum of 85 g of
fruits and 200 g of vegetables per head per day with population of above 1000 million
people, fruit and vegetables are to be grown on large scale.
• For providing raw material to small scale industries like silkworm, lack, honey,
match, paper, canning, and dehydration etc. horticulture has wide scope.
• In India larger area of lands are waste land, problematic soil, desert land which can be
utilized for hardy fruits and medicinal plants.
• The fast development of communication and transport system create wide scope for
horticulture development particularly in transporting the perishable commodities and
products.
Thus horticulture has great scope for the following reasons:
• To exploit great variability of agro-climatic conditions.
• To meet the need for fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices beverages in relation to
population growth and nutritional requirement.
• To meet the requirement of processing industries.
• For increasing export and import of horticultural products.
• To improve economical condition of the farmers.
• To generate employment opportunity for labour and human being.
• To protect environment.

1.2. Division of Horticulture

1. Pomology: The term Pomology is derived from the Latin word ‘pomum’ meaning
‘fruits’ and the Greek term ‘logy’ meaning Science. Thus, pomology is the science of
production of fruit crops. OR The science of growing fruit crops.
a) Tree fruits: Fruits are produced on tree e.g. Mango, Chiku, Citrus etc.
b) Small fruits: Fruits are produced on shrubs or vines e.g. Phalsa, Raspberry,
Mulberry, Grapes, Gooseberry, Strawberry
2. Olericulture: The term Olericulture is originated from Latin word ‘oleris’ meaning
pot herb and the English word culture meaning raising of plants. Thus, olericulture is

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 the science of vegetable crops. OR The cultivation of vegetable crops. e.g. brinjal,
tomato, potato, radish, carrot, chilli, bottle gourd.
3. Floriculture: It is a science of cultivation of flowers and ornamental plants for
commercial purposes or merely for getting pleasure and as a hobby.
4. Landscape gardening: It is a science of designing and laying out home gardens,
public gardens, parks, road side plantation, avenues etc.
5. Preservation of fruit and vegetables: It is a science of canning of fruits and
vegetables. e.g. fruit juice, jam, marmalade, candy, dehydration etc.
6. Silviculture: Cultivation and management of forest tree e.g. teak wood, neem, ficus,
eucalyptus etc.
7. Plantation crops: Cultivation of tea, coffee, coconut, arecanut, rubber, oil palm etc.
8. Spices and condiments: Cultivation of crops which products are used as adjunct in
food for flavor, aroma and taste. e.g cardamom, clove, nutmeg, coriander, cumin etc.
9. Aromatic and medicinal plants: cultivation of aromatic and medicinal plants like
gugal, aonla, beheda, harde, lucorice, lemon grass etc.
10. Sericulture: Deals with rearing of silkworm and production of silk.
11. Apiculture: Bee keeping rearing for honey production.
12. Mushroom production: Production of different edible species of mushroom
like Agaricusbisporus (button), pleurotus sp. (oyster), Calocybeindica (Milky),
Volvariellavolvacea (paddy straw).

1.2.1. CLASSIFICATION OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Why classifying horticultural plants?
1. There are many horticultural plants in the world. A lot of knowledge has been
gathered on the plants. Classification makes summarization of information on the
plants possible hence serves time in information sharing.
2. It is a means of identification and communication on horticultural plants
3. It facilitates prediction

1.2.2. TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

a) There are two types of classification, which are natural and artificial.
b) Scientific plant classification falls under natural classification

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Natural Classification
• Classifies objects together on the basis of the sum total of all their characters (features
which exist in the group of objects in two or more distinguishable different states e.g.
hair colour, eye colour in human)
• It puts together those that are more alike in most respects

Artificial Classification
• Classifies objects together on the basis of only one or a very few specially selected
characters and ignores all the characters that the objects might have.
• It does not take into account the natural relations of plants.
• However, it is useful in horticulture. Plants can be classified on the basis of their
ability to withstand drought e.g. drought tolerant, drought prone etc., which is useful
information for crop husbandry.

SCIENTIFIC AND BOTANICAL (NATURAL) CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

HORTICULTURAL CROPS
i. Scientific systems of classification go beyond the superficial or natural system by
employing a number of criteria that include morphological, anatomical, ultrastructural
physiological, phytochemical, cytological and evolutionary (phylogenetical) criteria.
ii. Individual members are assigned to a descending series of related plants based on
their known common characteristics.
iii. The binomial nomenclature was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus, which used 2 Latin
names for naming a plant, which are the genus and the specific epiphet.
iv. Taxonomic hierarchy:

1. KINGDOM
2. DIVISION/PHYLUM
3. CLASS
4. ORDER
5. FAMILY
6. GENUS
7. SPECIES
8. FORM/VARIETY

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 9. CULTIVAR1. KINGDOM
10. DIVISION/PHYLUM
11. CLASS
12. ORDER
13. FAMILY
14. GENUS
15. SPECIES
16. FORM/VARIETY
17. CULTIVAR

1.2.3. Rules of classification

• The binary name should be underlined or written in italics (to indicate that they are
non-English names)
• Genus starts with a capital letter and the species is written in lowercase throughout.
The term species is both singular and plural. It can be shortened as spp. for plural
“species”.

OPERATIONAL (ARTIFICIAL) CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

1. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SEASONAL GROWTH CYCLE
• Plants can be classified into three general groups based on growth cycle.
• These are: annuals, biennials, perennials (evergreen, deciduous) and mononcarp.

ANNUAL: The plant lives through only one growing season, completing its life cycle (seed,
flowering, fruiting and death). Examples are tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)sugarbeans
(Phaseolus vulgaris).

PERENNIAL: These are herbaceous or woody plants that persist year-round through
unfavourable conditions (winter or drought) and then flower and fruit after a variable number
of years of vegetative growth. Perennials survive harsh conditions as dormant underground
organs. Examples are irises (Iris spp.) & fruit trees.

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BIENNIAL: These are plants that complete a life cycle in two growing seasons. The first
season is for vegetative growth and the second season the plant produces a stem and flowers.
Examples are onions (Allium cepa).

2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE KINDS OF STEMS

• Herbs: plants with soft non-woody stems. They have primary vegetative parts.
Examples include Zea mays
• Shrubs: A shrub has no main trunk. It is woody and has secondary tissue. Shrubs are
perennial and usually smaller than the trees. Examples are azalea (Rhododendron
spp.), Bougainvillea
• Trees: Trees are large plants characterised by one main trunk. They branch on the
upper part of the plant are woody and have secondary tissue.

3. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON COMMON STEM GROWTH FORMS

• Erect: A stem is erect if it can stand upright (at an angle 900 to ground level) without
artificial support.
• Decumbent: The stems of decumbent plants are extremely inclined with the tips
raised. A good example is Arachis hypogea(groundnuts).
• Declined/Climbing: These are vines that without additional support, will creep on the
ground. There are three general modes of climbing. These are:
i. Twiners – they simply wrap their stringy stems around the support e.g. sweet
potatoes
ii. Tendrils – these coil around support on physical contact. An example is
Pisum sativum
iii. Climbimg by adventitious roots

1.3. (4) CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FRUITS

• Drupes: A drupe is a fleshy fruit that has one seed surrounded by a bony endocarp, or
the inner wall of the pericarp, which is sweet and juicy. Drupe fruit varieties include
plums, peaches and olives — basically all pitted fruit.
• Berries: Berries on the other hand have several seeds with a fleshy pericarp. These
include tomatoes, eggplants and grapes.

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 • Pomes: A pome has many seeds with fleshy tissue surrounding the pericarp that is
sweet and juicy. Pomes include apples and pears.
• Hesperidia and Pepos: Both the hesperidium and pepo fleshy fruits have a leathery
rind. Hesperidium includes citrus fruits like lemons and oranges, while the pepo fruits
include cucumbers, cantaloupes and squash.

Dry fruits are classified into categories such as:

• Follicles: Follicles are pod-like fruits that contain many seeds. These include
milkweed pods and those of the magnolia.
• Legumes: Legumes are pod-like as well, but open along two sides releasing several
seeds and include peas, beans, and peanuts.
• Capsules: Lilies and poppies are plants that produce capsules, which are notable by
opening along three or more lines at the top of the fruit to release their seeds.
• Achenes: Achenes have a single seed, fairly loosely held within, except for one small
moorage called the funiculus. The sunflower seed is an achene.
• Nuts: Nuts such as acorns, hazelnuts and hickory nuts are similar to the achene except
their pericarps are hard, fibrous and composed of a compound ovary.
• Samaras: Ash and elm trees produce smaras which are modified achene that has a
flattened, “wing” portion of the pericarp.
• Schizocarps: Maple trees produce winged fruit as well but it is referred to as a
schizocarp, as it is composed of two parts that later split into single seeded portions.
Most schizocarps are not winged and are found amongst the parsley family, and the
seed generally splits into more than two parts.
• Caryopses: A caryopsis has a single seed wherein the seed coat is adhered to the
pericarp. Among these are plants in the grass family such as wheat, corn, rice and
oats.

1.4. (5) VEGETABLE CROPS

Vegetables are classified according to which part of the plant is eaten. Some
vegetables fit into more than one category when several different parts of the plant are edible,
e.g. both the roots and leaves of beetroot can be eaten.

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Bulbs Usually grow just below the surface Fennel, garlic, leek, onion, shallot, spring
of the ground and produce a fleshy, onion
leafy shoot above ground. Bulbs
usually consist of layers, or clustered
segments.

Flowers The edible flowers of certain Artichoke (globe), broccoflower,

vegetables. cauliflower, broccoli, choi sum, courgette
or other squash flowers, gai lan (Chinese
sprouting broccoli)

Fruits Vegetable fruit are fleshy and Bitter melon, capsicum, chilli, choko,
contain seeds. courgette, cucumber, eggplant, fuzzy
melon, Indian marrow, marrow, plantain,
pumpkin and squash, scallopini, tindora,
tomatillo, tomato, turia (ribbed gourd)

Fungi When referring to vegetables, fungi Button white, Swiss brown, cup (opened
are commonly known as not flat), enoki, oyster, Portabello (brown
mushrooms. flat or cup), shiitake, truffle - black and
white

Leaves The edible leaves of plants. Bok choy, Brussels sprout, cabbage,
lettuce, ong choi, puha, radicchio,
silverbeet, sorrel, spinach, tat soi, tung ho,
watercress, witloof, wong nga baak
(Peking cabbage)

Roots Usually a long or round-shaped Beetroot, carrot, celeriac, daikon, parsnip,

taproot. radish, swede, turnip

Seeds Legumes- apart from sweet corn, Bean (green, French, butter, snake), broad
seeds grow in pods which are bean, pea, snow pea, sweet corn
sometimes eaten along with the seed.

Stems The edible stalks of plants when the Asparagus, celery, kohlrabi
stalk is the main part of the
vegetable.

Tubers Vegetables which grow underground Earth gem, Jerusalem artichoke, kumara,
on the root of a plant. potato, yam

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 1.5. (4) CLIMATE
Zones
Temperate Subtropical Tropical
North western
North eastern
Central southern coastal

Characteristics of different zones

Temperate zone:
Vegetative and flower buds of most of the temperate zone fruits enter into dormancy
in late summer or autumn and require a substantial amount of winter cold before they can
resume growth in the following spring.
i. These fruit plants are frost - hardy and even tolerant to snowfall and ice,
ii. The soil is mainly shallow and acidic in nature, and
iii. Rainfall is adequate.

In India, temperate zone climatic environment occurs at sufficiently high elevations.

Subtropical zone:
i. Temperature is of intermediate in nature,
ii. Chilling temperature, if occurs, is for a brief spell and beneficial for many fruits,
iii. The fruits grown have no distinct rest period,
iv. Light frost may occur in this zone,
v. Rainfall varies widely from low to high,
vi. Soil reaction is generally neutral,
vii. Soil fertility status is not satisfactory,
viii. The majority areas have sandy loam and alluvial soil, and
ix. The fruits have no marked photoperiodic requirement.

Tropical zone:
i. Chilling temperature is practically absent,
ii. High temperature occurs during most part of the year,
iii. Day and night temperature variation is narrow,
iv. Photoperiodic requirement in very insignificant,

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 v. Rainfall varies widely,
vi. Soil type varies greatly (clay loam, alluvial, saline, sandy, laterite etc.,) Besides,
the arid region of India which occupies nearly 12 percent of the total land area is
of immense importance for fruit growing because of the development of highly
efficient irrigation management methods.

(4) 1.6. SOIL

A. Based on Particles Size
1. Sandy soil
Sandy soil contains more than 60% sand and clay. It contains very little clay and silt, so
it is porous. The size of soil particles in sandy soil is from 0.2mm to 2.0mm. The water building
capacity of a sandy soil is very poor. Hence, there is a lot of air present in this type of soil.

2. Clayey Soil
The clayey soil consists of very fine particles of clay. Its water holding capacity is very
high. Wet clay soil is very sticky. It contains very little air. The size of soil particles in
clay size is less than 0.2mm. Clayey soil is rich in organic matter.

3. Loamy Soil
The loamy soil consists of sand, clay,, and silt. It also contains enough hummus. It has a
good water-holding capacity. It has sufficient aeration. It is well suited for cultivation. Roots of
plants get enough water, air, and space to grow.

B. Based on Colour
1. Red soil
The red color of soil is due to the presence of iron oxide. It appears yellow when it
contains less iron or more water. Red soil contains a mixture of clay and sand, antis not fertile.
However, the soil can be fertile by adding manures and fertilizers.

2. Black soil
Black soil is also known as black lava soil. The soil is black in colour. It is formed from
lava rocks and is rich in clay.

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4. 1.7. WATER
The two most important factors to look for in an irrigation water quality analysis
are the total dissolved solids (TDS) and the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). The TDS of a
water sample is a measure of the concentration of soluble salts in a water sample and
commonly is referred to as the salinity of the water.

1. Salinity
• Low-salinity water: Can be used for irrigation with most crops on most soils with
little likelihood that soil salinity will develop. Some leaching is required, but this
occurs under normal irrigation practices except in soils of slow and very slow
permeability.
• Medium-salinity water: Can be used if a moderate amount of leaching occurs. Plants
with moderate salt tolerance can be grown in most cases without special practices for
salinity control.
• High-salinity water: Cannot be used on soils with moderately slow to very slow
permeability. Even with adequate permeability, special management for salinity
control may be required and plants with good salt tolerance should be selected.
• Very high salinity water: Is not suitable for irrigation under ordinary conditions but
may be used occasionally under very special circumstances. The soils must have rapid
permeability, drainage must be adequate, irrigation water must be applied in excess to
provide considerable leaching, and very salt-tolerant crops should be selected.

2. Sodium
• Low-sodium water: Can be used for irrigation on almost all soils with little danger of
the development of harmful levels of exchangeable sodium.
• Medium-sodium water: Will present an appreciable sodium hazard in fine-textured
soils, especially under low leaching conditions. This water may be used on coarse-
textured soils with moderately rapid to very rapid permeability.
• High-sodium water: Will produce harmful levels of exchangeable sodium in most
soils and requires special soil management, good drainage, high leaching and high
organic matter additions.

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 • Very high sodium water: Generally is unsatisfactory for irrigation purposes except
at low and perhaps medium salinity.

