ROUTLEDGE STUDIES IN THE QUR’AN Series Editor: Andrew Rippin University of Victoria, Canada THE QUR’AN IN ITS HISTORICAL CONTEXT In its examination of critical issues in the scholarly study of the Qur'an and its commentaries, this series targets the disciplines of archaeology, history, textual Edited by history, anthropology, theology nd literary cfiticism, The contemporary . . relevance of the Qur'an in the Muslim world, ite role in politics and in legal Gabriel Said Reynolds debates are also dealt with, 2s are debates surrounding Qur'anic studies in the Muslim world LITERARY STRUCTURES OF LOGIC, RHETORIC AND RELIGIOUS MEANING IN LEGAL REASONING IN THE QUR’AN TRE QUR'AN Balted by Isa J. Boullata God's arguments Rosalind Vard Gye ‘THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXEGESIS IN EARLY ISLAM TEXTUAL RELATIONS IN ‘Tha authenticity of Muslim literature THE QUR'AN ' from the Eormative Period Relevance, coherence and structure ‘Herbert Berg Sala M. Ekta BIBLICAL PROPHETS IN THE SUFL COMMENTARIES: QUR'AN AND MUSLIM ON THE QUR'AN IN LITERATURE CLASSICAL ISLAM. Robert Tottoti Kristin Zahra Sands i MOSES IN THE QUR'AN AND THE QUR’AN IN ITS YSLAMIC EXEGESIS| HISTORICAL CONTEXT Brannon M. Wheeler Gabriel Said Reynolds LOog R Routledge erate LONDON AND NEWYORKSULEIMAW A, MOURAD is that of Bemadote Perrin in Pharos Lives, vl. $ (Loeb Classical, 4 8 THE ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR’AN 18:83-102 Kevin van Bladel In 1889 E,A, Wallis Budge edited s few Syrize texts about Aloxander the Great including the Syriae version of the Alexander Romance of Pseudo-Callisthenes. ‘Among these was the first edition of a Syriae work called Neshdnd dle cedleksandrés, roughly “Tae Glorious Deeds of Alexander ive manuseripis 2s the Syhiee Alexander Romance! Though often the context ofthe Alexander Romance tradition, and clearly inspired by thip hes shortened to “the Alexander Legend” to low this convention here. “The next year (1890), Theodor Naldeke published his study of the Alexander Romance, mueh of which was based on the Syriac version newly available in Budge’s edition. In this he also devoted a few pages to the Alexander Legend, arguing that it was in feet the source for an episode in the Quran, spceiieally the Quranie story of Dha -Qarnayn (Q 18:83-102)2 He stated that the Alexander ‘agent st have been tansmited orally to Mubammnad slong withthe other important ctemerts the Syriac Alexander ship Noideke indicated a few s of the story of Alexander's journeys appearing in bot Legend and the Que Ta the eontury since then, hs discovery sooms to have become almost forgotten studies. For example, the recent Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an article “Alexander” does not even mention the Syriac Alexander Legend or Noldcke’s thesis on the mat Moreover, some study of Alexander stories in relation to the eserves to be revisited. As I hope to show, even Noldeke expected vsKEVIN VAN BLAOEL that Noldeke was basically correct in ing ofthe story found in this particular ing of the matter. Reeent publications rocalypiic texts of the early seventh century 4, Reinink, offer a precise unders ty. Furthermore, once th Syriac texts is estublishod and the character of possible to demonstrate (perhaps unexpectedly) of decades-tona, ‘wo adjacent igamesh story, Alexander Poem (@. 521), It was comy Alexander Legend, bu is considerably difer the Alecander Legend and doos not exactly match those in the Qui ‘These also drew upon the Alexander Legend, evidently a widely know. to seventh century.” Sox scholars to arrive ata consensus about them, But tho reason that I am avoiding 176 ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR'AN found in the Syriae Alexander Legend. The account in Q 18:83-102 does not precisely match a tary found anywhere other than in this one text, but previous ith the problem have'beceme canfused by discussing For example, one recent accours, publi the Alexander Romance tradition, and the Song of Alexander, unfortunately just causing further misunderstanding and relevant Alesander Legend In be diseussed: the 1883-102 and the historical context ofthis relationship. ‘The Syriac and the Arabic texts compared convincingly en eff Syrise Alexander heavenly eourse (sabab)? out of every thing, da heavenly course ie reached the plage ofthe sun's setting, 2 foid spring and he