Topic 2: Database Management in Construction

Introduction
Data is key to competitiveness.
◦ Businesses in the construction industry face stiff
competition from rivals when vying for contracts.
With a proactive approach to data collection and
management, companies can get the edge over
competitors, rather than letting opportunities slip
through their grasp.
Civil Engineering Information Systems
Introduction
Business and Information Management
5 Ways Construction Information Systems Drive
Construction
Materials and labor are the two most important
inputs of any construction project. That’s why the
pricing of these two ingredients plays a significant
role in the overall construction cost. Every contractor
aims to stay within the boundaries of their
construction budget. Yet, without information
systems, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal.
Although information systems have always played
an integral role in the construction world, the industry
still lags in crucial aspects. This is likely to change
soon as the industry is now embracing big data
analytics. The construction industry is now moving to
areas such as real-time analytics.
Better Planning and Budgeting
For commercial companies, there is a need to
access the correct data at the right time. This will
help assess sub-contractors working on a project.
The accurate data and analysis help determine the
reliability of a potential partner.
Construction companies collaborate with various
other companies to deliver all the required materials.
You need appropriate data to assess the risks
associated with every partner. Predicting outcomes
is a critical component of data analysis. If you’re able
to predict the potential outcomes of a project, you
can plan for different results.
Through simulations, you can learn potential
problem areas and plan for them. These analytics
help you recognize the real-world limitations of your
project. This will help you reduce the possibility of
problems sprouting unexpectedly.
Improved Tracking and Organization of Projects
You need data on business, weather, traffic, and
community around your project. This data helps to
determine the phasing of the project. As you work on
the first phase, decide if you need more equipment
for the second phase.
How can you do that? It would be best if you had
sensor inputs that show idle and active time on
machines. This information can draw conclusions
between increasing and reducing the construction
equipment. Sensor inputs also help in defining fuel
consumption. This will help you track the cost of the
project.
Analytics also provides you with reliable and easy to
comprehend status updates of the project. With such
regular updates, then you will be able to make better
decisions. This also provides the avenue to analyze
the progress of your project. Data analytics will also
help analyze the impact of factors such as humidity
and temperature on your project.
Risk Mitigation
Analytics play a significant role in improving the
safety of site workers. Construction sites have
started to use smart clothing equipped with wearable
devices and electronic sensors. They transmit
images and information to primary databases. Some
smart clothing is equipped with automatic time
logging functions. This encourages efficiency. Some
new inventions in this sector include ‘smart, hard
hat.’ These helmets measure the body temperature
and heart rate of site workers.
The information systems also help remote operation
capabilities. This means your site workers are no
longer needed to be available in hazardous areas.
Some telematics devices track factors such as
frequency of drifting out of lane or breaking habits.
This will give your fleet manager insight into drivers’
habits.
Tracking Assets and Inventories position. Multiple simulations built on the likeness of
a project can be used to create estimates. Hence,
Information systems play a role in tracking assets
you can develop categories to define optimistic and
and inventory. You can connect over 10,000 pessimistic estimations.
construction machines to your system. This way, you
can remotely supervise the real-time performance of Topic 3: Information Engineering (IE)
these machines on the site. This prevents misuse of
Information engineering (IE)
these machines and helps you generate predictive
capability data that will help you maximize the value ◦ is the application of science and technology in
of your assets. developing quality information systems, which are
computer-based infrastructures that collect,
Tasks are broken down into packages, and every
process, store, and act on information. It is the
machine is allocated a package depending on its
incorporation of an engineering approach to the
power. This will help in mapping expectations and
generation of information and the promotion of the
setting deadlines. Connecting the different parts of
better use of information and resources.
your management process allows you to have ‘one
single view.’ One single view enables you to keep all ◦ focuses on the generation, distribution, processing,
information in one electronic file rather than different and use of information in engineering systems
spreadsheets. You can now easily manage your including image processing, machine vision, pattern
inventory. You can also quickly build a budget and recognition and computer graphics. It combines the
control your annual spending on machines. traditional computer science with engineering.
Cost Analysis ◦ has become the methodology of choice for
developing management information systems.
Even with the industry boom, few construction
companies can make profits. This is because Information Engineering Domain
businesses cannot evaluate their project
expenditure due to difficulty collecting accurate
historical data on every aspect of a project. This
information is not only crucial in reducing costs but
also for bidding on new jobs.
