Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.

Joseph Arun
Unit 2 – Preliminary Design Procedure 4. Horizontal Tail Surface
Data Collection: i) Type of horizontal tail: ii) Platform shape:
Airplane design is an evolutionary process. The data on existing airplanes, similar iii) Airfoil: iv) Span (m):
to the proposed design, provide the necessary guidance for arriving at appropriate v) Root chord (m) : vi) Tip chord (m):
initial design values. vii) Area (m2): viii) Sweep:
A Data sheet may be prepared and all data regarding previous available designs ix) Incidence (i)*: x) Elevator area (m2):
can be collected. It may be mentioned that this format includes information about the xi) Tab area (m2): xii) Construction and other details:
following aspects.
(a) General features of the airplane. 5. Vertical Tail Surface:
(b) Geometrical parameters of the major components of the airplane. i) Type of vertical tail
(c) Various types of weights of the airplane. ii) Airfoil:
(d) Performance parameters. iii) Height (m):
iv) Root chord (m):
Suggested Airplane Data Sheet: v) Tip chord (m):
1. General description of Airplane: vi) Area (m2):
• Name of the airplane:  Type of airplane:
vii) Sweep:
• Name of manufacturer and country of origin: viii) Off-set angle:
2. Power Plant: ix) Rudder area (m2)
• Type of power plant:  Name:
• Engine rating:  Specific fuel consumption:
6. Fuselage:
• Oil consumption:  Weight of power plant:
• Overall dimensions of engine:
Diameter (m): Length (m):
Engine Centre of Gravity:
• Special accessories and controls
• No. of engines and their locations:
• Intake/propeller details
3. Wing
Planform shape
i) Airfoil section:
ii) Span (m):
i) Length (m): ii) Length of nose (lnose):
iii) Root chord (m):
iii) Length of cockpit (l cockpit): iv) Length of tail cone (ltailcone):
iv) Tip chord (m):
v) Length of payload compartment: vi) Length of mid-fuselage:
v) Area (S) (m2):
vii) Upsweep angle viii) Fuselage closure angle
vi) Mean chord (m):
ix) Shape and size of cabin: x) Cockpit:
vii)Mean aerodynamic chord (m):
xi) Arrangement of payload and auxiliary equipment:
viii) Sweep (Λ):
xii) Number and arrangement of seats:
ix) Dihedral (Γ): x) Twist (ε):
xi) Incidence (i): xii) Flap area (m2):
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Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun
7. Landing Gear: Preliminary Three Views Drawing:
i) Type of landing gear: ii) Number and size of wheels: The preliminary three-view drawing of the airplane gives an idea about the
iii) Tyre pressure: iv) Wheel base (m): possible shape and size of the proposed airplane and forms the next step after the data
v) Wheel tread (m): vi) Location of landing gears: collection. To draw the preliminary three-view drawing, requires the approximate
vii) Means to reduce landing run and other details: dimensions of the wing, fuselage, tail and other components. The following steps are
used to get these approximate values.
Procedure to draw Three Views Drawing:
1. Preparation of Data Sheet:
Collect design data of at least 5 similar model planes and enter the details in a
data sheet as given below.
Sample Data Sheet of Similar Planes:
Similar Similar Similar Similar Similar
Details
Plane 1 Plane 2 Plane 3 Plane 4 Plane 5
Aspect Ratio
Wing Loading
Wing Span
Sweep Angle
2. Payload Weight:
The payload is the weight of the items for which the airplane is being designed.
This would constitute
(a) The weights of passenger & cargo for a transport airplane
8. Overall Dimensions of Airplane:
(b) The weight of the ammunition/special equipment for a military
i) Length (m): ii) Wing span (m): iii) Height (m):
airplane.
iv) Landing gear wheel tread (m): v) Landing gear wheel base(m):
Depending on the number of passengers, range, the payload can be estimated.
vi) Length/span: vii) Height/span: viii) Tread/span:
Let, the weight of payload be denoted by Wpay.
3. Gross Weight:
9. Weights:
From the data collection on similar airplanes, the ratio W0 / Wpay, can be chosen;
i) Pay load* (kgf): ii) Empty weight* (kgf):
W0 being the design gross weight. Then,


iii) Fuel weight (kgf): iv) Structural weight (kgf):

