Magnetic forces are due to the interactions between magnetic fields.

All magnets have a north and south pole. A north magnetic pole is actually a north
seeking pole, i.e. If it is free to rotate it will point towards the Earth’s north pole.

All permanent magnets are made of smaller magnets that we call domains. In a
permanent magnet, these domains are well aligned in a certain direction which give
the magnet its north and south pole. Magnetic materials such as iron aren’t exactly
magnets (yet) because the domains have a random orientation. However they can
become magnetized and become magnets if their domains become aligned. We will
look at this in more detail down below.

For now here are some basic rules of magnetic interaction:

 Opposite poles attract

 Like poles repel

Ferromagnetism
There are certain materials (such as iron) that are always attracted to magnetic poles
(north & south). These materials are called ferromagnetic materials and they have the
ability to become magnetized.

Ferromagnetic materials contain what we can think of as tiny magnets called domains.
In an unmagnetized piece of iron the domains are arranged randomly. However, when
the iron is placed near a permanent magnet, the domains line up because they are
attracted by the magnet.
Remember, opposite poles attract. The iron domains (which also have a north and
south pole) will orientate themselves accordingly.

Essentially once the domains line up like this, the iron has now become a magnet
itself i.e. magnetized. This is induced magnetism. However as soon as you remove
the magnet, the iron domains will immediately randomize again and thus it loses
its temporary magnetism.

Steel is made of iron and carbon, so it is also ferromagnetic. Compared to iron, steel is
less strongly magnetized by permanent magnets but it will retain some if its induced
magnetism and become a permanent magnet. It will remain magnetised until it is
banged on the table or dropped (causing the domains to randomize).

Magnetic field lines

If small plotting compasses are placed around a bar magnet, the compasses show the
direction of the magnetic field.

Otherwise small iron fillings can be sprinkled around the magnet and they too will
line up with the magnetic field and show the field lines.

Magnetisation
Methods of magnetization
Recall above that magnetism can be induced in ferromagnetic materials. Here we will
go through certain techniques that are known to work well in doing this.

Hammering in a magnetic field

Strike an iron nail squarely and sharply several times with a hammer while keeping
the nail positioned in a north-south orientation. The impact of the hammer with the
iron nail causes the magnetic domains within the nail to break loose from their current
orientation. The Earth’s magnetic field will then reposition the domains into a new
orientation parallel with the Earth’s magnetic field.

Magnetization via stroking

Stroking will align the domains in the ferromagnetic material and magnetize it.

Magnetization via electricity (direct current)

When a direct (unidirectional) current flows through a wire, a magnetic field is

produced around the wire. The direction of the magnetic field depends on the
direction of the current (from + to – around the circuit). The right hand grip rule can
be very handy here (no pun intended):
When a direct (unidirectional) current flows through a coil of wire, a magnetic field
is created around and inside the coil. The pattern of field lines outside the coil is
identical to a bar magnet. Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized by placing them
inside the coil like so:

VERY IMPORTANT NOTE: Conventional current is the flow of positive charge.

This means that current is always going in the direction opposite to electron flow.
Therefore if you look at the diagram above, current will actually be flowing in the

opposite direction of the arrows.

This whole set up is called an electromagnet. The metal inside the coil is called a
solenoid. Once the electricity is turned off, the magnetism will also switched off along
with it. The magnetism can be strengthened and weakened by adjusting the voltage of
the electricity.

You can actually deduce the polarity of the electromagnet by looking at the direction
of the current at the ends of the solenoid.

 Clockwise = South pole

 Anticlockwise = North pole

Since the direction of current determines the polarity of the magnet, it is important to
understand that the current must flow in a single direction (direct current) in order to
magnetize the metal.
Methods of de-magnetization
Hammering

Physical impact on a ferromagnetic material will randomize the orientation of the

domains and therefore demagnetize it.

However as discussed before, it can also be used to magnetize a material if positioned

correctly and hammered within a set external magnetic field since the domains will
reposition itself accordingly.