found by ita people, sun's sing placa, rising over a people for whom We did not make a shelter utKEVIN VAN BLADEL hhe found outside ther a people who could scarcely understand speech, 94. They said, “O Two-Homed One, Yajaj and Majaj are destroying my Lord wi 199, And We shi each other truly show Gehenna, ‘whose ayes wore covered from recol 102. De those who dist protectors? ‘We have prepared Gehenna as a guest-house for the unbelievers! tg Me, nor could they hear jeve plan to take My servants under Me as For the purposes of this study, this can be divided y-one pages of Syriac s relevant details, here ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR'AN ike pus, su is undeterred sling the earth, and that to touch those waters is death, Alexander {0 go on this quest. He prays to God, whom he adresses neo nos pon en he docs come This in essence matches @ 18:83-4, parton etl, where God gives the ‘wormed ave power ove the etre earth, ‘On the wey, He stops in Ep where he borrows seven thousand Eston wotkers of brass end ron rom ts king of yp to accompany his huge my month and twee da they hve any prisoners condemned ose evildoers (bday be brought to fe takes the prisoners and sends them into potency ofthe poisonous waters. ives uber Instead he goes toa place sun enters when parts two and in fact make some sense of the leaves the specifies of his nerary here ing atthe headwaters of the Euphrates and the he and his armies stop at locales given very speci place under Persian the savage Huns who kings are ‘where there isa narrow pass. The locals complain abo ‘opposite side of the pass, The names of are Gog and Magog, Alexander is ism of the Huns, Among theKEVIN VAN BLADEL, lay waste to Babylon and ‘Alexander, saying that before handing power has proven important in recent scholarship to be discussed later). Precise correspondences between the two texts Many of the correspondences between the S} obvious that they do not ALEXANDER LEGEND INTHE QUIVAN ‘When Alexander came the people in the west, he tested the efficacy of the 1 of convicts. This passage helps to explin the punish the people or to do them a kindness. Dh. I-Qamayn says he punish only wrongdoers (mam zalama), who ate like the prisoners sentenced to death in the Syriac text, described there as point, near to where the sunsets, n ofthe place where the sunrises, just as does Dh I-Carnayn in the Qur'an. The sun does not exactly set Ur the fetid water, but more vaguely nearby. ‘And it is only this Syriac text that explains the meaning of Q 18:90, where the ‘otherwise unknown eastern people who have no cover from the sum are mk On his tied journey, the people woo can hardly under by the Syriac text as “Huns,” here a generic term for Central Asian pa who appeared to the residents of the Middle Fast as savages. ial barbarism is oxy sts, allegedly ited length inthe Syrise. The Qur'anie text saying ly understand speech” toget reference by name to Gog and Magog makes sense onl le Dia. }Qarnayn's id brass is explained in the ‘Syriac story by his being accompanied by'seven thousund Egyptian “workers .” precisely the same metals. In both texts our hero builds the in onder to fend off savages. Though n of Alexander's wall holding off the Huns is an ancient one going i Josephus (d. ea 100), who specifies thet the gates were of iron, nevertheless the details ofthe Arabie account age all matched only by this Syrise Alexander Legend." Mos ues 8 prophecy in a time of led counterpart in the Syria Alexander Legend. In both ted events are given in precisely the same order, Already ealier ‘several eases of specific words that are exact matches between the Syriae and the Arabie were indicated. The wat ly perfect match in Q 18:99: “the hom ather thom together” The proper names of Yajaj and Maja} ed by this Syriac text (where they appear as Agog” and is derived from the books of Ezekiel and the Apocalypse ima idhin yar bad, while the Syeiac Says similarly I upon exch other” w-naplan malkwata hal ‘al hd 1stKEVIN VAN BLADEL “The title of the Syriac work is “Neghdnd of Alexander” The word neshand means “glory” or “victory” but was often used to refer to & narrative account of ‘access.” However, Arabic lexicogeaphers and much other evidence atte early use of the word to mean in particular hea leading to heaven along which a human ‘ewen” oF “sky ly conds sam “ways © four other