 =
 ×


v) Disposable load (kgf): vi) Landing weight (kgf):
vii) Normal gross weight (kgf): viii) Maximum gross weight (kgf):  
ix) Payload/gross weight: 4. Area of Wing and Wing Span:
From the data collection on similar airplanes, the wing loading (W/S) is chosen.
Then,


10. Performance
i) Maximum speed (kmph) at sea level: ii) Maximum speed (kmph) at altitude : =



iii) Landing speed (kmph):
iv) Cruise speed (kmph) and altitude (km): 

v) Maximum sea level rate of climb (m/min):
From data collection on similar airplanes, the aspect ratio (A) of the wing is
vi) Service ceiling (km): vii) Endurance* (hours):
chosen. Consequently, the wing span (b) is given by
viii) Take-off run* (m): x) Landing run* (m): 
 =  × (  ) 

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Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun
5. Taper Ratio & Sweep Angle: 9. Area of Aerodynamic Parts:
The planform of the wing is chosen from the data collection. Let Root Chord be Cr From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the values of
and Tip Chord be Ct. Let the taper ratio be λ. Then, Selevator/S, Srudder/Svt, Saileron/S, Sflap/S, celevator/cht, crudder/cvt, caileron/cwing, cflap/cwing.

=
Obtain the areas and chords of elevator, rudder, flap and aileron.
2( + ! )
! 2
"= #$%  = #$% ! =  "
10. Thrust and Power of the Engine:
 (1 + ") From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the value of T/ W or W/ P;
Also the sweep angle (Λ) of the wing can be chosen from the data on similar T is the engine thrust and P is the engine power.
airplanes. Hence, T = (T / W) × W or P = W / (W / P)
1

1 =
 × - . #$% 2 = 4
6. Length of Fuselage:
From the data on similar airplanes, choose the ratio (lf / b); lf = length of fuselage.
   3 5 6
Then:  
'( 11. Number of Engines & Engine Rating:
'( =  ×

Choose the number of engines to be used and obtain the rating of engine (s).
  Obtain approximate dimensions of the engine and the size(s) of the
propellers/intake as appropriate. From the data collection on similar airplanes,
7. Length of Nose, Cockpit & Tail-cone: choose the locations of the wing, the horizontal tail and the vertical tail on the
From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the cross-sectional size of fuselage.
the fuselage and the position where payload is located. Also find the ratios
') '*)*+ ! '! *)
12. Landing Gears:
#$% #$%
'( '( '(
From the data on similar airplanes, choose the landing gear type and obtain
(wheel base) / lf and (wheel tread)/ lf. Obtain wheel base and wheel tread as lf is
known.
Obtain length of nose, cockpit and tail-cone as Length of fuselage is known from
step 5. Obtain the length of the payload section as difference between lf and the
sum of the lengths of nose, cockpit and tail-cone.
8. Area of Horizontal and Vertical Tail:
From the data on similar airplanes choose the values of Sht/ S, Svt/ S. Also choose
the values of aspect ratio, taper ratio and sweep for the horizontal and the
vertical tails. In this step, the suffixes “ht” and “vt” refer to the horizontal tail and
the vertical tail respectively.
 ,! /!
,! =  × - . #$% /! =  × - .
   
 
,! = 0,! ,! #$% /! = 0/! /!
2,! 2/!
( ),! = #$% ( )/! =
,! (1 + ",! ) /! (1 + "/! )
(! ),! = ( ),! ",! #$% (! )/! = ( )/! "/!
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Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun
Weight Estimation in Aircraft: Weight Estimation:
Aircraft weights are generally classified into, Empty Weight Estimation We/W0:
a. Crew Weight Wcrew: The crew comprises the people necessary to operate the Most planes designs are evolutionary and not revolutionary. That is the design of
airplane in flight. plane is improved from previous designs during various design phases. Hence the
b. Payload Weight Wpayload: The payload is what the airplane is intended to statistical data of previous similar planes provide a starting point for the conceptual
transport such as passengers, baggage, freight, etc. If the airplane is intended for design of new plane.
military combat use, the payload includes rockets, and other disposable weapons.
c. Fuel weight Wfuel: This is the weight of the fuel in the fuel tanks. Since fuel is
consumed during the course of the flight is a variable decreasing with time
during the flight.
d. Empty weight Wempty: This is the weight of everything else-the structure, engines
(with all accessory equipment), electronic equipment (including radar,
computers, communication devices, etc.), landing gear, fixed equipments like
seats galleys, etc.), and anything else that is not crew, payload, or fuel.
The sum of these weights is the total weight of the airplane W. Again, W varies
throughout the flight because fuel is being consumed, and for a military combat
airplane, ordnance may be dropped.
Weight Equation Method:
Mean Take Off Weight (MTOW):
Mean Take Off Weight (MTOW) or Gross Weight (W0) is the weight of the airplane Data of planes produced from 1930 till now is represented in the above figure. As
at the instant it begins its mission. It includes the weight of all the fuel on board at the we can see, We/W0 values range from0.57 to 0.72. The mean value of the graph is
beginning of the flight. Hence, approximately 0.62

