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Fig. 1.4 Cross-section of Flitch Type Composite Member (Steel-timber)

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1.6 Roof Arrangement System

Elevated support is common for large turbine-driven equipment. Elevation allows

for ducts, piping, condenser(s) and ancillary items to be located below the equipment.
Frame foundations are considered to be flexible, hence their response to dynamic loads
can be quite complex and depend both on the motion of its discreet elements (columns,
beams, and footing) and the soil upon which it is supported. Steam turbine generator
machines are usually supported on this type of foundation. The other types of equipment
supported on these types of foundations like boiler feed pumps in power plants,
compressors in petroleum refineries and air blowers in automobile industry. This type of
foundation usually consists of reinforced concrete base mat with columns or walls
supporting the tabletop (operating deck) (Fig. 1.9). The operating deck is elevated to
provide for installation of condenser(s) directly under the turbines (Fig. 1.10). This
reinforced concrete foundation rests on soil or on piles.
Steam turbine generator foundations are usually placed in a powerhouse, in other
words steam turbine generator building. Figure 1.11 shows a cross section for the steam
turbine generator foundation and the powerhouse.

Fig. 1.5 Roof Framing Structural System-Timber Housing

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01– Roofing;

02– Tile batten;

03– Counter batten;

04– Masterfol and Isoflex underlays;

05– Thermal insulation among the rafters;

06– Additional thermal insulation under the rafters;

07– Wooden or metal support;

08 – Vapour control

Fig. 1.6 Roof Framing Structural System-Timber Housing

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Condensation
Air can hold moisture - the warmer the air, the more moisture it can hold. If moist air is
cooled by contact with cold surfaces, such as walls, windows or mirrors, the moisture
condenses into water droplets (condensation).

Disadvantage of putting Metal Deck directly on Rafter is, there will be condensationdue
to moisture. For outside area this issue will be resolved due to sun light, but for inside, it
will have issue because of Air Conditioning.

For initial period after construction, Condensation will not create much problem.
This problem will start may be after 2~3 years when actual properties of wood takes
place.

Fig. 1.7 Connection Bolted Type -Timber Structure

(Hidden Connections and Discreet Detailing to Conceal the true Structural Support
Provided by the Steel)

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1.7 Loads acting on Structural System

The building structure considered here in study must be designed to withstand all
the forces that may be imposed on it during the service life span of the structure. The
directions of the forces applied on the structure are shown in next sections. Actual loading
on the structure may vary from machine to machine. However, the type of loads acting on
the turbine foundation may generally be defined as shown in the following subsections.

1.7.1 Dead load

1.7.1.1 Self weight of Structure (SW)
The dead load includes the self-weight of all members of the structure itself.

1.7.1.2 Roof Sheeting dead load (DL)

The dead load includes the weight of roof sheeting shear plane and hanging utilities.

1.7.2 Live load (LL)

The live load includes the load that varies in intensity and/or occurrence. The live
load on roof considered as minimum of 1.5 KN at critical junction or as required by any
code requirement. Maintenance loads, such as roof maintenance loads are also considered
a live load.

1.7.3 Wind load (WL)

Wind is the motion of air with respect to the surface of earth. The main cause of
generation of wind is motion of earth and terrestrial radiation. The wind generally blows
horizontal to the ground at high wind speeds. The wind speeds are assessed with the aid
of anemometers or anemographs which are installed at meteorological observatories at
heights generally varying from 10 to 30 meters above ground.
Wind load is calculated based on basic wind speed given by code for the particular
region. This may vary from region to region. In IS 875 part 3, Fig. 1 gives basic wind
speed map of India, as applicable to 10 m height above mean ground level for different
zones of the country. Basic wind speed is based on peak gust velocity averaged over a
short time interval of about 3 seconds and corresponds to mean heights above ground
level in an open terrain.