3. The Interaction between Soil and Water

Soil is a medium that stores and moves water. If a cubic foot of a typical silt loam
topsoil were separated into its component parts, about 45 percent of the volume would be
mineral matter (soil particles), organic residue would occupy about 5 percent of the volume
and the rest would be pore space. The pore space is the voids between soil particles and is
occupied by air or water. The quantity and size of the pore spaces are determined by the soil's
texture, bulk density and structure. Water is held in soil in two ways: as a thin coating on the
outside of soil particles and in the pore spaces.

Soil water in the pore spaces can be divided into two different forms: gravitational
water and capillary water
• Gravitational water. The pore spaces are filled with water in excess of their capillary
capacity, and the excess, or gravitational water, drains downward.
• Capillary water is held in the pore space against the force of gravity.

Questions
1. Write a brief account on Horticulture-Importance
2. Give an outline on classification of vegetables
3. Give a brief account on preservation of fruits
4. Write a note on the organic fertilizers
5. Describe the kinds of soil and soil fertility
6. Write a note on water garden
7. Write a brief account of lawn establishment
8. Write an account on different types of irrigation system

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Unit - II
Plant propagation methods, cutting, layering, grafting, budding, stock - scion relationship -
use of plant growth regulators in horticulture.

Contents
2.1. Plant propagation
2.1.1 Methods of Propagation
2.1.2 Cutting
2.1.3. Layering
2.1.4. Grafting
2.1.5. Scion
2.1.6. Selection of grafting material
2.1.7. Budding
2.2. Plant growth regulators in horticulture

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2.1. Plant propagation
Plant propagation, in simple words, may be defined as multiplication or reproduction
of plants. Commercialisation of crops leads to the development of various techniques and
procedures of plant propagation. Each technique has its own merits and demerits. Each plant
responds differently to different methods of propagation. Various techniques of propagation
have been developed with the objective to have uniformity in crops, early bearing, increased
production, resistance against pests and diseases, and introduce certain characters in new
generation.

2.1.1 Methods of Propagation

A. Sexual propagation
Propagation or multiplication of plants by seeds is known as ‘sexual propagation’.
Seeds are formed as a result of successful fertilisation and combination of parental gametes.
It is an old and easy method and is widely used for the propagation of crops like ornamental
annuals, vegetables, medicinal and fruit plants, such as papaya.

Merits of sexual propagation

• Plants propagated by seeds live longer, are vigorous and more resistant to biotic
(insect-pests and diseases) and abiotic stresses (environmental conditions).
• It is an easy, simple and convenient method of plant propagation. Some plants like
papaya, marigold, chilli, capsicum, tomato, etc., cannot be propagated by asexual
method.
• It is the only means of creating genetic diversity of plants.
• New varieties and cultivars of ornamental and vegetable crops can be developed only
by this method.
• A large number of rootstocks for budding and grafting purpose is also raised by this
method.
• Seeds can be transported easily and stored for a longer time using this method.

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Demerits of sexual propagation
• Sexually propagated plants show variations and are not genetically true-to-type to the
mother plants.
• Plants that are propagated through seeds have long gestation period, which results in
delayed flowering and fruiting.
• Plants grow vigorously and cause obstruction in intercultural practices like harvesting
and spraying.
• Advantages offered by rootstocks and scion as in asexual propagation cannot be
exploited through sexual method.
• Crop species, which do not produce seeds like Pineapple, Banana, Strawberry, Fig,
Jasmine, Hibiscus, Bougainvillea, etc., cannot multiply by this method.

B. Asexual propagation
It is also called ‘vegetative propagation’. The vegetative parts of a plant like leaf,
stem, root or their modified forms are used for propagation. Most of the horticultural crops
are commercially propagated by vegetative or asexual method of propagation.

Merits of asexual propagation

• Many fruit and ornamental plants that do not produce seeds are multiplied by this
method. Plants propagated by asexual propagation are true-to-type genetically.
• By top working (using budding and grafting), old and economically low productive
fruit plants can be converted into superior ones.
• Advantages offered by rootstocks and scion can be exploited through asexual method.
• Maturity is uniform and the plant gives quality yield.
• Plants propagated by asexual method are small in size, so spraying of chemicals and
harvesting are easy.
• This method enables noble plant production, e.g., different colours of flowers in a
single rose plant and different types of mangoes in one mango plant can be produced
through asexual method only.

Demerits of asexual propagation

• By vegetative propagation, new varieties cannot be developed.
• It requires specialised skills, so it is an expensive method of propagation.

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 • The life span of asexually propagated plants is short as compared to sexually
propagated ones.
• These plants are more prone to biotic and abiotic stresses.

2.1.2 Cutting
Cutting is a detached vegetative part of a plant, which on separation and planting is
able to regenerate the missing parts and develop itself into a new plant. It is an inexpensive
and quick method of propagation. A large number of uniform plants can be produced using
few parent plants. It does not involve specialised skills. The method is named after the part of
plant used for cutting, e.g., stem, root and leaf.

a) Stem cutting
Based on the age and maturity of shoots detached forvegetative propagation, stem
cuttings is of four types.

i) Hardwood cutting
ii) Semi-hardwood cutting
iii) Softwood cutting
iv) Herbaceous cutting

i). Hardwood cutting

Such a cutting is taken from woody plants. Mostly, deciduous plants are propagated
by this method. One-year old mature branch is cut into pieces of suitable sizes and planted in
the rooting medium, example: Rrose, Grapes, Fig, Pomegranate, Bougainvillea,
Tabernaemontana, Lagerstroemia, Jasminum, Hibiscus, etc.

Figure: 2.1. Hardwood cutting

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Procedure
• Select branches of one-year old healthy plants, having pencil thickness. Cut the
branches into 10–15 cm long cuttings.
• Long cuttings are used to raise rootstocks for fruit trees. Each cutting must have at
least 4–5 dormant vegetative buds. Leaves and thorns, if present, are completely
removed. This checks transpiration loss.
• A slanting cut is given at the base of the cuttings just below the node and a straight
upper cut is given away from the top bud.
• The cut portion will help identify the planting position. Slanting cut at the base is
given so that a large area of the cuttings is in contact with the rooting medium for
inducing roots.
• The secretion of hormones at the bud near the cut portion induces rooting. Straight cut
at upper end reduces transpiration loss, which can be inhibited by the application of
wax.
• The cuttings are planted slant-wise in a nursery bed or small poly bags for growing
plants. Callus tissues form the cambium layer and rooting takes place in this region.
The best season for planting the cuttings is monsoon for evergreen plants and
November–February for deciduous plants. Cuttings can be planted in greenhouse or
poly-house for better results.

ii). Semi-hardwood cutting

A semi-hardwood cutting is taken from 4 to 9-month old shoots of current season
woody plants. Most ornamental foliage plants like Croton, Acalyphas, Aralias, Diffenbachia,
Russelia, Cestrum, Nerium, etc. are propagated by semi-hardwood cuttings.

Figure: 2.2. Semi-hardwood cutting

18 | P a g e
Procedure
Semi-hardwood cuttings are prepared from branches having pencil thickness. The
length of these cuttings varies from 7.5 to 15 cm. The cuttings must have at least 4–5 dormant
vegetative buds. Some leaves are retained as they help in preparing food by photosynthesis.
Large leaves are reduced in size by cutting. A slant basal cut is given just near the vegetative
bud and a straight top cut must be given away from the bud. The slant cut helps to expose
more area of the cambium layer, which helps in more water absorption and callus formation.
The upper straight cut minimises exposure to the atmosphere, which reduces transpiration
loss from the cuttings. It is useful to dip the top of the cuttings in wax to check transpiration
and infections. Dipping the base of the cuttings before planting in IBA @ 5000 ppm induces
early rooting.

The cuttings are planted in slanting position so that their maximum base is in contact
with the rooting medium. The planting season for semi-hardwood cuttings is monsoon.
Commercially, such cuttings are rooted under mist spray or fog.

iii). Softwood cutting

Such a cutting is taken from herbaceous or succulent plants. Shoots of 2 to 3-month
old plants are selected for softwood cuttings. The examples are Alternanthera, Coleus,
Duranta, Clerodendrum, etc.

Figure: 2.3. Softwood cutting

Procedure
Softwood cuttings are prepared from tender but mature branches. The length of these
cuttings varies from 10–12 cm. Tender shoots do not have sufficient food material. Hence, all
leaves present on the shoots are retained for photosynthesis. The cutting material are

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gathered early in the morning and must be kept moist by keeping them in a wet cloth. Sandy
loam medium is the best for planting softwood cuttings.

Herbaceous cutting
Such a cutting is taken from herbaceous plants. Shoots of 1 to 2-month old plants are
selected for herbaceous cuttings. Examples are chrysanthemum, iresine, pilea, dahlia, petunia,
carnation, marigold, etc.

Figure: 2.4. Herbaceous cuttings

Leaf cutting Selection of cutting Plants with thick fleshy leaves having buds are
propagated by leaf cutting. Vegetative buds are present in the notches of leaf margin
(Bryophyllum) or on the vein (Begonia rex). Leaf blade or pieces of it with bud are put on
the rooting medium under favourable conditions. In case of black raspberry, the leaf blade,
along with petiole and a short piece of the stem with attached axillary buds, are kept in the
medium for rooting. Plants like snake plant (Senseveria), Blackberry, Rhododendron and
Bryophyllum are propagated by this method.

2.1.3. Layering
20| P a g e
 It is an attached method of propagation. In this method, roots are allowed to develop
on the covered portion of the stem while still being attached to the mother plant. After the
emergence and development of the roots, this portion is separated from the mother plant and
allowed to grow as a new plant on its own root stem. Such root stem is known as ‘layer’.

Types of layering
i) Simple layering
ii) Compound or serpentine layering
iii) Trench layering
iv) Mound layering or stooling
v) Air layering

i) Simple layering
In simple layering, a partial tongue-like cut is given on a branch. The branch is then
bent to the ground and the treated portion is covered with soil, keeping the top or terminal
portion exposed. The layered branches produce roots in weeks and are ready for transplanting
in a nursery after detaching them carefully. Examples are Jasmine, Ixora, Clerodendron,
Pyrostegia etc.

Figure: 2.5. Herbaceous cuttings

Procedure
Select one-year old healthy, flexible, long un-branched shoot near the ground level.
Remove leaves of the selected shoot, retaining some at the top. The retained leaves prepare
food through photosynthesis. Bend down the shoot so that some part of it touches the ground.

21 | P a g e
At that poUWLRQJHQHUDOO\íFPDZD\from the terminal end, a sharp slanting inward cut
RIíFPLVJLYHQ$VPDOOmatchstick is inserted in the cut to keep the slit open. Bend down
the branch and cover the cut part with soil. Keep some weight or stone over the buried part so
that it is not pulled upward, and remains in the same position. A stake is fixed near the
layered branch and the branch operated upon is tied with it.

Water the layered portLRQ UHJXODUO\ $IWHU í ZHHNV rooting starts at the operated
portion and this can be indicated by sprouting buds on the shoot. After this, the layer is
separated from the mother plant and planted in a new place.

ii) Compound or serpentine layering

Compound layering is similar to simple layering, except the branches are alternately
covered and exposed along their length. The branches must be longer so that they can be
layered at several places. This method is followed in plants like Bougainvillea, Jasmine,
Clematis, Muscadine Grape and Wisteria.

Procedure
One-year old healthy and flexible long shoot near the ground is selected for
compound layering. The selected stem is placed in soil in a way that the nodes at certain
distance are covered under the soil and the intermediate internodes are exposed. Remove
leaves from the selected branch but retain few leaves at the top. Give two circular cut around
WKH EDUN DERXW í FP ZLGe. Remove the bark of the operated portion (girdling). Apply
rooting hormone to the girdled portion and cover it with soil. The same branch is operated at
íSODFHVDWFHUWDLQGLVWDQFHLQWKHVDPHZD\7KHJURZLQJVKRRWVZKLFKHPHUJHIURPWKH
covered portion of the branch, are separated from the mother plant for planting in a nursery.

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 Figure: 2.6. Compound or serpentine layering

iii) Trench layering

Trench layering is primarily used in fruit plants. Covering the shoots with soil results
in etiolation, so it is also known as ‘etiolation layering’. New shoots arise from the length of
the burried branches. After rooting, individual shoots are separated from the mother plant.
This method is followed in apple, cherry, pear, jasmine and rhododendron.

Figure: 2.7. Trench layering

Procedure
One-year old healthy and flexible long shoot near the ground is selected. The selected
stem is placed in a shallow trench in a way that the middle portion of it is buried. Remove
leaves from the branch but retain few leaves at the top. Cover the whole branch with moist
soil 5–10 cm deep. The terminal portion is left exposed to manufacture food and hormones
for the developing plants. After some weeks, shoots arise from the nodes, which are covered
by soil. The covering of the shoots with soil results in etiolation of the shoots and helps in
rooting. Individual shoots with roots (layers) are separated from the mother plant and planted
in a nursery.

iv) Mound layering or Stooling

This method is followed in plants whose branches are firm and difficult to bend. The
selected plant must be at dormant stage at the time of layering.

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Procedure
Cut back the upper portion of the plant 2.5 cm above the ground level. After few days,
new shoots will emerge. :KHQ WKH VKRRWV JURZ WR D KHLJKW RI í FP DQG EHFRPH OLWWOH
sturdy, place loose soil around them so that they are half buried. When the shoots attain a
KHLJKW RI í FP DJDin add soil around them so that they are half buried. Water the
heaped soil regularly. It ZLOOWDNHíPRQWKVWRJHWWKHOD\HUV&XWWKHURRWHG layers close to
the base from the mother plant and plant it in a nursery. Examples are Apple, Guava, Currant,
Gooseberry, Pear etc.

Figure: 2.8. Mound layering

v) Air layering
Air layering is a useful method of producing roots on the stem of indoor landscape
plants that have become “leggy” through the loss of their lower foliage. This method,
believed to have been developed centuries ago by the Chinese, has been used successfully as
a mean of propagating some of the more difficult-to-root plants. Because it required
excessive care and patience, air layering was used only by the highly trained plants man.

The procedure was to wound the stem or branch of a plant and enclose the wounded
stem with moist sphagnum moss or similar rooting medium until roots develop from the
wounded area. Success was dependent upon the ability of the propagator to keep the rooting
medium moist until the roots were formed and large enough to support the new plant. Only
since the development of polyethylene film has air layering become a practical method of
propagation for the home gardener and amateur horticulturist.

Air layering seldom is used on plants that root easily by other less complicated
methods, but it is useful for rooting ornamental plants such as ornamental figs, dieffenbachia,
croton and others of a herbaceous nature. Woody plants frequently propagated in this manner
include Magnolia, Holly, Camelia, Azalea and many of the fruit and nut bearing plants such

24| P a g e
as Citrus, Apple, Pears and Pecans. For optimum rooting make air layers in the spring on
shoots produced during the previous season or in mid-summer on mature shoots from the
current season’s growth. On woody plants, stems of pencil size or larger are best. The stem
may be much thicker on the more herbaceous plants.

Steps for making a successful air layer are illustrated in the following drawings:

Figure: 2.9. (a) remove the ring of bark (b), leaving the inner woody tissue exposed (c).