Heating

Heating a magnet will also disorientate the domains within it, and therefore cause it to
lose magnetism

Alternating current

As discussed before, a flow of current in a wire creates a magnetic field which can
induce magnetism in a solenoid. The polarity of the induced magnet depends on the
direction of the current.

A direct current is a unidirectional current meaning the polarity of the induced magnet
will always remain constant, therefore perfect for creating magnets.

An alternating current on the other hand is a type of current that constantly changes
direction. This means that the induced magnetic polarity will also continuously
change along with the current. This means that the north and south poles of the
magnetic field is continuously changing, and thus randomizing the domain orientation
in the magnet – causing it to lose magnetism.

Design and use of permanent magnets and

electromagnets
Permanent magnets are designed with hard magnetic material and used for purposes
where magnetism is needed over a long period of time i.e. fridge doors

Electromagnets use a solenoid to create a magnetic field. It is used for when a

magnetic field needs to be turned on and off i.e. scrap metal moving.

Electric charge
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force
when placed in an electromagnetic field. The unit for charge is coulombs.

There are positive charges and negative charges. Opposite charges attract and like
charges repel.

Electric field

A region around an electric charge where another charge experiences a force is called
an electric field. The field lines show the direction a positive charge would move if
placed in the field.

Point charge
The field lines of a charged conducting sphere will be identical to that of a point
charge (diagram above). Conducting spheres will be looked at in more detail down
below.

Two parallel plates

Charging a body

Charging a body involves the addition or removal of electrons. There are three main
ways that we can charge a body

 Friction
 conduction
  Induction

Charging by conduction will NOT be covered as it is not relevant to your course.

Charging by friction

When an object is rubbed over another object, the electrons get transferred from one
object to another due to friction. The object that transfers electrons loses negative
charge (electrons) and the object that accepts electrons gains negative charge
(electrons).

Hence, the object that gains extra electrons becomes negatively charged and the object
that loses electrons becomes positively charged. Thus, the two objects get charged by
friction.

Charging by induction

The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing another charged object near
to it, but not touching it, is called charging by induction.

Consider an uncharged metal sphere (positive & negative charges are equal in
number) and negatively charged plastic rod as shown in below figure 1. If we bring
the negatively charged plastic rod near to uncharged sphere as shown in below fig 2,
charge separation occurs.
 Ima
ge belongs to www. physics-and-radio-electronics.com

The positive charges in the sphere get attracted towards the plastic rod and move to
one end of the sphere that is closer to the plastic rod. Similarly, negative charges get
repelled from the plastic rod and move to another end of the sphere that is farther
away from the plastic rod. Thus, the charges in the sphere rearrange themselves in a
way that all the positive charges are nearer to the plastic rod and all the negative
charges are farther away from it.

If this sphere is connected to a ground through the wire as shown in fig 3, free
electrons of the sphere at farther end flow to the ground. Thus, the sphere becomes
positively charged by induction. If the plastic rod is removed as shown in fig 4 all the
positive charges spread uniformly in the sphere.

The now positively charged conducting sphere will have electric field lines similar to
that of a positive point charge

Conductors and insulators

A conductor is something which allows electric current to flow through it freely

whereas an insulator prevents any electric current flowing through it.
Conductors have free flowing electrons which allow the passage of electric current
through the structure. Therefore most metals are good conductors of electricity.

Insulators on the other hand have tightly bound electrons that are not free to move in
the structure. An example of a good insulator would be rubber.

Current
Current is the rate of flow of charge.

I = Current (A) ; Q = Charge (C) ; t = Time (s) ;

In metals, current is due to the flow of electrons. Although it is rather counter-

intuitive, the direction of conventional current is opposite to the direction of electron
flow.

Electrons flow from the negative to positive terminal. Conventional current flows
from the positive to negative terminal.

In metals, current is due to the flow of electrons. Although it is rather counter-

intuitive, the direction of conventional current is opposite to the direction of electron
flow.

Current in a circuit can be measured with a digital or analogue ammeter.

