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5: The Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization procedure - Mathematics LibreTexts

9.5: The Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization procedure

We now come to a fundamentally important algorithm, which is called the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization procedure. This
algorithm makes it possible to construct, for each list of linearly independent vectors (resp. basis), a corresponding
orthonormal list (resp. orthonormal basis).

Theorem 9.5.1
If (v 1
, … , vm ) is a list of linearly independent vectors in V , then there exists an orthonormal list (e 1
, … , em ) such that

span(v1 , … , vk ) = span(e1 , … , ek ), for all k = 1, … , m. (9.5.1)

Proof
The proof is constructive, that is, we will actually construct vectors e , … , e 1 m
having the desired properties. Since
(v , … , v ) is linearly independent, v ≠ 0 for each k = 1, 2, … , m . Set e = . Then e is a vector of norm 1 and
v1

1 m k 1 1
∥v1 ∥

satisfies Equation (9.5.1) for k = 1. Next, set

v2 − ⟨v2 , e1 ⟩e1
e2 = .
∥v2 − ⟨v2 , e1 ⟩e1 ∥

This is, in fact, the normalized version of the orthogonal decomposition Equation(9.3.1)~(???). I.e.,

w = v2 − ⟨v2 , e1 ⟩e1 ,

where w⊥e . Note that ∥e 1 2

∥ = 1 and span(e 1
, e2 ) = span(v1 , v2 ) .
Now, suppose that e1 , … , ek−1 have been constructed such that (e1 , … , ek−1 ) is an orthonormal list and
span(v1 , … , vk−1 ) = span(e1 , … , ek−1 ) . Then define

vk − ⟨vk , e1 ⟩e1 − ⟨vk , e2 ⟩e2 − ⋯ − ⟨vk , ek−1 ⟩ek−1

ek = .
∥vk − ⟨vk , e1 ⟩e1 − ⟨vk , e2 ⟩e2 − ⋯ − ⟨vk , ek−1 ⟩ek−1 ∥

Since is linearly independent, we know that v ∉ span(v , … , v ). Hence, we also know that
(v1 , … , vk ) k 1 k−1

v ∉ span(e , … , e
k ). It follows that the norm in the definition of e is not zero, and so e is well-defined (i.e., we are not
1 k−1 k k

dividing by zero). Note that a vector divided by its norm has norm 1 so that ∥e ∥ = 1. Furthermore, k

vk − ⟨vk , e1 ⟩e1 − ⟨vk , e2 ⟩e2 − ⋯ − ⟨vk , ek−1 ⟩ek−1

⟨e k , e i ⟩ = ⟨ , ei ⟩
∥vk − ⟨vk , e1 ⟩e1 − ⟨vk , e2 ⟩e2 − ⋯ − ⟨vk , ek−1 ⟩ek−1 ∥

⟨vk , ei ⟩ − ⟨vk , ei ⟩
= = 0,
∥vk − ⟨vk , e1 ⟩e1 − ⟨vk , e2 ⟩e2 − ⋯ − ⟨vk , ek−1 ⟩ek−1 ∥

for each 1 ≤ i < k . Hence, (e 1

, … , ek ) is orthonormal.
□

From the definition of e , we see that v ∈ span(e , … , e ) so that span(v , … , v ) ⊂ span(e , … , e ). Since both lists
k k 1 k 1 k 1 k

(e , … , e ) and (v , … , v ) are linearly independent, they must span subspaces of the same dimension and therefore are the
1 k 1 k

same subspace. Hence Equation (9.5.1) holds.

Example 9.5.2

Take v = (1, 1, 0) and v = (2, 1, 1) in R . The list (v

1 2
3
1, v2 ) is linearly independent (as you should verify!). To illustrate the
Gram-Schmidt procedure, we begin by setting
v1 1
e1 = =
–
(1, 1, 0).
∥v1 ∥ √2

Next, set

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8/29/23, 5:29 PM 9.5: The Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization procedure - Mathematics LibreTexts
v2 − ⟨v2 , e1 ⟩e1
e2 = .
∥v2 − ⟨v2 , e1 ⟩e1 ∥

The inner product ⟨v 2

, e1 ⟩ =
1
⟨(1, 1, 0), (2, 1, 1)⟩ =
3
,
√2 √2

so
3 1
u2 = v2 − ⟨v2 , e1 ⟩e1 = (2, 1, 1) − (1, 1, 0) = (1, −1, 2).
2 2

−−−−−−−−−−
Calculating the norm of u , we obtain ∥u .
1 √6
2 2
∥ = √ (1 + 1 + 4) =
4 2

Hence, normalizing this vector, we obtain

u2 1
e2 = = (1, −1, 2).
–
∥u 2 ∥ √6

The list (e 1
, e2 ) is therefore orthonormal and has the same span as (v 1
, v2 ) .

Corollary 9.5.3.
Every finite-dimensional inner product space has an orthonormal basis.

Proof
Let (v , … , v ) be any basis for V . This list is linearly independent and spans V . Apply the Gram-Schmidt procedure to
1 n

this list to obtain an orthonormal list (e , … , e ), which still spans V by construction. By Proposition9.4.2~???, this list is
1 n

linearly independent and hence a basis of V .

Corollary 9.5.4.
Every orthonormal list of vectors in V can be extended to an orthonormal basis of V .

Proof
Let (e , … , e ) be an orthonormal list of vectors in V . By Proposition9.4.2~???, this list is linearly independent and hence
1 m

can be extended to a basis (e , … , e , v , … , v ) of V by the Basis Extension Theorem. Now apply the Gram-Schmidt
1 m 1 k

procedure to obtain a new orthonormal basis (e , … , e , f , … , f ) . The first m vectors do not change since they already
1 m 1 k

are orthonormal. The list still spans V and is linearly independent by Proposition9.4.2~??? and therefore forms a basis.

Recall Theorem7.5.3~???: given an operator T ∈ L(V , V ) on a complex vector space V , there exists a basis B for V such that
the matrix M (T ) of T with respect to B is upper triangular. We would like to extend this result to require the additional
property of orthonormality.

Corollary 9.5.5
Let V be an inner product space over F and T ∈ L(V , V ). If T is upper-triangular with respect to some basis, then T is
upper-triangular with respect to some orthonormal basis.

Proof
Let (v , … , v ) be a basis of V with respect to which T is upper-triangular. Apply the Gram-Schmidt procedure to obtain
1 n

an orthonormal basis (e , … , e ), and note that

1 n

span(e1 , … , ek ) = span(v1 , … , vk ), for all 1 ≤ k ≤ n. (9.5.2)

We proved before that T is upper-triangular with respect to a basis (v , … , v ) if and only if span(v , … , v ) is invariant
1 n 1 k

under T for each 1 ≤ k ≤ n. Since these spans are unchanged by the Gram-Schmidt procedure, T is still upper triangular
for the corresponding orthonormal basis.

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Contributors
Isaiah Lankham, Mathematics Department at UC Davis
Bruno Nachtergaele, Mathematics Department at UC Davis
Anne Schilling, Mathematics Department at UC Davis
Both hardbound and softbound versions of this textbook are available online at WorldScientific.com.

This page titled 9.5: The Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization procedure is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed,
and/or curated by Isaiah Lankham, Bruno Nachtergaele, & Anne Schilling.

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