1

Wind Power 23b

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Agenda
Resources and Utilization
Reading Assignments
• Global & local wind resources/patterns
A&J 6.10-6.13
A&J 5.1-5.7 (Hydropower)
Technology
• Wind tower design and functionality
2

– Wind speed distributions

– Turbine power generation, design parameters
– Blade aerodynamics, lift and drag, wake turbulence
Technical Summary
• Wind farms, design and operations
Wind Power 23b

– Onshore and offshore windfarms, useful life

– Construction parameters, cost, GHG emissions

Wind power in national energy mix

• Global and U.S. wind power: Status and outlook
– Installations, prospects for NetZero
• Strategic issues
– Performance, ecological impact,…
W. Udo Schröder, 2023
 Technical Summary: Design of Wind Rotor Blades
Generic analysis of aerodynamic power transfer
R from ideal laminar airmass flows, speed uWind,
around turbine with swept area of ATurbineSweep
W Best performance :
1 2
dr r
uWake = uWind → Mean u = (1 − a ) uWind = uWind
3

3 3
EWind 1
PWind = = (  air  ATurbine Sweep )  uWind
3

t 2
16 Betz
PTurbine = PWind  CTurbine → CTurbine  = 0.593
Wind Power 23b

27 Limit
→ 0  CTurbine  0.593
Aerodynamic design of rotor blades → with increasing r, reduce (taper)
camber area W and reduce angle of attack (twist blades).
Compromise: Efficiency vs. mechanical stability → N=3 blades per rotor

Operational range blade tip speed/wind speed l = 3-7.

W. Udo Schröder, 2023
 Angular Momentum and Wake Turbulence
Image Credit: Vattenfall
http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2011/20110426_windwakes.html

Angular momentum conservation

0 = LWind = LRotor + LWake
→ Wake acquires swirl (vortex)
4
Wind Power 23b

Distance between 2 turbines in column D ≥ (8-10) rotor diameter

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Agenda
Resources and Utilization
• Global & local wind resources/patterns

Technology
• Wind tower design and functionality
5

– Wind speed distributions

– Turbine power generation, design parameters
– Blade aerodynamics, lift and drag, wake turbulence
• Wind farms, design and operations
– Onshore and offshore windfarms, useful life
Wind Power 23b

– Construction parameters, cost, GHG emissions

Wind power in national energy mix

• Global and U.S. wind power: Status and outlook
– Installations,
• Performance & other strategic issues
– Performance
– Ecological impact, wildlife habitat
W. Udo Schröder, 2023
 Task: Find Optimum Wind Power Distribution
6

Wind Map for State

of New York

1. Site choice: Base on

wind power class
(table, wind maps).
Wind Power 23b

2. Rotor design: Blade

diameter, number of
blades, tip speed, blade
profile, twist.

3. Turbine design: power,

power curve.

4. Tower design: Tower

height, structure.
W. Udo Schröder, 2023
 Nominal Power and Power Limit
Rotor blade lift & speed limits
Negligible lift at low wind speeds
high loads and turbulence at high
wind speeds limit the range of
useful wind speeds.
7

Wind Speed frequency distribution

P (ui ) 1 N i ( hrs a )
= 
u 8760 hrs a u ( m s )
Wind Speed u (m/s)

u
Wind Power 23b

Measured Distribution of Wind Speeds

Ni(hours@ui)/u (m/s)
u
Example: u =2m/s
u
P (ui )
Normalize :  = 1 ( 100%)
i u

u1 u2
Wind Speed ui at Hub Height (m/s)
W. Udo Schröder, 2023
 AREVA Wind Towers for Alpha Ventus
Rotor diameter: 116 m
Hub height: 90 m

Total height above seabed: 178 m

Total above sea surface: 148 m

Rated output: 5 MW
8

Rotation speed: 5.9 - 14.8 rpm

Cut-in wind speed: 3.5 m/s (force 3)

Rated speed: 12.5 m/s (force 6)
Cut-out speed: 25 m/s (force 10)

Blade tip speed: 90 m/s (324 km/h)

Wind Power 23b

Nacelle w/o rotor & hub: 200 t

12 turbines @ 5 MW rated, with rotor and hub: 309 t
produced 265 MWh in 2011.
Weight of steel in tripod, tower,
nacelle: 1,000 t

Tripod - weight of steel: 700 t;