Electromotive force
An electrical supply (a power pack, cell or battery) provides electrical energy, which
is carried round a circuit by the current. The electromotive force (e.m.f) of a supply is
the energy per coulomb of charge and is measured in volts (V).

A voltmeter can measure the e.m.f by connecting it parallel to the supply:

The voltmeter connected parallel to the battery (on the right) will measure the e.m.f.

Potential difference
The potential difference or voltage across a component in a circuit is the
energy required per coulomb of charge to drive the current through
that component. It is also measured in volts (V).
The voltmeter connected parallel to the light bulb (on the left) will measure the
potential difference across the bulb.

Resistance
Background

The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the

flow of electric current.

Metals at a constant temperature have a constant resistance, measured in

ohms

The resistance of an unknown resistor can be found via an experiment and

using the equation above.
Theoretically. a very simple way of finding resistance would be to set up a
circuit as follows:

The ammeter in the circuit gives you the current(A). The voltmeter gives you the
potential difference across the unknown resistor(V). If you put these values into the
equation R=V/I then that will give you the answer.

However, this means that we are only working with one set of readings. If we
wanted to increase accuracy, we would want multiple measurements of
voltage & current and therefore calculate resistance several times and average
the results.

Therefore in order to do this we would add a variable resistor to the circuit:

A variable resistor is a resistor that has adjustable resistance. We can therefore ‘set’
the resistance to what we want it to be.

By changing the resistance of the variable resistor, the potential difference

across the unknown resistor will change.

Therefore each time we change the resistance in the variable resistor, we can
apply the calculation R = V/I and attain several different calculations of
resistance (which should all theoretically be very similar) and average the
results afterwards.

Resistance of a wire

The resistance of a wire can depend on two main things:

 Length (of wire)

 Area (of wire)

When the length of the wire is increased, the current must travel further in the
wire and thus resistance increases.

When the cross-sectional area of the wire is increased (i.e. larger wire
diameter) the current has a greater area to travel through so the resistance
decreases.

Electrical working
Electrical energy is transferred from the battery or power supply in a circuit
to the components in the circuit via the electrons. The components will covert
the electrical energy into other forms (i.e. a lamp will convert electrical
energy into light energy). The rate at which the energy is transformed is the
power. Power can be calculated from the formula below.

We can also derive the formula for energy as follows:

Since power = VI ; Energy is V X I X t = VIt

Circuit diagrams
All circuit components have a symbol.
Series and parallel circuits
Parallel circuits have multiple branching pathways for electrical current whereas a
simple series circuit forms a single path.
Make sure you pay attention to the numbers that I have labelled above.

There are some important differences a circuit connected in series versus parallel.

Action and use of circuit components

Transistor

A transistor is an electrically operated switch. It has three terminals: the base,

collector, and emitter. When a small current enters the base, a larger current can flow
between the collector and emitter. The transistor therefore amplifies the current.
Potentiometer

A potentiometer can give the circuit a certain level of control. For example, volume
control is an example of this – As you raise the volume from minimum to maximum
you are actually changing the voltage inside the circuit from low to high.

Fundamentally, a potentiometer can made from a variable resistor. A variable

resistor works by adjusting the path that current has to flow. Take a look at the
diagram below:

Imagine a resistor with a length of X+Y. Now let’s connect another wire that can
SLIDE up or down the resistor. A voltmeter can be connected to measure the voltage
(Vout) which is the voltage across the length Y of the resistor. Remember, the wire
can SLIDE up or down. Sliding it up will increase the length Y and sliding it down
will decrease the length Y.

Do you recall that in a wire, the longer it is the more the resistance? The same concept
applies here. The longer length Y becomes, the more resistance there is. And recall
that V=IR (voltage = resistance X current). The larger the resistance, the larger the
voltage (Vout) will be!
 Ultimately it means you can slide the moving wire along the resistor up or down to
vary the RESISTANCE by varying the LENGTH at which the wire connects with the
resistor.