places. Nor ar example, it fs also atteste ind with the synonymous, va ‘Thus, the translation given eat passes on its course, and whi Legend, The remaining proble not connected with any course of heavenly Vesander Legend. Here one may excuse the Arabie as following the carlier journeys. The matter is bound up wit those heavenly courses were imagined, something I te If there were a closer correspondence of the Syrise and Aral fe to argue that one was just (of God. Also, as explained earlier, tbe Qur'an does not include the last part ofthe Alexander Legend, i2 which Alexander defeats the Persian emperor TGbariag, ‘who weites is own prophecy down for Alexander and gives it to him, tothe effect that ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR'AN ‘The Quranic account puts more emphasis on the coming end of things and Cx judgment and, not surprisingly, does not mention any expectation of ui Cristian empire for the Romacs, Dating and contextualizing the Syriae Alexander Legend ‘At this point think there cam be no doubt whatsoever of the the Qur'anic passage and the Syriac Alecander Legend, 1 how to specify that affiliation, Here we Will be ass historical context for the Syria text, Fortunately G.l. Reinink has devoted teany articles to the problems posed by this Alexander Legend and related texts which have sueceeded in determining defi Legend was writen. employ his det sively in what follows, and the reader is urgod to pursue them for further information that can be used ion may seem to be the Sytiac te by finding a dato and relate it to the Qur'an The Alexander Legend is an apocalyptic text in which the anc Portrayed as presenting a prophecy writen long ago for evens to come, which ‘wore intended to be understood by the audience at the real time of authorship a5 referring to events Teading up to and including ‘many texts of the apocalyptic pense work. Th apocalypses can often be found by locat allegedly predicted match actual historical the headwaters of the ‘Tigris are portentous events to be taken as signs ofthe final battles preceding. ‘Christ's return and the end of time. Alexander specifies how many years must lapse before these events take dates aczording to the Seleucid E followed in Syriac tradition, also called the Bra of the Grecks ancl impor nde. The firs of the tWo dates is thus converted Sabits who entered Syria and Ans importance in the narrative, serves just asa key forthe conterapora the text that they can use ‘prophecy, associ disputed the ealeul 183KEVIN VAN BLADEL ‘The second of the two dates, 940 years after Alexander, wh of the Final war preceding the Messiah's return according to the prophecy, is converted likewise to 628-9 ce, The message of the prophecy a fevents around this date, which eoineides with the end of a long and extremely boewees the Persians and the Romans (603-30) during which em was devastated the relic ofthe True Cross sen from that Persians conquered S) they even besieged Cor invaded from the north, The Byzantine remainder of the Roman Empire was only ‘arly saved ending in the winter of 627-8 with @ surprise invasion into the rich estates around Ciesiphon. In these ids south of the Caucasus at indeting until 630. The Byzantine invasion of Mesopotamia led 5 1e remove their King of Kings, Khosro i, from power in February of 628 and to negotiate for peace. Fe ory withdrew to Persia in 629, and Reinink has shown thatthe le and its use of Alexander to fof the events of that war borders, a peace treaty, and too much to repeat he hes persuasively argued thatthe Alexander Legend was composed just after 628, perhaps in 630, the yea in which Heraeus restored the rss to Jerusalem. Inthe cours ofthe war, while the Byzantines tnere very tard presed by the Persians, Heracius resorted propaganda in order to rally his allies and to improve Remar. morale, Tl Beanda hes received recent scholarly auention.