An Overview of Linear Systems The content from this course was hosted on TechOnline.com from 1999 - 2004. TechOnline.

com is now targeting commercial clients, so the content, (without animation and voice) is now being hosted here. Description This course provides an introduction to linear systems with a view towards modeling, simulation, filtering, and control system design. The material introduces linear, time-invariant systems that can be modeled with ordinary, constant coefficient, differential equations. The Laplace transform and transfer functions are used to simply the analysis. Bode and Nyquist plots are used to present the system frequency response. Module List: 1) Modeling of continuous time invariant linear systems 2) Analysis of linear systems, state space representation, numerical simulation 3) Analysis of linear systems, control system design and synthesis 4) Implementation of control systems, discretization, z-transforms. Author: Duane Mattern Background: Duane Mattern is an independent contractor specializing in modeling, simulation, control system design and implementation. He is experienced with rapid prototyping software tools like the Mathworks Matlab/Simulink/Controls/RTW and Integrated Systems Xmath/MatrixX/ SystemBuild/Autocode. As a mechanical engineer specializing in instrumentation and controls with more than 10 years of experience, he has a broad range of practical knowledge, including automatic testing machines, turbofan engine control, integrated flight and propulsion control, servo-systems including voice coil and electromagnetic actuation, diagnostics, and neural networks. His current interests are in modeling, real-time simulation, control system design and embedded system programming for control system implementation, Prerequisites: Familiarity with the following concepts: (i) phasor notation and the fundamentals of complex variables; (ii) integration and differentiation; (iii) superposition, the Laplace transform and transfer functions; (iv) frequency response using Bode and Nyquist plots, (v) basic linear algebra. Intended Audience: (1) Engineer or practitioner who would like to renew their knowledge of linear systems; (2) Engineer or practitioners who would like a fast introduction to linear systems; (3) College student who desires an alternative presentation to linear systems, separate from what they receive in their normal courses.

Estimated Total Learning Time: 2 hours

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Module 7 : Case Study: The model Purpose - To demonstrate linear system modeling with a practical example. - To show how subsystem models are developed and coupled to make higher order models. Objective: - To become comfortable using block diagrams. - Be able to develop a model of a physical system from the underlying physics. Contents: 8 pages 2 test questions

Learning Time: 30 minutes

This module cover the modeling of a physical system. The system used in this example is linear actuator comprised of a voice coil motor. Upon completion, you will be able to accomplish the objective listed here. Click the Forward arrow when youre ready to continue.

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Content Slide 1: Physical system description. Electric inner guide current input coil motion

IR-LED

photo transistor light ports top plate magnetic air gap voice coils permanent magnet cross-section bottom plate

sleeve

Modeling will be discussed using an example problem. We will begin by introducing the physical system: a voice coil linear actuator. Voice coil actuators are used for mirror displacement in optical systems, vibration isolation, computer disk head drive, and acoustic signal generation. The physical details of this system are similar to what you might find in a typical loudspeaker. The input to the system is an electrical voltage applied to the voice coil. The system output that we want to control is the vertical position of the coil relative to frame that house the permanent magnet. The coil vertical velocity and coil electrical current are also outputs. In this example we will assume that the coil displacement is detected by measuring the amount of light passing through a set of light ports in the voice coil. An infrared light emitting diode provides the light source and a photo transistor is used for the detector. For simplicity we will assume that the entire device is enclosed in a dark enclosure so that ambient lighting does not disturb the measurement. This avoids the need to provide a frequency modulated light source and will simplify the discussion. The position detection range is limited to 1 millimeter around the midpoint of the light gap which requires a DC offset voltage to move the voice coil from its resting position. We will also assume that the bandwidth of the position sensor is larger enough, relative to the physical system, that it can be neglected. Note that the spring structure attached to the voice coil is not shown in the above figure. Typically this spring would be comprised of a flexure. This spring is called a spider in a loudspeaker.

