INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS AND THEIR SAFETY

 Hazard is a term associated with a substance that is likelihood to cause an

injury in a given environment or situation.
 Industrial hazard may be defined as any condition produced by industries that
may cause injury or death to personnel or loss of product or property.
 Safety in simple terms means freedom from the occurrence of risk or injury or
loss.
 Industrial safety or employee safety refers to the protection of workers from
the danger of industrial accidents.

Types of hazards

 Mechanical hazards
 Chemical hazards
 Electrical hazards
 Fire hazards
 Pharmaceutical hazards

MECHANICAL HAZARDS AND THEIR SAFETY

 Mechanical hazards occur when a machine is mal-functioning. Machine may be

run either manually or automatic.
 The machines are driven by a suitable power supply: electricity, hydraulic or
steam. A few machines are: cutting, shearing, crushing, breaking etc. Most
injuries result during maintenance work of machinery.
 These injuries occur due to ill attention caused by distraction or deliberate chance
taking and curiosity.
 Mechanical injuries occur when the machine needs human intervention
repeatedly for its proper functioning.

Prevention of Mechanical Hazards

Mechanical hazards can be reduced or prevented by employing of appropriate safe-

guards

1. Machinery can be enclosed with adequate protection shields, so that human

contactwith moving parts is prevented, particularly when machinery is operating.

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2. Working personnel can protect themselves with adequate protective guards, such
as shoes, gloves, facemasks and goggles. This permits safe access to the
machinery

3. Frequent maintenance of machinery and careful adjustments are necessary, so as

to make the machinery in proper condition.

4. The production process can be made automatic, examples are: feeding system
and ejection system. Such measures not only prevent the hazards, but also prevent
contamination of pharmaceutical products.

5. Proper training is imparted on the aspects of safe operation of the machinery.

Similarly, continuing education programs create awareness about safe handling.
These also include the precautions to be taken in emergency treatment etc.

6. Campaign on the safety measures can be taken up.

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS AND THEIR PREVENTION

Shock is one of the commonest electric hazards. It occurs when the electric current
passes through the human body. This is possible when human is in contact with a
conductor carrying the current and simultaneously in contact with the ground. This is
often referred to as short circuit. In the standard three- wire system, one wire
provides a direct path to the ground and by passes the load. In short circuit, the
human body becomes a conductor to the ground. The quantity and path of the
current determines the level of damage. Shock may be a mild form and short circuit
is a potential electric hazard.

Sources of Electric Hazards

Different sources of electric hazards are: short circuit, electrostatic hazard, static
electricity hazard of combustible and explosive materials.

Electric hazard due to short circuit may occur in the following situations.

 Electrical equipment that has not been properly grounded.

 Electric equipment that remains on damp floor
 Static electricity discharge.
 Metal ladders to work on electric equipment.

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 Lightning strikes.
 Electrical equipment without ensuring that power has been shut.

Electrostatic hazard involves minor shock. Shocks may result from a single
discharge or multiple discharge of static electricity

 Briskly rubbing a nonconductive material over a stationary surface

 Rubbing of materials with the conveyor belt.
 Friction between the flowing liquids and a solid surface.

The rate of discharge of electric charge decreases with lower humidity. Electrostatic
sparks are often greater during cold, dry winter days. Static electricity hazard
involves electric are and spark. An electric arc can jump the air gap between the
conductors and ignite combustible gases or dust. The following are the causes of
this hazard.

 When electric wiring is improper, the ground wire may jump to the neutral wire.
The wire should be properly grounded.
 Degradation of insulation results in shock to any one coming in contact. Insulation
degradation is possible due to a variety of environments: direct sunlight, UV light,
sparks and arcs, repeated exposure to elevated temperatures (dehydration),
moisture (humidity) and insects.Circuit tester is used to identify whether housing
is properly earthed or not.

Prevention of Electric Hazards

The following safety precautions are taken in order to prevent electric hazards.

1. Capacitors can store current after power supply has been shut. Capacitors should
be discharged. Hence, power plug has to be disconnected from the mains, after
working.

2. Fully trained and authorized people have to engage in the inspection, repair and
replacement during the maintenance work. If necessary, protective clothing and
safeguards should be followed.