Method of wounding woody plants such as magnolia, gardenia, rose, fig and similar plants.
With a sharp knife, make two parallel cuts about 1 1/2 inches apart around the stem and
through the bark and cambium layer. Connect the two parallel cuts with one long cut (a) and
remove the ring of bark (b), leaving the inner woody tissue exposed (c).

Figure: 2.10: . (a) With a sharp knife, (b) Insert a wood sliver,

Method of wounding plants having less woody stems in preparation for air layering. This
method usually is used on foliage plants such as the rubber plant, (Ficus benjamini and
Ficuse lastica) and the dieffenbachia. (a) With a sharp knife, make a long upward cut from 1
1/2 to 2 inches long, almost to the center of the stem. (b) Insert a wood sliver, toothpick or

25 | P a g e
twisted piece of sphagnum moss into the wound to hold it open and prevent cut tissue from
reuniting. At this point, the wounded area may be dusted with one of the commercial rooting
compounds to speed up the rooting process. Such compounds, however, do not insure root
production on difficult-to-root varieties.

Apply a handful of damp sphagnum moss so that it envelopes the wounded portion of the
stem. Tying the moss in place with string helps keep it in position while completing the
process. The sphagnum moss hold be soaked several hours to insure that it is thoroughly
moist. Squeeze out surplus water before using, since excessive moisture will result in decay
and deterioration of the plant tissue.

Using a sheet of polyethylene film approximately 6" X 12" or 8" X 12", depending upon the
size of the plant stem, wrap the ball of sphagnum moss using the butchers fold (see insert) to
secure a tight seal where the two ends of the sheet are joined.

Draw the upper end of the film snugly around stem making sure that none of the moss is
exposed. Fasten securely with electricians tape, taking care that the tape extends beyond the

26 | P a g e
film and adheres to the stem. Repeat the procedure on the lower end, again making sure there
is a snug fit. Moisture must not escape and excess moisture must not enter when watering or
syringing the plants. Support the plant with stake or splint to prevent breakage at the
wounded area.

After the new roots have penetrated the moss ball and are visible on all sides, the rooted
branch may be removed from the parent plant. The rooting time will vary with plant variety
as well as the season in which it is performed.

Remove the newly rooted plant from the parent plant with a sharp knife or pruning shears,
making the cut just below the ball of moss and roots. (Not illustrated) Carefully remove the
polyethylene film. Without disturbing the roots or removing the ball of moss, plant in a
container using a good potting mixture or plant in a well-prepared soil bed.

Placing a polyethylene tent over the newly potted plant for 4 to 8 days until the root system is
well established is helpful as it will aid in preventing excessive loss of moisture. Keep the
plant under a light shade and avoid direct sunlight until the new root system is well
developed.

Many plants are lost in the final stage of the process because the root system is not
sufficiently developed to sustain the top portion of the new plant. By utilizing the plastic tent

27 | P a g e
illustrated in figure 8 or by keeping the new plant in a humid environment, it is possible to
develop a good root system on rather large cuttings. Once the plant is well established, it is
best to harden off the foliage by gradually exposing it to normal atmosphere. This can be
done by cutting a few holes every few days in the plastic tent to reduce the humidity until it is
similar to the external atmosphere.
Rootstock
The part of the graft that provides root system to the grafted plant is known as
‘rootstock’. It is, normally, raised by seeds in the seedbed, and then, transplanted in the
nursery bed for budding and grafting. Rootstocks are also raised in pots and polythene bags.

Characteristics of rootstock
• Adaptable to local climatic conditions
• Resistant to adverse climatic and soil conditions
• Resistant or tolerant to pests and diseases
• Propagates easily and compatible with scion
• Promotes early healing and formation of cambium layer

Raising of rootstock
Generally, rootstocks are raised by seeds (mango and citrus fruits), or sometimes, by
cuttings (rose). Seeds are sown or cuttings are planted on raised beds or in poly bags for
raising rootstocks. After the germination of seeds or rooting of cuttings, the seedling
rootstocks are transplanted in poly bags or nursery beds. Once they reach the stage of growth,
they are used as rootstocks for grafting or budding. Sometimes, the rootstocks are not of the
same species, e.g., for Grapes (Vitis vinifera), the rootstock used is a related species Vitis
berlandieri.

2.1.4. Grafting
The method of joining parts of two plants in a manner that they form a unit an
function as one plant is known as ‘grafting’. Advantages of grafting• Plants propagated by
grafting are true-to-type, and bear flowers and fruits early.

• The plants can be multiplied and preservedby grafting.

• Local variety of older plants can be improved tosuperior variety by top working.

28 | P a g e
 • Wounded or damaged tree trunks can be repairedby special grafting methods.
• Rootstock has an influence on resistance, vigourand quality of grafted plants.
• Certain rootstocks, which are tolerant to salineand alkaline soils and other adverse
conditions,can be used for grafting.
• Disadvantages of grafting
• It requires specialised skill.
• It is an expensive method of propagation.
• New varieties cannot be developed by grafting.
• Plants produced through grafting are short lived as compared to plants propagated by
seeds.
• When contaminated tools or propagation material are used in grafting, newly
propagated plants may also get infected.

2.1.5. Scion
The upper portion of graft combination taken from thedesired plant to be multiplied is
known as ‘scion’.

Characteristics of scion
• Scion wood must be of the previous season butnot from more than one-year old plant.
• Flowering shoots or shoots from where theharvesting is recently done must be avoided.
• Healthy and well-developed vegetative buds mustbe selected.
• The scion or bud sticks must be selected fromknown performing orchard trees.

Selection of scion
• The mother plant must be vigorous, high yielding, true-to-type and free from
undesirable bud mutation and viral diseases.
• It is advisable to collect scion from grown-up trees.
• It must be preconditioned by defoliating the branch before it is used for budding or
grafting.
• Defoliating helps the buds to swell.

Methods of grafting
Grafting methods can be grouped into the following.

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Scion attached method
In this method, the scion shoot is not detached from the mother plant until the union
takes place. After the successful union of the scion and rootstock, the scion is separated in
gradual cut from the mother plant. For making the grafting handy, the rootstock is grown in
acontainer or polythene bag. This method is followed in plants, in which successful graft
unions are difficult to btain. ‘Approach grafting’ is a type of scion attached method. It is
classified into two types, they are: a) Sliced approach grafting and b) Tongue grafting

Approach grafting Approach grafting is also known as ‘inarching’. The main feature
of approach grafting is that two independent self-sustaining plants are grafted together. After
the successful union of the graft, the scion plant is detached below the graft union from the
mother plant and the top of the rootstock plant is removed above the graft. This method is
useful for plants, in which successful graft unions are difficult to obtain. This method is,
usually, performed for plants growing in acontainer, as well as, big trees. In the latter case,
the rootstock seedling is brought near the scion branch by erecting a platform.

2.1.6. Selection of grafting material

Approach grafting can be done in two ways, and accordingly, their names are given as
‘sliced approach grafting’ and ‘tongue approach grafting’. In both the methods, the success of
grafting depends on the thickness of the scion and rootstock. Both must be compatible and
comfortable at the union. The rootstock and scion must be of almost the same thickness.

Select the scion branch

On the mother plant of desired characteristics

Sliced approach grafting Procedure

• Bring the selected rootstock and scion close together.
• Find out the most comfortable point of contact.
• At the point of contact, a thin slice of wood along with a 2.5 to 5-cm long bark from
the rootstock and the scion is removed.

30 | P a g e
 • The operated size must be uniform on both the stems of the rootstock and the scion. a
thin slice of wood along with a 2.5 to 5-cm long bark from the rootstock and the scion
is removed.
• The operated size must be uniform on both the stems of the rootstock and the scion
• The cut surfaces are then brought together so that they cover each other completely by
overlapping. Press them firmly together and tie them with a waxed string or polythene
tape, so that water does not enter.
• After successful union, head back the rootstock above the union and cut the scion
below the union, e.g., mango, guava, sapota, etc.

Sliced approach grafting

Figure: 2.11: Sliced approach grafting

Tongue grafting
This method differs from the former as cuts are given on both the scion and rootstock.

Figure: 2.12. Tongue grafting

31 | P a g e
Procedure
• Bring the selected rootstock and scion close together.
• Find out the most comfortable point of contact.
• Remove a slice of wood along with a 2.5 to 5-cm long bark from the rootstock and
scion.
• A second slanting partial cut downward on the stock and upward on the scion is made,
producing a thin tongue-like structure of the same size on the stem of the stock and
the scion.
• Insert the scion in the stock so that these tongue cuts interlock.
• All operated portions must be in contact with each other.
• Tie the operated portions. Scion detached method This method is a more popular
method of grafting and comparatively easier to perform. Besides, the rate of success
of plant propagation is more in this case. In this method, the scion is first detached
from the mother plant, and then, inserted or tied on the rootstock.

Types of scion detached method are:

• Veneer grafting
• Side grafting
• Wedge or cleft grafting
• Stone or epicotyl grafting
• Whip or splice grafting
• Bark grafting

Veneer grafting
• It is a simple and economical method of grafting. It the most ideal method for
establishing in situ orchards and top working of old unproductive orchards.
• The best time in north India for veneer grafting is 0DUFKí$SULODQG -XO\í$XJXVW
Mango, cashew and peach are commercially propagated by this technique.
• Veneer grafting differs from side grafting. In this, the vertical flap of the stock is
completely removed and a slanting cut is given on one side of the scion.

32 | P a g e
 Figure: 2.13. Veneer grafting

Procedure
• A shallow 3 to 5-cm long downward cut is made on the selected rootstock.
• At the base of the first cut, a short inward and downward cut is made that intersects
the first cut.
• In between both the cuts, remove the piece of wood along with the bark by making a
small notch in the rootstock.
• The scion is operated with a matching long cut on one side and a short cut on the
opposite side is given at the base.
• Insert the scion and fix it in the rootstock. Care must be taken to ensure that the
cambium layer matches at least one side of the cut surface.
• Wrap and tie the scion and rootstock firmly.
• Cut back the rootstock above the union after successful union.
• This method is used for grafting conifers, deciduous trees and shrubs.

Side grafting
In this method, the operated scion is inserted into the side of the established rootstock,
which has more girth than the scion, e.g., Hibiscus. Selection of material are,

• A rootstock of 2.5 cm diameter is selected.

• The scion needs to have 3–5 buds and must be about 7.5 cm long.
• The scion must be comparatively thinner than the rootstock.

Figure: 2.14. Side grafting

33 | P a g e
Procedure
• Use a sharp knife for cutting the scion.
• On the stem of the rootstock, a slanting downward and inward cut of about 2.5–5 cm
deep is made.
• A wedge of the same VL]H í FP  RI WKH VFLRQ LV prepared by two slanting cuts
oppositely towards the base.
• The scion is then inserted into the operated rootstock.
• Pour wax and make the operated portion waterproof.
• Wrap and tie the grafted portion to keep it intact.
• After the graft is complete, cut the stock above the union.

Cleft grafting
It is comparatively a simple and an easy method of grafting, which is widely used in
fruit trees, example: Mango, Jackfruit, Bael, Amla etc.

Selection of material
• The scion must be a terminal shoot with 3–5 buds.
• It must be of the current season and in active growth.
• The scion shoot is defoliated about two weeks ahead of being separated from the
mother plant.
• This will help accumulate food in the shoots. As a result, the buds on the shoots
become swollen.
• As compared to the rootstock, the thickness (diameter) of the scion may be the same
or less.

Figure: 2.15. Cleft grafting

Procedure
• The rootstocks of required plant species are raised in poly bags.
• The seedling of the suitable rootstock, which is 4 to 5–month old is selected.

34 | P a g e
 • Head back the rootstock.
• A sharp vertical GRZQZDUGFXWRIíFPLVPDGHin the centre of the stem.
• Two slanting cuts of the same length (3–5 cm) as in the rootstock are given on the
sides towards the base on the scion shoot.
• This will give a wedge-shaped appearance to the scion stick.
• The wedge-shaped scion is inserted in the split of the rootstock.
• Insert the scion in a way that it matches the cambium layer at least on one side with
the stock.
• Tie the grafted portion firmly in position with a polythene tape.
• After successful union, the terminal buds of the scion begin to sprout.
• Loosen or remove the polythene tape to allow the shoot to grow normally.
• It is better to stake the newly grafted plant.

Stone or epicotyl grafting

This method is commonly adopted for the rapid multiplication of mango plants. In
this method, stones (seeds) are sown in polythene bags or moist sand bed and covered with 5
to 7-cm layer of leaf mould for germination. When the seedlings are about 15 days old, they
are taken out and grafted indoor.

Selection of material
• Young mango seedlings with copper coloured leaves (15 days old) are used as
rootstocks.
• Young (current season growth) 3 to 4-month old shoot with pencil thickness is
selected as the scion on the mother plant.
• The scion musWKDYHíWHUPLQDO DSLFDO EXGV
• Defoliate the selected shoot 15 days prior to grafting.
• Defoliation makes the buds swollen and induces early sprouting.

Procedure
• A wedge in the scion is made at the base by giving two slanting cuts of 5 cm.
• Head back the stock by giving a straight horizontal cut.
• From the centre of the stock, give a 5-cm long vertical cut downward.

35 | P a g e
 • Insert the wedge-shaped scion in the split portion of the stock so that the operated
portion is in full contact.
• Tie the graft firmly with a polythene strip. The successful graft sprouts and new
shoots emerge. Such grafts are ready for planting within one year, example: Mango.

Whip or splice grafting

It is the oldest method of grafting. This method is used in fruit trees like apple, pear,
walnut, etc. Selection of material Select one-year old rootstock. The rootstock and scion must
be of uniform thickness.
The scion must be 10 to 15 cm long having 4–5 swollen buds. The rootstock must be
in active growth phase and sap-flowing condition. It is mostly performed in early spring
season.

Procedure
• Head back the rootstock terminally.
• Give a slanting FXWRIíFPGRZQZDUGVIURPthe top.
• Operate similarly but reversely on the scion.
• On the scion, a slanting cut of the same size isgiven from the base upward.
• The cuts on both the stock and scion need to be smooth.
• Put the operated portions on each other so that they form a single stem.
• Wrap the union with a polythene tape or a special nursery tape.
• The tape must be removed after the graft has healed, else the growth is restricted
around the union, and such plants break due to the force of wind.

Bark grafting
A plant graft made by slitting the bark of the stock and inserting the scion beneath it is
called ‘bark grafting’. It is commonly used in top working.
Selection of material
• The bark of the rootstock must be in sap-flowing condition.
• The scion must be in dormant condition.
• The scion must be 10–FPORQJDQGKDYHídormant buds.

36 | P a g e
 Figure: 2.16. Bark grafting

Procedure
First method
• A YHUWLFDOFXWRIí5 cm is made in the bark of the stub of the rootstock.
• To prepare wedge shape of the scion, a 3 to 5-cm long cut is made at the end of the
scion, followed by another cut on the opposite side of the first cut.
• Slightly lift the bark of the rootstock of the cut portion.
• Insert the wedge-shaped scion into the rootstock and cover it with the bark of the
rootstock.
• After grafting, the exposed cut surfaces of the stub and scion are covered with wax.
• Several scions may be used for grafting on a single stock, according to the width of
the stub.