Height: 45 m; Pile length: 35-45 m

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Layout of Wind Farm
9
Wind Power 23b

Feb 2013

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Converter Station for Alpha Ventus
From turbine 30 kV → 110 kV, 75 MVA
transformer (AREVA).
Position: N 54°00', E 6°37.40'
Constructed in September 2008

30 m: elevation of helipad
25 m: elevation of main deck with crane,
substation control and protection (I&C)/switch-
10

gear plant/neutral earthing transformer, fire

extinguishing system, MV and LV
systems, emergency generator,

MVAr throttle / 110 kV GIS (gasinsulated

switchgear) system (AREVA)

21 m: cable deck with workshop,

equipment room, lounge, diesel
Wind Power 23b

tanks, emergency generator, cable bench and oil

sump
To get the power from off-shore wind Cable deck and main deck:
farms to land, submarine cables (18cm Jacket foundation height: approx. 46 m
dia, 110 kV HVDC) are used . Jacket weight: approx. 650 t
Distances are between 10 and 200 km.
Foundation piles: 30 m long, 2.7 m
diameter, 100 t apiece
Delays in developing technology and
manufacturing equipment needed to get
the power to shore.
W. Udo Schröder, 2023
 Construction of Alpha Ventus
North Sea, depth= 30 m, 45km
north of Borkum/Germany.
EWE AG, E.ON Climate &
Renewables, and Vattenfall
Europe Windkraft.

Tripods/towers (45m, 700 t steel)

11

for mounting (12) off-shore

AREVA/REpower wind turbines.

Hub+blade height 148/185 m.

Wind Power 23b

Installation of 12 towers=7 months (2009).

Limited number of specialized barges.

Weight of 1 tower: 1,000 t

Tip speed (rated) 320 km/h

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 U.S. Electrical Power Plants (Wind)

High rate of installations 2011-2020,

Recent global slow-down.
US 2020: total installed 123 GW.
15
Wind Power 23b

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Installed Wind Power Plants (US)
U.S. Wind Industry Fast Facts US 2020 Electricity Generation
(American Wind Energy Association) 2006-2012

U.S. Wind Power Capacity, US 2020:

Installed in 2011: 6.8 GW Wind 337 TWh

U.S. Wind Power Capacity,

13.1 GW
Installed in 2012:
16

U.S. Utility-Scale Wind Power

Capacity, Through 4th Quarter 60.0 GW
2012:

U.S. Wind Power Capacity 2020 123 GW

2022: 144 GW

Production Tax Credit (PTC), for

Wind Power 23b

renewables, especially wind power. PTC

provides a 10-year credit of 1.9¢/kWh for Net Electric Power (2020)
wind (in future years to be adjusted Coal: 19%
upwards, for inflation).
Additional incentives for construction. Nat Gas: 40%
Nuclear: 20%
Hydro: 7.3%
123 GW @ 100% → 1,08 TWh/a → e=31%
Wind: 8.4%
Solar: 2.3%
1 a = 365 d = 8,760 h
Total: 4,000 TWh
1 GW → 8.76 TWh/a ≈ 9 TWh/a

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Clean Energy Potential For Decarbonization
DOE: US wind settles at 7%; 2021-2030: +3GW/a; 2031-2050: +8GW/a
17

5
1
10
Wind Power 23b

Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS) provides an outlook based on the latest policy settings,
including energy, climate and related industrial policies.
W. Udo Schröder, 2023
 World Wind Power Installs: Europe
New European
Projected Wind Power in
Europe
18
Wind Power 23b

Investment in new wind power projected.

approximately stable, but need more
transfer lines, balancing power. Public
attitudes.
W. Udo Schröder, 2023
 China Wind Power Generation

Most
installations
(> 100GW)
19

2005 Law by Central Committee

of National People's Congress:
power grid utility must use all
Wind Power 23b

ren. electricity → 14%-19%

→ Many on and off shore wind
parks.
→ Issues with insufficient
connectivity e-grid.
→ Insufficient grid capacity.
→ Unused el. Production.
→ More expensive (ff+7¢)
→ Storage development.
W. Udo Schröder, 2023
 Wind Power: Strategic Issues
• Intermittency, lacking effective energy storage @scale, CF≈0.3.
Mis-matched to demand & e-grids, over and under production.
Need continuous idle backup (baseload) power (> 100% nominal).