Construction information systems help you collect
data on operators, tools, vehicles, and equipment.
This information is necessary when it comes to
planning and budgeting. Analyzing the aggregated
data reveals a trend. This offers you the opportunity
to compare estimated and actual costs. For
instance, you can overlap your fleet’s historical
telematics with geographical information. This
reveals the impacts of local aspects (e.g.,
topography, weather, and fuel prices). Idle machine
hours can hurt your cost minimization efforts. Be
sure to look into how every machine is utilized. The goals of information engineering:
Further Insights on the Importance of ◦ to develop systems that comply closely with user
Construction Information Systems specifications,
The most significant advantage of construction ◦ to reduce overall systems development time,
information systems is that the dormant
underutilized data can also be evaluated to obtain ◦ to promote longer system life,
relevant insights. Your business stands to benefit ◦ to reduce cost of maintenance over the system’s
even from unstructured data. useful life.
Predictive analysis can utilize upstream information
data to establish if your bottom line is in the correct
Characteristics of Information Engineering: - Assess the impact of the effective use of
information technology on the overall organization of
◦ Data sharing: The availability of common data that
the enterprise.
can be used for operational and information
purposes. Data is central to any information system. - Increase the awareness of management about
developments in and opportunities of information
◦ Multidimensional systems: Systems that use
technology
various hardware and communication facilities to
provide operational and decision support services. Additional benefits or by-products:
◦ Business orientation: Models of business, which - Improve communications within the enterprise
support objectives and management information about the effective use of information technology.
needs.
- Involve users in the management of system
◦ Connectivity: A capability that allows machines development to increase their confidence in the
and people to communicate within the enterprise. possibilities offered by new systems.
◦ Artificial intelligence: Using complex rule-based The following diagram depicts the dependency
systems to capture expert knowledge. relationships between the stages in the Information
Strategy Planning
◦ CASE tools: CASE (Computer assisted
software engineering) tools automate several
steps of the information systems development
process. CASE tool selection is complex because
there is no single tool that will satisfy all project
requirements.
Topic 4: Information Strategy and Planning
The fundamental objective of information strategy
planning (ISP) is to develop a plan for implementing
business systems to support business needs.
The objectives of the Information Strategy
Planning stage are to:
◦ Establish an information strategy based on an
evaluation of the business strategy.
◦ Establish a development plan of user-oriented Enterprise Wide - Information Strategy Planning
systems to meet business information needs and Strategic planning
priorities.
◦ process of defining an organization’s plans for
◦ Define an information architecture for the future achieving its mission. An organizational strategy is a
development of compatible data-sharing systems. derived approach to achieving that mission
◦ Establish a technical strategy for the best use of ◦ sets the stage for enterprise architecture, process
new information technology. improvement, risk management, portfolio
◦ Define the most effective organization of the management, and any other enterprise-wide
information system function within the enterprise. initiatives.

Other needs addressed by ISP include:
- Evaluate the effectiveness of existing systems.
- Identify data as a corporate resource and establish
a basis for its analysis and control.
◦ In order to determine the direction of the
organization, it is necessary to understand its current
position and the possible avenues through which it
can pursue a particular course of action. Generally,
strategic planning deals with at least one of three key
questions:
 - ◦ What do we do?
- ◦ For whom do we do it?
- ◦ How do we excel?
Typical strategic plan elements and their
relationships to one another
Strategic Planning Elements
Common Models and Approaches to Strategic
Planning
- ◦ VISION OR GOAL-BASED PLANNING
- ◦ ISSUES-BASED PLANNING
- ◦ ALIGNMENT MODEL
- ◦ SCENARIO PLANNING
- ◦“ORGANIC” (OR SELF-ORGANIZING)
PLANNING
- ◦ REAL-TIME PLANNING
VISION OR GOAL-BASED PLANNING
◦ most common model of strategic planning.
Organizations using this model will develop a vision
of the organization’s desired “future state.” Then,
they will identify the goals that are needed to achieve
that vision.
◦ The goal-based strategic planning process
includes 7 steps
- ◦ Identify your purpose.
- ◦ Establish your vision.
- ◦ Select your goals.
- ◦ Identify strategies for reaching each goal.
- ◦ Develop action plans for each strategy
- ◦ Compile the strategic plan document.