Second method
• Two cuts of 5 cm are made on the bark of the stub and the bark is lifted.
• At the base of the scion, a 5-cm long slanting cut is given.
• On the opposite side of the first cut, a slanting cut of 1.5 cm is made so as to form a
wedge.
• The operated scion is inserted in the loose bark of the rootstock.
• Care must be taken to have a long cut of the scion towards the wood of stem and
wedge at the base.

37 | P a g e
 • After grafting, the exposed portion must be waxed.

Bridge grafting
This method is used for repairing wounds in trees made by implements, frost, rodents
or diseases. In this grafting, the bark of a tree is damaged, resulting into girdling. A
completely girdled tree will die. Bridge grafting repairs girdling.

Selection of material
• The rootstock must be in sap-flowing condition.
• The scion comprises one-year old dormant shoots RIíPPLQGLDPHWHU
• The number of scion sticks depends upon the size of the wound to be repaired.
• The selected scion may be of the same or a compatible plant.

Figure: 2.17. Bridge grafting

Procedure
• Trim the wounded area by removing the dead bark.
• The cuts are made in the bark at the top and bottom of the wound at 5 to 7.5 cm
distance.
• Long slanting cuts are given on the scion at the top, as well as, bottom.
• Both the cuts must be on the same side.
• A sharp wedge of scion is made by an additional short, slanting cut opposite to the
first.
• Prepare the required number of scions in the same way.
• Buds on the scion(s) are removed.
• The operated portion of the scion is inserted in each slot of the bark on the rootstock
in a way that the wedge remains under the flap of the bark at each end.
38 | P a g e
 • The scions must be put in upright position. The graft unions at top to bottom are
waxed.

2.1.7. Budding
Budding, oftenly called bud grafting, is an artificial method of asexual or vegetative
propagation in plants. Like grafting, this method is employed to convert one plant (the
rootstock) into another plant type with desirable characteristics. Similarly, the resulting plants
in general have shortened stature and maturity as compared to plants propagated from seed.
This method of plant propagation has the advantage of producing numerous clones from a
single piece of stem or twig, each node being a potential source of one-budded scion. But in
grafting, this same piece of stem may account for only a single scion.

It is therefore advantageous where there is limited source of plant cuttings or scions

for grafting. Likewise, the necessity of transporting bulky scions is eliminated. However, the
clones produced take longer time to develop into the right sizes for outplanting than grafted
seedlings. Various techniques are used, mostly applicable to young plants in active growth
with stems in which the bark is easily separable from the wood. Budded rubber about to be
outplanted. The scion is that of a superior variety.

Procedure
Basically, the procedure in budding consists of the following steps:

1. Preparation of the rootstock:

Rootstocks about the size of an ordinary pencil (~0.8cm) and up to ~1.5 cm in
diameter are commonly used but there are no hard rules. Chip budding is applied in
Citrus ~1/2 cm or 5mm in diameter while other methods can apply to rootstocks up to ~2.5cm
(1 in) or even thicker. Potted seedlings are widely used but, similar to grafting, established
trees may be top-budded. The specific techniques used in preparing the portion of the stem
where union is intended vary.

2. Preparation of the bud-scion:

This consists of a prominent axillary bud (a plant organ which serves as growing
point) on a section of bark, with or without a small piece of wood attached. This piece of bark
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is often termed as either a bud patch, chip, or shield piece. They are also referred to as single-
bud scions.

Budsticks, small stems or twigs having multiple number of nodes from which the bud-
containing barks are to be prepared, are obtained from well selected vigorous, disease-free
mother plants having desirable characteristics and immediately defoliated. As in rootstocks,
the preparation techniques are numerous.

3. Insertion of the prepared bud-scion:

The prepared patch, chip or shield piece is inserted into the part of the stem of the
rootstock to replace the piece of bark that is removed or where cuts are made to allow union.
Correct polarity should be observed, that is, the patch of bark is oriented upward.

4. Tying or wrapping:
The stem-bud union is tied or wrapped to hold the components firmly together but
generally leaving the growing point exposed. If also wrapped, it must be opened about 15
days later or at the time when the rootstock is cut back. There are various ready-to-use
wrapping materials. A specialized wrapping strip made of rubber expands as the rootstock
grows and naturally deteriorates after several weeks. But for practical usage, a thin,
transparent polypropylene (PP) plastic bag can be cut into strips about 2-3 cm wide. These
plastic strips have to be elastic and do not easily break when stretched;

5. Cut back of the rootstock:

The rootstock must be decapitated, preferably with the use of a pruning shear, at the
part of the stem immediately above the union to eliminate apical dominance. As a result, a
new shoot will emerge from the growing point on the inserted bark which will then acquire
apical dominance. Cut back is done when it becomes certain that there is union which may
take 15 days or more. The inserted patch of bark will remain green or otherwise brownish
depending on the natural color of the budstick. If union is not successful, it will turn black
and rot.

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6. Care of clones:
This involves activities that are normally performed to hasten rapid growth of nursery
plants and trees. It also includes debudding and desuckering, the removal of offshoots that
may emerge from the stem below the union. These are done to ensure that the propagated
plants will exhibit only the characters of the mother plant. Likewise, wrapping materials that
take time to deteriorate, like PP plastic strips, must be removed at the earliest time possible to
prevent strangling effect.

Stock -Scion Relationships

A grafted or budded plant can produce unusual growth patterns which may be
different from what would have occurred if each component part of a graftage viz., rootstock
and scion was grown separately or when it is grafted or budded in other types of rootstocks.
Some of these have major horticultural value. This varying aspect of rootstocks will influence
the performance of a scion cultivar or vice versa is known as stock-scion relationship.

Size and growth habit:

In apple, rootstocks can be classified as dwarf, semi-dwarf, vigorous and very
vigorous rootstocks based on their effect on a scion cultivar. If a scion is grafted on dwarf
rootstocks (e.g. M.9), the scion grows less vigorously and remain dwarf only. On the other
hand if the same scion is grafted on a very' vigorous rootstock (e.g. M2) the scion grows very
vigorously. In citrus, trifoliate orange is considered to be the most dwarfing rootstock for
grape and sweet oranges. On the other hand, in mango, all plants of a given variety are known
to have the same characteristic canopy shape of variety despite the rootstocks being of
seedling origin. But mango rootstocks like Kalapade, Olour have been found to impart
dwarfness in the scion cultivars. Guava cultivars grafted on Psidiumpumilum are found to be
dwarf in stature. ‘PusaSrijan’ guava rootstock also imparts dwarfness in Allahabad Safeda, a
commercial cultivar of guava.

Precocity in flowering and fruiting:

The time taken from planting to fruiting i.e., precocity is influenced by rootstocks.
Generally fruit precocity is associated with dwarfing rootstocks and slowness to fruiting with
vigorous rootstocks. Mandarin, when grafted on Citrus jambhiri rootstock is precocious than
those grafted on sweet orange or orange or acid lime rootstocks.

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Fruit set and yield
The rootstocks directly influence on the production of flower and setting fruits in
oriental Persimmon (Diospyrous kaki cv. Hachiya). When it is grafted on D. lotus, it
produces more flowers but only few mature into fruits. However, when D. kaki is used as the
rootstock, the fruit set is very high.

The influence of rootstock on the yield performance of cultivar has been well
documented in many fruit crops. Acid limes budded on rough lemon register nearly 70 per
cent increased yield than those budded on troyercitrange, Rangpur lime or its own rootstock.
Sweet orange var. Sathugudi budded on Kichili rootstock gave higher yield than on Jambhiri
or on its own seedling.

Fruit size and quality

Sathugudi sweet oranges grafted on Gajanimma rootstocks produced large but poor
quality fruits while on its own roots they produced fruits with high juice content and quality.
The physiological disorder 'granulation' in sweet orange is very low if on Cleopatra mandarin
seedlings, on the other hand, rough lemon seedling stocks induced maximum granulation.
The physiological disorder black end in Bartlett Pear did not appear if Pyruscommunis was
used as the rootstock. When Pyruspyrifolia was used as the rootstock this disorder appeared,
affecting fruit quality.

Nutrient status of scion

Rootstocks do influence the nutrient status of scion also. Sathugudi orange trees have
a better nutrient status of all nutrients in the leaves when it is budded on C. volkarimariana
root stock than on its own rootstock or Cleopatra mandarin stocks.

Winter hardiness
Young grapefruit trees on Rangpur lime withstand winter injury better than on rough
lemon or sour orange. Sweet oranges and mandarins on trifoliate stocks were more cold
hardy.

Disease resistance
In citrus, considerable variability exists among the rootstocks in their response to
diseases and nematodes. For instance, rough lemon rootstock is tolerant to tristeza,

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xyloporosis and exocortis but is susceptible to gummosis and nematode. On the other hand,
troyercitrange is tolerant to gummosis but susceptible to exocortis virus disease. Similarly,
guava varieties grafted on Chinese guava. (Psidiumfrie-drichsthalianum) resist wilt diseases
and nematodes.

Ability to resist soil adverse conditions

Among the citrus rootstocks, foliate orange exhibits poor ability, while sweet oranges,
sour orange, rangpur lime rootstocks exhibit moderate ability to resist excess salts in the soil.
Similarly, in pome fruits, variation exists among rootstocks to resist excess soil moisture or
excess boron in the soil. Myrobalan plum rootstocks generally tolerate excess boron and
moisture than Marianna plum root or other rootstocks' viz., peach, apricot or almond.

Vigour of the rootstocks:

In apple, it has been found that if apple seedlings were budded with the 'Red
Astrachan' apple, the rootstock produced a very fibrous root system with few tap roots. On
the other hand if scion 'Goldenburg' was budded on the seedlings, they produced two or three
pronged deep roots without fibrous root system. In citrus, if the scion cultivar is less vigorous
than the rootstock, the rate of growth and the ultimate size of the tree is more determined by
the scion rather than the rootstocks.

Cold hardiness of the rootstock

Cold hardiness of citrus roots is affected by the scion cultivar. Sour orange seedlings
budded to 'Eureka' suffered much more from winter injury than the unbudded seedlings.

Precocity in flowering
Young mango rootstock seedlings (6 months to one year old) were found to put forth
inflorescence when the branches from old trees are inarched which can be attributed to the
influence of scion on the rootstock.

2.2. Plant growth regulators in horticulture.

Plant Growth Regulators (PGR) known as bio-stimulants or bio-inhibitors modify
physiological processes in plant. These organic compounds act inside plant cells to stimulate
or inhibit specific enzyme or enzyme systems to regulate plant metabolism. These growth

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regulators are naturally produced in plants to control the growth and other physiological
functions. They act even in very minute quantities.

Common growth regulators

Name of PGR Compound / Trade Name

(Hormones)

IAA, IBA, NAA, 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T,

Auxins
MCPA

Gibberellins GA1, GA2, GA3,..…GA60

Cytokinins Kinetin, Zeatin

Ethylene Ethylene

Abscissic Acid (ABA) Phaseic Acid, Dormins

Inhibitor Cycocel, MH-40

Role of Auxins
• Induction of rooting from cutting and layers. Auxins such as IAA, IBA, 2,4-D are
popularly known as rooting hormones, as they induce root formation from cutting and
layerings
• NAA are commercially available in the name planofix and celmone. They are very
useful to regulate flowering in various plants including pineapple.
• Application of NAA is effect in blossom thinning in grapes such as kandari, Anab-e
shahi, seed less etc. For this purpose, NAA is sprayed at the stage petal fallaing
• 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T and NAA are used to induce the development of pathenocarpic fruits in
plants
• Fruits drops can be prevented by spraying 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T and NAA. They control
premature abscission of fruits in mango, citrus, apple, pear etc.

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 • 2,4-D and MCPA (2- Methyl, 4-chloropinoxcy acidic acid) are used to kill broad
leaved weeds in crop fields.

Role of Gibberellins
• Stem growth: Gibberelic Acid (GA) causes hyper elongation of stems by stimulating
both cell division and cell elongation. This results in taller plants.
• Bolting in long day plants: GA cause stem elongation in response to long days.
• Induction of seed germination: GA activates germination of seeds which otherwise
require cold (stratification) or light to induce germination.
• Enzyme production during germination: GA stimulates the production of enzymes
like amylase in germinating cereal grains.

Role of Abscissic Acid (ABA):

• Stomata Closure: Water shortage brings about increase in ABA level, leading to
stomata closure as a response to water stress.
• Growth Inhibiters: ABA inhibits shoot growth but has less effect on root growth.
• GA Counteracts: ABA counteracts the effect of gibberellins on a-amylase synthesis
in germinating cereal grains.
• Induced Dormancy: ABA affects induction or maintenance of dormancy in seeds.

Role of Ethylene
• Fruit Ripening: Ethylene in the form of gas helps ripens fruits under natural
conditions.
• Induction of Femaleness: Promotes production of female flowers in cucurbits
(cucumber, squash, melon) to increase the yield.
• Flower Opening: Promotes flower initiation and controlled ripening in pineapples.
• Leaf and Fruit Abscission: Accelerates fruit abscission for mechanical harvesting in
fruit crops such as grapes, cherries, and citrus.
Questions
1. Write a brief note on approach grafting
2. Draw and describe the layering methods of propagation
3. Write a brief account on budding
4. Write an account on different types of irrigation system
5. Draw and describe about grafting techniques
6. Enumerate the importance of growth regulators in horticulture
7. Write a brief account of air layering

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UNIT- III
Garden designs, types of gardens - formal, informal and kitchen gardens units of garden,
hedge, border, topiary, arches and lawn maintenance.

Contents
3.1 Types of Gardens
3.1.1. Formal Gardens:
3.1.2. Informal Gardens:
3.4. Benefits of the Kitchen Garden
3.5. Hedge
3.6. Border
3.7. Types of Topiary
3.8. Arch
3.9. Lawn maintenance

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3.1 Types of Gardens
3.1.1 Formal Gardens:
A formal garden is laid out in a symmetrical or a geometrical pattern. In this garden
the design is stiff as everything is done in a straight and narrow way. In such gardens
everything is planted in straight lines. Also if there is a plant on the left hand side of a straight
road, a similarplant must be planted at the opposite place on the righthand side i.e., mirror
image of each other. The flowerbeds, borders, and shrubbery are arranged in geometrically
designed beds. Trimmed formal hedges, Cypress, Ashoka trees, and topiary are typical
features of a formal garden.

3.1.2 Informal Gardens:

In an informal garden, the whole design looks informal, as the plans and the features
are arranged in a natural way without following any hard and fast rules. But here also the
work has to proceed according to a set and well-through-out plan; otherwise the creation will
not be artistic and attractive. The idea behind this design is to imitate nature. Example:
English and Japanese gardens

3.2. Other types of gardens

Container Gardening Method

Figure: 3.1. Container Gardening Method

Container gardening can work no matter where located. It consists of growing crops
in different containers. This can be planters or as simple as buckets. Container gardening
works great for growing tomatoes, peppers, root vegetables, green beans, and lettuce.

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Traditional In ground Gardening

Figure: 3.2. Traditional In ground Gardening

The term gardening, may envision a small plot of ground which has been tilled,
planted, and cared for to produce vegetables and fruits. This is what traditional in ground
gardening looks like. The plot can be as small or large as so for.

Raised Bed Gardening

Raised bed gardening is one of the hottest styles of gardening going on right now. The
reason being, it looks stylish in your yard, it’s easy on your knees and back, the soil is easier
to care for, and weeds are easier to control.

