LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY IN THE KENYAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Isabella Njeri Wachira, Lecturer

Department of Building Economics and Management, University of Nairobi,
Kenya

Abstract

Labour productivity is the measure of the efficiency with which a human being executes an
activity. This productivity is expressed as the units of output per hour e.g. cubic meters of concrete
per hour. In the Kenyan construction industry, labour is the most important factor influencing the
performance of the whole industry since the industry is basically labour intensive. Labour
productivity is the most important determinant of the contract period of projects and all the
consequent time related costs.
Customer satisfaction in the construction industry is measured by the ability of the construction
team to deliver the project within the stipulated time, cost and quality. The most important problem
in the Kenyan construction industry today is the inability of the construction team to deliver projects
within the stipulated time. This has eroded both customer satisfaction and confidence. This state
has among other causes been brought about by lack of labour productivity rates which lead to
inaccurate determination of activity duration’s and consequently, inadeuate estimation of contract
periods.
To correct this situation, we carried out a work measurement study with the aim of establishing
labour productivity of some basic trades. The results obtained are as follows: manual excavation
0.64cm/hr; walling 3.21sm/hr; steel fixing 22.84 lm/hr; formwork 3.72sm/hr concreting 1.57cm/hr;
plastering 3.77sm/hr; screeding 3.74sm/hr; painting 13.15sm/hr. Further analysis of the data
obtained in the work study indicated that the labour content of a project is an average of 19% of the
contract sum. It was also established the management factors, particularly in terms of availing
materials, adequacy of supervision and motivation of workers, are the most important factor
affecting labour productivity. These factors can be influenced positively by the training of
contractors in management skills like planning, scheduling and motivation of workers.

Keywords: Labour, productivity, work measurement, labour content

1. INTRODUCTION

The Kenyan construction industry is one of the most important sectors in the country's economy
whose level of activity is an indicator of the general economic performance of the country. It
contributes about 4% of the country's G.D.P and currently employs 79,000 persons [1] . In the last
five years, the construction industry has been on decline mainly because the government, who is the
sector's largest and most influential client, has reduced it's development expenditure drastically in line
with the prevailing economic climate particularly the structural adjustment program and reduction of
donor funds.

CIB W55 & W65 Joint Triennial Symposium

Customer Satisfaction : A focus for research & practice
Cape Town : 5-10 September 1999
Editors: Bowen, P. & Hindle, R.
 Customer satisfaction in the construction industry can be measured by the ability of the construction
team to deliver the projects within time, cost and quality specified. The Kenyan construction industry
has been plagued by a variety of problems which have over time eroded customer satisfaction and
confidence to the extent that all participant in this industry are generally viewed as "crooks" who are
out to get the customer's money in return for shoddy work. One of the main problems in this industry
is the delivery of projects within the stipulated time. This phenomena has been studied by various
researchers inter alia Talukhaba, Mbatha and Wachira [2,3,4]. The researches have clearly shown that
poor time delivery is the most important problem in the industry where on-time delivery of
construction projects is an exception rather than a norm. Some of the projects investigated have time
delays of up to 1000% with the industry seemingly unable to remedy this sad situation which still
persists. Some of the problems identified as causing these time delays include; delay of payments,
poor/wrong contract time estimates, poor site management, delay in drawings, delay in decision
making, excessive variations, etc.
The contract period of a project is determined before the commencement of the work. It is
absolutely necessary that this contract period is assessed as accurately as possible if it is to be realistic
and achievable. A project's contract period is calculated via the following steps;

• first the project is divided into the various activities that are necessary for its
fulfilment,
• the duration necessary for each of these activities is then determined,
• the logic sequence of the activities is then established,
• the contract period is then determined by summing up the duration of all the
activities on the longest path or the critical path.

In the process of determining the contract period, it is important that the duration for each activity are
assessed accurately. In Kenya, the construction industry is mainly labour intensive and is likely to
remain so in the near future mainly because of the

Prohibitive costs of acquiring new machinery and equipment and the conservative nature of the
industry. Labour is the most important determinant of activity duration's.
Labour productivity rates are of paramount importance if activity duration's are to be determined
accurately. Local productivity rates are however not available since no work measurement study has
ever been undertaken and activity duration's are determined mainly by guesswork, hunch or feeling of
the tenderer, in accordance with the tenderer's perception of what is acceptable to the client or fixing
by the consultants with no regard to the contractor's ability to adhere to the same. This result in wrong
assessment of activity duration's and consequently wrong contract period estimation and is a major
contributor to time overruns. These time overruns have a variety of consequences to the construction
industry including;

• increase in the cost of the project as some costs are time related,
• denial of the client’s right to plan the use of the facilities under construction,
• loss of income for the client particularly when the facilities are for renting or
selling,
• loss of future development since the extra funds allocated to delayed project’s
entail forgoing of other projects,
• disillusionment of the client with the consultants & contractors [5].