™ Likewise Hi he schisms in the Church after differences di provinecs recent Legend of Alexander was composed "s inhabitant of Amida or Edess, oc some other place is that the Syrige in 629 or 630) by an 10 those, in support of ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR'AN eralius He argues thatthe monophysite Syrians were the primary audience possible thatthe story was iniended also to win over monophysites such as Arabs)?” Heracl the Alexander Legend that ref Qur'dnie story of Di imminent. As Reinink sums it up, the author ofthe Alexander Legend wants to demonstrate the special place ofthe Greck-Roman empire, the fourth empire of the Daniel Apocalypse, in Gov! history of salvation, By now it should be amply clese that the Alexander Legend is the product of identifiable historieal and cultural environment, tne end of & ig war widely believed to earry eschatolog ions, ending with "campaign in 628 and in 629 wit the armies. This needs to be held in mind whea the relation "an is considered. his is the message of the Alexander Leger, w travels make a sign ofthe eross over been overlooked by other commentators, author of the Alexander Legend. The sign of the eross was the et forthe Christian empire, and the propheees inthe Legend indicate the imminent universal rule of the Christian empire. One may even speculate that this cross- shaped itinerary was intended symbolically to refer to Heractius’ return of the ss,KEVIN VAN BLADEL ‘of the True Cross early in 630 to Jerusalem, the city where Alexander places nd of the Alexander Legend. Alexander’ jour Roman power across the entire world, which ty according to the prophecy. the point of having Al of the Caspian had receded considerably on ing a wide pass of land around the existence and history ofthese walls thro 2 sources is enormous."? The town Darband eventual is a the very important in his report on the er the Caspian See that these are the gates that Heraclius opened beyond them. From Caspian gates were widely thought to be thos between forced the association of Al In the ear twentieth ceqtury Russian scholars discov jon and indeed was famous far and easy fo see how one of these inscriptions carved there by Alexander. 186 ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUECAN ‘The Alesander Legends account identifies the people beyond the wall, the “Huns; Gog and Magog. These names ‘come from Hebrew serpiu ‘They ate associated by Ezekiel 38-9 with northern, invading nations, se God's punishinent, and then later by che Revelation of Jokn 20 with final turm ust before theultimate redemption. Gog and Magog are in shor, an eschatologi ‘oti? they are northern nations whose invasion heralds the end of time.” sixth century Andreas of Caesarea had made this association clear in ‘commentary on the Revelation of Jahn, identifying Gog and Magog with the Huns, and in doing so he was following the sourees going back at least to Joseptins (4. ca 190): ‘Thus the Alerander Legend combines (wo traditions (1) Alexander's building of a wall in the Caueasus to hold out Huns and . generic term for afl Central Asian peoples, with Gog and Magos, thereby associating Alexander with the end of time and giving him an oceasion to make «eschatotogieal prophecies. Alexander’ wall alsa explains why the Huns (Gog and Magog) cannot invado at just any time; they have to surmount the wall first. But ‘hen that wal is breached, that will ea sign of the approaching end. Once these ‘racitions were combined, it was now easy to link Heraclius both with the world ‘conquering Alexander, who similarly defeated the Persian emperor, and with the ‘ond of time, As already stated, as finat campaigns against che Persians, Alexander's former enemies, Heraclius actually dd enlist the help of Inner Asian peoples, the ‘Kok TUrks, in is war against the Pessians (625-7) ~ they are called variously in the sources Tirks and Khazars, being perhaps Khazars under Kok Tirk rule, though the specific tribal or ethnie identity of these invaders is subject of very Yong debate ~ and afterward these Tirks fiercely raided Caucasian Albania, Georgi, and Armenia until 630:"* One wonders wether Heraeus or his supporters Promoted the idea that his Tick allies, summoned feom the north, were the people ‘of Gog and Magog come to punish the Persians, The Turk invasions are known from the Greek chronicle of Theophanes™ and in some detail from a complatory seventh-century source used by the Armenian History ofthe Cauecusian Albanians Alwanic’) by Movsts Dasauranc'. As it says, “During this period --.Summoned the utmy to help him breach the great Mount Caucasus shut off the lands of the north-east, and to open up the gates of Crolay the gates at Darband] 30 2s to let through many ibes and by their means to conquer the king of Persia, the proud Xosrox™ Frede 8 mentioned, also states that