- ◦ Monitor implementation of the plan and
update the plan as needed.
ISSUES-BASED PLANNING
◦ While vision-based planning works from the future
to the present, issues based strategic planning
works from the present to the future. The
organization identifies issues that affect it today and
then devises strategies for addressing those issues.
◦ The issues-based strategic planning process
includes 4 steps
◦ Identify major issues that the organization is
currently facing.
◦ Identify reasonable approaches to addressing each
major issue.
◦ Compile the strategic plan document. Include each
issue and each approach.
◦ Monitor implementation of the plan and update the
plan as needed
ALIGNMENT MODEL
◦ is designed to ensure that the organization’s
mission and its resources are in sync so the
organization can operate effectively.
◦ The alignment model of strategic planning includes
4 steps:
- ◦ Explore your mission.
- ◦ Assess.
- ◦ Devise an action plan.
- ◦ Compile the strategic plan.
SCENARIO PLANNING
◦ the process of visualizing what the future is likely to
look like, what the consequences of future conditions
or events are likely to be for the organization, and
how the organization might respond to or benefit
from those conditions or events.
◦ The scenario-planning process includes 4 steps
◦ Select several external forces and imagine related
changes that might influence the organization.
◦ Discuss 3 different future scenarios that might arise
within the organization as a result of each change.
◦ Suggest potential strategies.
◦ Select the most likely scenario and most
reasonable strategy.
“ORGANIC” (OR SELF-ORGANIZING)
PLANNING
◦ The organic or self-organizing planning model is
similar to the development of an organism. Rather
than following a series of defined steps, this model
evolves and unfolds.
◦ The organic planning process includes a collection
of ongoing activities
◦ Clarify the organization’s cultural values and vision.
◦ Hold ongoing discussions.
REAL-TIME PLANNING
◦ Real-time planning is designed for those who feel
that conventional strategic planning has become
outdated in our rapidly changing world.
◦ The real-time planning process includes 3 basic
steps,
- ◦ Clarify mission, vision and values
- ◦ Clarify current priorities.
- ◦ Discuss external threats and
opportunities.
Critical Success Factors (CSFs)
It is important to understand the characteristics of
CSFs : CSF hierarchy, types, uniqueness, and
stability over time.
Technology impact analysis
There is a growing recognition that providers of
aging services need a robust technology
environment to meet the changing needs of
residents/clients and provide quality of care and
quality of life for those residents/ clients.
Most organizations pursue technology investments
without a guiding road map or strategic IT plan.
Creating that plan requires top-down critical thinking
about what is appropriate for the setting, and what is
important to the organization and its strategic vision,
goals and objectives.
Many organizations worry that integrating different
software applications will be costly and complicated.
Many of these fears can be laid to rest by
establishing a list of criteria that best of breed
software vendors must meet. It is possible to
connect software packages together, and create
import and export processes, by adhering to the
following list of criteria:
◦ Is the application based on Structured
Query Language (SQL), the special-purpose
programming language?
◦ Is the application web-based?
◦ Can the application be delivered through a
presentation gateway, such as remote desktop or
Citrix?
◦ Does the application support an integration
interface? If so, what is that integration interface?
◦ Can the application run on a virtual server or in a
virtual environment?
◦ Does the application support data standards for
interoperability? If so, what are those standards?
◦ Is the application certified for interoperability? If so,
what is that certification and what body certified it?
Linking Technology with the Strategic Plan ◦ Integrated: All the stages of the software
development life cycle right from the gathering of
- Establish clear objectives and define the role
requirements for testing and documentation can be
of technology for the organization. performed using integrated tools.
- Articulate a “future state” technology vision
- Identify IT process/services and IT
governance.
- Assess gaps in technology
- Identify strategic options for filling the gaps.
- Select your best options and outline
implementation projects.
- Set guidelines for software initiatives.
- Measure the benefit.