CIB W55 & W65 Joint Triennial Symposium

Customer Satisfaction : A focus for research & practice
Cape Town : 5-10 September 1999
Editors: Bowen, P. & Hindle, R.
 All these consequences have combined to erode the satisfaction and confidence of the construction
industry client. In an effort to try and correct this situation it was found necessary to carry out a work
measurement study to establish productivity rates for some of the main trades in the construction
industry.
Labour productivity is the measure of the efficiency with which a human being executes an activity
[6]. This productivity is expressed as the units of output per hour e.g. cubic meters of concrete per
hour or square meters of plaster per hour which forms the basis for estimating the duration of any
activity on the construction site e.g. the duration of walling as an activity = square meters of walling
needed / square meters of walling achievable per hour.

2. Work Measurement

Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified
worker to carry out a specific job at a defined level of performance [7]. The total work content of any
job may be divided into three classes i.e.

•
basic work content defined as the absolute minimum time in which an operation
can be theoretically completed
• unnecessary work caused by bad design, specification, bad operational methods,
bad weather and shortcomings of management and workers
• ineffective work defined as time when man and machine are idle due to
extraneous reasons like weather or material shortages, shortcomings of
management like delay in provision of drawings, and shortcomings of labour like
lateness, idleness [7].
The attempt to maximise productivity, which will lead to optimisation of activity duration and
consequently contract period, is focused on the reduction of work content to as near the basic as
possible and to eliminate ineffective work.
Work measurement is the technique we used to evaluate production output levels of worker in the
following trades;

• excavation
• walling
• concreting
• plastering
• screeding
• painting

The study was carried out on building projects where the tradesmen were observed as they worked.
The tradesmen observed are deemed to be qualified worker i.e. workers having the necessary physical
attributes, possessing the required intelligence and education, and having acquired skill and knowledge
to carry out the work to satisfactory standard of safety, quantity and quality. Data sheets were then
used to record the number of workers, their level of skill, the activity that the workers were engaged in
during the time of observation and the time they took to complete the activity as recorded on a
stopwatch. Idle time were also recorded and their causes noted e.g. lunch break, lack of materials or
lack of instructions. The rates of working i.e. the speed and effectiveness with which the work is
being done - 100 being the desirable rate at which a man should consistently work - were also
observed and recorded. The time of observation ranged from two hours to whole working day (8 - 12
hours) depending on the activity e.g. for concreting which is usually piecework whole day

CIB W55 & W65 Joint Triennial Symposium

Customer Satisfaction : A focus for research & practice
Cape Town : 5-10 September 1999
Editors: Bowen, P. & Hindle, R.
observations were desirable in order to accurately assess the actual quantity of workdone. After the
period of observation the quantity of workdone was measured. Other aspects of the site were also
observed and recorded e.g. the weather conditions, availability of tools of trade, complexity of the
work, and workers wages.
The data sheets containing all the information were then used to calculate basic times. Basic time is
defined as the time for carrying out an element of work at standard rate and is calculated as;

Basic time = observed time x (observed rating/standard rating)

To this basic time a relaxation allowance is added to account for recovering from the varying degrees
of fatigue which will be experienced in different tasks under different conditions. Further, a
contingency allowance to cover the occasional random short lasting delays e.g. to receive instructions
in the working day is added. In construction this is normally taken as 5% [6]. The times obtained
are then abstracted and averaged in order to obtain a truly representative standard time. Standard time
is the total time in which a job should be done at standard performance and is calculated as;

Standard time = basic time + relaxation & other allowances

In order to get a truly representative time the average of a number of studies/observations is required.
In this study an average of forty observation were used for each trade.

3. Trades observed [5]

3.1. Excavation
This is manual excavation mainly in foundations. Unskilled workers are the main type of labour used
with a supervisor or Forman in charge to ensure that the labourers were excavating to the correct depth
and as set out. Tools used include spades, mattocks and hoes. The work involved the actual loosening
of soil and removal of the same from trenches using spades.

