DIRECTIONAL DRIILING

WELL PLANING

BY
MONTADHER AL-SAEDI
 1

Directional Well Planning

Introduction
There are many aspects involved in well planning, and many individuals from various
companies and disciplines are involved in designing various programs for the well (mud
program, casing program, drill string design, bit program, etc). A novel approach to well
planning is one where the service contractors become equally involved in their area of
expertise.
This section will concentrate on those aspects of well planning which have always been the
province of directional drilling companies.
Reference Systems and Coordinates.
With the exception of Inertial Navigation Systems, all survey systems measure inclination
and azimuth at a particular measured depth (depths measured “along hole”). These
measurements are tied to fixed reference systems so that the course of the borehole can be
calculated and recorded.
These reference systems include:
• Depth references
• Inclination references
• Azimuth references
Depth References
During the course of a directional well, there are two kinds of depths:
• Measured Depth (MD) is the distance measured along the actual course of the borehole
from the surface reference point to the survey point. This depth is always measured in some
way, for example, pipe tally, wireline depth counter, or mud loggers depth counter.
• True Vertical Depth (TVD) is the vertical distance from the depth reference level to a point
on the borehole course. This depth is always calculated from the deviation survey data.
In most drilling operations the rotary table elevation is used as the working depth reference.
The abbreviation BRT (below rotary table) and RKB (rotary kelly bushing) are used to
indicate depths measured from the rotary table. This can also be referred to as derrick floor
 2

elevation. For floating drilling rigs the rotary table elevation is not fixed and hence a mean
rotary table elevation has to be used.
In order to compare individual wells within the same field, a common depth reference must
be defined and referred to (e.g. When drilling a relief well into a blow-out well, the
difference in elevation between the wellheads has to be accurately known). Offshore, mean
sea level (MSL) is sometimes used. Variations in actual sea level from MSL can be read
from tide tables or can be measured.
Inclination References
The inclination of a well-bore is the angle (in degrees) between the vertical and the well bore
axis at a particular point. The vertical reference is the direction of the local gravity vector
and could be indicated by a plumb bob.
Azimuth Reference Systems
For directional surveying there are three azimuth reference systems:
• Magnetic North
• True (Geographic) North
• Grid North
All “magnetic-type” tools give an azimuth (hole direction) referenced to Magnetic North.
However, the final calculated coordinates are always referenced to either True North or Grid
North.
True (Geographic) North
This is the direction of the geographic North Pole which lies on the Earth’s axis of rotation.
Direction is shown on maps using meridians of longitude.
MAGNETIC DECLINATION

Magnetic north and true north do not coincide. The divergence between true north and
magnetic north is different for most points on the earth’s surface, and in addition to this the
magnetic north pole changes its position very slightly each year.

The angle in degrees between true and magnetic north is called the declination angle. The
declination angle is negative if magnetic north lies to the west of true north and is positive if
the magnetic north lies to the east of true north, see figure below
 3

Figure 2-1 Magnetic declination

In the North Sea, magnetic north lies to the west of true north and the angle varies between
61/2 deg and 2 deg according to location.

Since true north is a fixed reference point which does not change, magnetic surveys
arecorrected to true north. If referencing survey data to grid north is required, then a further
gridcorrection must be applied.

The magnetic declination value is date dependent and changes with time. Hence it
isimportant to quote the date of calculation and model used to calculate the
magneticdeclination value.

Grid North
Drilling operations occur on a curved surface (i.e, the surface of the Earth) but when
calculating horizontal plane coordinates a flat surface is assumed.
Since it is not possible to exactly represent part of the surface of a sphere on a flat well plan,
corrections must be applied to the measurements. To do this, different projection systems
which can be used.
UTM System
One example of a grid system is the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) System. In
transverse Mercator projection, the surface of the spheroid chosen to represent the Earth is
wrapped in a cylinder which touches the spheroid along a chosen meridian. (A meridian is a
circle running around the Earth passing through both North and South geographic poles.)
These meridians of longitude converge towards the North Pole and do not produce a
rectangular grid system. The grid lines on a map form the rectangular grid system, the
Northerly direction of which is determined by one specified meridian of longitude. This
“Grid North” direction will only be identical to “True North” on a specified meridian.
 4

The relationship between True North and Grid North is indicated by the angles 'a' in Figure
2-2. Convergence is the angle difference between grid north and true north for the location
being considered.