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Content Slide 2: Model Subsystems

1 Voice Coil Voltage
1/Lcoil Rcoil

1/s

1 Current amps

Electrical Subsystem Transfer Function 1 I coil ( s ) Rcoil = Lcoil Vcoil ( s ) s +1 R coil

Force = Bmag * L * I coil

1 Current (amps)
1 Force (Newtons)

Bmag*L
velocity 1/s

1 Force (Newtons)
position 1/s 1 position (meters)

1/ M

Mass, kg Bdamp Damping N/(m/s) Spring Stiffness N/m K

1 / K spring X ( s) = 2 F ( s) s 2 s +1 2 +

n2 =

K spring M mass

Bdamp 2 K spring M mass

1 Velocity (m/s)

Bmag*L

1 Back EMF (volts)

EMF Voltage = Bmag * L * Velocity

This system naturally breaks into two coupled subsystems. The first subsystem is all electrical and the second subsystem is all mechanical. The two systems are coupled by the magnetic field provided by the permanent magnet. Lets start at the input and work our way to the output. (Highlite row 1) The input is the voice coil voltage, which induces a current within the coil. The coil can be modeled as a inductor, Lcoil, and a resistor, Rcoil, that make-up a first order filter with a time constant equal to Lcoil/Rcoil and a steady state gain of 1/Rcoil. The output from this subsystem is the electric current in the coil. (Highlite row 2) When a current flows in the coil the magnetic field induces a force on the coil. This coil force can be obtain from electric motor theory and is equal to the product of: the magnetic flux density; the length of wire within the magnetic field, and the electrical current. The resulting model is a constant gain. Note that this model assumes that the length of coil in the magnetic field and the magnetic flux density that the coil is in, are both constants. The magnetic field provides the transition from the electric subsystem, to the mechanical subsystem, as the signal flow is converted from current to force. (Highlite row 3) The mechanical subsystem is a second order, spring, mass, and damper system. The spring is the flexure that supports the voice coil and returns it to its nominal position. The voice coil itself is the moving mass. The damping force on the coil is proportional to velocity and accounts for the energy lost by friction. Using Newtons law, we can sum the net forces on the voice coil and divided by the constant coil mass to obtain the acceleration of the voice coil. Integrating the acceleration yields velocity and integrating the velocity yields position. Both position and velocity are fed back to use in the calculation of the spring force and the damping force. (Highlite row 4) The mechanical subsystem is also coupled back to the electrical subsystem by the electro-motive force or back-EMF voltage induced in the coil by the motion of the coil in the magnetic field. This induced voltage is equal to product of the magnetic flux density; the length of wire within the magnetic field, and the coil velocity. This back EMF voltage opposed the coil input voltage.
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Content Slide 3: Model block diagram.

Bmag*L current amps 1 Input to Voice Coil (volts)
1/Lcoil Rcoil

Back EMF, volts/(m/s) velocity 1/s position 1/s

1/s

Bmag*L Force per current (Newtons per amp)

1/ M

Mass, kg Bdamp Damping N/(m/s) Current, amps 3 mechanical subsystem electrical subsystem Spring Stiffness N/m K

2 Velocity m/s 1 1000 Position mm/m mm

If we use the two coupling terms to connect the electrical and mechanical subsystems, we obtain an open-loop model of the voice coil system. Note that the back EMF voltage is subtracted from the coil input voltage, effectively loading the electrical system. Also note that a units conversion block was added so that the output from the model is in millimeters instead of meters. The model has three outputs the we will use in the analysis: position, velocity and electric current. The position is the output variable to be controlled. Next we will examine a state space representation of this system. Note that because the block diagram was written with individual integrators instead of blocks of transfer functions, that it is possible to assign physically meaningful values to the state variables. In this case, the state variables are the position in meters, the velocity in meters per second, and the current in amps. By using individual integrators, it is easy to write the first order differential equations to construct the state space representation symbolically. The notation being used in the block diagram is: Blue = Input. Red = Block with state variable. Violet = Output.

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Content Slide 4: State space model x1 0 x1 0 & 1 0 & Bdamp / M Bmag * L / M x 2 + 0 u x 2 = K / M x3 0 & Bmag * L / Lcoil Rcoil / Lcoil x 3 1 / Lcoil y1 1000 0 0 x1 0 1 0 x 2 + 0 u y2 = 0 y3 0 0 1 x 3 0 where Third order transfer function from the input voltage to the output displacement in millimeters. u = voice coil input voltage in volts y1 = x1 = position in millimeters and meters y2 = x2 = velocity in meters per sec y1 ( s ) 2.0517e09 = 3 2 y3 = x3 = current in amps u( s ) s + 12096s + 162e07s + 2109e09 . .
All variables are functions of time. Parameters are available in the file: referernce.text