3.2. Walling
This involves the actual construction of the wall excluding the mixing of mortar. Skilled masons
assisted by labourers were the main type of labour. Tools include steel trowels, pans, ropes, levels,
measuring tapes and plumb balls.

3.3 Concreting
This is divided into three distinct activities;

3.3.1 Formwork
Timber and timber products e.g. plywood are the main material used and carpenters assisted by
labourers are the main type of labour employed. Tools used include hammers, chisels, measuring
tapes and saws.

3.3.2 Reinforcement
Materials used here include square twisted high tensile bars and mild steel bars. Steel fixers are the
main labour and the utilise tools like hacksaws and pieces of M.S. pipes for bending.

CIB W55 & W65 Joint Triennial Symposium

Customer Satisfaction : A focus for research & practice
Cape Town : 5-10 September 1999
Editors: Bowen, P. & Hindle, R.
3.3.3 Concreting
This involve the actual manufacture of the concrete mix i.e. mixing of aggregates, cement and water
mainly using a concrete mixer. Masons are the main skilled labour used assisted by gang of labourers
and machine operators. Equipment and tools used include concrete mixers, mechanical vibrators,
wheelbarrows, pans, trowels, levels and spades.

3.4. Plastering and Screeding

This involves the actual application of plaster or screed (mixture of sand, cement, and lime) to wall
and floors. The tradesmen here have there basic training as masons but have over time specialised in
these areas. Tools include trowels and levels.

3.5 Painting
This involves the decoration of various surfaces using paint. It is a highly specialised trade with
experienced painters usually working without the assistance of labourers. Tools include a variety of
brushes and sandpaper.

4. Summary of findings

Samples of the data obtained from observations is tabulated in the tables below (due to space
constraint it is not possible to present all the observations), clearly indicating the average labour
productivity output of the various trades. From the data collected it is clear that the Kenyan
construction worker spends an average of 91% of his time in active work and 9% is idle time. His
average working rate is 80 which is lower than the standard rate of 100. These figures are consistent
with the terms of employment in the industry where most workers are employed on piecework basis
and are allowed to leave before the official time (5 p.m.), once they have complete the allocated
work. The lower than standard rating is a reflecting of inadequacy of supervision of the workers and it
also shows that with increased supervision labour productivity can increase even without altering other
site conditions. This is further proved by the rating for concreting which averaged to 102 a
reflection of the intensity of supervision allotted to this trade due to the belief that it is the most
expensive trade (in terms of all-in-rate cost) and hence a need to keep a keen eye on it.
Further observations indicate that the variations of labour productivity outputs in the industry are
mainly influenced by the management of the various sites. These management factors that affect the
efficiency of labour are:

• timely availability of materials and tools;

• supervision of the workers;
• motivation of workers.

These factors can be positively influenced by appropriate training of site management staff including
contractors, site managers, and foremen in management skills like planning and scheduling activities
and resources, co-ordination, supervision, control of projects, and motivation of workers. Motivation
of workers maybe simply paying them a fair wage for a honest days work and more humane terms of
employment as most workers in this industry perceive themselves as being exploited by their
employers. Wages in the industry vary widely and are mainly determined by availability of work in
specific geographical location, the speed at which the respective worker can carry out -an activity
and the workers ability to negotiate with the employer. Most workers are ignorant of the wage
guidelines issued by the Ministry of Labour and the casual nature of their terms of employment make
it impossible for them to join labour unions. There is therefore need for an education campaign among

CIB W55 & W65 Joint Triennial Symposium

Customer Satisfaction : A focus for research & practice
Cape Town : 5-10 September 1999
Editors: Bowen, P. & Hindle, R.
these construction workers to sensitise them on their right's and among employer's to show them the
benefits of fair wages and employment terms on site productivity and consequently contract duration
(proposal for the same is currently under consideration by JBC). Other factors affecting labour
productivity like weather, technology, size and complexity of project were found to be of secondary
importance. Clearly, there is a lot of potential for improvement of labour productivity in the Kenyan
construction industry and this should be exploited in the endeavour to efficiently utilise the scarce
resources available. New technologies that enhance labour productivity should be encouraged since
this industry is likely to remain labour intensive in the foreseeable future.
Table 9 shows the percentage labour content in the unit rates of the trades observed. Trades like
formwork and plastering have higher labour contents since they require more precision and time
which translates into higher labour costs. I believe that the average of 19% is applicable to all
construction trades and hence to the contract sum.

