Senior High School

NOT

Practical Research 2
Quarter 4 - Module 5
Data Collection, Presentation, and Analysis

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

 What’s In

Due to the COVID-19 global pandemic crisis, many are easily hook into sharing and
believing fake news without processing and verifying the source. Daily figures of these cases
are also gradually changing, creating misinformation and fear. People are anxious about
what is happening and tensions are inevitable due to security and health threats. Therefore,
reliable sources of data and information are highly needed. The fundamental questions to
ask are: What is data? Why researchers collect data? How is data collected? Who needs the
collected data?

In this pandemic situation specifically, the following questions can be considered.

· How many Filipinos are positive of COVID-19?
· Does aspirin prevent the spread of COVID-19?
· How many percent of Filipinos are jobless when the lockdown began?
· How have the education sector embraced the new normal?

All of these questions, and many more can be answered through data collection. As
taught in the previous lesson, a researcher begins by identifying the research problem. Once
the data gathering procedure has been implemented and data has been gathered, the next
thing to do is to analyze and interpret them. Data is obtained with the aid of data collection
instruments which will be the focus in this lesson.

What I Need to Know

Collecting data is the first step you need to perform before you proceed in writing
your data analysis and interpretation. Data Collection involves obtaining relevant
information regarding the specified research questions or objectives. This can be done by
utilizing research instruments that are either developed or adopted. In collecting the data, the
researcher must decide on the following questions: (1) Which data to collect? (2) How to
collect the data? (3) Who will collect the data? (4) When to collect the data? (Barrot, 2018,
p138).

Quantitative research instruments comprise questionnaires, interviews, tests, and

observation. On the other hand, data collection approaches for qualitative research usually
involve: (a) direct interaction with individuals on a one to one basis, (b) and or direct
interaction with individuals in a group setting.

When developing and utilizing a research instrument, the following steps are to be
considered:
1. Be clear with your research question.
2. Plan how you will conduct the data collection.
3. Use appropriate research instruments.
4. Collect, tabulate, tally, and analyze the data.
5. Verify the validity and reliability of the collected data.
6. Present your findings.
 What Is It

Research Instruments

Questionnaires

A questionnaire consists of a series of questions about a research topic to gather data from
the participants. It consists of indicators that is aligned to the research questions. Gathering
of information can be carried out in the following methods: face to face, by telephone, or
through e-mail, messenger, social media post, or using computer programs or forms (Barrot,
2018, p 138).

In quantitative research, questionnaires use the following approaches: (1) scale (usually
Likert scale); and (2) conversion of responses into numerical values, e.g. strongly as 5,
agree as 4, neutral as 3, disagree as 2, and strongly disagree as 1.

The terms survey and questionnaire have different meanings. A questionnaire is an

instrument used to collect data while a survey is a process of collecting, recording, and
analyzing data. Questionnaires can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.

There are three structures of making a questionnaire. The first, structured questionnaires
employ closed-ended questions. Unstructured questionnaires, on the other hand, use
open-ended questions in which the research participants can freely answer and put his
thoughts into it. Lastly, semi-structured questionnaires are combinations of both the
structured and unstructured ones. Structured type is commonly used in quantitative studies
because it is easier to code, interpret objectively, and, most of all, easier to standardize.

Advantages of Using Questionnaire

1. Data can be quickly gathered from a big number of participants.

2. The participants are encouraged to be open to the researchers since their identity
can be made anonymous.
Disadvantages of Using Questionnaire
1. The questions can be interpreted differently by the participants.
2. Some participants will not be able to complete the required responses.
3. Some questionnaires will not be returned on time.
4. Some questionnaires will be lost.
5. The answers from participants may lack depth.