raids of the tersfying “predicted” in the Aiexander Legend ~ also ‘match the Tork campaigns in the years 626-7 (alongsi (independently), and ‘habitants of Cuscasian Albania and Iberia, Armenia, and the neighboring lands such as Mesopotamia and Syria were surely well aware of them, Moreover, Greek and Armenian sources show that these reel invasions of ‘Tirk warriors in the early seventh century were actually interpreted thon in terKEVIN VAN BLADEL ‘apocalyptic terms and associated with the eschatological motif of Gog and Magog, J. Howard-Johnston has dubbed the souree of historical information on these Caucasian campeigns used by the Armenian Movsts Dasxuranc"t as the 682 History (because its reports end with the year 682 and we do not know is original seribes the nomadic invaders in horrifie erms in conncetion rk siege of the Cauesséan Albani The way in which the Armenian source describes these wars between the Byzantines, the Tks, and the Persians gives yet another example for how people really did expect the end of time during or soon after these wars. The 682 History focuses its attention on the events around the Caueasian Albanien cepital of Partaw, but begins with a special prologue to the description of these ms, which are characterized as part of nt just local but the universe! erakan haruacoe’s) prophesied by Jesus in the Gaspels about the 28 of tribulation inakt &aréaranac'n).* This understanding is based ns of Jesus’ prophecies selected from signs of the end (Luke 21:20) This would be accompanied by signs in the heavens and confusion among nations before the final redemption. All of this helps to context Syriac Alexander Legend, who are to be id invasions into the Caucasus region from 626 To sum up, the Alexander Legend is scen ‘eltural tendencies of the period around 628-9, the yee wars between many nations beginning with the breaking of Alexander's the Huns, Out of these wars the Roman Empire would emerge victorious, some time efter which the Roman Er ‘overthrow the Persians just afew years later but before the Arab conquest, beeen 630 and 636), the Syriae apocalypse Deine mundi attributed falsely to Ephraem (composed sometime between 640-43),% andthe 4 of Pseudo-Methodius (composed around 692, quite possibly in reac ‘building of the Dome of the Rock)" The dlecander Legend was eviden known inthe early seventh century 188 ALEKENDER LEGEND INTHE QUR'AN ‘The relationship between the Alexander Legend and Qur’an 18:83-102 its current form during “Uthman (644-56) or atleast after Muhammad’ death (632), approach the problem of affiliation between the two systematically. The must be related, That is the only explanation for their point dence. In that case there are three reasonable possibilities: 1) the Syria takes its account from the Qur’sn, or (2) the tno texts share @ cotamon source, oF (3) the (Qur'an uses the account found in the Syriac ‘Could the Syriac text have its souree in the Qur'én’ If this were the case, then, ld have to be seen as a highly expanded version of the account, which would then be understood as an attempt to 's drawn from stories apocalypse: fon an Arabic tradition some years before the Arab at Mecea was far fiom well known outside Arabia. Moreover, the very specific political message of the Alexander Legend ‘would not make any sense in this seenaric. This possibility must therefore bbe discounted two texts share a common source? This also becomes practically fe for some of the same reasons. The Syriac Alexander Legend was Heraclius by indicating the autbors belie in the significance 8 supposed to be foreshadowing the estab Could ions atthe rime of jugmer ‘40 ancient voice of great authority, As already explai ‘Byzantium and Ctesiphon went very badly nse bout of political esperate war effort and to consolidate al propaganda belonging to this milieu, dated to 629-30. If Alexander’ prophecy ‘was composed just for this purpose at this time, then the correspondence between ‘he Syriac and the Arabic, which contains the same prophecy reworded, cannot be 189)KEVIN VAN BLADEL hhow the text could have been known in Arable und under what circumstances ‘The transmission of the story from the Syriac text into Arabic Such a transmission would have been ql ircumstances around 628-30 CE and soon after. Contemporary ia repeatedly note the 190 ALEXANDER LEGENO IN THE QURYAN ‘Yt one is