Topic 5: CASE (Computer-Aided Software
Engineering) Tools
CASE (Computer Aided Software Engineering)
◦ software that supports one or more software
engineering activities within a software development
process and is gradually becoming popular for the
development of software as they are improving in the Types of CASE Tools
capabilities and functionality and are proving to be
Diagram tools - These tools are used to represent
beneficial for the development of quality software.
system components, data and control flow among
◦ software packages that include many tools that can various software components and system structure
be helpful when it comes to database design. The in a graphical form. For example, Flow Chart Maker
main goal of these packages is to give designers a tool for creating state-of-the-art flowcharts.
way of representing systems that are too complex to
Process Modeling Tools - Process modeling is
understand in their source code or schema-based
method to create software process model, which is
forms. They help automate software development
used to develop the software. Process modeling
and maintenance tasks and usually contain tools for
tools help the managers to choose a process model
system analysis, project management, and design.
or modify it as per the requirement of software
Components of CASE Tools product. For example, EPF Composer

There are several components are based on their
usage in different stages of the software
development life cycle. They are:
◦ Central Repository: A central repository is
required by the tools to serve as a common source
of integrated and consistent information. The central
place of storage consisting of specifications of
product, documents requirement, diagrams and
reports and information about the management is a
central repository. The central repository also acts
as a data dictionary.
◦ Upper: Planning, analysis, and designing of
different stages of the software development life
cycle can be performed using upper case.
◦ Lower: Implementation, testing, and maintenance
can be performed using lower case.
Project Management Tools - tools are used for
project planning, cost and effort estimation, project
scheduling and resource planning. Managers have
to strictly comply project execution with every
mentioned step in software project management.
Project management tools help in storing and
sharing project information in real-time throughout
the organization. For example, Creative Pro Office,
Trac Project, Basecamp.
Documentation Tools - Documentation in a
software project starts prior to the software process,
goes throughout all phases of SDLC and after the
completion of the project. Documentation tools
generate documents for technical users and end
users. Technical users are mostly in-house
professionals of the development team who refer to
system manual, reference manual, training manual,
installation manuals etc. The end user documents
describe the functioning and how-to of the system
such as user manual. For example, Doxygen,
DrExplain, Adobe RoboHelp for documentation.
Analysis Tools- These tools help to gather
requirements, automatically check for any
inconsistency, inaccuracy in the diagrams, data
redundancies or erroneous omissions. For example,
Accept 360, Accompa, CaseComplete for
requirement analysis, Visible Analyst for total
analysis.
Design Tools - These tools help software designers
to design the block structure of the software, which
may further be broken down in smaller modules
using refinement techniques. These tools provides
detailing of each module and interconnections
among modules. For example, Animated Software
Design
Configuration Management Tools - An instance of
software is released under one version.
Configuration Management tools deal with –
- Version and revision management
- Baseline configuration management
- Change control management
◦ CASE tools help in this by automatic tracking,
version management and release management. For
example, Fossil, Git, Accu REV
Change Control Tools - These tools are considered
as a part of configuration management tools. They
deal with changes made to the software after its
baseline is fixed or when the software is first
released. CASE tools automate change tracking, file
management, code management and more. It also
helps in enforcing change policy of the organization.
Programming Tools - These tools consist of
programming environments like IDE (Integrated
Development Environment), in-built modules library
and simulation tools. These tools provide
comprehensive aid in building software product and
include features for simulation and testing. For
example, Cscope to search code in C, Eclipse.
Prototyping Tools -
◦ Software prototype is simulated version of the
intended software product. Prototype provides initial
look and feel of the product and simulates few
aspect of actual product.
◦ Prototyping CASE tools essentially come with
graphical libraries. They can create hardware
independent user interfaces and design. These tools
help us to build rapid prototypes based on existing
information. In addition, they provide simulation of
software prototype. For example, Serena prototype
composer, Mockup Builder.
Web Development Tools - These tools assist in
designing web pages with all allied elements like
forms, text, script, graphic and so on. Web tools also
provide live preview of what is being developed and
how will it look after completion. For example,
Fontello, Adobe Edge Inspect, Foundation 3,
Brackets.
Quality Assurance Tools - Quality assurance in a
software organization is monitoring the engineering
process and methods adopted to develop the
software product in order to ensure conformance of
quality as per organization standards. QA tools
consist of configuration and change control tools and
software testing tools. For example, SoapTest,
AppsWatch, JMeter.
Maintenance Tools - Software maintenance
includes modifications in the software product after
it is delivered. Automatic logging and error reporting
techniques, automatic error ticket generation and
root cause Analysis are few CASE tools, which help
software organization in maintenance phase of
SDLC. For example, Bugzilla for defect tracking, HP
Quality Center.