Guidelines in Using Questionnaires for Data Collection

1. Choose the method of administering the questionnaire.

a. Face-to-face Method. Use this when you need to capture the emotions, behavior,
and non-verbal cues of the participants
b. Online Method. Use this when behavior and non-verbal cues need not to be taken
2. Divide your questionnaire into two or three parts.
a. Personal information. This section which contains background information of the
participants. (Names are optional)
b. Main section. This lists the specific questions or indicators.
c. Open-ended question section. This contains additional information that might be
needed. (This applied only for quantitative research)
3. Make sure to craft questions and choices that are aligned with specific research questions
or objectives.
4. Provide specific and clear directions for respondents in answering the questionnaire.
5. Use routing (directing) technique if there is a need to skip some items in the
questionnaire.
6. Begin with the general questions first followed by the specific ones.
7. Prefer to have brief, clear, and concise questionnaire. Use simple terms.
8. Predetermined responses or choices should match the nature of the questions.
a. If the content is about belief, use agreement (strongly agree , agree, neutral,
disagree, strongly disagree)
b. If the questionnaire is about behavior, use extent (very great extent, great extent,
moderate extent, small extent, none at all)
c. If questions are about frequency, use frequency (always, frequently, sometimes,
seldom, never)
d. If the content is about quality, use quality (excellent, very good, good, poor)
Later, these responses will be translated into numerical values (e.g. five-point Likert
scale)
9. Avoid negative statements unless necessary.
10. Avoid leading and biased, double-barreled, and very sensitive questions.
11. Do not split the questions or choices over two pages.
12. If possible, schedule an appointment before distributing the questionnaires.
13. Attach a cover letter to the questionnaire especially for agency connected respondents.
14. Make a follow-up on the participants who did not to return the questionnaire.
15. Tally and encode the data immediately once you have collected them and archive them
digitally.

Tests

Tests are used for assessing various skills and types of behavior as well as for describing
some characteristics. There are two types of test used in quantitative research: Standardized
test and Non-standardized test.

Standardized test is scored uniformly across different areas and groups. It is usually
administered by institutions to assess a wide range of groups such as students and test-
takers. It is considered as more reliable and valid. Examples are Achievement test,
University Entrance Exam, Personality Tests, and the likes.

Non-standardized test may not be scored uniformly. It is administered to a certain set of

people.

Types of Test Questions

1. Recall Questions. It requires participants to retrieve information from memory (e.g. fill- in-
the blank test, identification test, enumeration test, etc.)
2. Recognition Questions. It provides respondents to select from given choices the best or
correct choice (e.g. multiple-choice test, true or false test, yes or no test, etc.)
3. Open-ended Questions. It allows the respondents more freedom in their responses,
expressing their thoughts and insights (e.g. essay writing tests and other performance-
based tests.
The following table shows the types of test and examples

Type Subtype What the Example

Participants will Do
Recall Cloze test Supply words or Questionnaires can be structured,
phrases that have semi-structured, or _____________.
been deleted/removed
from a test.
Identification Provide an answer to What type of questionnaire employs
the given question close-ended questions?
using pure recall.
Enumeration List down the answers, List the steps in conducting
whether quantitative research.
chronologically or not.
Recognition Multiple Choose the best/ Which of the following does NOT
Choice correct answer from belong to the group?
three to five options. A. Collecting data
B. Tabulating data
C. Interpreting data
D. Differing data
Matching Match the items in Match the terminologies in Column A
Column A with the with their synonyms in Column B.
items in Column B. Column A Column B
__1. Data A. Participants
__2. Respondents B. Representative
__3. Sample C. Information
Dichotomous Choose an answer Write TRUE on the space before each
from two options either number if the statement is correct and
True or False or FALSE if it is incorrect.
Modified True or _____1. Data collection is the first
False. step in conducting quantitative
research.
Open- Non- Provide a lengthy Explain the process of obtaining the
Ended performance answer in writing or sample size from the population.
based orally.
Performance- Perform a task where Present a role play about conducting
based they are expected to an interview on study habits among
prepare a presentation students.
or written work.
Source: (Barrot, 2018, p 146)

Interview

A quantitative interview is a method of collecting data about an individual’s

behaviors, opinions, values, emotions, and demographic characteristics using numerical
data.
 Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Interviews

Quantitative Interviews Qualitative Interviews

It uses closed-ended questions. It uses open-ended questions.
It contains a rating scale or rubric. No rating scale or rubric needed.
Responses are numerical. Responses are non-numerical.
A large sample size is used. Small sample size is used.
Structured type is used to minimize “interviewer Unstructured, semi-structured,
effect”, which means that the responses of the informal interviews, and focus group
participants may be affected by the behavior discussions (FGD) are used.
displayed by the researcher on the manner that the
questions are presented.