3. All electrical fixtures should be securely fitted. Periodically preventive maintenance

(inspection, repair and replacements) should be attempted.

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4. Explosion proof devices and non- sparking switches are to be fitted in inflammable
liquid storage areas.

5. Fuses, circuit breaker must be used for protection against excessive current.
Correct types of fuse should be used. Fuse with greater capacity not be employed.

CHEMICAL HAZARDS

The bulk drug industry manufactures products by controlling reactive chemicals. The
reactivity makes these chemicals to be hazardous. Reactions are always carried out
with proper plan so as not to face any mishaps. Unfortunately, sometimes chemical
reactions get out of control, because of several problems.

A few of them are.,

 Wrong raw material

 Raw materials containing trace impurities
 Changed operating conditions
 Equipment failure
 Wrong materials of construction

Chloroform, benzene, chlorinated hydrocarbons, low- boiling fractions of petroleum

are some of the common solvents used in pharmaceutical industry. These solvents
are used in the extraction of drug principles from plants, purification of synthetic
drugs and in chemical analysis. They should be handled with care.

Chemical hazards referred here are occupational health hazards. Toxicity is the
ability of a substance to cause injury to biological tissue.

The hazard of a substance depends on.,

 Its toxicity- how is it absorbed, metabolized and excreted, how rapidly it acts and
its warning symptoms. If the toxicity of a substance is higher, it will be more toxic.
 Its physical characteristics - the manner in which a substance will be encountered
in work place. For example, a liquid with a high vapour pressure will reach a
higher airborne concentration and will be more hazardous than an equally
hazardous liquid with a low vapour pressure.

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The following terms are used in the measurement of concentration of a hazardous
substance present in the air.

 ppm: parts of vapour (or gas) per million parts of air by volume.
 mg/m³: milligram of a substance per cubic metre of air.
 mppcf: millions of particles of particulate matter per cubic foot of air.

Exposure

Frequency and duration of exposure to chemicals in toxicological testing of animals

are rather arbitrarily divided into four types.

Terms used for exposure Length of exposure

Acute Less than 24 hours
Subacute 1 month or less
Sub chronic 1 – 3 months
Chronic More than 3 months

Standard setting process

A list of threshold limit values (TLVs) for approximately 800 substances

wereprepared. The workers should not be exposed to the substances more than
these limits.

Threshold limit value is defined as the maximum average concentration of a

hazardous material to which healthy adult workers can be exposed during an 8 hour
per day and 40 hour per week over a working lifetime – without experiencing
significant ADRs.

The following three categories of TLVs are specified:

 Threshold limit value - time weighted average (TLV - TWA): This is the time
weighted average concentration for a normal 8-hour work / day and 40-hour work
/ week to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after day,
without adverse effects.
 Threshold limit value - short term exposure limit (TLV - STEL): This is the highest
concentration to which workers can be exposed for short periods of time without
suffering from irritation, chronic or irreversible tissue damage of sufficient degree
to increase accident - proneness, impair self- rescue or reduce work efficiency.

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 Threshold limit value - ceiling (TLV - C): This is the concentration that should not
be exceeded during any part of the working day.
 The numerical values of the TLVs do not take into account the toxicity that might
result from skin absorption.
 Though many common substances are apparently harmless, prolonged breathing
and/or skin contact produce irritation and may bring about permanent impairment
of health or even death.
 Many chemicals can cause severe burns, if these come into contact with living
tissue.
 Living tissue may be destroyed by the following chemical reactions.
 Dehydration by strong dehydrating agents.
 Digestion by strong acids and bases.
 Oxidation by strong oxidizing agents.
 Eyes and mucous membranes of the throat are particularly susceptible to the
effect of corrosive dust, mist and gases.
 In pharmaceutical industry, dermatitis reactions can be attributed to synthetic
drugs, especially to acridines and phenothiazine compounds.
 It has been noticed that fair people are generally more susceptible to skin
irritation than dark people.The only protection from skin reactions is to observe
cleanliness and to remove the people from the areas as soon as the first sign of
skin reactions is noticed.
 Wherever practicable, application of barrier creams before commencing the work
has been found useful in protecting individuals.
 While grinding vegetable drugs, dust evolved is irritating. For example, capsicum
and podophyllum affect the eyes and irritation is painful. Therefore, goggles are
to be worn.
 Some individuals are so sensitive to ipecacuanha that they develop symptoms of
asthma, when exposed even to minute traces of its dust.
 Hazards due to industrial chemicals can be minimized if there is strict observance
of safety regulations and protective measures of good house - keeping principles,
besides their intelligent handling of dangerous chemicals and drugs.