 =
78 +
 +
9: +
; ! ------------------ Eqn. 1

AB$CB = 0.62
In the above equation WFuel is weight of the fuel full load at the beginning of the

flight.

 =
78 +
 +
( +
 Fuel Fraction Estimation Wf/W0:
Fuel available for performing the mission is called Mission Fuel. Additional fuel

(


 =
78 +
 +
+

for emergency landing as per civil and military specifications is Reserve Fuel. Some fuel

 
  cannot be pumped out of tanks due to design constraints. This is called Trapped Fuel.

(

Fuel fraction can be estimated based on the mission to be flown using

 −
−
=
78 +


 
 
approximations of the fuel consumption and aerodynamics.
4> 4?
=1 − − @
 =
78 +

Mission Profile:
45 45 The total fuel consumed during the mission is that consumed from the moment

78 +

the engines are turned on at the airport to the moment they are shut down at the end of

 = 4> 4?
the flight. Between these times, the flight of the airplane can be described by a
=1 − − @
45 45 conceptual sketch of altitude versus time called Mission Profile.
We may not know W0 but we fairly obtain ratios of Wf/W0 and We/W0
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Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun
a. Simple Cruise Mission Profile:
A simple cruise mission profile is shown below
• It starts at the point labelled 0, when the engines are first turned on. The Takeoff
Segment is denoted by the line segment 0-1, which includes warm-up, taxiing,
and takeoff.
• Segment 1-2 denotes the Climb to cruise altitude.
• Segment 2-3 represents the Cruise, which is by far the largest segment of the
mission. Segment 2-3 shows an increase in altitude during cruise, consistent with
an attempt to keep c and L / D constant as the airplane weight decreases because
of the consumption of fuel.
• Segment 3-4 denotes the descent, which generally includes Loiter time to
account for air traffic delays; for design purposes, a loiter time of 20 min is
commonly used. Segment 4-5 represents Landing.
b. Air Superiority Mission Profile:
• Air Superiority mission includes a cruise out, a combat, a weapons drop, a cruise
back, and loiter.
• Combat consists of either a certain number of turns or a certain number of
minutes at maximum power. It deals with fighting with another airplane.
• The weapons drop refers to the firing or gun and missiles, and is needed to
ensure that the aircraft has enough fuel to return safely if the weapons aren't
used.
• The aircraft must return to its base at the end of the mission.
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Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun
c. Low Level Strike Mission Profile:
• The Low-Level Strike mission includes “dash” segments that must be flown at
just a few hundred feet off the ground.
• This is to improve the survivability of the aircraft as it approaches its target.
Unfortunately, the aerodynamic efficiency of an aircraft, expressed as “lift-to-
drag ratio” (LID), is greatly reduced during low-level, high-speed flight.
• The aircraft in this segment burns much fuel as same as longer cruise
segment.
d. Strategic Bombing Mission Profile:
• The Strategic Bombing mission introduces another twist. After the initial
cruise, a refuelling segment occurs, as indicated by an “R.” Here the aircraft
meets up with a tanker aircraft and receives some quantity of fuel in mid-air.
• This enables the bomber to achieve far more range, but adds to the overall
operating cost because a fleet of tanker aircraft must be dedicated to
supporting the bombers.
• The bomber in this typical strategic mission will fly at low level as it nears the
target area to improve its chances of survival.
• The return cruise range is far shorter than the outbound range. This is
necessary because of the extreme range required.
• If the aircraft were sized to return to its original base, it will have heavy size.
Instead, it is assumed that strategic bombers will land on bases in friendly
countries for refuelling after completion of their mission.
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Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun
Weight Fraction for Various Segments of Mission: 3. Weight Fraction for Cruise:
The airplane weight at the end of the segment divided by the weight at the Brequet Range Equation:
beginning of the segment is defined as Weight Fraction. Each segment of the mission The amount of fuel required to carry out the mission depends critically on
profile is associated with a Weight Fraction. the efficiency of the propulsion device (Engine), specific fuel consumption and