5. Conclusion
As the satisfaction of the construction industry customer becomes paramount and the resources
allocated to the industry continue to decline, survival of contracting firms in particular will hinge on
their ability to improve labour productivity in order to ensure timely delivery of construction projects.
The construction industry being labour intensive means that labour affects/influences the utilisation of
all the other resources allocated to the industry. Enhancement of efficiency must therefore be based on
labour productivity improvement.
As the construction industry endeavour to increase customer satisfaction and confidence by timely
delivery of construction project, standard labour productivity rates must be established so that they can
be used to estimate activity duration's and consequently realistic and achievable project duration's.
The study on which this paper is based is an attempt in that direction with productivity rates in
observed trades being as shown in tables 1-8 above.
Given that the Kenyan construction industry is similar to other construction industries in Africa, we
believe that these labour productivity rates are applicable to the whole region and particularly to
Eastern and Central Africa (similarity is in terms of technology and all-in-rates). They can therefore
be used in these regions for purposes of estimating activity duration's.

6. References

1. Ministry of Planning and National Development, Economic Survey 1998, Republic of Kenya,
Central Bereau of Statistics.
2. Mbatha C.M., Contract performance: A case of government projects in Kenya, (1986), M.A
thesis, University of Nairobi (unpublished).
3. Talukhaba A.A., Time and cost performance of construction project, (1989), M.A thesis,
University of Nairobi (unpublished).
4. Wachira I.N., Delays and cost overruns in public project in Kenya, (1992), M. Eng. thesis,
Concordia University (unpublished).
5. Wachira I.N., Work study in the Kenyan construction industry for JBC, (1997), Final report.
6. Nyagah J.M., An investigation into the causes of variations in labour productivity on the
construction sites, (1988), M.A thesis, University of Nairobi (unpublished).
7. Management Development Programme, Workstudy in the construction industry International
Labour Organisation, Geneva.

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Customer Satisfaction : A focus for research & practice
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Table 1. Excavation
Study Material (cm) Number of Operatives Rating Time in minutes Productivity
number excavated Skilled Unskilled Observed Idle Standard cm/hour
1 24,48 1 10 100 300 0 324,00 0,45
2 38,88 1 12 100 360 0 388,80 0,50
3 8,41 1 3 50 315 70 170,10 0,99
4 26,64 1 9 75 420 0 340,20 0,52
5 29,02 1 12 100 300 60 324,00 0,45
6 80,01 1 16 75 480 60 388,80 0,77
7 79,56 1 13 100 450 60 486,00 0,76
8 35,28 1 8 100 435 60 469,80 0,56
9 39,96 1 10 75 300 60 243,00 0,99
10 66,31 1 13 75 450 60 364,50 0,84

Average 0,64

Table 2. Walling
Study Area built Number of operatives Rating Time in minutes Productivity
number (sm) Skilled Unskilled Observed Idle Standard sm/hour
1 19,00 3 3 100 300 51 324,00 1,17
2 49,77 2 1 100 480 60 518,40 2,88
3 23,70 2 2 50 450 60 243,00 2,93
4 107,60 4 6 100 405 60 437,40 3,69
5 32,75 2 3 75 420 60 340,20 2,89
6 76,53 3 5 75 450 60 364,50 4,20
7 38,45 2 5 75 360 60 291,60 3,96
8 46,67 2 2 100 420 60 453,60 3,09
9 30,83 2 2 75 470 60 380,70 2,43
10 77,73 3 9 75 420 60 340,20 4,57

Average 3,21

Table 3. Reinforcement
Study Length Number of operatives Rating Time in minutes Productivity
number (lm) Skilled Unskilled Observed Idle Standard lm/hour
1 98,00 1 1 100 300 0 324,00 18,15
2 1131,60 6 7 110 355 45 421,74 26,83
3 1002,00 5 3 100 300 0 324,00 37,11
4 400,00 2 2 100 300 0 324,00 37,04
5 300,00 4 6 100 359 69 387,72 11,61
6 66,00 1 1 100 240 0 259,20 15,28
7 480,00 3 7 90 354 79 344,09 27,90
8 336,00 3 1 100 311 72 335,88 20,01
9 708,00 4 3 100 460 80 496,80 21,38
10 348,00 3 5 100 273 72 294,84 23,61