left wondering exactly how apocalyptic works were disseminated uring these decades. Since they are ull of politcal significance fora perticular 1ey would have been published and promoted ‘any case, one can hardly doubt that this text was ion of hat was aforementioned: the Alexander Legend provoked a monophysite response in Syriac within a few years, one mors cynical about the durability of Heraeus’ kingdom, and information connected with the ‘Alexander Legend was known as fer away a3 Gaul a few decades lat see the diseussion about Frodogarius, later). difficult to suggest motives for Muhammad or his followers to have apoealypse. Even inary skepticism over the early records of Islem prevailing today, no one disputes that Mubammad’s ‘movement was based on the belief in prophes. The Que'dn contains many references 10 the prophets of the past. The Syriae Alexander Legend presents Al 1 Two-Hormed as just such a prophet, Moreover, Alexander's rophecy clearly indicates that final wars heralding the end of the world wore taking place, Mary in the community that followed Muhammad seem to have shared this spocelyptic sentiment with others in the eontemporary Middle East. However, tho Qur'dnic account Feaves out all mention of the Reman Empire’ Christian victory before the return ofthe Messiah, en important of the Legend. instead it focuses ow and culminstes in Dha 1-Qurnyan’s prophetic judgment will eome ina time of that was the messige of the story that was tr ofthe Arabic account, ind the elements that make the story sensible ws Byzantine propaganda are omited completely in the Arabic, ‘One may even suppose the words of Q 18:83, “And they are asking you about (Dha I-Qarnayn). Say: 1 will elate for you a glorious record ile) about him," to be a true reflection of the environament in which the Syriac Alexander Legend was cicculating. Here was an apocalypse widely known and certainly eurrenly Perhaps Muhammad's followers or others in the of this apocalypse from him, and so they were of it, adapted to make it appropriate to their movement. It rmay to see reflections of the prophicy of the Alexander Legend in ) where the war between the Persians and) Romans is ferred to, but the Romans ae suid to be destined to eonquer, atleast ueeonting ‘been meaningful tionship between the Syriue and Arabic texts determined earlier requires one 19 ‘suppose thatthe Alexander Legend was in fact the precise whieh centered the Que'an = in Muhammad’ last years, o lt is still undecided 9KEVIN VAN BLADEL Floods of nations and the prophecy of Jesus prophet by Muslims, since he is so designated in the Qur'an: discussion of just what Jesus was sapposed to be @ prophet looked that Jesus was thought even by Christians to be prophesying nothing, less than the end of the world (as in Matthew 24 and Luke 21:5-28), and th would be preceded by 2 siege of Jerusalem (Luke 21:20), The sack of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614 therefore shocked Christian contemporaries espe because it seemed to indicate that the end the world and the return were near acvording to the very words of Jesus. Other signs predicted by Jesus preceding the end would be seen in the heavens, and there would be “distress of nations confused by the roaring of the sea and the waves" (Luke 21:25) ‘Contemporary sources show that witnesses to the great war of 603-30 saw fuifillment of Jesus” words init. ‘Most important here is the aecount ofthe Tirk invasion of Caucasian Albania used by the Armenian author Movsts Dasxuraa (682 History. Before ‘describing how the Tlrks broke through the Wall at Darbar, this source adapts the prophecies appearing in Matthew 24:6-7, 29 and Luke 21:25 Confusion ofthe waves of the sca” svcmuinnt*Zolavardoc’orpésaleac' com arovelay.