Figure: 3.3. Raised Bed Gardening

Choose any style of raised bed garden you’d like, and you can grow almost any
vegetable in the raised bed. The only downside to raised bed gardening is it does require a
place to put a bed. This style of gardening would work well for those who have small or large
yards, but at the end of the day, it does require outdoor growing space.

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. Vertical Gardening

Figure: 3.4. Vertical Gardening

Some gardeners live in the city for their job but still enjoy fresh food. City dwellers
are ideal candidates for vertical gardening because food can grow well on balconies, patios,
and even indoors. It can purchase a vertical gardening set-up with grow lights to grow a
vertical garden inside or purchase pouches to be able to grow vertically. Vertical gardening
method is a cool style of gardening which can work practically anywhere. There are some
limitations as to what you can grow based upon your vertical set-up. If the crop is too heavy
or requires a great deal of depth to the soil, it won’t work as well. However, regardless of set-
up, vertical gardening works well for fresh herbs and lettuce.

Hydroponic gardening

Figure: 3.5. Hydroponic gardening

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 As we move forward with science and technology, hydroponic gardening is becoming
the norm for foods we purchase at large chain grocery stores. The process of hydroponic
gardening is a set-up where the plants grow in a solution which gives them their desired
nutrients and oxygen instead of planting them in soil. However, hydroponic gardening still
requires a form of light whether it can be natural light or grow lights. Enough room for a
hydroponic set-up, this style of gardening could work. It can purchase smaller set-ups, but to
grow as large of a variety of crops would in a traditional garden, it would take considerably
more room.

Aquaponics Gardening
Aquaponics is another modern style of gardening. It requires a proper set-up, but it’s a
fascinating way to grow your own food. The idea behind aquaponics is you raise both fish
and vegetables simultaneously. Plants grow in a solution similar to what you’d use to grow
vegetables in hydroponics. Fish are added to the water. The fish waste is used to feed the
crops, and the plants filter the water for the fish. Garden using this style on a large or small
scale. Therefore, this makes it a viable option for gardening for anyone regardless of the
amount of land they have.

Square Foot Gardening

Land is a difficult thing to come by these days. The price keeps going higher making
it harder for people to own much of it anymore. Square foot gardening does require some
land to grow on. However, it doesn’t require as much land as a traditional style garden.

Figure: 3.6. Square Foot Gardening

The idea is to mark off garden plot a square foot at a time. Each square will be packed
with vegetables choice and will represent a different variety of crop.

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 Upside-down Gardening
Whether trying to grow more foods short on space, learning how to grow certain
crops upside down is an interesting approach to making optimum use of space. This style of
gardening is traditionally used to grow tomatoes. If you’re a fan of tomatoes but fear you
don’t have the room to grow as many as you’d like (or any at all) consider growing them
upside down. Purchase a container specifically meant for growing tomatoes upside down or
make own from a bucket. Either way, they hang out of the way and produce a delicious
vegetable many people love. Tomatoes are also great for making salsa, using in salads, or
including in soups.

Hanging Gardens
Hanging planters were meant only for gorgeous flowers? Prepare to have your mind
blown. Anything it can grow a flower in, to find a vegetable to grow equally as well. If
you’re going to use basic hanging baskets, you can grow any shallow-rooted plant. For
instance, peppers, tomatoes, lettuce, spinach, herbs, cucumbers, and squash would all grow
well in a hanging basket. You wouldn’t want to grow root vegetables (unless the pot is deeper
than the standard hanging basket) or plants which produce heavy crops such as watermelon.
If you have room for a hanging basket, you’ll be pleasantly surprised to realize you have
room for a hanging garden.

Greenhouse, Cold Frames, and High Tunnels

Figure: 3.7. Greenhouse, Cold Frames, and High Tunnels Gardening

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 The last gardening style or technique you should consider is greenhouse, cold frame,
or high tunnel gardening. These items are structures built out of materials which allow the
sun to shine through them. They can naturally be kept warm via solar power. During the
winter, you should either grow cold hearty crops or introduce artificial heat to keep the
structure warm enough to grow in. You can grow almost anything in these structures. If large
enough, you can even plant small trees. The positive to growing in a greenhouse, cold frame,
or high tunnel is they lengthen your growing seasons.

Wild Garden:
A comparatively recent style of gardening, namely, “Wild Garden” was expounded by
William Robinson in the last decade of the nineteenth century. His idea was revolutionary
and found many admirers to follow this. The concept of wild garden is not only against all
formalism but it also breaks the rule of landscape styles. His main idea was to naturalize
plants in shrubberies. He also preached that grass should remain unmoved, as in nature, and
few bulbous plants should be grown scattered in the grass to imitate wild scenery. He also
suggested that passages should be opened in the woodland, and trees, shrubs, and bulbous
plants should be planted among the forest flora to fulfil his idea of a wild garden. His other
idea was to allow the creepers to grow over the trees naturally imitating those of the forests.

3.3. Kitchen garden

A kitchen garden is where herbs and vegetables are grown around the house for
household use. Since early times a small plot near to the house has been used for growing a
variety of vegetables according to the season. Local varieties such as radish, broad leaf
mustard, chilli, beans, pumpkins etc. are all grown in the kitchen garden. In this chapter we
provide information on how to establish and manage kitchen gardens with minimum input for
maximum output, and show how to produce varied and nutritious crops of herbs and
vegetables for use in the kitchen. For people to stay healthy it's very important to have a
healthy diet. A healthy diet means a balanced mix of rice, bread, pulses, vegetables, herbs,
fruit etc. Vegetables are a very important part of a good diet as they contain various nutrients
for many body functions. For growing, energy and protection against disease, vegetables play

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an essential role. Vegetables are especially important for the young, and for pregnant and
nursing women.

Benefits of the Kitchen Garden

• To grow healthy, fresh vegetables yourself;
• To save the cost of buying vegetables and herbs;
• Waste resources such as sweepings, kitchen scraps and dirty water can be recycled
onto the garden;
• Wasteland around the house can be made productive.

How to make a Kitchen Garden?

Because there's often no tradition of kitchen gardens, many people can't grow the
vegetables they need for a good diet. Or they spend lots of money on vegetables, or their
health suffers from lack of vegetables. It may be that you haven't been able to make a kitchen
garden. There are several reasons why it may be difficult to make a kitchen garden, or if you
have made one, it is not successful.
• Pests, diseases or lives to have destroyed the crop
• No good seed or seedlings
• Lack of space
• Lack of water
• Lack of fertility
• No spare time
• Lack of the right skills
•
3.4. Units of garden
Hedge
A hedge or hedgerow is a line of closely spaced shrubs and sometimes trees, planted and
trained to form a barrier or to mark the boundary of an area, such as between neighbouring
properties. Hedges used to separate a road from adjoining fields or one field from another,
and of sufficient age to incorporate larger trees, are known as hedgerows. Often they serve as

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windbreaks to improve conditions for the adjacent crops, as in bocage country. A hedge may
consist of a single species or several, typically mixed at random.
Following are the top plants that can be used as hedges in the live fence:

• Euphorbia antiquorum (Tridhara)

• Pedilanthus tithymaloides (Devils backbone)
• Clerodendrum inermis (Vilayti Mehendi)
• Bougainvillea spectabilis
• Carissa carandas (Karonda)
• Jatropha curcas (Mogli Erand, Biodiesel)
• Duranta erecta

Figure: 3.8. Hedge

3.6. Border
Decorative lawn edging makes it is easy to create solid boundaries between your lawn
and garden or driveway. This guide will teach you how to edge your lawn while adding both
definition and design to your yard.

Benefits of Edging

Figure: 3.9. Benefits of Edging

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 • The right edging can transform your yard by creating defined areas for mulch, flower
beds, plants and shrubs.
• Creates defined areas for mulch
• Allows flower beds, plants and shrubs to be seen
• Affordably increases curb appeal.
• Prevents lawn, weeds and other unwanted elements from growing into flower beds.
• Provides a distinct path for your lawn mower to follow.

Types of Edging
Spade-Cut Edging
For the simplest type of border, choose spade-cut edging. Spade-cut edging involves
using an edging tool called a spade to dig a narrow trench around the outside of the bed you
are setting apart. It is the least expensive type of edging available.

Strip Edging
Strip edging consists of a shallow barrier that is anchored beneath the ground. The
very top part of the edging is visible to subtly set the bed and lawn apart. Strip edging works
best for creating curves and comes in plastic and metal varieties. Plastic is less expensive and
easier to install. Metal edging comes in steel or aluminum and lasts longer but is less
flexible.

Masonry Edging
Masonry edging, composed of stone, brick or concrete, is the most expensive type of
landscape edging. Stone is very attractive and allows you to match borders to any existing
stonework you have used in the landscaping, garden or exterior of your home. Cement
borders often come in preformed sections of different shapes and styles, allowing for easier
installation.

Wood Edging
Wood edging comes in precut sections of alternating heights, either as round logs or
flat boards. All types of wood edging are durable and most are affordable. The types of wood
most often used include cedar, cypress and redwood, which naturally resist rot. Pressure-
treated wood is resistant to moisture and a good value for larger projects.

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Edging Features
A wide variety of features are available when selecting the type of material you want
to use.

Landscape Timbers
Landscape timbers and railroad ties are large, durable and relatively inexpensive. You
can use them individually to outline straight beds or pile them on top of each other.

Cement/Brick Pavers
Some types of pavers interlock so they are easy to use. Although the interlocking
pavers are more expensive, they can be used to quickly create borders or raised beds without
needing mortar. Pavers are typically 12 inches long and 4 inches wide.

Plastic Edging
Polyethylene edging has a round head on top and a series of grooves on the bottom to
keep it anchored. Plastic edging is sold in 5- to 6-inch widths and 20- to 60-foot lengths.
Some types contain UV inhibitors to resist fading and cracking in the sun.

Cedar Edging
Short, round cedar logs provide an informal look and can be set on end at equal or
varied heights. You can also buy whole sections of these short logs strung together in one
piece with plastic backing that you can simply push into the ground and secure with stakes.

Bender Board
Bender board is milled from redwood or made from composite materials and is about
¼-inch thick, which allows the board to bend easily conforming to tight curves and angles.

Steel Edging
Steel edging is sold in 5- to 6-inch widths, in 10- to 20-foot lengths and in different
gauges. Steel is flexible but not as bendable as plastic and is more expensive.

Installation Tips

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 Figure: 3.10. Installation Tips

Masonry: Brick
• Dig a trench that will allow the amount of brick you want showing to be seen
• For vertical edging, set the brick edge-to-edge in the trench
• For horizontal edging, lay the bricks on a sand base to cushion them and protect from
frost heave
• Keep top faces flush with soil surface and add or take sand away to allow for
variations in thickness
• Push soil up against bricks
• Sweep sand into gaps between bricks to add stability

Masonry: Stone
• Dig a trench that will allow the amount of stone you want to show
• Drive two stakes to define the area you are filling and run a mason's line of string
between to define the area
• After mixing concrete, shovel into a 3-foot stretch and smooth out
• Set stones into concrete
• Level the tops to match the masonry line using a rubber mallet
• When all stones are in place, push concrete about 6-inches up the back side of each
and trowel smooth at a 45-degree angle
• For corners, keep stone faces tight to each other and always end a row with a full
stone
• Repeat steps for the rest of the border

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Spade-Cut
• Outline the area with rope, a garden hose, chalk or other material
• Dig a trench that's 3 to 4 inches deep
• Keep the lawn edge vertical and angle the inside of the trench toward the bed
• For loose soil, angle the spade rather than cutting straight up and down
• After cutting the perimeter, rake the trench and pull leftover soil up into the bed

Strip: Metal
• Outline the area with rope, a garden hose, chalk or other material
• If the soil is soft, lay edging along the bed's border and, using a board to muffle the
blow, tap into place with a hammer
• If the soil is hard, use a spade to dig a shallow 4-inch trench around the bed's
perimeter
• Position the top edge of the metal at soil level
• Drive enclosed stakes through premade holes in the strips or by driving long, bent
spikes over the strips to keep edging in place
• On the garden side, rake soil against the edging, keeping it a bit lower than the lawn
side

Strip: Plastic
• Outline the area with rope, a garden hose, chalk or other material
• Dig a shallow 4-inches trench so the bottom of the plastic edging lip is at soil level
• Set plastic strips into trench
• Drive enclosed stakes through the bottom edge of the strips to keep the edging in
place
• On the garden side, rake soil against the edging, keeping it lower than the lawn side

Wood: Boards
• Dig a trench around the edge of the bed to the depth of the edging boards
• Place the boards in the trench and drive stakes in behind about 5 inches apart and 1
inch below the board's top edge
• Nail the stakes to the edging board, with something behind the stake to absorb
hammer blows

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Wood: Landscape Timbers
• Dig a trench the same width as the timber to the depth you need
• If buried at least halfway, timbers will hold firm the ground during frosts
• Logs strung together in one piece with plastic backing can simply be pushed into the
ground and secured with stakes.

Bender Board
• Bender board is milled from redwood or made from composite materials.
• About ¼-inch thick the board can easily bend to conform to tight curves and angles.

Steel Edging
• Steel edging is sold in 5- to 6-inch widths, in 10- to 20-foot lengths and in different
gauges. Steel is flexible but not as bendable as plastic and is more expensive.

Maintaining Landscape Edging

Edging material generally requires very little upkeep and is less time-consuming than
general lawn care. Be sure to keep weeds and other unwanted grass out of the area by using
edging tools, either electric or hand-operated.

3.7. Types of Topiary

Figure: 3.11. Ball, square, Ball on pedestal

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 Figure: 3.12. Double Globe Standard Ball,
Topiary is the name given to closely clipped evergreens. It usually consists of single
Shrubs that are pruned to assume a clearly defined and particular shape. Here we’ll take a
look at some of the most popular shapes that are available. Naturally you are not confined to
these shapes and you may choose to grow and shape your own shrubs armed with a sharp pair
of shears and a little imagination. Almost everything about gardening offers the opportunity
to express yourself and this is never truer than with topiary. Like pruning espaliersthere’s
something calming and therapeutic about working with plants. There are few things in the
garden that offer such instant gratification, within a matter of minutes it is possible to turn a
neglected shrub into to a neat ball, box or perhaps something a little grander.

Topiary has long been recognised for the character and charm it adds to almost any
garden. It can take many forms ranging from simple hedging to the more ambitious (and
expensive) parterres and mazes. Even the tiniest front gardens can accommodate a little
topiary and a pair of columns either side of the front door can make for an attractive entrance.
Shaped Lavender or rosemary add a further dimension with their inviting scent.

Figure: 3.13. Obelisk, Cone. Oriental pom pom, Double Spiral

Perhaps the biggest attribute is it’s adaptability. Topiary fits across a range of garden
styles from the traditional to contemporary. It can be a bold focal point central to a garden’s

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design or play an equally important role in the form of soft and subtle mounds amongst
architectural plants like flax.

Six Tips for Maintaining Healthy Topiary

• Make sure that your shears or secateurs are sharp and clean before you start trimming.
• Cut topiary on cool and wet days but avoid cutting in winter when there’s a risk of
frost.
• Avoid cutting in direct sunlight.
• It should only be necessary to trim once or twice a year.
• If cutting large leaf specimens, like Bay, use secateurs to avoid cutting into leaves.
emember to compost your leaves and twigs.
• If your shrubs have blight then these should be discarded.