Uses in Databases
CASE tools can serve many functions in database
design, including:
- ◦ Collecting and analyzing data.
- ◦ Designing a data model.
- ◦ Feasibility analysis.
- ◦ Requirements definition.
- ◦ Implementing the database.
- ◦ Prototyping.
- ◦ Data conversion.
- ◦ Generating application code.
- ◦ Generating reports.
- ◦ Programming and testing.
- ◦ Maintenance.
Advantages
CASE tools can provide many advantages when
used in database design, including:
- Improved productivity in development
- Improved quality through automated
checking
- Automatic preparation and update of
documentation
- Encouragement of prototyping and
incremental development
- Automatic preparation of program code from
requirements definition
- Reduced maintenance systems
Disadvantages
However, there are also some disadvantages to
using the tools in database design, including:
- ◦ Cost increase
- ◦ Need for specialized training
- ◦ Limitations in flexibility of documentation
- ◦ Inadequate standardization
- ◦ Slow implementation
- ◦ Unrealistic expectations
Common CASE tool packages
There are three different types of CASE tools: upper,
lower, and integrated. Upper CASE tools focus on
concept-level products and tend to ignore design,
lower CASE tools concentrate on details of design
such as physical design and testing, and integrated
CASE tools combine the two to support the entire
development. The most useful type in database
design is integrated CASE tools. Some of the
common packages on the market today include:
- ◦ IEF (Information Engineering Facility)
- ◦ IEW (Information Engineering Workbench)
- ◦ Oracle Designer
Topic 6: Data Modelling
Data Model
◦ a collection of conceptual tools for describing data,
data relationships, data semantics, and consistency
constraints. A data model provides a way to describe
the design of a database at the physical, logical, and
view levels.
Database Design Techniques
1. ER Modeling (Top down Approach) - A
graphical technique for understanding and
organizing the data independent of the actual
database implementation
2. Normalization (Bottom Up approach) - was the
earliest formalized database design technique and
at one time was the starting point for logical
database design. Today, with the popularity of the
Entity-Relationship model and other such
diagramming tools and the ability to convert its
diagrams to database structures, data normalization
is used more as a check on database structures
produced from E-R diagrams than as a full-scale
database design technique.
Entity-Relationship Model
◦ The entity-relationship (E-R) data model uses a
collection of basic objects, called entities, and
relationships among these objects.
◦ An entity is a “thing” or “object” in the real world that
is distinguishable from other objects. The entity
relationship model is widely used in database
design.
Entity-relationship or E-R Model
◦ Entity - object or event in our environment that we
want to keep track of. Ex. Person, building, a piece
of inventory sitting on a shelf, a finished product
ready for sale, and a sales meeting (an event). Any
thing that has an independent existence and about
which we collect data. It is also known as entity type.
In ER modeling, notation for entity is given below.
◦ Entity instance - Entity instance is a particular
member of the entity type. Example for entity
instance : A particular employee
◦ Regular Entity - An entity which has its own key
attribute is a regular entity. Example for regular entity
: Employee
◦ Weak entity - An entity which depends on other
entity for its existence and doesn't have any key
attribute of its own is a weak entity. Example for a
weak entity : In a parent/child relationship, a parent
is considered as a strong entity and the child is a
weak entity. In ER modeling, notation for weak entity
is given below.
◦ Multi-valued Attributes If an attribute can take
more than one value for each entity instance, it is a
multi-valued attribute. Multi-valued example for multi
valued attribute : telephone number of an employee,
a particular employee may have multiple telephone
numbers. In ER modeling, notation for multi-valued
attribute is given below.

◦ Attribute - a property or characteristic of an entity.

Examples of attributes include an employee’s
employee number, the weight of an automobile, a
company’s address, or the date of a sales meeting.

◦ Stored Attribute An attribute which need to be

stored permanently is a stored attribute Example for
stored attribute : name of a student

◦ Domain of Attributes The set of possible values
that an attribute can take is called the domain of the
attribute. For example, the attribute day may take
any value from the set {Monday, Tuesday ...Friday}.
Hence this set can be termed as the domain of the
attribute day.
◦ Derived Attribute An attribute which can be
calculated or derived based on other attributes is a
derived attribute. Example for derived attribute : age
of employee which can be calculated from date of
birth and current date. In ER modeling, notation for
derived attribute is given below.