poles at: -1.059e04, -1.36e03, -1.461e02

[Highlight Row 1] A state space model can be obtained from the previous block diagram by writing the first order differential equation associated with each integral block as shown above. In the block diagram we assigned variables of interest to the state variables, so the C matrix is nearly identify. The only element in the C matrix is to convert the position from meters to millimeters. Now we will introduce numerical values from an application where the voice coil is used as a sleeve valve. The moving mass consists entirely of the voice coil itself. The fluid is air and the motion of the air through the valve is perpendicular to the motion of the voice coil, so the pressure loading is assumed to be negligible. Flexures are used as a return spring and to provide accurate radial positioning. [Highlight Row2] After introducing the numerical values, the transfer function from input voltage to output position can be obtained. There are no zeros in this transfer function. The poles are -146, -1360 and -10590 radians per second. The fast pole, -10590 is due primarily to the electrical subsystem. The other two poles are due to the mechanical subsystem and the damping caused by back EMF. The poles of the uncoupled system can be examined by setting Bmag equal to zero and recalculating the eigenvalues of the system A matrix. The resulting eigenvalues are from the two isolated subsystems: [ -90.7 j 411, and -11915]. The complex pair of poles are associated with the spring mass damper system. They show the system is oscillatory when not damped by the magnetic field. Note that because we are assuming that the linear system is a perturbation around the nominal operating position defined at the midpoint of the light gap, the third state variable in this model, the electrical current, would be initialized to include the DC offset current required to achieve this nominal position.

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Content Slide 5: Transfer function model

0 Gain (dB)

Third order transfer function displacement / input voltage

y1 ( s ) 2.0517e09 = 3 2 u( s ) s + 12096s + 162e07s + 2109e09 . .

-40 -80 -120 0 Design bandwidth spec.

Phase (degs)

poles at: -1.059e04, -1.36e03, -1.461e02 y1 = displacement in millimeters u = voice coil voltage in volts

-100 -200 -300 100 Displacement(s) Vcoil(s) 101 102 103 Frequency (radians/second) 104 105

The Bode plot shows the open-loop frequency response from coil input voltage to coil displacement in millimeters. The third order system is overdamped with all real stable poles and no zeros. The openloop system has about a -3 dB drop in gain and a -45 degrees phase lag around about 150 radians/sec (24 Hz). The steady state gain, Gss, from input voltage to the outputs is a column vector comprised of : [ 0.973 millimeter/volt, 0.0 (m/s)/volt, and 0.179 amps/volt ]. For this problem, the closed loop design specifications for this system are: 1) a bandwidth of 600 Hz (3770 radians/sec). 2) a commanded displacement in the ranges of 1 millimeter. 3) reasonable power requirements. The definition of reasonable will be discussed after the design is completed. 4) gain margin greater than 6 dB and a phase margin greater than 50 degrees. 5) steady state error due to a step input command of one millimeter of less than 4 micrometers, requiring a DC gain in excess of 48 dB { 20 log10(1.0e-3/4.0e-6) }. This can be accomplished with integral control action. Looking at the open loop system, it can be observed that the phase angle of the open-loop, uncompensated system at a frequency of 3770 rad/s (600 Hz) is nearly -180 degrees. Thus the difficulty with this design is achieving a large phase lead to achieve our phase margin goal. Note: a specification was given for a small steady state error and a bandwidth of 600 Hz, implying a usage frequency range from 0 to 600 Hz. The definition of bandwidth being used is that frequency for which the closed-loop amplitude ratio is -3dB. The phase angle at this frequency may be important for the application and should also be noted.

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Content Slide 6: Inner Loop Frequency response from voltage to current

Gain (dB)

Third order transfer function electrical current / input voltage

-10 -20 -30 50 0 -50 101 102 103 104 Frequency (radians/second) 105 Icoil(s) Vcoil(s)

y1 ( s ) 2128s + 386e5s + 3.77e08 . = 3 2 u( s ) s + 12096s + 162e07s + 2109e09 . .

2

zeros at: -90.7 411j poles at: -1.059e04, -1.36e03, -1.461e02

We are not yet done with the open-loop model. Before proceeding with the control design, we need to consider some practical aspects of this problem. The linear model is defined by constant parameters. In reality we do not know these parameters exactly, nor are they necessarily constant. For example the resistance of the coil will change with temperature and the coil temperature may change due to self heating. The figure above shows the frequency response from the input voltage to the output current for the coupled subsystems. There is an amplitude attenuation corresponding to the resonance frequency of the mechanical subsystem. This is the affect of the back EMF on the electrical subsystem. If the parameters of the mechanical subsystem are inaccurate then the location of this attenuation will also change, changing the electrical impedance. Since the purpose of feedback is to reduce the effects of uncertainty, we can use feedback at the subsystem level and use an inner-loop feedback control system for the electrical system.