®” Then it goes on to describe the events of the wars, usi these paraphrased words of Jesu” prophesy inorder to prove le Fo this purpose, the irks the waves of confision mong nations in Jesus predictions "Then grad ‘the waves moved on against us,” apa takaw Sard2in alik'n anddém mer. ‘treading Caucasian Albania the Tis timed wes: “the foods (ul) rose Even Khosré I! “rose up like a raging tor- inst them” and we are reminded of the image ves of invaders.””' Thus the author of the 682 History takes every opportunity to show tat Jesus" prophecy was beng fulfilled inthe imeasions ofthe Tks andthe wars of this period in general “This image of nations at waves was also sed specifically to describe the “Turks overshilming ofthe walls a Darband, The 682 History does not connect ‘Alexander with these walls, butt des say that near Col (a town near the gate a Darband) were Caucasus and the wrath confronting us 192 ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QURAN its foundations atthe very outset (Movses Desxur rans. Dowsett, History of ‘the Caucasian Albanians, 83) These waves are The text immedi a] waves ofthe Caspian but rather attackers ftem the north. ly next describes the physieal appearance ofthe Trk invaders, is suiking thor, « resident of Caueasian Albania, the terctery immediately south of| ise walls, reports that the Turks actually destroyed the wall himane' rapaleal, lemolshed it to the foundations”), just as Alexander's Syriac prophecy in the Legend said that they would be destroyed. The Byzantine chronicler Theophanes also states that, atthe beginning oftheir invasions, “tne Khazars broke through the Gates of the Caspian” (diarrhéxantes tis Kasplas pits)” Just so in the Que‘an 8:98), Dho I-Qarnayn prophesies that God will make the bari a heap of earth ‘atthe time of his promise the final judgment fasidha jaa wad rabbi jaalahis. dakka‘a) ut the difference in the Armenian sour i that init the breaking of the _Portmyed as monstrous, whom Heraclius had invited to war as hisah the striking that one of the few the contemporary Frankish chronislor Known as ct 660) describes the gates as having been built out of bronze = propter inundacione gentium sevissemorum (sic), “on ‘of the surging wave of mos: savage nations.” Here again the invaders ace Aescribed as a surging wave, an inundacio of nations, hold back by the gates that, Fredegarius goes on immediatly to say, himsett ordered to be opened! easdem portas Aeraglius aperve preci ofthe description ofthe ly connected with the proyhecies of that Fredegarius was drawing ftom a source that mide a the waves of nations, paraphrasing Jesus’ propheey in Luke ' association of Heraclius with the opening, 1€ gates of Alexander that hekd back swvages brings together most of the ‘of the Alexander Legend, cander specifically with the wal or another, unspecified place, as in the Alexander Legend).” What is Fredegarius e's author bizarrely thinks thatthe Hagarene Saracens were admitted by this gate, not the Ticks. Ths im Gog and Magog, Now; the dese Alexander Legend, God is portrayed as saying in the rem on that day surging like waves (yamiju) ‘against each other” when the wall holding back Gog and Magog is demolished. 193KEVIN VAN BLADEL It is tempting therefore to think thatthe Syriac Alexander Legond was associated consciously at some stage of the transmission into Arabic with an explan Luke 21:25 (sunokk® ethndn en aporiai ekkows thaldssBe i ns confused by the roaring of the sea and th prophecy of what would happen befor Movses Dasxurane'i's source (the 682 Hist the only ones fo consider Jesus’ prophecies to be fulfilled i ‘Muhammad’ esrtiest followers may have understood the st not just asthe prophecy of the imminent end made by Alexand «8 pious, ancient wor'd-conqueror, but also as an allusion to the prophet Jesus" similar warning ofthe end times, now very near, which they expected as seriously as other inhabitants of the waves ofthe soa, Aramaic words in the Qur'an where they hed not been part of the traditional Feading, now one can see that where the Qur-an is definitely reinterpreting a ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUBYAN Conclusions conclusion reached here is Ua a Syrie vext quite current and important years of Mubsenmad' life was adapted the case for ‘contemporary with Muhammad. Moreover, what is most important for our und he adaptation of the Alexander Legend in the Quin isnot the fa ther the way in whieh the particular religious and political h the Alexander Legend was used, truncated, and altered for new purposes, ‘This is not a sweeping theory about the formation of the Qui concerns one small portion of a text agreed upon by almost a been compiled from different oral and written materials collected together after the death ofthe prophet. This theory tnakes no claims about the text. but it nevertheless requires that the Sprise Alexander Legend be count by any my comprehensible tothe historian and to those tly concer imitabe