The questionnaire and quantitative interview are both highly structured, but here’s a
distinction between the two:

Quantitative Interviews Questionnaires

Items are read to the participants.
Researchers may ask follow-up questions.
Useful when the target participants cant
answer a printed or encoded questionnaire
(blind or uneducated).
Participants answer on their own.
Researchers may not ask follow-up
questions.
Not applicable for blind and uneducated (no
read, no write) participants.

Observation

Observation is another method of collecting data that is frequently used in

qualitative research. However, it can be used in quantitative research when the observable
characteristics are quantitative in nature (e.g. length, width, height, weight, volume, area,
temperature, cost, level, age, time, and speed)

Observation allows the researcher to observe the actual event or phenomenon. It has
greater flexibility in the observation method. However, observation may lack participant
validity and may be prone to the Hawthorne effect phenomenon. Furthermore, it is more
exhausting and time-consuming especially when observations need to be conducted for
many years).
Forms of Observation
1. Controlled Observation. It is usually used in experimental research and is done
under a standard procedure. It provides more reliable data (obtained through structured and
well-defined process). The procedure can be replicated, and the data are easier to analyze.
Lastly, the observer performs a non-participant role (i.e. does not interact with the
participants).

2. Natural Observation. It is carried out in a non-controlled setting. It has greater

ecological validity (i.e. flexibility of the findings to be generalized to real-life contexts). It also
responds to other areas of inquiry not initially intended by the researcher. Its major limitation
is its strength to establish a causal relationship due to the presence of extraneous variables
which can affect the behavior of the participants

3. Participant Observation. It allows the observer to become a member of the group

or community that the participants belong to. It can be performed covertly (i.e. participants
are not aware of the purpose behind the observation. It can be done also overtly, wherein
participants know the intention or objectives of the observation
Different Roles of a Researcher during a Participant Observation
Observational
Description
Role
Complete Observe the spontaneous natural behavior of the participants with as few
observer external factors affecting it as possible. The observer is neither seen nor
noticed by the participants. The participants are less prone to the Hawthorne
effect.

Observer as Researcher does not prioritize recording spontaneous or natural behavior

participant with as few external factors affecting it as possible. The observer is known
and recognized by the participants as part of their group or community but
has limited interaction with them.

Participant as Researcher does not primarily aim to capture spontaneous or natural

observer behavior. The observer is considered a researcher and not a member of the
group or community which is being investigated. However, the observer is
fully engaged with the participants.

Complete Researcher is to observe the spontaneity or natural behavior of the

participant participant with as few external factors affecting it as possible. Taking this role
raises ethical issues about possible deception. He acts like an “undercover”
member of the community. He fully involved with the participants who are
unaware that they are being observed.

Guidelines in Conducting an Observation

USEFUL ONLINE TOOLS

Google Forms are free online forms that allows the researcher to construct,
administer, and analyze surveys.

Step-by-step on how to use the google forms:

Different Formats of Online Survey Tools (www.surveygizmo.com)

Ethical Considerations in Data Collection of Quantitative Research

Ethical considerations should always be practiced especially when human

participants are involved. Researchers ensure that participants are treated properly;
especially during data collection. The use of consent form respects the right of every
participant to be informed and to make voluntary participation.

Informed Consent Form is a document that provides the participants with the
information they need in deciding whether they will participate or not in your study. The
informed consent form must be accomplished before gathering data from the participants.
This document must be signed both by the researcher and the participant as they agree to
the conditions during the actual conduct of the data collection process. It usually contains the
following:

1. Background of your study (Title of the Study, Purpose of the Study)

2. Name of Researchers and the Institution you are affiliated with
3. Data Collection Procedure
4. Possible discomfort or risk factors
5. Anonymity of the participants and their responses
6. Termination of Research (may refuse to participate anytime)
7. Authorization of the Participants (participants acknowledge the conditions that they
will be subject to the study)
 What’s In

In the previous lesson, you were presented with options as to how you will gather your data.
Once the data are collected, you need to encode and organized them for systematic
purposes. This will be the focused of this lesson. In this process, you will need to edit, code,
tabulate and summarize information through graphs and tables for presentation and
interpretation purposes. The process also allows the removal of unnecessary information.