Average 22,84

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Table 4. Formwork
Study Area Number of operatives Rating Time in minutes Productivity
number (sm) Skilled Unskilled Observed Idle Standard lm/hour
1 39,44 2 4 100 405 60 437,40 2,71
2 21,84 1 2 75 315 0 255,15 5,14
3 16,48 1 1 75 330 60 267,30 3,70
4 68,40 3 3 100 315 60 340,20 4,02
5 22,40 1 3 100 360 57 388,80 3,46
6 111,25 2 4 115 434 70 539,03 6,19
7 33,25 2 2 90 240 0 233,28 4,28
8 216,00 4 6 80 540 41 466,56 6,94
9 20,88 1 2 110 429 79 509,65 2,46
10 20,88 1 5 100 360 0 388,80 3,22

Average 3,72

Table 5. Concreting
Study Concrete Number of operatives Rating Time in minutes Productivity
number (cm) Skilled Unskilled Observed Idle Standard cm/hour
1 36,20 4 25 105 489 65 554,53 0,98
2 65,36 4 30 110 512 148 608,26 1,61
3 36,02 4 27 120 244 49 316,22 1,71
4 67,50 4 27 100 360 0 388,80 2,60
5 80,40 4 39 75 390 0 315,90 3,82
6 10,44 1 6 75 420 60 340,20 1,84
7 17,03 2 11 100 360 0 388,80 1,31
8 55,50 6 30 125 261 40 352,35 1,58
9 45,69 4 21 100 352 118 380,16 1,80
10 54,60 3 12 125 375 29 506,25 2,16

Average 1,57

Table 6. Plastering
Study Concrete Number of operatives Rating Time in minutes Productivity
number (cm) Skilled Unskilled Observed Idle Standard cm/hour
1 24,02 2 1 75 320 75 259,20 2,78
2 21,24 2 0 50 310 65 167,40 3,81
3 17,28 2 3 110 139 12 165,13 3,14
4 9,24 1 1 120 103 49 133,49 4,15
5 13,05 1 1 100 330 0 356,40 2,20
6 23,40 2 2 75 258 42 208,98 3,36
7 10,00 1 1 50 252 0 136,08 4,41
8 45,16 2 5 75 450 60 364,50 3,72
9 46,61 4 4 90 195 0 189,54 3,69
10 10,70 1 1 75 280 20 226,80 2,83

Average 3,77

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Table 7. Screeding
Study Concrete Number of operatives Rating Time in minutes Productivity
number (cm) Skilled Unskilled Observed Idle Standard cm/hour
1 57,30 2 1 100 300 0 324,00 5,31
2 43,76 2 2 100 270 0 291,60 4,50
3 61,02 3 2 100 300 0 324,00 3,77
4 29,14 1 1 100 330 0 356,40 4,91
5 21,60 1 1 100 300 0 324,00 4,00
6 9,86 1 1 75 240 0 194,40 3,04
7 36,38 3 4 90 150 0 145,80 4,99
8 52,78 2 2 100 420 60 453,60 3,49
9 26,04 1 1 75 420 0 340,20 4,59
10 55,39 2 2 100 465 60 502,20 3,31

Average 3,74

Table 8. Painting
Study Area Number of operatives Rating Time in minutes Productivity
number (sm) Skilled Unskilled Observed Idle Standard sm/hour
1 49,68 1 0 100 150 0 162,00 18,40
2 54,00 1 1 75 320 70 259,20 12,50
3 24,00 1 1 75 200 0 162,00 8,89
4 69,80 1 0 100 270 0 291,60 14,36
5 99,00 1 0 130 300 0 421,20 14,10
6 70,04 1 0 75 300 60 243,00 17,29
7 47,30 1 1 100 240 0 259,20 10,95
8 90,31 2 0 95 228 12 233,93 11,58
9 71,40 2 0 75 285 0 230,85 9,28
10 105,28 1 0 100 345 60 372,60 16,95

Average 13,15

Table 9. Percentage labour content

Item Trade Unit Labour cost/ % labour Content
cm/sm/lm unit Kshs. per unit
1 Excavation 0,64 97,66 88,78
2 Walling 3,21 75,93 15,12
3 Reinforcement 22,84 6,93 18,93
4 Formwok 3,72 65,52 26,21
5 Concreting 1,57 374,20 10,52
6 Plastering 3,77 16,58 24,76
7 Screeding 3,74 16,71 19,96
8 Painting 13,15 9,98 17,22

Average (excluding excavation) 18,96

CIB W55 & W65 Joint Triennial Symposium

Customer Satisfaction : A focus for research & practice
Cape Town : 5-10 September 1999
Editors: Bowen, P. & Hindle, R.