Figure 2-2: Relationship between True North and Grid North

The reference meridians are 6 degrees apart, starting at the Greenwich meridian, which
means the world is divided into 60 zones. The zones are numbered 0 to 60 with zone 31
having the 0 degree meridian (Greenwich) on the left and the 6 degree East on the right.
Each zone is then further divided into grid sectors - a grid sector covering 8 degrees latitude
starting from the equator and ranging from 80° South to 80° North. The sectors are
given letters ranging from C to X (excluding I and O).
Therefore, each sector is uniquely identified by a number from 0 to 60 (zone number) and a
letter. For example, sector 31U shown in Figure 2-3, is the Southern North Sea.

Figure 2-3: Sector Identification

Coordinates in the UTM system are measured in meters. North coordinates being measured
from the equator. For the Northern hemisphere, the equator is taken as 0.00m North whereas
 5

for the Southern hemisphere the equator is 10,000,000m North (to avoid negative numbers).
East coordinates for each sector are measured from a line 500,000m west of the
central meridian for that sector. In other words, the central meridian for each zone is
arbitrarily given the coordinate 500,000m East. Again, this avoids negative numbers.
So UTM coordinates are always Northings and Eastings, and are always positive numbers.

Figure 2-4: Northings and Eastings

Lambert Projection.
Another projection system, used in some parts of the world, is the conical projection or
LAMBERT system. A cone as opposed to a cylinder covers the spheroid under
consideration. This produces a representation with meridians as convergent lines and
parallels as arcs of circles. Further discussion of the coordinate systems and map projections
is beyond the scope of this text.

Field Coordinates
Although the coordinates of points on a wellpath could be expressed as UTM coordinates, it
is not normal practice. Instead, a reference point on the platform or rig is chosen as the local
origin and given the coordinates 0,0. On offshore platforms this point is usually the center of
the platform.
The Northings and Eastings points on the wells drilled from the platform are referenced to
this single origin. This is important when comparing positions of wells, in particular for anti-
collision analysis.
 6

Direction Measurements
Survey tools measure the direction of the wellbore on the horizontal plane with respect to
North reference, whether it is True or Grid North. There are two systems:
Azimuth.
In the azimuth system, directions are expressed as a clockwise angle from 0° to 359.99°,
with North being 0°.

Figure 2-5: The Azimuth System

Quadrant Bearings
In the quadrant system (Figure 2-6), the directions are expressed as angles from 0°-90°
measured from North in the two Northern quadrants and from South in the Southern
quadrants. The diagram in Figure 6-14 illustrates how to convert from the quadrant system to
azimuth, and vice versa.

Figure 2-6: The Quadrant System

 7

Figure 2-7: Conversion from Quadrant to Azimuth Systems

Planning The Well Trajectory

One area of well planning in which directional companies are closely involved is the
planning of the well trajectory. Again, this is not as simple a task as it might seem at first
glance, particularly on a congested multi-well platform. There are a number of aspects that
must be carefully considered before calculating the final well path.
The Target
The target is usually specified by the geologist, who will not merely define a certain point as
the target but also specify the acceptable tolerance (e.g. a circle of radius 100 feet having the
exact target as its center). Target zones should be selected as large as possible to achieve the
objective. If multiple zones are to be penetrated, they should be selected so that the planned
pattern is reasonable and can be achieved without causing drilling problems.

Calculation of Azimuth

Determine the azimuth with respect to true north of the following wells:
Well Observed azimuth with respect to magnetic north Declination
o
1 N45 E 3o west
2 N45oE 3o east
3 S80oW 5o west
Solution
True north = magnetic north ± (declination)
 8

Well 1
Quadrant Azimuth = N45oE + (-3o) =N42oE
Azimuth with respect to true north = 42o
(Note: Azimuth is the angle measured with respect to true north)
Well 2
Quadrant Azimuth = N45oE+ (+3o) =N 48oE
Azimuth with respect to true north = N48oE
Well 3
Quadrant Azimuth = S80oW + (-5o) = S75oW
The above reading is in the third quadrant, hence Azimuth with respect to true north = 180o +
75o = 255o
BOTTOMHOLE TARGETS
The objective of an oil/gas well is to reach the target: pay zone. However, there may be other
objectives in drilling a well in addition to intersecting the pay zone, including:
• defining geological features such as faults or pinch-outs
• defining reservoir structure
• intersecting another well as in relief well drilling
Irrespective of the number of objectives involved, the coordinates (in UTM, Lambert,
orGeographic) must be established. For well planning purposes, it is more convenient and
simpler to express the coordinates of the surface location and target in terms of local
coordinates. The target given by the geologist is not a single point in space but a circle of
say150 ft in radius. The radius represents the tolerance of the target; the centre of the circle
being the ideal wellbore position to the nearest foot which is virtually impossible to hit.