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Design wind speed is calculated based on basic wind speed as below,

---------------------------------------------------------------- (Eq.1.1)
Where,
Vz = design wind speed at any height z in m/s;
Vb = basic wind speed at in the area /region in m/s;
k1 = probability factor considering basic wind speed for mean return period of 50 years;
k2 = terrain, height and structure size factor; It considers the obstructions with ground
surface roughness.
k3 = topographic factor; It considers basic wind speed at general level of site above mean
sea level;
Based on the above equation for design wind speed and relation between wind
speed and wind pressure design wind pressure at any height above mean ground level can
be obtained through below equation,
---------------------------------------------------------------- (Eq.1.2)
Where,
Pz = design wind pressure in N/m2 at height z;
Vz = design wind speed at height z in m/s;

1.7.4 Thermal loading (TL)

Changing temperatures of atmospheric conditions cause expansion and
contraction between the different surfaces of roofing members and composite members
considered here. This forces the condensation due to creation of moisture and various
parts to slide. These thermal loads do not impose a net resultant force on the foundation,
since the forces on any composite member are balanced by equal and opposite forces
between the shear connectors.

1.7.5 Seismic loads (SL)

Structures located in zone of high seismicity are analyzed for seismic loads. Light
framed structures considered here are more susceptible to wind load than seismic as these
are light in mass. Hence, there is very less mass participation during seismic condition.
Seismic analysis shall be carried out as per IS 1893(part 2)-2002.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 General
Many researchers have been carried out on composite construction. Some of these are
carried out individually on composite columns. Different compositions of materials are
considered while considering composite elements structure, for example RCC + Steel,
Timber + Steel etc. While some of these are carried out on whole high rise buildings, and
some on other miscellaneous structures. Here few of them are enumerated as below;

2.1 Literature Review

2.1.1 D. R. Panchal and P. M. Marathe, (Dec. 2011),

The present work consists of comparison among RCC, Steel and Steel concrete
composite (G+30) Storey commercial building structure. The commercial building
considered is situated in earthquake zone IV. For modeling of Composite, Steel and
R.C.C. structures, ETABS software is used and the results are compared. Equivalent
Static Method of Analysis is used.

As the results show the Steel option is better than R.C.C. But the Composite option
for high rise building is best suited among all three options. The reduction in the dead
weight of Composite framed structure is 30 % with respect to R.C.C. framed structure.
Axial forces in column have been reduced. Bending moments in secondary beams also
reduced. As the sizes of the steel members reduces about 25 % in main beams and about
60 % in secondary beams.

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Fig. 2.1 Plan and 3D View of Building Structure Using Software

2.1.2 Cengiz Dundar, Serkan Tokgoz, ETAL (Feb. 2008),

An experimental investigation of the behavior of reinforced concrete columns and a

theoretical procedure for analysis of both short and slender reinforced and composite
columns of arbitrarily shaped cross section subjected to biaxial bending and axial load are
presented. In the proposed procedure, nonlinear stress–strain relations are assumed for
concrete, reinforcing steel and structural steel materials. The compression zone of the
concrete section and the entire section of the structural steel are divided into adequate
number of segments in order to use various stress–strain models for the analysis.

The slenderness effect of the member is taken into account by using the Moment
Magnification Method. The proposed procedure was compared with test results of 12
square and three L-shaped reinforced concrete columns subjected to short-term axial load
and biaxial bending, and also some experimental results available in the literature for
composite columns compared with the theoretical results obtained by the proposed
procedure and a good degree of accuracy was obtained.

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The theoretical and experimental results show that the compressive strength of
concrete and its corresponding compressive strain are the most effective parameters on
the ultimate strength capacity of column members. The shape of the concrete stress–strain
relationship has little effect on the ultimate strength capacity of the column members.

2.1.3 Masanauri Fujita, Junpei Sakai ETAL(2014)

In this study, to address the global the environmental issues, the urgent need of
using timber in the building structure field to contribute towards reforestation. In the
building structure field, direct use of wood as structural timber in large buildings is not
possible as it’s too weak for the same. Hence, development of new structural system
using timber steel composite is studied here and categorized based on performances.

The studying the contact joint for structural steel –Timber composite structure the
frame joints with different load bearing capacities were categorized. Here considered that
bending strength of composite structure reaches maximum when timber fails/ fractures
under ultimate tensile stress. The following fig 2.3 shows one of the composite structure
frame system considered.