Data presentation and analysis is one of the most essential part in your research study. An
excellent data presentation can be potential for winning the hearts of the panelists, clients, or
simply the readers. No matter how good your data, if it is not well presented, you will not be
able to earn the preferences of those whom you are trying to persuade. Good data
presentation matters.

What I Need to Know

The following are the significant steps you need to take note in preparing and writing
your data analysis after gathering the data:

(1) encode and organize your data for analysis according to the data asked by your
research questions;
(2) use your data for statistical tests you have identified in Module 4. You may ask
assistance from your statistics and research teacher;
(3) present the result in tabular or graphical form appropriate for your data and
research purpose;
(4) write the interpretation for each table or graph highlighting the significant results
and its implications;
(5) support your findings from relevant literature and studies you have cited in the
Chapter 2 of your research paper; and
(6) edit the grammatical and typographical errors in your interpretation. You may use
www.grammarly.com to edit your work.
(7) Submit your work using the format given to you. Remember the institutional
format of your school.

Techniques in Data Processing

Remember to organize your data based on your research questions. The data
processing involves three actions: editing, coding, and tabulation.

Editing is a process wherein the collected data are checked. At this stage, handling data
with honesty should be employed. When you edit it is expected that you will not change,
omit, or makeup information if you think that the data you collected is insufficient or does not
meet your personal expectations. The main purpose of editing is for checking the
consistency, accuracy, organization, and clarity of the data collected. Data editing can be
done manually like traditional tallying or with the assistance of a computer or combination of
both.
Coding is a process wherein the collected data are categorized and organized. It is
usually done in qualitative research. In quantitative research, coding is done to assign
numerical value to specific indicator especially if it is qualitative in nature. This numerical
value will be useful when you are going to analyze your data using statistical tool. Just make
sure that the categories created are aligned with your research questions. Consider the
following example.

Tabulation is a process of arranging data. In many studies, table is used to do this process.
Tabulation can done manually or electronically using MS Excel. Again organize the data
based on your research questions. Before inputting your data into the table, it will be helpful
to review your statistics class on how to arrange data according to the statistical techniques
you will use. Take note that the digital tool you are going to use will also matter on how you
are going to tabulate your data; like MS Excel, Minitab, or other digital tools have different
ways of entering your data. Correct arrangement of your data will be helpful during actual
data analysis.

What Is It

Presentation and Interpretation of Data

The next step after editing, coding, and tabulating the data is to present them into
graphical or visual presentation called non-prose materials. The purpose of presenting the
data in this way is to make the outlined of the results more presentable. Non-prose materials
are composed of graphs, bars, tables, charts, diagrams, illustrations, drawings, and maps.

In quantitative research, tables and graphs are usually used. Standard format in
presenting the data into a table or a graph like its title, labels, contents, and many more can
be followed as well when school institutional format is not provided or identified. You may
visit APA, CMOS, or MLA on how to do so.
Tables
Table helps summarize and categorize data using columns and rows. It contains
headings that indicate the most important information about your study.

To interpret the tables, one needs to do the following:

1. Analyze the connections among the details of the headings.
2. Check the unusual pattern of the data and determine the reason behind these.
3. Begin with the table number and the title.
 4. Present the significant figures (overall results, high and low values, the unusual
pattern).
5. Refrain from repeating again what’s inside the table.
6. Support your findings with literature and studies that confirms or contrasts your
results.
7. Establish the practical implications of the results. This will add value to your
research findings.
8. End with a brief generalization.
Sample Interpretation for the Given Table

Sample 1

Table 1 shows the summary of the overall adjectival rating in frequency and
percentage of students in their pretest in Pre-calculus at Gulayan National High School for
S.Y. 2019-2020. Results reveal that 66% of the students have satisfactory rating. Only 5%
have outstanding rating. Overall, the data showed that the students at Gulayan National
High School have fair ratings based on their pretest scores. This implies that most of the
students do not have prior mastery on the concepts of this subject. Hence, teacher is
expected to apply teaching strategies that will increase students’ concepts of the subject.
This result is supported by Ignacio (2016) that pretest scores especially if it is valid and
reliable shows prior knowledge of the learners of the subject matter.
Sample 2
Looking at Table 4, there is a significant relationship between the classroom interaction that
facilitates positive discipline and sense belonging (r(39 = .973, p = 0.000). The feeling of
being safe and welcome in school is significantly related to how the teachers manage
classroom interaction. This result is supported by the early studies on classroom
management by Brophy and Avertson (1976) that though variety of teaching behaviors affect
effective teaching; classroom management appeared to be one of the most critical aspects
as viewed by students.
Table 3. Correlation Analysis of Positive Discipline and Sense of Belonging
Variables Sense of Belongingness Interpretation
Classroom Pearson .973
Interaction Correlation Significant
Sig. (2-tailed) .000**
Use of Pearson .073
Reinforcement Correlation Not Significant
Sig. (2-tailed) .663
*p<.05, **p<.01
Graphs