 Sliding it up will INCREASE the resistance by INCREASING length Y which

INCREASES the output voltage.

 Sliding it down will DECREASE the resistance by DECREASING length Y which

DECREASES the output voltage

If this set up is connected to another component, for example an audio unit, then the
variation of output voltage can determine the volume of the unit i.e. larger the output
volume the larger the volume and vise versa.

Remember, the longer the wire the greater the resistance

Relays

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to

operate the switch.
As electricity flows through the coil, it can “energize” the relay and it turns the coil
into an electromagnet. The magnetic effect of this electromagnet “attracts” the open
switch on the right and closes it to connect the circuit.
As you see in the diagram, a small current through the left circuit can be used to
trigger the connection of the second circuit on the right which has a much higher
current flowing through it. This is a major benefit of using relays.

Relays are quite commonly used with imput transducers such as thermistors and LEDs
which we will be going through later. For now, be aware of the basics of how a relay
works (which we’ve covered above).

Diode

A diode only allows one way flow of current through it (denoted by the arrow or
direction of the triangle in the circuit diagram).

This property of the diode is used in the conversion of a.c. current to d.c. current.

This property of the diode is used in the conversion of a.c. current to d.c. current.

We touched on the subject of a.c. current and d.c. current on the topic of magnetizing
& demagnetizing magnets. A.c. current is a type of current where the direction
repeatedly changes. D.c. current on the other hand is unidirectional.

Since the diode only allows current to flow in one direction, it changes alternating
current to direct current. This is called rectification.

A rectifier changes a.c. current into d.c. current. Therefore a diode can be used as a
rectifier.

Input transducers

Transducers are devices that transform energy from one form to another. They are
used in control systems, instrumentation, and electronic communications.

Input transducers are transducers that change non-electrical energy into electrical
energy. There are two main input transducers that you need to know in your course:
 Thermistors
 Light dependent resistors (LDRs)

Thermistors

A thermistor’s resistance decreases as the temperature increases. For this reason, it is

often used as a temperature sensor.

The diagram below demonstrates a temperature sensitive circuit:

When the temperature rises, the resistance of the thermistor decreases. This means
that it takes a smaller share of the potential difference from the power supply whilst
R1 takes a larger share. The PD across the base (of transistor) is now large enough to
switch on the collector-emitter current. When a large current flows from the collector
to the emitter, the bulb begins to light.

This circuit can be used to turn on a temperature warning light for electric devices
such as cookers, hair straighteners etc. When the temperature hits a certain level, the
bulb begins to light.

Light dependent resistor (LDR)

The light dependent resistor (LDR) has a resistance that decreases as light intensity
increases (similar to a thermistor). This means that it can be used as a light sensor.

The diagram below demonstrates a light sensitive circuit:

When the light intensity decreases, the resistance increases allowing the LDR (B) to
take a larger share of the PD form the power supply. This also means that the resistor
(A) takes a smaller share of the PD. The PD across the base is now large enough for
the base current to switch on the collector-emitter current. When a large current flows
from the collector to the emitter, the bulb lights.

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Digital electronics
A digital system includes an input sensor and a processor circuit, which controls the
voltage to an output device.

The processor circuit consists of a series of logic gates. Logic gates respond to small
voltages which are either on or off. They do not respond to analogue signals.

 An analogue signal (V) varies continuously in amplitude

 A digital signal (V) has only two states: High or low (or on and off, or 1 and 0)
Logic gates
Logic gates transform a digital input voltage into an output, which depends
on the type of logic gate.

The input voltages are given as 1 or 0 (on or off) and the input/output of these
logic gates can be represented on a truth table.

 A NOT gate gives an output that is opposite of the input

 An AND gate only gives an output if the input A and B are both 1

 An OR gate gives an output if input A or input B is 1

Logic gates can be combined to perform different functions in various electric
circuits.

Electrical hazards
Damaged insulation

Electrocution can be extremely dangerous, especially at high voltages which can

result in death. All electrical wires are therefore insulated in order to prevent
electricity passing onto its surroundings. A damaged insulation can therefore be
hazardous as it may result in an electricity leak.