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 Management of over - exposure to chemicals
 While thousands of chemicals are used routinely in industry, the medical
management of acute, over - exposure is nonspecific and included in four basic
steps
Removal from Exposure
 Prompt removal of the person from the exposure site is the first step.
 If rescue of a disabled victim is required, rescuers must protect themselves in the
contaminated atmosphere.
 Air respirators and lifelines are mandatory first aid.
 Chemically impervious suits are sometimes worn.
Resuscitation
 Resuscitation means restoration of life of one who is apparently dead (collapsed
or shocked).
 If the victim is apnoeic, resuscitation must begin as soon as he is taken out of the
area.
 Further supportive care should be provided as with any other medical
emergency. Decontamination
 A victim whose skin or clothing has been contaminated requires immediate
removal of garments and shoes.
 Then vigorous showering with soap and water, including attention to the
fingernails and scalp is advised.
Symptomatic Treatment
 Acute over - exposure may result in a variety of signs and symptoms that require
general supportive medical management regardless of the specific agent.
 Examples include the control of convulsive seizures, treatment of broncho-
spasms, dehydration and arrhythmias.
 There are a few situations, in which specific antidotes or management strategies
are available.
 The industry should prepare a list of medical management strategies for the
hazardous chemicals they handle, so that correct and immediate rescue
operations can be attempted.

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 FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS
 Spontaneous combustion and non-explosion proof electrical equipment is the
potential ignition source. The effects of fire on people take the form of skin burns
due to explosion to thermal radiation.
 The severity of the burns depends on the intensity of the fire and the exposure
time. Fire occurs in the industry more frequently than explosions and toxic
release.
 Materials such as wood, building decorations, furnishings (fabric, curtains, wall
coverings, furniture, card- boards, packing materials, paper) further spread the
fire. Types of incipient fires
 Class A fires: These fires are originated from ordinary combustible materials.
These fires are controlled using water or solutions containing large percentage of
water which produces quenching and cooling effects.
 Class B fires: These fires are originated from oils, greases, flammable liquids etc.
The extinguishing agent should produce a blanketing or smoothening effect.
 Class C fires: These fires are originated in electrical equipment. The
extinguishing agent produces a non - conducting property.
 Class D fires: Fires involving combustible metals such as magnesium, sodium,
potassium, titanium, and aluminium. Special dry powder agents are required for
this class of fire, and must be tailored to the specific hazardous metal.
Fire Alarm Equipment for detection of fire hazards
 Fire alarm systems are placed in noticeable locations in all parts of the plant for
promptly notifying the fire brigade and for exit of employees.
 They should be preferably located near exits. The systems operate on electrically
supervised circuit.
 Fire alarm systems can warn the presence of smoke, radiation, elevated
temperatures and increased light intensity. A few fire alarm systems and
functioning are.,
 Thermal expansion detector - At predetermined temperature, expansion of heat
sensitive metal establishes the alarm circuit that triggers the alarm to ring.
 Heat sensitive insulation detector - At predetermined temperature, the insulation
melts and establishes the alarm circuit, this activates the alarm to ring.