Graphs focuses on how a change in one variable relates to another. Graphs use bars, lines,
circles, and pictures in representing the data. In interpreting the graph, it is the same process
in table. In choosing what type of graph to use, determine the specific purpose of the
presentation. Line Graph illustrates trends and changes in data over time, Bar Graph
illustrates comparisons of amounts and quantities, while Pie Graph (Circle Graph) displays
the relationship of parts to a whole.

Sample Interpretation of a Bar Graph

Figure 1. GRSHS-X Canteen Lunch Menu

Figure 1 shows the canteen lunch menu of GRSHS-X. The graph reveals that rice is
highly patronized by the students and teachers with 150 cups sold daily. It can also be noted
that pork and chicken menus have a good number of buyers (315 serve/pieces). Vegetable
menus cannot be undervalued since several consumers (135 serve/pieces) also patronized
the food. At the same time, seafood menus earn the last spot (50 serve/pieces sold).
Generally, students and faculty of GRSHS-X preferred meat (pork and chicken) menus next
to rice.
Sample Interpretation of a Line Graph

Figure 2. Students Quarterly Average Grade by Sections in Elective Mathematics (S.Y. 2019-2020
Figure 2 showed changes in the average grade of Elective Mathematics between Grade 10-
Max and Grade 10-Min from the first quarter to the fourth quarter for S.Y. 2019-2020. From
the graph, it is evident that both sections are performing well, but Grade 10-Max managed to
maintain consistently its high performance than Grade 10-Min every quarter. During the
second quarter, there is a noticeably far difference between the two sections. Overall, Grade
10-Max gained a better performance in Elective Mathematics than Grade 10-Min.

Sample Interpretation of a Pie Graph

Figure 3. Dream Job of the Grade 7 Students from GRSHS-X

Figure 3 showed the result of the survey conducted to Grade 7 students when asked about
their dream job. From the graph, forty percent (40%) and thirty percent (30) of the
participants wanted to become a doctor and an engineer, respectively with just thirty percent
(30%) left for other professions. Only about five percent (5%) wanted to become a teacher.
From the data, more than 70% of the Grade 7 students will likely pursue STEM strand
courses when they graduate in high school.
 What’s In

In the previous lesson, you were presented with options on how to present
and analyze your data through tables and graphs. As mentioned previously, data
analysis goes hand in hand with data presentation and is considered a time-
consuming task because it involves a series of investigations, classifications,
mathematical calculations, and graphical recording, among others.

You are fully aware that planning your research study is needed. Thus, it is
assumed that when you begin your research study, you have already identified the
scale of measurement to use in your research study. Comprehensive statistical
analysis is important before making conclusions about your study.

What I Need to Know

Statistical methods and techniques were already discussed in the previous modules.
Sample Size Determination was also introduced in Module 4, Lesson 2. This lesson will
discuss deeply the five most useful statistical techniques specifically in quantitative research:
Percentage, Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlation, Regression, and Hypothesis Testing.

The computational procedure for hypothesis testing (Chapter 3) will also be shown in
this lesson because this is where your decision-making skill will be tested. You will
investigate and evaluate the claims about your study before writing your conclusions.