GHIIHJ$ BKLB$M
BHKℎM OP#CMHJ$ =
the propeller efficiency. It also depends critically on the aerodynamic efficiency-

Q the lift-to-drag ratio. These factors are principal players in the Breguet Range
For simple mission, missions can be fragmented into Equation
i. Takeoff W1 = Weight after Take Off
Z [
 ! 
UPBKVBM W#$KB XYV#MHJ$ W = ln
ii. Climb W2 = Weight after end of the climb
iii. Cruise W3 = Weight after end of cruise C \
( 
iv. Loiter W4 = Weight after end of Loiter
v. Land W5 = Weight after end of Landing Where, R = Range

R


S
T
R
ηPr = Propeller Efficiency
=





S
T
c = Specific Fuel Consumption
L/D = Lift to Drag Ratio
Winitial and Wfinal = Initial Weight & Final Weight
If, at the end of the flight, the fuel tank is completely empty, then,

( =
 −
R 4. Weight Fraction for Loiter:
Dividing by W0


R
Endurance Equation:
(
=1− [ ⁄\
 ! 


 X$%VP#$CB XYV#MHJ$ X = ln
C
( 
However, at the end of the mission, the fuel tanks are not completely empty-by
design. There should be some fuel left in reserve at the end of the mission in case Where, E = Loiter Time or Endurance Time
weather conditions or traffic problems require that the pilot of the airplane divert to c = Specific Fuel Consumption
another airport, or spend a longer-than-normal time in a holding pattern. L/D = Lift to Drag Ratio
Also, the geometric design of the fuel tanks and the fuel system leads to some Winitial and Wfinal = Initial Weight & Final Weight
trapped fuel that is unavailable at the end of the flight. Typically, a 6% allowance is
made for reserve and trapped fuel.

(
R
5. Weight Fraction for Combat:
= 1.06 -1 − .



The combat mission is normally specified as either Time Duration (d) or
certain combat turns at some Mach number.
1. Weight Fraction for Engine Start, Warm Up, Taxi and Take Off:
1
= 1 −  - .%
Airplane Type Weight Fraction
Q

Piston Engine Airplanes 0.99
2abc
`ℎBPB % =
Turbo Props, Transport Jets 0.98
Military Trainers & Fighters 0.97 K√$ − 1
6. Weight Fraction for Descent or Landing:


2. Weight Fraction for Climb:
a. For Subsonic Flights = 1.065 to 0.035 M = 0.990 MJ 0.995
b. For Supersonic Flights = 0.991 to 0.070 M
Q
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Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun
Evaluation of Component Weights: Note:
1. Approximate Group Weights Method: a. DCPR Weight (Defense Contractors Planning Report) or AMPR Weight
• In this method, weights of all the components and sub-systems are calculated (Aeronautical Manufacturers Planning Report) can be viewed as the parts made
as a percentage of Gross Weight. by manufacturers as opposed to parts bought and installed.
• This method is useful for initial balance calculations and approximate Centre b. DPCR Weight is equal to empty weight minus weights of wheels, brakes, cooling
of Gravity calculations. fluids, batteries, AC units etc.
• All the components and sub-systems are classified into three main groups. c. Centre of gravity is found after estimating the weights by Approximate Group
• The Structural Group consists of load carrying components such as, method.
a. Wings d. The CG will vary during flight as the fuel is burned off or weapons are disposed.
b. Horizontal Tail Hence CG Envelope Plot is prepared to ensure that CG remains within the limits.
c. Vertical Tail e. Fuel is permitted to burn from different tanks at different times to keep the CG in
d. Body limits.
e. Landing Gear
f. Air Induction System
• The Equipment Group consists of all non load bearing components that
perform any specific tasks such as,
a. Flight Controls
b. Hydraulic, Pneumatic and Electrical Instruments
c. Avionics
d. Air Conditioning & Anti Icing Systems
e. Photographic and Load Handling Systems 2. Statistical Group Weight Method:
f. Armaments
• A more refined estimate of group weights applies statistical equations based
on detailed regression analysis.
• The Propulsion Group consists of engine related components and propellers
• Development of these equations is a result of major efforts by each aircraft
a. Engines
company. Each company develop its own equations.
b. Accessory Gearbox
• To acquire a statistical database for these equations, the engineers must
c. Exhaust & Cooling Systems
obtain group weight statements and detailed drawings as many as aircrafts
d. Fuel Systems
possible.
e. Ignition Systems
• It should be noted that, there is no “Right” answers in weight estimation until
f. Starters
the first aircraft flies. However these equations provide reasonable estimate
• The Useful Load Group includes all weights for which the consumers pay,
of the group weights.
a. Crew
Important Equations:
b. Fuel (Used and Trapped)