The Best Plants for Topiary

A large number of plants can be shaped using shears. Perhaps the most popular is
Buxus, commonly known as boxwood, which is simple to shape and maintains a year round
vibrant colour. If you’re planning to feature buxus in your garden take care to avoid
overcrowding. Buxus is averse to water-logged soil and consequently is well suited to
growing in pots and containers. Feeding container grown plants is essential and the
occasional top dressing of fresh compost should keep them healthy. Plenty of air between
plants will help avoid blight. Another popular choice is yew which is easily shaped and very
resilient. Whilst these might be the most popular there’s plenty more choice and the
following might be suitable alternatives for your garden: Hawthorn, Privet, Holly and Bay.

3.8. Arch
With an extensive range of designs and sizes in both wood and metal, there’s
something to suit all tastes and budgets, and even the smallest of gardens can benefit from
one. Sue Fisher, horticulturalist of 35 years and BBC Gardeners' World writer has teamed up
with Husqvarna to share her expertise on the different styles of garden arches for your
outdoor space.

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1. Decorative metal arch

Figure: 3.14. Decorative metal arch

Shapely yet strong, metal arches come in a wide choice of sizes and styles. Designs
with an open framework are great for growing roses, as the thorny stems can be easily trained
and tied into place. Those with lattice sides are perfect for climbers with a scrambling habit,
like clematis – the aptly named 'queen of climbers.'

2. Cottage-garden wooden arch

Figure: 3.15. Cottage-garden wooden arch

For an old-fashioned and romantic look, pair a simple arch design with climbers that
bear colourful blooms in abundance. Scented climbers like honeysuckle, jasmine and roses
are perfect for arches, as the blooms project their perfume just at the right height.

3. Contemporary wooden arch

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 Figure: 3.16. Contemporary wooden arch

Wood lends itself to a range of arch styles, particularly contemporary designs. You
should choose a size in keeping with your garden; for instance, wide or long arches look best
in large spaces. Try pairing this design with a bold climber, such as wisteria. Its big leaves
and dangling racemes of fragrant flowers complement this style best.

4. Rustic arch

Figure: 3.17. Rustic arch

An arch hand-crafted from natural materials is both pretty and stylish. And best of all,
it only take a few minutes to put in place! To add some bucolic charm to your garden, try one
which is made from woven willow and hazel. This style of arch will only support dainty,
lightweight climbers, such as sweet peas.
5. Wall arch

Figure: 3.18. Wall arch

When there’s no room to go outwards, go upwards! Even the smallest space can be
transformed with a vertical feature. This clever wall arch design can be easily fixed to a
building, wall or fence. Wreathed in flowers and foliage, these arches turn bare, bleak spots
into enchanting openings. They also make a great place to enjoy some shade and privacy.

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6. Arch with integral planters

Figure: 3.19. Arch with integral planters

This style of arch offers the perfect solution to creating height, structure, and planting
space where soil is scarce. Why not use this type of arch to grow a combination of vibrant
vegetables and edible flowers? Position it close to your home and you could create both a
feast for the eyes and the dinner table.

3.9. Lawn maintenance

These are some of the services that we include in our garden and lawn maintenance
package:

• Maintaining all the plants

• Trimming of plants
• Mowing the lawn
• De weeding
• Applying manure and fertilizer
• Applying pesticides and insecticides
• Transplanting plants from one place to another
• Planting new plants
• Replacing plants

Newly planting or replacing existing plants will cost you a little extra, depending on
the type of plants that you want and other requirements. Garden and lawn maintenance by our
CleanPro professionals will ensure that your grass is kept lush and green, prevent weeds and

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other parasitic plants from appearing, and keeping the grass and plants free of diseases and
pests. Our professionals can customize lawn care depending on your specific requirements.
They are knowledgeable about what works and what doesn't. Good lawn care will take into
consideration the geography - everything from the climate of the area, the soil condition, and
rainfall received.

A beautiful yard with a great lawn looks great, but with well-maintained shrubs,
ornamental plants, and trees, you can take the look to the next level. Our expert garden and
lawn maintenance will not only enable you to enjoy a gorgeous view of the landscape, but
also increase the value of your home. Hire Clean Pro to give your garden and lawn a fresh
lease of life and also to maintain it in top shape. Our professionals will use their years of
experience and knowledge to offer the most appropriate services and meet the requirements
of your garden and lawn.

Questions
1. Differentiate topiary and trophy
2. Give a brief account on rock garden
3. Describe in detail about the components of an outdoor garden
4. Write a brief account of lawn establishment
5. Give an account on indoor gardening
6. Write a brief account of terrace garden
7. Design and describe a kitchen garden
8. Write a detailed account on designing roof and terrace garden

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UINIT- IV:
Floriculture, cultivation of commercial flowers- rose and jasmines. Cultivation of important
fruit trees- Mango and Banana.
Contents
4.1. Floriculture
4.1.1 Climate
4.1.2. Soil and its Preparation
4.1.3. Planting
4.1.4. Spacing
4.1.5. Propagation
4.2. Rose
4.2.1 (a) Varieties
4.2.1. (b) Manure and Fertilizer
4.2.2. Irrigation
4.2.3. Rose Plant protection:
4.2.4. Rose Flowers Diseases
4.3. Jasmine
4.3.1. Area and Distribution
4.3.2. Botanical Description
4.3.3. Climate Requirement
4.3.4. Soil Requirement
4.3.5. Propagation
4.3.6. Harvesting
4.3.7. Yield
4.4. Mango
4.4. 1. Selection of Location
4.4. 2. Field Preparation and Layout
4.4. 3. Planting Distance
4.4. 4. Selection of Grafts for Planting
4.4. 5. Fertilization
4.4. 6. Harvest and post-harvest management
4.5. Banana
4.5.1. International scenario
4.5.2. Climate and Soil
4.5.3. Land preparation
4.5.4. Planting material
4.5.5. Intercropping
4.5.6. Harvesting
4.5.7. Yield

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4.1. Floriculture
Though flower cultivation has been practiced in India since time immemorial,
floriculture has blossomed into a viable business only in recent years. Considering the
potential this sector has a generating income and employment opportunities, promoting
greater involvement of women and enhancement of exports, it has been identified as an
Extreme Focus Area for exports such as Jasmine, Marigold, Chrysanthemum, Tuberose,
Crossandra and Aster. Commercial cultivation of cut flowers such as Rose, Orchids,
Gladiolus, Carnation, Anthurium, Gerbera and Lilies has also become popular.

Floriculture during 2011-12 covered an area of 0.19 million hectare with a production
of 1.03 million tonnes of loose flowers and 69,027 million number of cut flower. Traditional
flowers such as Jasmine, Marigold, Chrysanthemum, Tubrose, Crossandra and Aster are
commonly grown. Commercial cultivation of cut flowers such as Rose, Orchids, Gladiolus,
Carnation, Anthurium, Gerbera and Lilies has also become popular. Although flower
cultivation has been practised in India since time immemorial, floriculture has blossomed into
a viable business only in recent years.

Considering the potential of this sector for generation of income and employment
opportunities, promotion of involvement of women and enhancement of exports, it has been
identified as an Extreme Focus Area for exports by the Government. Rose has always been
admired for its beauty and fragrance. It occupies the first position in International market of
cut flowers. Rose cultivation in India is becoming more and more popular because of its
increase in demand as cut flower and higher commercial gains. Commercial rose flower
growing include production and sale of plants, flower and their products. The rose flowers are
marketed either as loose flowers or as cut flowers. In loose flower trade fully developed
flowers suitable for garland making are marketed. These flowers are also used for
worshiping. Temperate pockets of Jammu region are congenial for its off-season production.

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4.1.1 Climate
Moderately cool climate with bright sunshine and free ventilation is very good for
rose cultivation in India. Most rose cultivars grow best at a temperature range of 15-270C
producing good quality and quantity of flowers.

4.1.2. Soil and its Preparation:

The ideal soil for rose flowers should be medium loam having sufficient organic
matter, proper drainage and pH of 6.0 to 7.0. The soil should be thoroughly dug or ploughed
20-30 cm deep and kept open to sun for at least 15 days. For rose plant cultivation, after
removing the weeds, the field should be reploughed and levelled. The land with high water
table is not suitable for rose cultivation.

4.1.3. Planting
Before rose planting, prepare a small pit (30×30 cm) to accommodate the earth ball of
a new plant. Though the planting of roses on plains can be done from August to March but
the best time is September-October. In the hills the best planting time is February-March.

4.1.4. Spacing
Different spacing is recommended for cultivation different types of rose used for
different purpose. Hybrid Tea and Floribunda roses for beautification in the gardens are
planted at a distance of 75 cm while, Polyantha and Miniature roses require about 45 cm
spacing and climbers and standards planted about 2 meters apart. A closer spacing of 40×20
cm is normally followed for plantations in green house.

4.1.5. Propagation:
Rose flowers are commercially propagated by ‘T’ or shield budding on the rootstock.
But rootstocks and miniature roses are propagated by cuttings. The best time of budding is
from December to February.

i) Selection of rootstock:
The selection of rootstock depends on the soil and climatic condition of the place and
different rootstocks are used under different conditions. Rosa indica var. odorata in Jammu
conditions is commonly used for budding.

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ii) Budding Procedure:
The budding is done about 5-8 cm above the ground level on a strong stem of the
root-stock, about the thickness of an ordinary pencil after cleaning the stem and removing the
thorns. The other branches on the root-stock plant are removed, leaving only a single stem for
budding. Bud wood about 2.5 cm long is taken from below the faded flower with the help of
a sharp knife by cutting a little in to the bark.

This bud is then inserted in the T shaped incision (about 2.5 cm) made on the stem of
root-stock after opening the top with the help of the flat end of the knife. Later, alkathene
taps, about 45 cm long and 6 cm wide is bound around the bud point, keeping the eye open
and after union of buds, budding starts growing.

4.2. Rose

4.2.1 (a)Varieties:
a. Commercial varieties: Pink- Pusa Gaurav; Red- Super star, Montezuma,
Mercedies, PusaPriya and First Red
b. Bedding varieties: Pink- Pusa Gaurav; Red- Montezuma, Superstar, Christian Dior,
Oklahama, Happiness, PusaBahadur.
c. Exhibition varieties: First Prize, Eiffel Tower, Pusa Sonia; Red- Christian Dior,
Montezuma, Super Star,
d. Scented varieties: Crimson Glory, La France, Sugandha
4.2.1. (b) Manure and Fertilizer
Manuring in case of new planting is done at the time of preparation of rose beds or
pits, and for the established plants the normal practice is to add well decomposed FYM 8-10
kg/pit just after pruning. For applying NPK through fertilizers we require a mixture of about
50 gm/ plant or 10 kg/ 100 sqmt. A mixture of Urea, Single Super phosphate and Potassium
Sulphate in the ratio of 1:3:2 in three applications, first at pruning second at the end of
December when the first flush is over and third at the end of February.

4.2.2. Irrigation

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 The frequency of irrigation depends on many factors such as growth, soil texture,
climate and glass house or field condition etc. Maintain adequate soil moisture at all stages
of its growth and flowering is essential.

Interculture operations
a. Pruning: Correct pruning is an essential factor for success in rose growing and
therefore, it should be done with precision and care. The best time of pruning is
when rains are completely over and winter is approaching. This condition prevails
under North Indian Plains from end of September to middle of October.
b. Pinching: Removal of a part of terminal growing portion of stem is called pinching
which is practiced in newly budded plants to promote axillary branching.
c. Disbudding: To keep only the central bud and removal of others bud cause
development of a quality bloom which is generally followed in hybrid tea roses for
cut flower purpose.
d. Harvesting stage: The flowers for decoration and marketing should be cut at the
tight bud stage when the buds show their colour but the petals have not yet started
unfurling.

4.2.3. Rose Plant protection:

(A) Pests: Aphids: These appear in winter months on leaves and flower buds.
Control: Spraying 0.1% Metasystox or Rogor

Chafer beetles: The adults of these beetles appear in August-September and cut away
the leaves.
Control: Controlled by spraying of 0.1% Sevin.
4.2.4. (B) Rose Flowers Diseases:
(i) Die-back (Diplodiaroseum): This is very serious disease of rose and appears after
pruning. As the name indicates the disease enters from the top and proceeds
downwards mostly through cut wounds or dried flowers/ branches.
Control: Removal of affected part about an inch below in the healthy tissues and use
of Bavistin paste/spray afterwards control the disease.

(ii) Black spot: Dark brown to blackish circular spots appear on leaves. Older leaves
on lower side are infected first then the disease spreads on upper leaves.

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 Control: It can be easily controlled by spraying 0.2% Captan at fortnightly intervals.

(iii) Powdery mildew (Sphaerothecapannosa var. rosae): It is a serious disease in

warm, humid and cool weather conditions. Flower stalk (peduncle) and tender leaves
are affected first showing whitish powder on upper surface of the leaves.
Control: It can be checked by dusting 80% Sulphur or spraying 0.2% Karathane
fungicide

4.3. Jasmine
Uses/Nutrient Value
Jasmine has been cultivated for various purposes since very early times. Flowers and
buds are used for making garlands, bouquets, veni for religious offerings. They are also used
for the production of perfumed hair oils and attar. The world famous jasmine oil is extracted
from the flowers of Spanish jasmine (J. grandiflorum). The oil is also used in soap and
cosmetic industry. The flowers of Arabian jasmine (J. sambac) are reported to be used in
China for flavoring tea. They also contain yellow pigments and hence used as substitute for
saffron. Flowers and other parts also used in medicines.

4.3.1. Area and Distribution

Though jasmines are distributed in tropical and subtropical countries of the world, a
large number of scented species are around the regions comprising India, China and
Malaysia. Among these, about 40 species are reported to occur in India. Gamble (1957) were
recorded 20 species in the former Madras Presidency State and some of these species are
found in Mumbai, Bihar, Orissa, Chotanagpur, upper Gangetic plains and sub Himalayan
tracts.
4.3.2. Botanical Description
The genus Jasminum belongs to the family Oleaceae and order Oleales. They are
climbing, trailing and erect shrubby flowering plants and these are both over green and
delicious species. Leaves are opposite or alternate, simple, trifoliate or pinnate, leaflets entire.
Flowers are white, yellow or rarely reddish, sometimes solitary, more often in cymose
clusters of three to many, usually fragrant; corolla tubular with four to nine lobes, stamens
two, ovary 2 loculed with 1-4 erect ovaries. Fruit is a berry and black in colour.

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4.3.3. Climate Requirement
The ideal conditions for their successful cultivation are warm summer and mild
winter. Jasminum spp. is usually grown in the open field for commercial flower production.
The Cool house species should be kept in a temperature of 45-55º F (7-13º C). J.
grandiflorum and J. sambacare sensitive to frost.

4.3.4. Soil Requirement

Jasmine prefers well drained rich sandy loam to clay soil. Jasminum species are
usually grown in the open for commercial flower production.

Preparation of field
Land with proper drainage, irrigation facilities and sunny location are essential. Pits of
3
45 cm are dug at least one month before planting and exposed to sunlight. A few days before
planting, pits are filled with 2 parts of FYM and one part each of fresh earth and coarse sand.