Fig. 2.2 Proposed Steel Timber Composite Frame

2.1.4 Kwesi A. Okutu (2012-2013),

In this project, the aforementioned requirements are explored and the ability of the
hybrid system to perform was evaluated. The potential environmental benefits were

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investigated, and a comparative study was performed to gauge the relative performances
of the timber and concrete systems. The comparative study looked at how the amount of
steel required in the frame, the loads to foundations, the cost, and the environmental
impact changed when making the substitution for a range of situations.

The analysis for costs found that using timber would be a more expensive option,
mostly due to the relative cost of the slabs themselves (roughly four times the cost of
concrete for a given floor area).

With the structural performance of the concept verified, some practical

considerations were addressed, with suggested methods of enhancing robustness and fire
resistance.

2.1.5 Wolfgang Winter, Kamyar Tavoussi ETAL(2012),

Here application of timber-steel-hybrid elements in modern multi-storey buildings

is studied. It presents a very efficient construction method. Objective of study to optimize
the geometry of the timber-steel hybrid beam regarding cost effectiveness and load
bearing capacity. Use of cold formed "U" profiles made of thin steel plates for composite
steel timber member. Due to this steel to steel connections are possible. This ultimately
produces semi rigid column beam joints which were having more capacity withstand
lateral loads.

The analysis for the above found that use of timber steel composite leads to
economic and ecologic benefits as the construction height optimization. The earthquake
resistance can be improved and the assembling can be executed more efficiently. Steel
reinforced timber structures are light, fast and clean.

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Fig. 2.3 Assembly Process of Completed Timber-Steel Hybrid Member

2.1.6 Yalda Khorasani, Zhina Siadat ETAL(April 2010),

A detailed study of timber hybrid structure and their applications in the

construction industry has been carried out here. To elaborate the advantages and
challenges, examples of steel-timber structures in Canada and around the world are
provided. New hybrid structural systems and connections for multi-storey laminated
veneer timber buildings in earthquake-prone areas are studied. Three types of
hybridization of steel and timber are presented through three case studies each belonging
to one of these types of hybridization.

In the first case study, research regarding hybrid structural systems and
connections for multistoried laminated veneer lumber (timber) buildings located in
earthquake prone areas was carried out. According to research prefabricated structural
timber elements were joined using unbonded post-tensioning tendons so that the opening
and closing of an existing gap accommodates seismic demand during an earthquake.

In the second case study, descriptive study regarding the hybrid timber-steel retail
structure-Sainsbury’s Dartmouth was carried out. Different challenges faced during
design stages were noted.

In the third case study, description regarding the Ministry of Transportation of

Ontario’s experience while choosing the hybrid timber-steel structural concept for bridge
and its implementation in three bridges.

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By using steel timber hybrid structures increase in tensile capacity, increase

seismic performance and ultimately result in cost saving. The shape of the concrete
stress–strain relationship has little effect on the ultimate strength capacity of the column
members. A major challenge of hybridization of two different materials is connection of
between these two materials. Temperature variation causes the expansion of steel and
condensation or humidity affects the shrinkage in wood.

2.1.7 Chalmers University(2007)

The present study is an effort to investigate the viability of using Steel and Carbon
fiber reinforced polymer as reinforcements in glued laminated timber beams. This study
specifically focuses on the investigation of different configurations to come up with an
optimum reinforcement arrangement which maximizes the stiffness/strength properties of
timber beams. This divided in three different ways to investigate the properties of timber
beams.

First nonlinear model prepared in MATLAB to simulate the behavior of beam

under flexural loading.

Second FE model is prepared which find out the interfacial shear stresses in the
glue line between timber and steel/ fibre reinforcement. Also, it predicts the de-lamination
possibility due to adhesive failure in shear.

Third full scaled timber steel beams were prepared based on the results of analysis
and tested in bending for analytical results verification.

The nonlinear model developed in MATLAB considering plastification of timber

in compression zone was able to predict the global behaviour of beam under flexural
loading. It concludes that use of 25% reinforcement in compression side and remaining
75% in tension side increases stiffness and ultimate strength capacity of member. FE
model behaviour shows that shear stress in adhesive in high enough to cause adhesive
failure in glue line between composite configurations. Experimental tests show similar
results to nonlinear model. The results conclude the increase in stiffness of 80% to 107%
and increase in moment ranges 56% to 96%.