4 g = 0.013ij8 i/ (
jg kl ).R 8.m .noR (M/C)Q.T × (1 + ").R(JI⋀)Q 7.T
4
c. Passengers
d. Cargo/Luggage O8 Q.
jg kl .m .om

r) l)! s  = 3.316 -1 + . - . ,!
e. Guns U, 1000
f. Expendable Weapons
All the above said weights are estimated as a fraction of take-off weight.
9:g = 0.499ij8(
jg .SR ku .R [.R \.oTv
.moR

wj g x = i*y i!g (
 k ).R [ .vnS
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Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun
• These statistical equations are based upon database of existing aircrafts. Power Loading:
Hence they work for normal designs. However if we use new or non- The term Thrust Loading is associated with Jet Engine Aircraft. For propeller-
conventional designs like Canard, weight estimate may not be accurate. powered aircraft, the equivalent term is Power Loading. It is denoted by,
2J`BP [J#%H$K = z
2{
• Hence to adjust the statistical equations, Fudge Factor is used. Fudge Factor
is a constant that we multiply with our derived weights to find the right
weight. where W = Weight of Airplane and P = Power produced by the propeller (hp).
• Fudge Factors are also used for new class of aircraft for which no statistical A propeller-powered aircraft produces thrust through the propeller which has an
equations are available. efficiency known as Propeller Efficiency (ηp) which is defined as ratio of thrust output
Fudge Factors Table to the horsepower provided by the engine.
S. Weight Fudge
No Group Factor Terminology of Wings:
1 Wings 0.85 1. Planform is the geometric shape of the wing in the plan view. The area of this shape
2 Tails 0.83 is the Planform Area.
3 Normal Fuselage 0.90 2. Exposed Wing Area is the planform area of the wing outside the fuselage.
4 Wooden Fuselage 1.60
5 Steel Tube Fuselage 1.80
6 Landing Gear 0.95
7 Air Induction System 0.85
Wing Loading:
Wing Loading is the ratio of weight of the airplane to the area of the wing. It is
denoted by

H$K [J#%H$K = z
{
where W = Weight of Airplane and S = Area of the Wing
Wing loading affects stall speed, climb rate, takeoff and landing distances and
turn performance. The wing loading determines the design lift coefficient and impacts
drag.
If wing is large, wing loading will be small. This may improve performance but it
will also add more Take-off weight. 3. Reference Wing: The reference wing is a trapezoidal wing as shown
Thrust Loading: (Also known as Thrust to Weight Ratio)
Thrust Loading is the ratio of Thrust of the airplane to the weight of the airplane.
It is denoted by
1ℎPVIM [J#%H$K = z1
{
where W = Weight of Airplane and T = Thrust produced by the airplane.
The aircraft with higher thrust loading will accelerate quickly, climb more
rapidly, and reach higher maximum speed. However, it will have bigger engines which
will consume more fuel.
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Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun
4. Equivalent Trapezoidal Wing: It is a trapezoidal wing whose root chord is at the
fuselage centre line and has the area same as the planform area
5. Wetted Area of wing is the area of surface that would get exposed to air.
6. Aspect Ratio: (A)
The aspect ratio of a wing is the ratio of its span to its mean chord. It is equal to the
square of the wingspan divided by the wing area.

=

7. Taper Ratio: (λ – Small Lambda). The ratio of the tip chord to the root chord
lengths of a wing.
!
"=

8. Sweep (Λ – Capital Lambda): The angle between a line drawn along the span at a
constant fraction of the chord from the leading edge, and a line perpendicular to the
center-line.
Page 17