4.3.5. Propagation
Jasmine can be propagated by cuttings, layering, sucker, grafting, budding and tissue culture.
• Growth regulators: Quick dipping (of the basal cut end) in IAA (or) IBA @ 1000
ppm for terminal cuttings and 2500 ppm for semi hard wood cuttings is done.
• Best rooting medium: Sand, Vermiculite and Moss at 1:1:1 ratio.

Time of Planting
The best time for planting in most parts of India is during the monsoon but one can
plant jasmine almost round the year in climates as of Bangalore. Once planted, the jasmine
remains in the field for 10-15 years.
Planting
• Land with proper drainage, irrigation facilities and sunny location are essential.
3
• Pits of 45 cm are dug at least one month before planting and exposed to sunlight.
• A few days before planting, pits are filled with 2 parts of FYM and one part each of
fresh earth and coarse sand. Pits are to be watered to settle the mixture.
• Well rooted, healthy and strong plants are planted one in each pit.

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Irrigation
Flooding once in a week or once in ten days depending on the soil and climatic
conditions.

Pruning
Need for Pruning: In jasmine, flowering habit is terminal and axillary. So increasing the
number of shoots would increase the yield, for which pruning is essential. Pruning influences
growth, flower bud initiation, differentiation and ultimately the flower production.

Weeding
• Commonly done manually but is expensive.
• Chemical weed control is effective and economical.
• Spraying Oryzalin 1 or 2 applications is effective.
• Mulching also reduce weed population.

4.3.6. Harvesting
• Jasmine gives economic yield only from the third year and up to 12-15 years and then
the yield starts declining.
• The stage of harvest depends on the purpose of flowers to be harvested. For fresh
flowers, fully developed unopened flower buds are picked in the early morning, while
for extraction of concrete only fully opened fresh picked flowers are required.
• Picking of flowers after 11 a.m. will considerably reduce the yield and quality of the
concrete.
• Damage to flowers during harvest and transit will affect shelf life of fresh flowers and
concrete recovery

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4.3.7. Yield
Species Flowers yield (kg/ha) Concrete recovery (%)

J. auriculatum 4733 to 9152 0.28 to 0.36

J. sambac 739 to 8129 0.14 to 0.19

J. grandiflorum 4329 to 10144 0.25 to 0.32

Grading

There are no standard grades available for jasmine. The flowers may be graded
according to the corolla tube length, bud size, shape and freshness.

Packing
• Harvested flower should be given cold treatment before packing.
• Packing should be functional, economical and attractive besides being acceptable in
markets. Corrugated cardboard boxes are good for distant market.
• Wholesalers pack flowers in bamboo baskets.
• They are packed so as to maintain some moisture and air circulation in the baskets.
• Water is sprinkled on the newspapers covering the inside of the basket.
• The top is covered with paper again and closed with a bamboo basket cover or gunny
sack which is stitched at the edges.

Introduction
4.4. Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is the most important commercially grown fruit
crop of the country. It is called the king of fruits. India has the richest collection of mango
cultivars. India ranks first among world’s mango producing countries accounting for about
50% of the world’s mango production. The fruit is very popular with the masses due to its
wide range of adaptability, high nutritive value, richness in variety, delicious taste and
excellent flavour.

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Production Technology
The success of commercial Mango orchard is depend, among other things, on the
adoption of innovative technology for both production and post harvest management. Salient
features of the technological innovations that might be followed are outlined below.
4.4. Mango
4.4. 1. Selection of Location
Establishment of mango orchard is a long-term investment and trees continue to
produce fruit for longer years. Hence its planting requires proper planning which includes
careful selection of site. The land which is chosen for mango orchard is near to main road and
market. It has proper irrigation facilities and has a good soil and climate suitable for growth
and production of mango trees.

Unit Size
Economic size of the project start from 1 acre which produces sizeable quantity of
fruits necessary for regular supply to domestic market.

4.4. 2. Field Preparation and Layout

• Selected fields should be deeply ploughed followed by harrowing to root out the
perennial weeds and heavy clods.
• This operation provides congenial tilth to young roots for their healthy development.
• Proper levelling of land follows this and a gentle slope is provided in one direction to
facilitate irrigation as well as drainage of excess water during rains.
• The soils which have drainage problems, should be provided with adequate trenching
from the very beginning to avoid serious damage to young plants due to water
stagnation.
• After the proper field preparation one should move for layout.
• Proper layout of an orchard is necessary.
• Like selection of site, any mistake committed in beginning cannot be rectified later
on.
• Therefore very careful pre-planning is essential before the actual layout in the field.
• The system of layout to be adopted is decided according to needs.

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4.4. 3. Planting Distance
• The main purpose of planning of layout of an orchard is to provide adequate space to
the plant for normal development to permit proper intercultural operation and easy
passage of air and sunlight for the maintenance or orchard sanitation.
• The planting distance depends on various factors like nature of soil, type of plant
weather grafted or seedling and variety.
• In poor soils plants make slow growth, so require less space while in heavy soils
growth of plants remain dwarf sized.
• Planting distance depends on vigour of the cultivar.

Wind Breaks
Before planting of mango orchard, it is essential to reserve some place for planting of
wind breaks at the border sides of orchard from which hot and high winds and frost are
expected.

Digging and Filling of Pits

• The pit size would be 1X1X1m dimension.
• Before filling the pit, a mixture of well - decomposed FYM (50 kg), superphosphate
(100 gm), murate of potash (100 gm) and fenvulrate dust (250g) is prepared and
mixed with upper as well as lower soil of the pit.
• The mixture of upper soil is filled first followed by lower soil mixture.
• During filling of pits soil is pressed well so that there is no air pocket inside the pit.
• The upper level of pit is kept 15cm above from the field level.
• After filling, the pits are irrigated to settle down the soil of the pit.

Time of Planting
Mango planting is done during rainy season (July to August) and spring season
(February to March) in North India.

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4.4. 4. Selection of Grafts for Planting
• Mango grafts of desired cultivar are procured from genuine sources as in the long run
the performance of the orchad depends on the quality of the plants particularly on the
pedigree of the tree, their health and vigour.
• Normally, sturdy grafts with smooth union having equal thickness of rootstock and
scion give good performance in the field and such type of grafts are preferred over
weak one.
• Six-month to one year old grafts having upright scion growth with 3-4 scion branches
are desirable for planting as compared to scion having too many branches.

4.4. 5. Fertilization
Fertilizers may be applied in two split doses , one half immediately after the
harvesting of fruits in June/July and the other half in October, in both young and old orchards
followed by irrigation if there are no rains. Foliar application of 3 % urea in sandy soils is
recommended before flowering. Well decomposed farm-yard manure may be applied every
year. For trench application of fertilizers, 400g. Each of N and K2O and 200g. of P2O5 per
plant should be provided. Micro-nutrients may be applied as per the requirement in the form
of foliar sprays.

Irrigation system
The frequency and amount of irrigation to be provided depends on the type of soil,
prevailing climatic conditions, rainfall and its distribution and lastly the age of the trees. No
irrigation is required during the monsoon months unless there are long spells of drought.
Irrigation should be given at 50% field capacity.

4.4. 6. Harvest and post-harvest management

The orchard starts bearing from sixth year onwards and the economic life of a mango
tree exceeds 35 years. Yield of fruits varies considerably according to the variety, climatic
conditions, plant population etc. On an average, the yield ranges from 5 to 9 t/acre. Grafted
plants start bearing early. Grading is mainly based on the size, colour and maturity of the
fruits. While grading, smaller fruits are separated from the larger ones in order to achieve

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uniform ripening. Immature, overripe, damaged and diseased fruits are discarded in the
process of grading. The fruits are generally harvested early in the season at a pre-mature stage
to capture early market. Such fruits are ripened by uniformly dipping in 750 ppm, ethrel (1.8
ml/l) in hot water at 52 ± 20 C for 5 minutes. Within 4-8 days under ambient conditions.
Mature fruits are ripened with lower doses of ethrel for uniform colour development.

The mature green fruits can be stored at room temperature for about 4-10 days
depending upon the variety. The harvested fruits are pre-cooled to 10-120 ºC and then stored
at an appropriate temperature. Wooden or cardboard boxes, rectangular in shape and bamboo
baskets having capacity to accommodate 5 to 8 kg of fruit is used for packaging and
transportation of mango fruits. The most commonly used containers are ventilated card board
boxes of corrugated fibre board (CFB) cartons. Size of the box varies to accommodate 5 to 10
kg of fruit.
Road transport by trucks is the most popular mode of transport due to easy approach
from orchards to the market. Marketing of the produce is mainly controlled by intermediaries
like wholesalers and commission agents.

4.5. Banana
Introduction
Banana (Musa sp.) is a large perennial herb with leaf sheaths that form trunk like
pseudostem. Banana has its origin in tropical region of South East Asia. Banana is a
nutritious gold mine. They are high in vitamin B6, which helps fight infection and is essential
for the synthesis of heme, the iron containing part of hemoglobin. They are also rich in
potassium and are a great source of fibre. In recent years, considering the adverse impact of
indiscriminate use of chemicals, new trend for organic production of banana is increasing in
the country. A new name, i.e. "Green Foods" for this has been coined. This refers to
organically grown crops which are not exposed to any chemicals right from source of
planting material to the final post harvest handling and processing. It is based on recycling of
natural organic matter. In this system nutritional requirement are met through use of enriched
composts, cakes, promotion of green manure, inter and cover crops, mulching etc, while pests
and diseases are kept below threshold level through integrated crop management.

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 4.5.1. International scenario
Bananas are the fifth largest agricultural commodity in world trade after cereals, sugar, coffee
and cocoa. India, Ecuador, Brazil and China alone produce half of total bananas of the world.
The advantage of this fruit is its availability round the year. The present scenario of area,
production and productivity of banana

National Scenario
The major banana producing states of India are Tamilnadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat,
Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Madhya Pradesh.

4.5.2. Climate and Soil

This tropical crop is grown throughout the year under humid weather condition. The
optimum temperature suitable for banana ranges between 25-30 ºC. The plant prefers a soil
pH of 5.5-7.5. Almost all the agricultural soils are suitable, provided they are deep well
drained. Black loams and sandy loam soils of uplands are most suited.

4.5.3. Land preparation

The land is prepared by ploughing twice and harrowing thrice. Levelling is done by
tractor after harrowing. Ridges and furrows are made and the pits (30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm)
are dug and filled up with well decomposed FYM/compost. The pits are irrigated to allow the
soil to settle.

Varieties
The varieties grown in Maharashtra under organic cultivation are Dwarf Cavendish,
Grand Naine, Sreemanthi and Basrai.

4.5.4. Planting material

The banana is propagated by suckers and rhizomes. However, tissue cultured plantlets
are also being used on a large scale nowadays. These tissue cultured plantlets enable early
harvesting in 11-12 months after planting.

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Planting and infilling
The time of planting of banana depends solely on climatic conditions and availability
of water. In areas of heavy and continuous rains, planting of banana should be done after
rains i.e. September - October and in those areas where rains are not so heavy planting can be
done in June-July. In Irrigated areas the planting is done in February - March and in hilly
areas in April. The planting material is treated with a solution of 250 g of ghee, 0.500 g of
honey and 15 kg of cowdung. The spacing adopted by organic banana cultivators in
Maharashtra are 1.5 m x 1.5 m and 1.5 m x 1.8 m. However for tissue cultured banana, a
spacing of 1.5 m x 1.8 m accomodating a plant population of 4400 plants/ha is considered for
working out the cost of this model scheme.

4.5.5. Intercropping
Onion, soyabean and cowpea can be grown as intercrop in Banana by planting on
raised bed which will give additional income. Growing intercrops like cowpea and
soyabeanalso helps in suppressing weed growth. In preparation of model scheme, the income
and expenditure for intercropping is not considered.

Manuring
15 t of FYM/compost is applied at the time of land preparation. After plantation, the
manuring is done by applying 5 kg FYM, 2 Kg Bhumilab, 20 g trichoderma and 30-50 ml
humus per plant in first year and FYM @ 10 kg, Bhumilab @ 2.5 - 3 kg per plant during
subsequent two years.

The spraying of Gomutra (Cow urine) and Jeevamrut is also taken up. The jeevamrut
is prepared by adding 10 kg cowdung, 5 l of cow urine, 2 kg black jaggery, 2 kg ground
pulses powder, handful of bund soil in 200 l of water, the solution is kept for 2 to 7 days in
shade for fermentation. During the fermentation, the solution is stirred on daily. Biofertilizers
like Azatobacter(20 g/plant), Phosphate Solubilizing bacteria (PSB) (20 g/plant) and EM
solution at the rate of 1 l per acre. The EM (Effective Microorganisms) solution is prepared
by adding 1 l EM, 2 kg black jaggery, 50 g salt mixed in a drum of suitable size.

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Irrigation
The plants need to be irrigated immediately after planting. About 30-40 weekly
irrigations are required. When summer temperature crosses 37.5 0C, irrigation on every 3rd
day is essential. Inadequate irrigation to banana leads to delayed flowering, irregular bunch
size, delayed maturity, reduced fingers and poor keeping quality of the fruits. The drip system
of irrigation is being followed in most of the organic banana cultivation in Maharashtra. In
this model scheme, the cost of installation of drip is not considered

Propping
Propping or supporting the bearing plants can be done by suitable propping material
like bamboo or wooden poles

Mulching
Mulching is desirable immediately after planting. Mulching controls weed growth,
conserves moisture, hastens growth and improves yield.

Desuckering
All varieties of banana throw suckers from 2-3 months after planting. All these
suckers should not be allowed to grow as they will compete with the mother plants for water
and nutrients thereby reducing the yield of main crop. Desuckering with sickle at 15-20 days
interval right from the beginning till flowering is essential. Wrapping the bunch is essential to
have blemish / bruise free fruits with uniform size and quality. For this, black coloured
polythene may be used for covering the fruits

Plant Protection
The major pests and diseases observed in banana crop are rhizome weevil, nematodes, bunchy
top, leaf spot, etc. In the case of organic farming, dasparniarka and neem cake are used to
control pests and diseases. The dasparniarka, which means mixture of leaves of ten kinds of
plants (das=ten, parna=leaf, arka=concentrated form of solution) is prepared by adding 25 kg

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 4.5.6. Harvesting

The crop gets ready for harvest after 11-12 months of planting. First ratoon crop is ready after
8-10 months from harvesting the main crop and second ratoon after 8 months of harvesting of
the first ratoon crop. Thus over the period of 27-30 months, it is possible to harvest three
crops i.e. one main crop and two ratoon crops.

4.5.7. Yield
With the conservative estimate, it is expected that at least 80% of the plants would produce
bunches of banana.

Questions
1. Give a detailed account on dry and wet flower decoration
2. Write an essay on the cultivation of rose
3. Write an essay on the cultivation jasmine
4. Describe in detail about the cultivation of Mango and Banana.
5. Describe in detail about the cultivation of Banana.
6. Write a detail account on flower arrangement
7. Give a brief account on preservation of fruit

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UNIT- V:
Green house, Indoor gardening - Bonsai- flower arrangements- nursery- Management and
maintenance.