• Environmental effects: Low power density of wind energy resources,

≈3W/m2→ eco footprint ~(102 -103)km2/GW soil/arable land, habitat
destruction. Visual & audio pollution: stroboscopic flicker effects, ice throw.
20

Bird/bat kill 2-3/(turbine & year), insects, unknown habitat effects.

• Lack of domestic manufacturing basis for scaling x(5-10) deployment, lack

of skilled manpower, special equipment for off-shore.

• Inefficiency of turbines, costly operations/maintenance, limited life (<30a)

Wind Power 23b

• Distance of wind resources from consumption centers, land for power lines,
significant transmission power losses.

• Dependence on critical minerals, metals

Large amounts of cement/steel, other resources.

• Economics: High cost of financing, long time to license & build. Special
barges for off-shore installation, expensive maintenance.

• Public attitudes mixed. NIMBY, high power transmission lines.

W. Udo Schröder, 2023
 Strategic Issue: Intermittency
E.ON Power Company (largest Germany) 7 Gwe. Report (2005)
predicts (partially correctly) :For every 1-GW wind power
generator install 1-GW PPt of conventional technology.

→2017 Restructuring of German power industry.

Lignite → baseload !
21
Wind Power 23b

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Conventional and Potential Electricity Supply (Germany)
Weekly Demand Variations
Presently 27,000 turbines.
Often produce electricity that
cannot be fed into grid
(over-production).

Nat Gas
Study by Fraunhofer IWES
22

Institute for Wind Energy

and Energy Systems
Technologies (Kassel/
Coal
Germany). Conclusion for
Power/GW Germany: Present
conventional power can
Wind Power 23b

partially (40%) be replaced

by renewable (wind/solar)
production

20GW normal range of nuclear power

Power export in EU is limited,
except for Denmark
Over generation by renewable power (intermediate storage in
Norwegian hydro reservoirs)

time
W. Udo Schröder, 2023
 Wind Farm Construction Materials and Emissions
Currently, construction, operation & maintenance of wind farms require non-renewable
energy inputs, renewable: fuel=wind, solar.

Global warming effect ( MT = metric ton CO2 equivalent ) GWE :=  M j  GWPj

j

with M j = amount of GHG j , GWPj = global warming potential for time horizon (TH = 20 years )
23

2.7 GW installed, CF=0.24

Wind Power 23b

Cost of only materials. Includes no labor, installation or maintenance costs.

S. Pacca & A. Horvath, Environ. Sci. Technol 36, 3194 (2002)

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Wind Energy: Levelized Cost of Electricity

Connection and utilization

costs of variable energy
sources depend on penetration
(%) of total market
24
Wind Power 23b

Estimates of plant-level costs for renewable power

generation technologies at capital costs of 3%, 7% and
10%. (IEA/NEA, 2015, Total cost of energy)

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Pro/Con: Avoided GHG Emissions @ Price

Estimated CO2 equivalent needed for

construction of infrastructure for a 1GW wind
farm is 1.2∙106 t CO2. For CF=1.0, GHG
emission is lower
than for hydro-electric generation.

(S. Pacca& A. Horvath, Environ. Sci. Technol. 36,

25

3194 (2002))

Germany:
electricity price app.=$/MWh
Industrial Residential
10-13¢/kWh 26-30¢/kWh
Wind Power 23b

U.S. Residential: 8-15¢/kWh Price €/MWh

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Windfarms: Useful Lifetime
Limited experience from US, Danish and
German wind farms.

Onshore wind farms have low capacity

factors but also low maintenance &
operational costs and long (30+ year)
useful life expectancy.
26

Danish off-shore wind farms Life

From: Gordon Hughes, The Performance of Wind Farms in the

United Kingdom and Denmark
Wind Power 23b

Off-shore wind farms have higher

capacity factors but high operational
costs, limited useful life expectancy, due
to harsh environment.

Early Danish experiences with off-shore

wind farms: 80 turbines needed
replacement in one year.

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Wind Farms: Accidents in Perspective
27
Wind Power 23b

→ Wind farms had only minor accidents, few fatalities.

W. Udo Schröder, 2023
 Employment in Renewable Energy Sector
Most local employment
is during installation
200MW ➔ 500 workers

Many energy sector

jobs are not co-local
(engineering, design,
28

financing, transient
maintenance).

Non-specific, i.e.,
management,
marketing, personnel
can be interchanged.
Wind Power 23b

Political vs economic considerations:

High labor intensity is of interest to local politics, but also constitutes
disadvantage in economic competition.