Rectangular coordinates of a target are usually given in feet/meters North/South and

East/West of the local reference point. They can be easily derived by subtracting the grid
coordinates of the surface location from those of the target.

The rectangular coordinates can be used to calculate the departure (horizontal

displacement)between the surface location and the bottom hole target as follows:

Departure = ((∆E/W)2 + (∆N/S)2)1/2

where
∆ denotes difference in coordinates between E/W or N/S
 9

Polar coordinates can be derived from the rectangular coordinates. They are expressed as a
distance (departure) and as a direction (either Quadrant or azimuth). Polar coordinates are
derived from the rectangular coordinates as follows:

Azimuth = tan-1 ((∆E/W Coordinates)/(∆N/S Coordinates)).

Example: Departure &Azimuth

Given the following grid coordinates, determine the departure and azimuth of the target from
the surface location

Grid Coordinates: Target6,334,400.00 N (m)200,600.00 E (m)

Grid Coordinates: Surface6,335,000.00 N (m)200,400.00 E (m)
Partial Coordinates -600.00 200.00
(positive value denotes North or East, a negative value denotes South or West)
Azimuth = tan-1 (200/-600) = -18.4o
From rectangular coordinates, this angle falls in the second quadrant (south and east of
surface location). Hence the azimuth of the target is:
180 - 18.4 = 161.6o
Departure = ((∆E/W)2 + (∆N/S2))1/2
Departure = (2002 + (-6002))1/2 = 632.5 m
Hence in polar coordinates, the target is 632.5 m at an azimuth of 161.6o(S18.4oW).These
coordinates are plotted in Figure2-8

If the N/S coordinates are equal to 0, then the polar coordinate equation will not work and
the azimuth is then E or W depending on the sign of the E/W coordinate.
SURVEY CALCULATIONS

Directional surveys are taken at specified intervals in order to determine the

position of the bottom of the hole relative to the surface location. The surveys are
converted to a North-South (N-S), East-West (E-W) and true vertical depth
coordinates using one of several calculation methods. The coordinates are then
plotted in both the horizontal and vertical planes. By plotting the survey data, the
rig personnel can watch the progress of the well and make changes when
necessary to hit a specified target.

There are several methods that can be used to calculate survey data; however,
some are more accurate than others. Some of the most common methods that have
been used in the industry are:

1. Tangential,
2. Balanced Tangential,
3. Average Angle,
4. Radius of Curvature and
5. Minimum Curvature

Of these methods, the tangential method is the least accurate, and the radius of
curvature and the minimum curvature are the most accurate. The industry uses
primarily minimum curvature.
TANGENTIAL
At one time the tangential method was the most widely used because it was the
easiest (Table 2-1). The equations are relatively simple, and the calculations can
be performed easily in the field. Unfortunately, the tangential method is the least
accurate method and results in errors greater than all the other methods. The
tangential method should not be used to calculate directional surveys. It is only
presented here to prove a point.
The tangential method assumes the wellbore course is tangential to the lower
survey station, and the wellbore course is a straight line. If you draw a line
tangent to the inclination I2 (perpendicular to line CI2 in Figure 2-4), then the
angle A becomes the same as the inclination
at the lower survey point. Because of the straight line assumption for the wellbore
course, the tangential method yields a larger value of horizontal departure and a
smaller value of vertical displacement when the inclination is increasing. This is
graphically represented in Figure 2-4.