Contents
5.1. Introduction
5.1.1. Benefits of Indoor Gardening
5.1.2. Gardening Pot
5.1.3. Fertilizer
5.1.4. Moisture
5.1.5. Water
5.1.6. Pest control
5.2. Bonsai Flowering
5.2.1. Facts about Flowering Bonsais
5.2.2. Bonsai General Care
5.2.3. Tips for the Best Bonsai Gardening
5.2.4. Some popular Flowering Bonsai Trees
5.3. Nursery
5.3.1. Importance of Nursery and its Role
5.3.2. Guidelines for Nursery Raising
5.3.3. Components of a Good Nursery
5.3.4. Nursery Media
5.3.5. General nursery tools
5.3.6. Equipment and Machinery

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5.1. Introduction
What is Indoor Gardening?
Gardening is the practice of growing and cultivating plants as part of horticulture (it is
technically the science, technology and business involved in intensive plant cultivation for
human use. It is very diverse in its activities, incorporating plants for food and non food crops
such as flowers, trees and shrubs). Most of the time or the most common style of gardening is
usually outdoors, but it can also be indoors.

Indoor gardening had its primary heyday in Victorian time. Plants such as abutilons,
palms and hibiscus were discovered by botanists (a scientist who specializes in studying
plants) in distant parts of the world, those who could afford to do so fill their parlours and
conservatories with these exotic beauties. During 1970’s there was another revival of indoor
plants though it was largely confined to foliage plants such as spider plants, Swedish ivy and
ferns. In indoor gardening it is concerned with growing plants or houseplants within a
residence or a building due to lack of natural space. It is beneficial to those who live in the
city and it is mostly recommended to the people who lived in apartments, condominiums and
little houses which have no space for gardening. It is also perfect for the winter season. It also
purifies the air that we breathe.

Always remember that you should know more about your indoor plants and where
they come from when you are contriving to create an indoor garden to make sure that they
will grow healthy. Understanding a plant’s native habitat can help you decide which potting
soil to use, how often you should water and the amount of sunlight needed.

5.1.1. Benefits of Indoor Gardening

Indoor gardening has many benefits like it is good in our health, beautification of
home, and many more. Houseplants produce a healthier environment by absorbing chemicals
from building materials, hydrocarbons from furniture and detergents as well as filtering
allergens from the air. They can get rid of eighty-seven percent of air toxins in twenty-four
hours through absorbing them and giving off oxygen. It helps us to relax our mind, eyes and
ease fatigue from the busy days because of its cooling effect. It constitutes a productivity gain
in the workplace because of the raise in the humidity levels cause by the houseplant or indoor

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plants. Indoor gardening is also a form of exercise; it can reduce stress, weight and
depression.

Indoor plants have been adding the finishing touch and that accent colour to homes
since the seventeenth century. They get the warmth that can tie the bridge from “house” to
“Home”. There are flowering plants, textured plants, climbing plants, plants to perfume a
room, plants for bright areas and for nearly dark corners. It can make our house more
organize and clean and it can decorate some bare walls of the house. It brings life into your
living room, bedroom and other parts of the house.

Since indoor gardening was done by most people who live in the city you can induce
an extra income in it by selling the flower, fruit or the flora itself. It can also supply food and
fresh foods for the family. Indoor gardening helps us to form our character or personality
because it helps us to show or improve our creativeness, increase our patience, organize our
time, and we become more aware about our environment.

5.1.2. Gardening Pot

Gardening pot is a container for plants that grows indoors instead of planting them to
the ground because of lack of space or for ornamental purposes. It is also useful in areas
where the soil or climate is not suitable for the plant to grow. It is usually constructed of
plastic and window boxes (also known as flower box that is usually placed outdoors) but the
custom is terracotta. The smaller ones are called flower pots. The advantage of using
gardening pots is nearly eliminated weeds, less risk of soil-borne diseases and it gives more
control of temperature, moisture and sunlight.

5.1.3. Fertilizer
Plants supply their own food by means of photosynthesis, but grow better when
fertilized. Fertilizer is a chemical or natural substance that is added to the soil to boost its
fertility. In potted plants, the soil nutrients can be diminished. You can artificially add
nutrients by using fertilizer. However, do not add too much fertilizer to the plant because it
can be harmful to the plant. Also, do not add fertilizer to a weak plant or plant that was
suffering from an insect or disease. You have to wait to until new healthy leaves appear or
signs of recovery before you add fertilizer.

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5.1.4. Moisture
Moisture refers to the presence of liquid especially water, often in trace amounts. The
best way to determine if the plant needs to be watered is to check its moisture. Proper soil
moisture can be range from slightly moist on the surface, but dry on the bottom.
Temperature. Temperature is the numerical measure of hot and cold. Temperature control for
other plants with contrary requirements needs attention to heating or cooling. Too many
fluctuations in temperature will probably mean that the area you chosen are not ideal.

5.1.5. Water
Water is very important in life because all living things need water to survive. Plants
absorb or take in water from the soil with their roots. Soils which are good have chemicals
called minerals, which help the plants grow. When plant roots absorb water, they also absorb
minerals which may be dissolved in the water. If a plant does need to be watered, you should
slowly pour the water over the surface of the soil until it begins to drain out the bottom of the
pot, making sure of complete saturation. Plants need frequent watering when the weather is
sunny and warm, but they may not need it during cool and cloudy days.

5.1.6. Pest control

Pest control refers to the regulation of a species called a pest. Although indoor plants
do not suffer much from indoor insects as do outdoor plants because pests can be carried into
the house on a newly acquired plant. Insects that damage indoor plants include aphids, spider
mites, mealybugs, whiteflies and scales. You should remove dead plants; leaves and other
debris that often harbors injurious insects

5.2. Bonsai Flowering

Bonsai is the art of aesthetic miniaturisation of trees and plants in containers. In
Japanese a Bonsai, means “tray-planted”. A bonsai plant is not a dwarf plant but equal to the
full sized flowering plant. The main objective of bonsai plants is to create a tree or plant, and
even landscapes, in miniature. The flowering perennials grown as bonsais are called as
Flowering Bonsais. Flowering Bonsai plant need feeding, watering, pruning and training at
regular interwals for its healthy growth. The bonsais are grown in small containers to get a
desired shape by the application of wire coils. The three most essential aspects to be
considered when we go for a bonsai are - 1) the selection of containers, 2) the position of the
plant in the container, and 3) the choice of the plant variety. Within the bonsais, there are

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four sizes of flowering bonsais: miniature, small, medium, and average. Miniature bonsais
range grows to 2 inches in height, maturing in about five years. Small bonsai are from 2-6
inches, and take 5-10 years years to mature, and Medium bonsai are from 6-12 inches, and an
average bonsai trees grow to 2 feet; both these can be produced in about three years time.

There are two basic styles of growing bonsai flowering plants. They are:
1) The Classic style (Koten): This type of bonsais have wider trunk at the base and tapers
off towards the top.
2) The Informal or Comic style (Bunjin): The comic style is just the opposite of classic
where the top end is wider than the trunk.

5.2.1. Facts about Flowering Bonsais

• Bonsai originated in China over a 1000 years ago known as pun-sai (the practice of
growing single specimen trees in pots)
• Flowering bonsai plants can be developed from seeds or cuttings, or from young
trees or from natural stunted trees transplanted into containers.
• If proper bonsai care is taken, a bonsai can live for hundreds of years.
• Most popular bonsai trees are the Japanese Maples, particularly the Lace leaf
varieties.

5.2.2. Bonsai General Care

• Watering: Watering is the most important step in bonsai plantings. Bonsai trees
should be regularly watered the soil should always be kept moist. The soil should not
be allowed to dry.
• Pruning: Pruning and trimming of stems as well as the roots is very crucial. The
former allows for the bonsai to be kept in shape and the latter contains the growth of
bonsai.
• Lighting: Bonsai have very different lighting requirements. Most of them need good
light conditions. Place such bonsais where there is a good light. A place near the
window should therefore be a right place.
• Junipers: Take care that Junipers do not get dried up.
• Fertilization: Fertilization is a very crucial part of bonsai gardening. It should be
done at regular intervals.

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5.2.3. Tips for the Best Bonsai Gardening
• Allow the bonsais to get good light. Place them in a sunny window, where there is
plenty of light.
• Let a bonsai tree get some fresh air. Keep it where there is good ventilation.
• Water the bonsai until water comes out of the pot. It does not mean waterlogging. the
excess water should flow out. It means the container should have a hole to allow for
this overflow.
• See that bonsai tree grows straight. Provide some anchor if need be to do so.
• In order to keep the tree healthy, fertilize it every 6 months.
• Bonsai pot should be a little more than two-thirds the height of bonsai tree. It is
good both in terms of support as well as adding beauty for the bonsai itself.
• For a tree to be a miniature, prune the roots, occasionally.
• Keep the Bonsai away from frost. Most of the bonsais are not frost tolerant.

5.2.4. Some popular Flowering Bonsai Trees

Some of the flowering Bonsai trees popular with bonsai growers are: Bonsai
Anthurium, Japanese Wisteria Bonsai Tree, Dwarf Pomegranate, Bonsai Japanese Maples,
Japanese Flowering Quince Bonsai Tree, Dwarf yellow Flowering Jasmine, Flowering White
Serissa Bonsai Tree, Tree of a Thousand Stars, Rhododendron Bonsai Tree, Wine Grape
Bonsai Tree, Orange Jasmine, Desert Rose Bonsai Tree, Flowering Apricot, Surinam Cherry
Bonsai Tree, Mimosa Bonsai Tree, Tamarind Bonsai Tree, Lavender Star Flower Bonsai
Tree, Bonsai Gardenia (jasminoidesradicans), Dwarf Black Olive, Azalea Bonsai Tree
(IndicaDuc de Rohan), Flowering Camellia Bonsai Tree, etc.

5.3. Nursery
A nursery is a managed site, designed to produce seedlings grown under favourable
conditions until they are ready for planting. All nurseries primarily aim to produce sufficient
quantities of high quality seedlings to satisfy the needs of users. In the existing infrastructure,
there are just over 100 big nurseries. At present 30-40% demand for planting material is
being met by the existing infrastructure. As per the report of the working group on
Horticulture, Plantation crops and Organic farming for the XI five year Plan (2007-12),

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Planning Commission, Government of India (GoI), there are about 6,330registered nurseries
under public and private sectors.

5.3.1. Importance of Nursery and its Role

Seedlings and grafts are produced in nursery from which the fruit orchards and
ornamental gardens can be established with minimum care, cost and maintenance The
nursery planting materials are available at the beginning of the planting season. This saves
the time, money and efforts of the farmers to raise seedlings

There is a wide scope for fruit orchards, ornamental, vegetable, and landscape gardens
at public places, highways and co-operative housing societies It assures the production of
genetically improved quality planting material It provides employment opportunities for
technical, skilled, semi-skilled, unskilled labour They are an important source supplying the
seedlings for meeting the fruit, pulp and paper, fuel wood, timber and other demands of the
industries

5.3.2. Guidelines for Nursery Raising

Time of sowing/initiation of propagules production depend on how long the seedlings
will take to have an optimum size of a seedling (with good rooting and about 20 cm tall) and
coincidence of its ready availability at the time of initiation of monsoon (July for South West
monsoon and October for North East monsoon areas). The number of plants required to be
produced from a nursery can be calculated as below.
• Number of plants required for the season = W
• Mortality in nursery = X
• Transportation/culling loss = Y
• Seedling required of buffer loss = Z
• Total seedlings required to be produced from the nursery = W + X + Y + Z
• In case of vegetative propagules, the success percentage also needs to be considered.
• Generally, it is assumed that the area of nursery should be 0.25% to 2.5% of the area
to be planted or the area of nursery should be about 1 acre for every 30,000 seedlings.
It also required daily supply of water @ 200 l per 1000 seedlings.

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5.3.3. Components of a Good Nursery
The nursery site should be located in the nutrient rich/medium soil, near to water
source, free from soil pathogens and insects, availability of cheap and skilled labours and has
good access to the main road for easy transportation. The site should be on gently sloping
area and away from other tall crops: this is important for good drainage as well as to
encourage air circulation. An appropriate site must be selected for the most effective,
efficient, and economical design of a nursery. The purpose and target of plants to be
produced will decide the site selection and its improvement. Careful observation of site
conditions and an assessment of past and present climatic records are important. If desired,
make a list of potential nursery sites and compare them using a decision matrix.

Layout
No standard blueprint for designing a plant nursery exists. On the contrary, each
nursery will have a unique design based on distinct needs, resources, and requirements.
Generally a good nursery should consist of water tank/pond, water pump/pump house, seed
and fertilizer store room, implement shed, germination/mother bed area; potting/container
filling area, seedling raising area, worker mess/hall, office room, propagation structures,
compost area, etc.

A nursery is usually arranged in a series of beds with pathway between them. An open
area is needed at one end, where work such as sieving of soil and filling of containers can be
done. Usually a room/shelter is required for staff and the watchman, and where equipment
can be securely stored. Layout should be in a way that enables operations to flow logically
through the nursery so as to save labour and time. Roads and paths within the nursery should
be carefully planned. The nursery facilities should be kept clean. Every effort should be made
to control weeds in and around the nursery as weeds may host insects and pathogens.

Inputs
Containers, nursery media, propagules, water, fertilizers, chemicals, electricity, tools,
equipment, machineries and labour are the major input to nursery.
Containers
Made up of polythene (bags, pots, and root trainers), clay (pots) or iron material.
Polybags are the cheap containers, while root trainers are user friendly, easy to handle and
transport.

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5.3.4. Nursery Media
The growth medium must be sufficiently firm to hold the seedling or propagules
during rooting and supply food and water for the successful growth of young seedlings. Soil
is a very common easily available and comparatively cheaper medium used in nursery. Sand
is generally used in mother bed and vegetative plant propagation media. The other media
used in nursery are peat soil, sphagnum mass, vermiculite, perlite, leaf mould, saw dust, grain
husk and Coco peat. Among them vermiculite is mostly used for cuttings while sphagnum
mass is used for air layering. Generally, availability ofall mineral nutrients is affected by the
pH of the growing medium. In growing media such as organic soils, maximum availability
occurs between 5.5 and 6.5 pH.

Propagules: Seed, cutting, rootstock, scion, explants, etc.

Water and Fertilizers: Water for irrigation and fertilizer for major and minor nutrient.

Supply: Chemicals: Pesticides, fungicide, herbicides and growth regulators.

5.3.5. General nursery tools

Axes, crow bar, wheel barrows, boxes, plastic buckets, watering cans, wire cutters,
digging forks, hammer, nails, hoes, hand pruning knives, budding knives, respiratory masks,
sprayers, saws, scissors, secateurs, budding and grafting knives, budding and grafting tape,
germination trays, khurpis, iron pan, spade, forks, etc.

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 Figure 5.1. General nursery tools

Electricity: For operating power machineries and to provide control environment in nursery.

Figure: 5.2. Automated container filling machine

5.3.6. Equipment and Machinery:

The nursery operations like transporting, watering and sales depend on the vehicle
and machineries and equipments in the nursery. Among them tractor with trolley, disc
plough, water tanker are necessary. The nursery potting media filling machine or automated
container filling machines

Questions
1. Write a brief note on indoor gardening
2. Write a short note on Bonsai
3. Describe the garden features
4. Give a detailed account on dry and wet flower decoration
5. Write a brief account of lawn establishment
6. Write a short note on induction of flowering
7. Write a short note on inbreeding depression
8. Write an account of Garden and its Parts.
9. Describe the Lawn Making.

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