What Is It

Statistical Techniques
Table 1: Percentage of Parents who Opted to Receive Digital Copies of Learning Modules

Total Number of Parents who

Sections Number of opted to received digital Percentage (%)
Parents copies of learning modules
7-A 30 24 (24÷30)X100 = 80%
7-B 25 25 (25÷25)X100 = 100%
7-C 32 16 (16÷32)X100 = 50%
7-D 30 11 (12÷30)X100 = 40%
TOTAL 117 76 (76÷117)X100 = 64.96%

2. Mean or average is the middlemost value of your list of values and this can be obtained
by adding all the values and divide the obtained sum to the number of values.
 Abbreviation Numerical Values

Strongly Agree (SA) 5

Agree (A) 4
Undecided (U) 3
Disagree (D) 2
Strongly Disagree (SD) 1

One need to get the range from which the mean of a five-point Likert can be
interpreted. There are two methods to do this, if we treat the Likert scale as interval/ratio.
First, the usual way is to calculate the interval by computing the range (e.g. 5 − 1 = 4), then
divided it by the maximum value (e.g. 4 ÷ 5 = 0.80). Ultimately, we get the following result:
From 1 to 1.80 represents (strongly disagree).
From 1.81 to 2.60 represents (do not agree).
From 2.61 to 3.40 represents (true to some extent).
From 3:41 to 4:20 represents (agree).
From 4:21 to 5:00 represents (strongly agree).

The other way is to treat the selection as the range themselves, and so we get these
results:
From 0.01 to 1.00 is (strongly disagree);
From 1.01 to 2.00 is (disagree);
From 2.01 to 3.00 is (neutral);
From 3.01 to 4:00 is (agree);
From 4.01 to 5.00 is (strongly agree)

Here’s how it will appear in your research paper.

Study Habit Mean (𝑿̅) Standard Verbal Interpretation

Deviation (𝑺𝑫)
1. I study where there is good 4.5 4.12 Strongly Agree
lighting.
2. I study in a room where the 4.2 3.91 Agree
temperature is cool.

4. Correlation Analysis (Pearson’s r) is a statistical method used to estimate the strength of

relationship between two quantitative variables.

Example:

Here’s a data of five students with their corresponding grade in Math (Independent
Variable) and grade in English (Dependent Variable). Is there a significant relationship
between the grade in Math and the grade in English?
Table 3. Grade in Math and Grade in English of Five Students

Grade in Mathematics Grade in English 2 2

Student x y xy
(x) (y)
A 96 97 9216 9409 9312
B 90 92 8100 8464 8280
C 93 96 8649 9216 8928
D 94 95 8836 9025 8930
E 92 90 8464 8100 8280
Sum 465 470 43265 44214 43730

Step 1. Compute the value of 𝑟 using the Pearson’s r formula.

Step 2. From the table of values, there is a strong positive correlation between the grade in
Math and the grade in English.

5. Regression Analysis is can be used to explain the relationship between dependent and
independent variables.

Three major uses:

a. Causal analysis -shows you the possible causation of changes in Y by changes X.
b. Forecasting an Effect- allows you estimate and predict the value of Y given the value of
X.
c. Linear Trend Forecasting- helps you trace the line best fit to tine series

Example:

Using the same data from Table 3, answer the following questions:

a. What linear equation best predicts the grade in English given the grade in Math?

Step 1: Compute the 𝑏 and 𝑚.

Step 2: Substitute the value of m and b to the regression formula.

The regression equation for predicting the grade in English given the grade in Math is
𝑌 = 𝑋 + 1.
b. If a student made a grade of 91 in Math, what grade would you expect the student to
obtain in English?
Using the obtain equation 𝑌 = 𝑋 + 1, substitute 91 in X.

Y = 91 + 1 = 92 (Grade in English)

According to this model, for every 1point increase in the Math grade, there is a
corresponding average increase of 1 point in the English grade.
c. How well does the regression equation fit the data?

Interpretation:

The Math grade is directly proportional to the English grade because the slope is
positive.

6. Hypothesis testing. A hypothesis test helps you determine some quantity under a given
assumption. The outcome of the test tells you whether the assumption holds or whether the
assumption has been violated.

From Module 3, you were exposed to creating your Null hypothesis (𝑯𝟎) which
states that there is no difference between the two values or variables and the Alternative
hypothesis (𝑯𝟏) which states that there is a difference between two values or variables.

The statistical test uses the data obtained from a sample to decide about whether
the null hypothesis should be rejected. In a one-tailed test (left-tailed or right-tailed test),
when the test value falls in the critical region on one side of the mean, the null hypothesis
should be rejected.

On the other hand, in a two-tailed test, the null hypothesis should be rejected when
the test value falls in either of the two critical regions.