Figure 2-4. Illustration of Tangential Calculation Method

In Figure 2-4, Line is the assumed wellbore course. The dashed line AB is the
change in true vertical depth and the dashed line BI is the departure in the
horizontal direction. The opposite is true when the inclination is decreasing. In
Type I, III and IV holes, the error will be significant. In a Type II hole, the error
calculated while increasing angle will be offset by the error calculated while
decreasing angle but only when the build and drop rates are comparable. With the
tangential method, the greater the build or drop rate, the greater the error. Also,
the distance between surveys has an effect on the quantity of the error. If survey
intervals were 10 feet or less, the error would be acceptable. The added expense
of surveying every 10 feet prohibits using the tangential method for calculating
the wellbore course especially when more accurate methods are available. 2AI2
The North-South, East-West coordinates are determined by assuming the
horizontal departure of the course length is in the same direction as the azimuth
recorded at the lower survey station, but this assumption is wrong. The actual
wellbore course will be a function of the upper and lower survey stations.
Therefore, the tangential method results in an additional error because an error
already exists due to the method used to calculate the horizontal departure. The
error is compounded when the North-South, East-West coordinates are
calculated.
AVERAGE ANGLE
When using the average angle method, the inclination and azimuth at the lower
and upper survey stations are mathematically averaged, and then the wellbore
course is assumed to be tangential to the average inclination and azimuth. The
calculations are very similar to the tangential method and the results are as
accurate as the balanced tangential method. Since the average angle method is
both fairly accurate and easy to calculate, it is the method that can be used in the
field if a programmable calculator or computer is not available. The error will be
small and well within the accuracy needed in the field provided the distance
between surveys is not too great. The average angle method is graphically
illustrated in Figure 2-6. The average angle method does have problems at low
inclinations with large changes in azimuth so it should not be used for vertical
wells.

Figure 2-6. Illustration of Average Angle Calculation Method

RADIUS OF CURVATURE
The radius of curvature method is currently considered to be one of the most
accurate methods available. The method assumes the wellbore course is a
smooth curve between the upper and lower survey stations. The curvature of the
arc is determined by the survey inclinations and azimuths at the upper and lower
survey stations as shown in Figure 2-9. The length of the arc
Between I1 and I2 is the measured depth between surveys. In the previous
methods, the wellbore course was assumed to be one or two straight lines between
the upper and lower survey points. The curvature of the wellbore course assumed
by the radius of curvature method will more closely approximate the actual well;
therefore, it is more accurate. Unfortunately, the equations are complicated (and
are not easily calculated in the field without a programmable calculator or
computer. In the equations, the inclination and azimuth are entered as degrees.

Figure 2-9. Illustration of Radius of Curvature Calculation Method

A closer inspection of the radius of curvature equations show that if the
inclination or azimuth are equal for both survey points, a division by zero will
result in an error. In Figure 2-7 the radius, r, will become infinitely long. In that
case, the minimum curvature or average angle methods can be used to make the
calculations. It is also possible to add a small number (such as 1 x 10-4) to either
survey point. The resulting error will be insignificant.

Generally, the radius of curvature calculations are used when planning a well.
Using one of the three previous methods to plan a well will result in substantial
errors when calculating over long intervals. This will be further explained in the
section on planning a well.

MINIMUM CURVATURE
The minimum curvature method is similar to the radius of curvature method in
that it assumes that the wellbore is a curved path between the two survey points.
The minimum curvature method uses the same equations as the balanced
tangential multiplied by a ratio factor which is defined by the curvature of the
wellbore. Therefore, the minimum curvature provides a more accurate method of
determining the position of the wellbore. Like the radius of curvature, the
equations are more complicated and not easily calculated in the field without the
aid of a programmable calculator or computer.

Figure 2-10 is a graphic representation of the minimum curvature calculations.

The balanced tangential calculations assume the wellbore course is along the line
I1A and AI2 The calculation

of the ratio factor changes the wellbore course to I1B and BI2 which is the arc of
the angle . This is mathematically equivalent to the radius of curvature for a
change in inclination only. B
So long as there are no changes in the wellbore azimuth, the radius of curvature
and minimum curvature equations will yield the same results. If there is a
change in the azimuth, there can be a difference in the calculations. The
minimum curvature calculations assume a curvature that is the shortest path for
the wellbore to incorporate both surveys. At low inclinations with large changes
in azimuth, the shortest path may also involve dropping inclination as well as
turning. The minimum curvature equations do not treat the change in inclination
and azimuth separately as do the radius of curvature calculations.
Figure 2-10. Illustration of Minimum Curvature Calculation Method