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Phase (degs)

-100 100

Content Slide 7: Voltage Controlled Current Source Frequency response from voltage to current
Gain (dB)

Voltage Controlled Current Source Configuration using a model of power operational amplifier.

20 0 -20 -40 -60 0 -50 -100 -150 102 105 103 104 Frequency (radians/second) 106 Icoil(s) Vcoil(s) VCCS with and without mechanical coupling

Rcoil

The transfer function from coil voltage to coil current is now 4th order. There are two complex zeros at: -90.7 411j and there are four complex poles at: -90.1 410j , -5.96e3 4.59e4. Lets configure the electrical system as voltage controlled current source (VCCS). Then, we can command current directly. This inner feedback loop will reduce the effects of uncertainty and the back EMF coupling on the electrical subsystem. We will model the VCCS as a power operational amplifier with a feedback loop on current to keep in the spirit of linear systems. In reality the VCCS would probably be implemented with a pulse-width-modulation (PWM) amplifier configured in current driver mode. Configured as a VCCS, the isolated electrical subsystem has a flat frequency response out to about 46,000 radians/second. This response is robust to uncertainties and variations in the mechanical subsystem. This robustness can be attributed to the zeros that occur when feeding back current for the VCCS, since current is affected by the back EMF voltage. As listed above, the two complex zeros are in close proximity to the resonance poles of the mechanical subsystem regardless of where this poles are located. The high gain current feedback has increase the robustness of the electrical subsystem. The two other poles of the voltage controlled current source appear to be highly oscillatory as noted by the large complex term relative to the real part. Some of the details within the actual VCCS that make it less oscillatory are not included in this model. As we will see in the next module, this will not significantly affect the control design. Now we can include this VCCS into the model to complete the development of the open-loop, design plant, model.

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Phase (degs)

1 current cmd (volts)

1E06 s+1 Power OpAmp

1/Lcoil

1/s

Current amps

Content Slide 8: Open Loop Design Plant Model

Bmag*L 1 1E06 s+1 Power OpAmp current amps
1/Lcoil Rcoil

Back EMF, volts/(m/s) velocity 1/s position 1/s

2 1 Position mm/m mm 1000

1/s

Bmag*L Force per current (Newtons per amp) Current, amps 3

1/ M

Mass, kg Bdamp Damping N/(m/s) mechanical subsystem Spring Stiffness N/m K

voltage controlled current source

Open Loop System Root Locus

Imaginary Axis

Open Loop System Frequency Response

50 0 -50 -100 -150 -200 0 -100 -200 -300 -400 101 Displacement(s) VIcmd(s) 102 103 104 105 Frequency (radians/second) 106 Gain (dB)

4e4 2e4 0 -2e4 -4e4

-5960+4.5e4j

4 open loop poles

-90+/- 410j

Resonant peaks

-5960+4.5e4j
-6000 -2000 -4000 Real Axis 0 1000

4 poles and no zeros. [Highlite row 1) In the next module we will begin the control design with this open-loop model comprised of the two coupled subsystem: the voltage controlled current source and the second order mechanical subsystem. The system is now 4th order. [Highlite row 2, column 2 on the right] The open-loop frequency response from commanded current to output position is shown in the Bode plot on the right. From this figure we can see that the dynamics are comprised of two second order systems. The mechanical subsystem with a resonance around 420 radians/second and the VCCS electrical subsystem with a resonance around 46000 radians/second. [Highlight row 2, column 1, on the left] On the left is a plot of the root locus. The root locus is a locus of points that define the location of closed-loop poles of the system, assuming a simple proportional gain and unity feedback. The locus of points starts at the open-loop poles and ends at the open-loop zeros or infinity. The locus is shown starting at the open-loop poles equal to -90410j and -59604.5e4j. In this module we have develop a model for a physical system by coupling together simple subsystem models comprised of standard first and second order systems. We also consider the practical aspects of the design by converting the electrical subsystem into a voltage controlled current source. In the next module, well look at the design of a controller for the model of this system.