◦ Key attribute The attribute (or combination of

attributes) which is unique for every entity instance
is called key attribute. E.g the employee_id of an
employee, pan_card_number of a person etc.If the
key attribute consists of two or more attributes in
combination, it is called a composite key. In ER
modeling, notation for key attribute is given below.
Relationships - Associations between entities are
called relationships. Example : An employee works
for an organization. Here "works for" is a relation
between the entities employee and organization. In
ER modeling, notation for relationship is given below
(left).
◦ Simple attribute If an attribute cannot be divided
into simpler components, it is a simple attribute.
Example for simple attribute : employee_id of an
employee.
◦ Composite attribute If an attribute can be split into
components, it is called a composite attribute.
Example for composite attribute : Name of the
employee which can be split into First_name,
Middle_name, and Last_name.
However in ER Modeling, To connect a weak Entity
◦ Single valued Attributes If an attribute can take
with others, you should use a weak relationship
only a single value for each entity instance, it is a
notation as given above (Right).
single valued attribute. example for single valued
attribute : age of a student. It can take only one value
for a particular student.
Degree of a Relationship
- ◦ Degree of a relationship is the number of
entity types involved. The n-ary relationship
is the general form for degree n.
- ◦ Special cases are unary, binary, and
ternary ,where the degree is 1, 2, and 3,
respectively.
- ◦ Example for unary relationship : An
employee is a manager of another employee
- ◦ Example for binary relationship : An
employee works-for department.
- ◦ Example for ternary relationship : Customer
purchase item from a shop keeper
Cardinality of a Relationship
Relationship cardinalities specify how many of each
entity type is allowed. Relationships can have four
possible connectivity as given below.
1. One to one (1:1) relationship
2. One to many (1:N) relationship
3. Many to one (M:1) relationship
Relationship Participation
4. Many to many (M:N) relationship
1. Total - In total participation, every entity instance
The minimum and maximum values of this
will be connected through the relationship to another
connectivity is called the cardinality of the
instance of the other participating entity types
relationship.
2. Partial - Example for relationship participation.
Consider the relationship - Employee is head of the
department.
Here all employees will not be the head of the
department. Only one employee will be the head of
the department. In other words, only few instances
of employee entity participate in the above
relationship. So employee entity's participation is
partial in the said relationship. However each
department will be headed by some employee. So
department entity's participation is total in the said
relationship.
Advantages and Disadvantages of ER Modeling Hierarchical and Network
Advantages Historically, the network data model and the
hierarchical data model preceded the relational data
1. ER Modeling is simple and easily
model. These models were tied closely to the
understandable. It is represented in
underlying implementation, and complicated the
business users language and it can be
task of modeling data. As a result they are used little
understood by non-technical specialist.
now, except in old database code that is still in
2. Intuitive and helps in Physical Database service in some places.
creation.
3. Can be generalized and specialized based Relational Model
on needs.
◦ The relational model is today the primary data
4. Can help in database design.
model for commercial data processing applications.
5. Gives a higher level description of the
system. It attained its primary position because of its
simplicity, which eases the job of the programmer,
Disadvantages compared to earlier data models such as the
network model or the hierarchical model.
1. Physical design derived from E-R Model may
have some amount of ambiguities or ◦ The relational model uses a collection of tables to
inconsistency. represent both data and the relationships among
2. Sometime diagrams may lead to those data. Each table has multiple columns, and
misinterpretations. each column has a unique name. Tables are also
known as relations.
◦ The relational model is an example of a record-
based model. Record-based models are so named
because the database is structured in fixed-format
records of several types. Each table contains
records of a particular type. Each record type defines
a fixed number of fields, or attributes. The columns
of the table correspond to the attributes of the record
type. The relational data model is the most widely
used data model, and a vast majority of current
database systems are based on the relational
model.
Object-Based Data Model
◦ Object-oriented programming (especially in Java,
C++, or C#) has become the dominant software-
development methodology. This led to the
development of an object-oriented data model that
can be seen as extending the E-R model with
notions of encapsulation, methods (functions), and
object identity.
◦ The object-relational data model combines
features of the object-oriented data model and
relational data model.
DBMS Approaches
- ◦ Hierarchical
- ◦ Network
- ◦ Relational
- ◦ Object-Oriented