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2.1.8 J.D. WISENFELD, (SEPT. 1989)

This study article investigates to set the standards for designing of flitch beam as
this was the time when flitch plates are used only to reinforce the wooden beams. In the
beginning of that era flitch beams were not used for any new construction, as efficient use
of steel in the composite section was not done. During that period it’s beginning of
common practice to use flitch section of timber beams as it’s difficult to get and use large
sections of timber for houses. Based on the experiences of the concerned engineers,
Timber design handbook and AISC code of steel construction author has proposed
simplified procedure to design the flitch beam which will help in standardization.

Through use of standardize procedure for design and analysis, it’s helpful to
optimize the flitch beam sizing. This also helps to set the standards for designing of flitch
beam and make efficient use of steel in the composite section was not done.

Fig. 2.4 Proposed Flitch Beam Assembly for Standardization

2.2 Critical Appraisal of Literature

With reference to studies enlisted above from many researchers, here are the findings
as below;

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 For high-rise structures using steel concrete composite, there is a noticeable

reduction in weight which results in good performance in seismic.
 As lateral seismic forces reduced, moment transfer also reduced.
 By studying the contact joint for structural steel –Timber composite structure the
frame joints with different load bearing capacities were categorized to develop
new frame structure which sustain the lateral loads.
 For some of the structures pure timber or steel sections are not economical, hence
timber – steel hybrid structures are become economical.
 By using steel timber hybrid structures increase in tensile capacity, increase
seismic performance and ultimately result in cost saving.

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 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Design Aspect

The design has to provide detailed knowledge of the static and dynamic behavior
of the structure and of the load transfer mechanisms (e.g. from the roof to beams, beams
to columns, columns to base raft/foundation and further to the substructure / soil). It has
also to provide a deeper understanding of the governing forces and environmental effects
for studies of the light framed structures.

Design requirements light framed structures can be summarized as following: The

roof system has to sustain the environmental effects, suitable thermal transfer mechanism
and condensation effect. We can design these types of structures by different ways.
Conventional type structures are designed based on ultimate strength and serviceability
criteria. Similar checks and criteria are followed for hybrid or composite type structures.
Additional checks required for connection between two different materials to verify the
structural integrity and bonding. This gives surety in structural performance. Based on
design we can compare these two types of structures and later on concludes the aspects
where composite type structure is superior to conventional one. Following are the aspects
foundation forces, loads on the foundation supports, overall stability, deflection Structural
stiffness, cross sectional properties etc. have to be checked separately. The main aspects
of static design studies may be summarized.

3.2 Criteria for Design

3.2.1 Conventional Type Structures –Timber Structure (EC5)

Serviceability Limit States (EC5, 2.2.3)

In EC5 the deformation of a member or structure is required at two stages:
(i) When the loading is immediately applied; this is called the instantaneous deformation:
uinst.
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(ii) After all time-dependent displacement (i.e. creep deformation, ucreep) has taken place;
this is called the final deformation: ufin.
Deformation is calculated in two different ways, depending on the creep behaviour of
the structure:
1. Structures comprising members, components and connections having the same
creep behaviour:-
Creep behaviour in timber and wood-related products is a function of several factors,
and to simplify the design process the assumption is made in EC5 that when subjected to
a permanent load over the lifetime of a building, the instantaneous deflection (uinst) and
the creep deflection (ucreep) are related as follows,

ucreep = kdef * uinst ---------------------------------------------------------------- (Eq.3.1)

Where,
kdef = a deformation factor whose value is dependent on the type of material being
stressed as well as its moisture content.
Values for the factor have been derived for timber and wood-based materials at defined
environmental conditions when subjected to constant loading at the SLS over the design
life, and are given in EC5, Table 3.2. The environmental conditions are referred to as
service class 1, 2 or 3 and values for kdef for timber and some wood-related products at
these conditions are given in Table 2.10.
For structures or members complying with the above conditions the final deformation,
ufin, can then be written as,

ufin = uinst + ucreep = uinst (1 + kdef) -------------------------------------------------- (Eq.3.2)

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