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Phase (degs)

10

Content Slide 9: Question 1 Select which of the transfer function best models the dynamic response of the system shown below: C

R R Vi + op amp Vo

(a)
Vo ( s ) = 2 Vi ( s ) s + K 2 s +1

(b)
Vo ( s ) K = Vi ( s ) s + 1

(c)
Vo ( s ) = K ( s + 1) Vi ( s )

2 n

(d) Vo ( s ) K ( s + 1) = 2 Vi ( s ) s 2 s +1 2 + n n

correct! The correct answer is (b). The system only has one dynamics element, the capacitor, C, so you know that answer has to be either (b) or (c) because the other options have too many dynamics elements. You need to recall the rules for obtaining transfer functions from op-amps, which is: The dynamics gain of an op-amp is equal to the feedback impedance, Zfb, divided by the feedforward impedance, Zff. You also need to recall the rule for obtaining the total impedance of elements in parallel.
Vo ( s ) Zfb = Vi ( s ) Zff

Zfb

Zff Vi

op amp Vo

For the example given above: 1 1 + Cs Vo ( s ) Zfb R 1 = = = ( RCs + 1) Vi ( s ) Zff R

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Content Slide 10: Question 2 2) The following system does not have an input. It represents the pendulum nonlinear dynamics: mL2&& = mgLsin( ) y = x where && is the angular acceleration, is the angular position, mL2 is the moment of inertia, Lsin() is the moment arm, and mg is the force due to gravity. Given this nonlinear system with no friction, which one of the following state space models corresponds to a linear model of this system at an operating point of o = 0? Click on your choice. & 1 0 = a) && - mgL 0 &

Pendulum

Length = L

m = mass moment arm = Lsin()

F = mg

y=x

*b)

& 1 0 = && - g / L 0 & & 1 0 = && g / L 0 & & 0 1 = && - mgLcos( ) 0 &

y=x

c)

y=x

d)

y=x

E11 Given the displayed nonlinear system and related information, which one of the following state space models corresponds to a linear model of this system at an operating point of o = 0? Click on your choice. E11a Correct! The answer is b). This questions address the problem of obtaining linear models from nonlinear systems. You will have to linearize this system by taking the Taylors series expansion of the nonlinear part and truncating the higher order terms. The only nonlinear term is sin(). Expanding the sine function around 0 yields: d(sin( ) sin( ) = sin( 0 ) + ( - 0 )+....+ higher order terms d
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For 0=0, we have:

sin( ) sin( 0 ) + cos(0)( - 0 ) sin( )

Substituting this approximation into the equation and solving for the second order derivative of yields: && mL2 = - mgLsin( ) = - mgL - mgL g && = - = 2 L mL This approximate model for the system dynamics indicates that the dynamic response of this system is independent of the mass of the ball at the end of the rod, at least for small deflections.

E11b Incorrect.

[Repeat above discussion]

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M BDAMP K BMAG*L Lcoil Rcoil

= = = = =

0.007 kilogram 1.27 Newtons/ (meter/sec) 1239 Newtons/meter 6.75 Newtons/amp BMAG*Nturns*2*pi*diameter of coil 6.75 Volts/(m/s) BMAG*Nturns*2*pi*diameter of coil (BMAG ~ 1 Telsa ~ N/amp/meter) = 0.47 milli-Henries = 5.6 Ohms

References 1) D. Mattern, A.K. Owen, "A Voice Coil Actuated Air Valve for Use in Compressor Forced Response Testing", presented at the 1995 SPIE conference, Orlando, FL, USA. http://home.columbus.rr.com/dmattern/1995_SPIE_Voice_Coil.pdf 2) This model was derived from scratch, but later I found a similar model in the following textbook, Franklin G.F., Powell, J.D., Emami-Naeini A., Feedback Control of Dynamic SYstems, 3rd Ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1993, ISBN 0-201-52747-2, p47. 3) J. King, "Loudspeaker Voice Coils", Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, Feb. 1970, Vol 18, No. 1, p34. 4) V. Dickason, "The Loudspeaker Design Cookbook", 4th Edition, Audio Amateur Press, Peterborough, N.H., 5) P. Chin, "A New Optical Position Sensor", Sensors Magazine, Aug. 1993, p 39. 6) D.P. Fazzio, M.A. Moser, C.J. Polson, J.N. Scheffel, "Head actuator dynamics of an IBM 5 1/4-inch disk drive", IBM Journal of Research and Development, Vol. 37, No. 4, July 1993, p. 479. 7) H. Hanselmann, W. Moritz, "High-Bandwidth Control of the Head-Positioning Mechanism in a Winchester Disk Drive", IEEE Control System Magazine, Oct. 1987, p 15.

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