Overheating cables

Overheating cables can result in the melting of the wire insulation and a consequent
fire.

Damp conditions

The electrical resistance of the human body drastically decreases in damp/wet

conditions. Therefore wet conditions coupled with unsafe handling of
electrical appliances may lead to extremely large currents passing through the
body resulting in a detrimental electric shock.

Safety circuit components

Fuse

A fuse is a thin piece of wire designed to carry a set maximum electrical current. If a
higher current passes through the wire, it will melt from the heat. When it melts, it
breaks the circuit and thus stops the current flowing.
Circuit breakers

A circuit breaker also prevents excessive current passing through the circuit. It is an
automated switch which interrupts current flow when abnormally high current is
detected.

A current flowing through the coil will magnetize the iron core which attracts the iron
rocker. The larger the current the stronger the magnetic pull. When the current
becomes too high, the iron rocker will separate from the contacts therefore breaking
the circuit.
Earthing metal cases

An electric shock can occur if a live wire inside an electrical appliance came loose
and touched the metal casing (which is of course a conductor).

To prevent this from happening, the earth terminal can be connected to the metal
casing so that the electricity can pass through the earth instead of the human body, and
therefore avoiding electrocution.
Electromagnetic induction
A conductor (such as a wire) moving across a magnetic field or a changing magnetic
field linking with a conductor can induce an e.m.f in the conductor.

When a bar magnet is moved towards and away from a coil, it induces emf (and
therefore current) within the coil. This is because magnetic field lines of the magnet
get ‘cut’ from the coil.

The magnitude of e.m.f induced in the coil can be increased by:

 Moving the magnet faster

 Putting more turns in the coil
 Using a strong magnet

Let’s look at this in a bit more detail. Consider this set-up below:

Bar magnet moving towards the coil

When the north pole of the bar magnetic is moved towards the coil, the needle on the
voltmeter briefly flick to the right, before returning to the centre.

As the bar magnet moves into the coil, the coil cuts the magnetic field lines of the bar
magnet. This induces an emf across the coil which is measured by the voltmeter.
The emf across the coil can cause a current to flow in the coil if it is a complete
circuit. The current that flows can cause the coil to act like a bar magnet.

When the north pole is moved towards the coil, the induced emf (or current) induces a
north magnetic pole at the end of the coil (which repels the bar magnet’s north pole).

Therefore, the emf that is induced will always oppose the change of the bar magnet
i.e. attempts to push it away as it moves closer

Bar magnet moving away from the coil

When the north pole of the bar magnetic is moved away from the coil, the needle on
the voltmeter will flock to the left.

This is because the coil cuts the field lines in the opposite direction, so the induced
emf is also in the opposite direction.
When the north pole is moved away from the coil, this induces a south pole at that end
of the coil.

The induced emf has therefore induced a magnetic pole which opposes change of the
bar magnet i.e. attempts to pull it in while it is moving away

A.C generator
You must be aware of the difference between a.c and d.c current

 A.C stands for alternating current, where the direction of the current changes
periodically.
 D.C stands for direct current, which has unidirectional current.

An a.c generator is a set-up used to make a.c current. It uses the fundamentals of
electromagnetic induction that we looked at before.

The set-up

 Between two magnetic poles, a rectangular coil with sides (labelled A, B, C, and
D) is placed.
 The rectangular coil is connected to two slip rings (coloured yellow & cyan)
  Side A+B of coil are connected to the yellow slip ring
 Side C + D of coil are connected to the cyan slip ring
 The slip rings are connected to an external circuit
 The coil is forced to rotate, and as it does so, generates alternating current in the
external circuit

Each time one side of the coil (either AB or DC) end up in a vertical position, the
induced current changes direction – hence alternating current. Why this happens will
be discussed below.