To perform hypothesis testing, you compute the mean from the sample and compare
it with the mean from the population. Then, you decide whether to reject or not reject the null
hypothesis. If the difference is significant, the null hypothesis is rejected. If the difference is
not significant, then the null hypothesis is not rejected. In the hypothesis- testing, there are
four possible results.

𝐻0true

Reject 𝐻0 Error Correct

Type I decision

Do not reject 𝐻0 Correct Error

decision Type II
The four possibilities are as follows:
1. It would be an incorrect decision and would result in a Type I error when you
reject the null hypothesis when it is true.
2. It would be a correct decision when you reject the null hypothesis when it is false.
3. It would be a correct decision when you do not reject the null hypothesis when it is
true.
4. It would be an incorrect decision and would result in a Type II error when you do
not reject the null hypothesis when it is false.

The basic format for hypothesis testing:

1. State the hypotheses and identify them.
2. Find the critical value(s).
3. Compute the test value.
4. Make the decision.
5. Summarize the result.
6.

Hypothesis testing can be done using the following t-value approach or critical value
approach and 𝑝-value approach.

1. The Critical Value Approach is used to determine whether the observed test statistic is
more extreme than a defined critical value. Hence, the observed test statistic (calculated on
the basis of sample data) is compared to the critical value, from t-table. If the test statistic
(𝒕∗) is more extreme than the critical value (t), the null hypothesis is rejected. If the test
statistic is not as extreme as the critical value, the null hypothesis is not rejected.

Example:

A random sample of 10 Grade 7 students has grades in Math, where marks range
from 90 (Good) to 98 (Excellent). The general average grade (Gen. Ave.) of all Grade 7
students as of the last 5 years is 93. Is the Gen. Ave. of the 10 Grade 7 students different
from the population’s Gen. Ave? Use 0.05 level of significance.
Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Math Grade 90 98 97 93 94 91 97 93 93 94

Given: 𝑛=10 𝛼=0.05 𝜇0=93 𝑋=94 sd= 2.68

Computational Procedure:
1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis
𝐻0: There is no significant difference between the gen. ave. of 10 Grade 7
students from the population’s gen. average of 93.
𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 93
𝐻1: There is a significant difference between the gen. ave. of 10 Grade 7
students from the population’s gen. average of 93.
𝐻1 : 𝜇 ≠ 93
2. State the alpha and the degree of freedom.
𝛼 = 0.05
𝐷𝑓 = 𝑛 − 1 = 10 − 1 = 9
2. P-value Approach involves determining the probability (assuming the null hypothesis
were true) of observing a more extreme test statistic in the direction of the alternative
hypothesis than the one observed. If the P-value is less than (or equal to) 𝛼 then the null
hypothesis is rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis. And, if the P-value is greater
than 𝛼, then the null hypothesis is not rejected.

Example:
Use the same data from Example 1 of Critical value approach:

Computational Procedure:
1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis
𝐻0: There is no significant difference between the gen. ave. of 10 Grade 7
students from the population’s gen. average of 93.
𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 93

𝐻1: There is a significant difference between the gen. ave. of 10 Grade 7

students from the population’s gen. average of 93.
𝐻1 : 𝜇 ≠ 93
2. State the alpha and the degree of freedom.
𝛼 = 0.05
𝐷𝑓 = 𝑛 − 1 = 10 − 1 = 9
3. State the decision rule.

6. State results.
One-tailed |0.13412| > 0.05
Two-tailed |0.26825| > 0.05
7. Decision: Accept 𝐻0
Since this p-value is not less than our chosen alpha level of 0.05, we can’t
reject the null hypothesis.
8. Conclusion: Therefore, the average grade of 10 Grade 7 students is not different
from the population’s average grade in Math which is 93.
Here are the steps in finding the t-value or critical value at the t-table:
1. Locate your confidence level (alpha level) at the top row of the t-table found
below (this tells you which column you need).
2. Intersect this column with the row for your 𝑑𝑓 (degrees of freedom). The number
you see is the critical value (or the t-value) for your confidence interval.

Table of T-Values

Examples:

Given t-value (critical value)

1. 𝑑𝑓=5, 𝛼=0.05, two-tailed test 2.571
2. 𝑑𝑓=12, 𝛼=0.05, one-tailed test 1.782