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 Photoelectric fire detector - Changes in the IR energy due to the presence of
smoke is taken as criteria. A relay system is open under acceptable conditions.
When smoke interferes, relay system is closed to complete alarm circuit and
alarm to ring.
 lonization or radiation sensor - When exposed to smoke, the radio - active
substance ionizes. These ions conduct electricity and permit the alarm circuit to
be completed. Hence, alarm signals the fire.
 UV or IR detectors - The radiation emitted from the fire and flames are detected
and accordingly alarm is activated to ring.
Control of fire and explosion
Fire protection is an important part and fire protection provisions are applicable to
bulk drug industries, whether synthetic, biological or microbiological.Government
Regulations are available for safety and fire protection.
 Careful plant layout and judicious choice of constructional materials can reduce
fire and explosion hazards.
 Hazardous operations should be isolated by conducting them in separate
buildings.
 Fire resistance brick - walls or reinforced concrete walls can limit the effects of an
explosion.
 Equipment should be designed to meet the specifications and codes of
recognized authorities such as Indian Standards Association, American
Petroleum Institute (API) and American Society of Testing Materials.
 The roof is designed to lift easily under an explosive force.
 Possible sources of fire are reduced by eliminating the unnecessary ignition
sources such as flames, spark, heated materials, matches, smoking, welding,
cutting and static electricity.
 The installation of sufficient fire alarms, temperature alarms, fire-fighting
equipment and sprinkler systems must be specified in design.
 Every type of mechanical device should be examined periodically by a competent
person.
Building Construction
 Building should be constructed such that fire cannot be spread from on building
to another.

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 When combustible construction is involved, fire wall cut-offs should be provided.
The cut-offs should be standard firewall of at least 13 inch of brick or of equal 9
construction with all door openings properly protected with single or double
automatic fire doors.
Exit Points
 The exit points of adequate capacity should be provided so as to enable the
employees to reach a place of safety outside the building, in case of fire.
 Every factory or working space should have at least two exit points from each
floor.
Fire Extinguishers
Fire extinguishers are designed for extinguishing the incipient fires.
Water filled extinguisher (for class A fires)
In this type, acid (sulphuric acid) is placed in one chamber and NaHCO3 solution
is placed in another chamber. When fire is to be put off, H2SO4 chamber is
broken, so that reaction takes place between H2SO4 AND NaHCO3. Then CO2
is produced, which exerts high pressure in the container. Water is pushed out
through the discharge pipe at high pressure. As the water falls on hot(fire)
surface it exerts the cooling effect. Further, vapour displaces O2 from the site of
burning. This extinguishing of fire is achieved.

Fig No: 1 water filled extinguisher

Water fog
Fog is formed when water in the form of droplets is sprayed on the fire. More
amount of heat is absorbed by water on account of larger surface area.
Extinguishing is obtained due to the effect of cooling and de-atmosphere (by
excluding air from the site of fire). This is preferred when the flammable liquid is
lighter than water.

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 Foam extinguisher (for class B fires):
The foam contains 2-6 % liquid foam - concentrate (fluoroprotein) in water, which
is mixed with air or nitrogen gas (N₂). When foam is discharged from the delivery
tube, it forms a continuous blanket on fire. Thus, fire is put off. Foam extinguisher
is used for hydrocarbon fires, inflammable liquid (oils and gasoline).
Carbon dioxide extinguisher (for class C fires):
Carbon dioxide extinguisher is used for fire suppression, when the materials
(example sodium metal) react violently with water. Many common materials do
not burn, when the oxygen content is less than 16 % in the air or the air is diluted
with carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide extinguishers are of 2 type; High pressure
liquid CO2 at atmospheric pressure and low pressure container is kept at 00 F.
Working: When the control valve is opened, carbon dioxide gas expands at
atmospheric pressure into so called snow. Due to sudden expansion, a part of
carbon dioxide (30%) solidifies on the fire surface into dry ice (-79°C), which do
not conduct electricity. When snow is sprayed on the fire, the temperature of
burning material is lowered to below its ignition point. Sometimes, it displaces
oxygen from the surroundings. Thus fire is put off.
 Less oxygen in the surroundings is dangerous to life. So after the fire is put off,
the area is ventilated adequately.
 The CO₂ extinguishers are used in places where water cannot be used.
 Carbon dioxide is clean, non - combustive, and non – corrosive, it is effective and
easy to maintain.
 It is not suitable for cellulose nitrate and Na / K derivatives, because carbon
dioxide decomposes.

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 Fig No: 2 CO2 extinguisher

Dry chemical extinguishers (for class C fires):

It consists of sodium bicarbonate in dry form in one cylinder and another cylinder
contains liquid carbon dioxide (or nitrogen gas) as expellant gas. When control
valve is opened, the expellant gas rushes into solid sodium bicarbonate cylinder.
As a result, solid sodium bicarbonate is expelled out on to the flame, where it
gets decomposed into soda vapour and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide solidifies
on the fire surface into dry ice, which do not conduct electricity. The temperature
of burning material is lowered to below its ignition point. Sometimes, it displaces
oxygen from the surroundings. Ammonium phosphate is also used in the form of
a dry chemical which is more effective.