history. The findings of this article may be summarized as follows. The Syriae Alesander Legend, written in 629-30 8 religious and favor of Heraclius after 2 pending end of the an, Christian 1 return. Ths text was evidently well known Soon after is pu other texts write je account of Dh I-Qarnayn also repeats this story, but ludes only the first of its two prophecies, along with the mat snder’s journeys. If Mubammad himself dif speak Q 18:83-102, been his response «9 questo jotence and strife of seaningful, since it put ey shared, designed for 195vowel! KEVIN VAN BLADEL tthe strongly pro-Roman element, appearing especial phecy of the Alezander Legend, is completely omitted, though report) on shows no hint of Syrise vocabulary. frst uttered in the eatly seventh century. The extraocdi between the Syrige and the Asubie vindicate the early Musi the meaning of the words inthis text, but not surprising to find how disconnected the storical studies on the same period and Quranic studies Ii but rather that many major bi historians of Late A pr perhaps to be ly concerned with than Fity years app, studies have brought surge in fesearch and publ which Islam caine, answers to the er some of the historical ones also may Notes 380. ‘Alexanderromans," Denkschrfien der en, plilosophisch-storische Klasse, ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR'AN east me to Nodes Alecander Legend “suggestive paral 3 his Lagend travels othe ees of the world he found a Sea of deacly water, the ‘and emerging st low the sun’ nightly course just afte ‘through Before the sun comes around again an ea passage is associnied witha mountain, Min ceviderty related names. Thus there seer Gilgamest story that became associted Moreover, so, apparently having to puss them. In both Sones, the sun's "2 9etion ion (suchas the seare Tore wer of sradivon of fon ng nbyzantinorasva ial wher can be viewed with D) the slab elsewhere notes 10 Néldeke's chapter 1). Thi ets good Sis noe bt has simt Compe toed pt could be used tons stl Song of Alexander, ation, thet when Qur'én commentators 197KEVIN VAN BLADEL ‘Moses, 17 following Nékcke, acvaly, bu missing much of he subsequt scholarship: folcuamsle A Baum, Gace der Sich ira, Bos: Mata 191: K. Caegldy, “Monographs on Syiae and Mutaromadan sous ie donde Sci 85 (translation), Serprores Sr! 183. Compare Whesler reference is of sid 19 be a prose versio sn renee ven with Rein states tad, Hs te depe a reaction 1 the Alexander Legend composed late, probably between 630 and 640 CE (Rink, "Alexander ion of sabab as “heavenly courses” see my discussion later in he atic hste seams 0 move ae waves move. The fefezence to the arbies ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR'AN 199KEVIN VAN BLADEL ‘noose from the roof of 8 house it appears rather to be a challenge to ascend tothe ‘heavens bythe exttarcinary means ofa heavenly course, bu to that found in the Book of 4 4. lemming (ed), Ll Henochi Graece, M. Bl ‘ie Entehung der syrischon Alexanderegende als pols Propagandasctvift fir Hera les et proche 1997, Nanterre: Cente des seiences de 49-59; “Heracis, the New Alexand ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QURAN the Greeks, equently gd the revival ofthe 26-40. WE. Kecgh, , Cambridge: Cambridge Univesity res, 2008, ander the Great” 160-2. ‘War iv History 6, 1999, 109-10. Kem, “Alexander atthe Caspian Getes™ 9 th ancient and modem confsien over presse where they blocked were cats, They we ought by many lass ‘of Dail in the midale ofthe Caucasus La © bibliographies ate found in E. Ketenhofen, Iraniea, 7, G. Gamzatoy, "Digestin |: Cal ca, 6, 568-75, D, Sasanid period” Essays in Memory of tady makes almost no use edt Sebeos, tens. and comment. RWW. Thomson and pool iorun Rerum Merovingicarun orns 214) exp. 15 Bruno Krusch (ed), Hannover: Hah, 18 45 Brich Ke 201KEVIN VAN GLADEL ALEXANDER LEGEND IN THE QUR'AN (Geil. Gog and Magog) ae the fan, Hypetboreen nations, which we call Humic, both mast popsioss and most 6 & Dore arava of ale Orin smie Historical 5, Prince raphy for early this pied, sce the Gospel text New York ity ofthe Coca an 13 Theophanes, Chronograpina, 3 14 Chronicarum quae ai sé under the name Christoph Luxenberg, Die Das armbisehe Boch, 2000, Detaled review found in the erties in the pesent volume, iy ofthe Aiexan ‘ets, Alexander Maps Arabic nd the Early Islamic Conguesis, 4, 203