How it works

 Magnetic field lines go from north pole to south pole

 As the coil rotates, it cuts the magnetic field lines and induces emf and current
 In the diagram above, as the coil rotates, side AB will cut the magnetic
field upwards while side CD cuts the field downwards
 This will induce an emf and current within the coil, in a particular direction
 As the coil rotates further, side AB will eventually cut the magnetic
field downwards while side CD cuts the field upwards
 Since the sides have now reversed, the direction of induced current will also
become reversed too

At any given point, the fleming’s right hand rule can be used to determine the
direction of induced current. However, it is not expected for you to know this within
the scope of IGCSE physics.

Interpreting the a.c voltage against time graph

Consider a completely vertical coil with side AB being at the top and side CD
being at the bottom.
When the coil is vertical, the emf induced is 0. As the coil rotates, the emf
begins to rise. When AB and CD is completely horizontal, the induced emf is
at its peak. Further rotation begins to reduce the emf until the coil is vertical
again (this time CD is at the top and AB is at the bottom).

Further rotation begins to rise the emf but this time, in the opposite direction
of the graph.

Transformer
A transformer increases or decreases the voltage of an alternating current.

The general contraction of a basic transformer is as follows:

 A step-down transformer produces an output voltage that is less than the input
voltage
 Secondary coil has less turns than the primary coil
 A step-up transformer produces an output voltage that is greater than the input
voltage
 Secondary coil has more turns than the primary coil
Here are some important equations that you must learn:

Step-up transformers are used to step up voltage coming from a power station
onto the power lines that transmit electrical energy.

The power from the power station is constant and thus increasing the voltage
decreases the current (P = VI). Voltage is therefore amplified by transformers
to keep the current low.

Low current is beneficial because the larger the current, the more energy is
lost through heat which reduces the efficiency of the transmission.

Magnetic effect of a current

The magnetic field around a straight current carrying wire look like simple
rings. The direction of the field can be determined by using the right hand
grip rule.

The magnetic field around a solenoid is much like that of a bar magnetic. The
direction of the field lines depend on where the north and south poles are on
the solenoid, which is dependent on the direction of current.
At any given point, the direction of a magnetic field line is the direction of
force on the north pole of a magnet at that point.

Here are some visual examples of various magnetic field sources. The single
wire, solenoid, and the bar magnet are the main ones to note.

Force on a current carrying conductor

Recall that a wire carrying current has a magnetic field around it. The
direction of current can be determined by using the right hand grip rule.

If the wire is place din another magnetic field, then the two fields with
interact and there will be a force on the wire.
Consider a wire carrying current I, placed in between the north and south
poles of a magnet.

Can you figure out the direction of the force on the wire?

For any given situation concerning a magnetic field, current, and force
(thrust), the Fleming’s left hand rule can be used:
As long as you know the direction of two of these three variables, this rule will allow
you to determine the direction of the unknown variable (in this case the force/thrust).

By applying the this rule to the example above, you should now be able to
see how the force is acting downwards on the wire.
D.C motor
The basic set up of a d.c motor is as follows:
The poles of the magnet are curved to provide a circular magnetic field. This
helps to keep the coil in a constant magnetic field.

Each side of the coil experiences a force due to the fact that it is carrying
current within a magnetic field. This force causes the coil to rotation
(clockwise in this case).

Remember, you can figure out the direction of force using Fleming’s left hand rule.
Try it with this example! Using the rule, you can see that the left hand side of the coil
has a force UPWARDS and the right hand side has a force DOWNWARDS and
therefore the rotation is clockwise.

The split-ring communicator turns with the coil and is always in contact with
the brushes (which are fixed in place) to ensure that current continues to flow
to the coil.

Each time the coil reaches a vertical position, the two sides of the
communicator swap brushes. This reverses the flow of current to ensure
that the force on each side also become reversed. This allows the coil to
continue spinning. Otherwise it would just oscillate backwards and forwards.

If you are still confused, then take a look at this diagram below
The speed at which the coil spins can be increased by:

 Increasing the number of turns on the coil

 Increasing the current
 Increasing the strength of the magnetic field