Fig No: 3 Dry chemical extinguisher

Sprinkler Systems
Automatic sprinkler system is a device for discharging water automatically on a
fire. When heat from the fire reaches the point where soft soldered compound
melts, head automatically sprinkles water.
Hydrants
Hydrants are placed not closer than 40 ft to the buildings. These are well
protected and connected directly through a flexible and standard (single jacketed,
cotton, rubber - lined mill yard) hose. The hoses are kept in hose boxes (or hose
houses) at the hydrants. Hence, an independent system of underground fire
mains supplying yard hydrants should be provided.
The Safety and Fire Protection Organization

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 A central committee composed of the plant manager as permanent chairman and
safety and fire protection supervisor as permanent secretary. The central
committee takes care of general policies regarding safety and fire protection. In
addition, there should be a committee in each department, which is responsible
for safety and fire protection in their departments.
PHARMACEUTICAL HAZARD
 Hazardous drugs that pose a potential health risk to healthcare workers who may
be exposed during drug manufacturing, packing and storage.
 These hazardous drugs may be carcinogenic, teratogenic or can cause
reproductive toxicity and organ toxicity at lower doses.
 The routes of exposure to hazardous drugs includes, inhalation of an aerosolized
drug, dermal absorption, ingestion, injection, etc.
 Poisoning may be acute or chronic.

Hormones

 The effects of occupational exposure to hormones may be severe. For male

workers, exposure to estrogens may give rise to breast development; for female
workers, there may be menstrual disorders, abnormal overgrowth of the
endometrium and excessive bleeding during menopause.

 Exposure of female workers to androgens is known to cause menstrual and ovarian

function disorders, diminished fertility, increased frequency of spontaneous
abortions, and symptoms of masculinity.

Antibiotics The effects of occupational exposure to antibiotics can include.,

 Allergic reactions: Itching and redness of the eyes, runny nose, skin rashes,
asthma, and occasionally shock due to an allergic reaction (anaphylaxis).

 Vitamin deficiency: Workers with repeated exposure to antibiotics experience a

change in the number and type of bacteria which are normally present in the
intestines which break down and absorb vitamins in the intestines.

 Fungal infections: Daily exposure to antibiotic dust can lead to fungal infections of
the skin and nails. Additionally, women workers may develop vaginal yeast infections
following exposure to antibiotics.

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 Toxic effects: Exposure to certain antibiotics may lead to development of some of
the toxic side effects that occur when that drug is given as medicine.

Penicillins

 Because of the highly allergenic nature of the penicillins and their extensive use,
many people have become allergic to them. The most serious reaction is shock. This
type of acute reaction usually occurs minutes after exposure.

Tetracyclines

 Modification of the bacteria of the intestines and other organs has been reported
following occupational exposure to tetracycline (as well as to streptomycin and
penicillin). Workers may develop infections that are resistant to treatment with
tetracycline.

Nitroglycerins

 Nitrates dilate the blood vessels and make blood pressure fall. As a result,
dizziness and even fainting may occur. Other more serious effects are chest pain,
heart attacks, and sudden death.

Antidepressants

 Tricyclic antidepressants like amitriptyline, nortriptyline, and imipramine can cause

cardiac arrhythmias, posing a particular problem for production workers with heart
conditions.

Safety aspects in pharmaceutical hazards

 Disposable gowns made of fabric that are impermeable to the agents in use, with
closed fonts and cuffs, intended for single use.
 Washing hands frequently.
 Powder free gloves, labelled and tested for drugs used with chemotherapy, made
of latex, nitrile, or neoprene.
 Face and eye protection when splashing is possible.
 Approved respirator when there is a risk of inhaling drug aerosols.
 The labelling of solvents to indicate their properties and health and fire hazards is
an important method for controlling hazards.
 Substitution of a more harmful material by less harmful one.

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 Gas released should be vented outside and away work areas and other
populated areas.
 Exhausts and ventilations should be provided to remove emissions

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