Quality of the labor: higher qualification of the work-force → longer duration

of the employment → higher long-term positive externalities.

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Agenda
Resources and Utilization
• Global & local wind resources/patterns
• Global and U.S. wind power: Status and outlook
– Installations,
Technology
29

• Wind tower design and functionality

– Wind speed distributions
– Turbine power generation, design parameters
– Blade aerodynamics, lift and drag, wake turbulence
• Wind farms, design and operations
Wind Power 23b

– Onshore and offshore windfarms, useful life

– Construction parameters, cost, GHG emissions
Wind power in national energy mix
• Performance & other strategic issues
– Performance
– Ecological impact, wildlife habitat

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Renewables in German Energy Mix
Hydro Germany 2018: Electricity
Wind Bio
Source TWh %
natGas PV
Hydro 16.6 2.6
Nuclear Biomass 51.9 8.1

Wind 101.5 15.8

30

Coal
Solar PV 46.2 7.2

Gas 83.4 13.0

Lignite
Nuclear 76.0 11.8

Coal 82.6 12.8

Wind Power 23b

Lignite 145.6 22.6

Sources: Bundesminister f. Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit, 2012.

German Renewable Energy Law (2000/ 2009: Total 643.5 100

Erneuerbare Energien Gesetz, EEG)
Restructuring of the energy industry.
Mandatory acceptance of renewable energy power by grid operators and public subsidies.

→ Reduction in Coal and Nuclear generation, increase in nat Gas use.

→ electricity prices, reactions by public and industry (devestment).
Cost/risk vs. benefit calc.
→ Fails emission goals (Paris Agreement), ramping down to net-zero at 2050 ??
W. Udo Schröder, 2023
 Pro/Con: Avoided GHG Emissions @ Price
Wind power has one of the lowest
GHG emissions/kWh of all
contemporary energy technologies.

Estimated CO2 equivalent needed for

construction of infrastructure for a
1GW wind farm is 1.2∙106 t CO2. For
CF=1.0, GHG emission is lower
31

than for hydro-electric generation.

(S. Pacca& A. Horvath, Environ. Sci.

Technol. 36, 3194 (2002))

Industrial Residential
10-13¢/kWh 26-30¢/kWh
Wind Power 23b

Price €/MWh
U.S. Residential: 8-15¢/kWh

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Wind Related Failures
High-wind rotor failures
Gale winds (~100mph) in England and
Scotland in 2012.
Material fatigue after 10 years’ operation ?
33
Wind Power 23b

Blade icing if ambient/dew point

temperature < (30-40)C
Ice throws due to blade flexing

http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-
2083149/Wind-turbines-cope-UK-weather-3-
blown-pieces.html
W. Udo Schröder, 2023
 Effect on Wildlife

Newsweek:2007 study by the National

Academy of Sciences puts the number of
birds killed each year at about 20,000 to
30,000. The American Bird Conservancy
estimates about 80,000 to 220,000 bird
34

fatalities per annum, due to wind power.

Read Birds vs. the Wind Industry.
Wind Power 23b

Relative risk is small (kills by other means), can be reduced further..

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Effect on Ecosystem: Insect Population
Study 2018 Rotors eliminate
5% of insects
flying at rotor
altitudes (~ 3kg
/km3).Germany:
1,200 Mt/a
35

Small relative
Not
recovered
risk? (Birds &
other means kill
more). Can it be
reduced ?
Wind Power 23b

Change of insect density at rotor altitudes → endangered biomass since

1990 in 2 model simulations (Gerz&Geiger, Energiewirt. Tagesfrg. 68, 51 (2018))
Insect fatalities (est.): (5-6)·109/day → 1,200 Mt/a (5% of interactions)
Consequences for ecosystem: diminished pollination of plants, effect on crops,
elimination of insect biomass from food chain → stresses predator (birds, other animals,
insects) population.

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Windfarms: Ecological Effects
36
Wind Power 23b

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Public Acceptance Changed
37
Wind Power 23b

• Anti windmill demonstration in Erbach (Hesse/Germany)

15.01.2017

W. Udo Schröder, 2023

 Illustration: Modern Wind Parks in Germany
Strong industry, public controversy, protests

Aircraft turbine
38
Wind Power 23b

W. Udo Schröder, 2023