Brighton, East Sussex: Muslim and Western Cultures Meet in London-On-Sea' (2016)

© Sevket Hylton Akyildiz, Eurasia Studies Society of Great Britain & Europe Journal,
An Open Access Working Paper. Vol 5. No. 1, 2016 & 2017. All Rights Reserved. 1
2021 edition
https://eurasiahistory.wordpress.com
Brighton, East Sussex:

Muslim and Western
cultures meet in
‘London-on-sea’
Sevket Hylton Akyildiz outlines the key historical individuals, events, and
buildings associated with the meeting of Muslim and British cultures in the
English seaside town of Brighton over the last 200 years.
Contents
Introduction: Brighton, sense of place, & Muslims ............................................................................ 2
Intercultural and historical influences and encounters ...................................................................... 2
1814: Sheikh Deen Mahomed......................................................................................................... 2
1822: Royal Pavilion, Brighton ........................................................................................................ 4
1849: Frederick (Henry Horatio) Akbar Mahomed ......................................................................... 9
1914 to 1916: Indian soldiers & Pavilion Hospital .......................................................................... 9
1960 to 2017: Students, workers, & business people .................................................................. 11
2011: Census data (Religion)......................................................................................................... 12
Three Mosques ............................................................................................................................. 13
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Introduction: Brighton, sense of place, & Muslims
T
he rolling green hills, seafront promenade, and higher than national average hours
of sunlight make Brighton and Hove popular. People are attracted by the artistic,
liberal ambience of the city. And its two universities and English language schools
are popular with domestic and international students. London folk are attracted to the
East Sussex town, hence the label ‘London-on-Sea’.
Brighton is situated in coastal South East England—approximately 65 miles from London.

It is the only city in East Sussex. In 2011, the population of Brighton and Hove unitary
authority was approximately 273,369.
This essay will outline the 200-year historical meeting of Muslim and Western cultures in
the seaside city regarding individuals, events, and architecture. Consequently, highlighted
are the interconnections between Muslim, Christian, and secular topics. I will summarise
how Brighton’s seaside society – both its elites and the masses – have incorporated the
Other. From this meeting, all parties have created something innovative and distinct in
the town. Something, I argue, over the last 200 years, has resulted in a legacy of cultural
diversity.
Given this, I will not be discussing contemporary political themes such as the war on
terror, Islamophobia, racial prejudice, employment segmentation, class, gender politics,
etc.
Intercultural and historical influences and encounters
1814: Sheikh Deen Mahomed

Sake (Sheikh) Deen Mahomed was born in (1749 or) 1759 in Patna, India. Living in
Calcutta, aged 11, he joined the East India Company Army. Later he received medical
training provided by the British Bengal Army. Deen travelled to England in 1784 with
Captain Baker (of the East India Company). Furthermore, while visiting Cork, Ireland,
Deen met and married a young Irish woman called Jane Daly, despite objections from her
family.1
Deen’s Indian-style eatery, in London (the Hindoostane Coffee House, George Street,
near Portland Square) was open between 1810 and 1812. Indeed, it was one of the first
curry houses in the United Kingdom. However, his restaurant business failed.
Moving to Brighton in 1814, Deen and Jane opened a ‘Turkish Bath’ (Hammam)—at the
time it was labelled a ‘herbal vapour and shampooing bath establishment’. Brighton had
1 Clifford Musgrave, Life in Brighton from the Earliest Times to the

Present. John Hallewell Publications: London, 1970, 1981, pp. 203-6.
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been a spa town, but after 1750 it became, during the Georgian-era, a highly fashionable,
upmarket seaside resort.2
Deen’s baths were situated in the town centre opposite the seafront. (Today the site is
occupied by the Queen’s Hotel, Kings Road). Visitors to Deen’s baths experienced a hot
washing session followed by a cold one, and then a body massage given by the owner.
Steam and the application of Indian oils formed part of the treatment. The owner claimed
the bath treatment would cure numerous problems associated with ill-health; for
instance, rheumatism, asthma, paralysis, sciatica, and lumbago.
At much the same time, Deen wrote a book titled The Travels of Dean Mahomet. The
sources say that he was one of the first Indians to be published in English.
Interestingly, the Otherness of Deen added something ‘unique’ and ‘different’ to the
services he offered—and attracted those with money. Despite suspicions and cultural
misunderstandings, Deen and his baths proved popular among Brighton folk and tourists.
Fortunately for Deen, his Turkish style baths were open for trade simultaneously as the
architecturally Indian-Mughal looking Royal Pavilion was completed (see Photographs 1
to 4). His entrepreneurial success reached its zenith when he was employed at the Royal
Pavilion (Brighton) as the ‘Shampooing Surgeon to His Majesty King George IV’ (d. 1830)
and, later, to William IV (d.1837).
Deen was present at King George’s last visit to the Pavilion in December 1828. The
Brighton Herald reports
‘… four carriages, each containing a piano-forte, arrived at the Pavilion, from London, and, for
several days, Sake Deen Mahomed, the proprietor of the Indian Baths here, and who, for years
past, has had the superintendence of the Royal Baths at the Palace, has been seen to enter the
Pavilion.’3
Deen died in 1851, after nearly 40 years of living in Brighton. Both Deen and his wife,
Jane, are buried in the grounds of St. Nicholas Church, Church Street—the parish church
of Brighton. (In the nineteenth century, no Muslim cemetery or mosque was available in
southern England.)
2 Francis Pryor, The Making of the British Landscape: How We Transformed

the Land, from Prehistory to Today, London: Penguin, 2011, p. 505.
3 Brighton Herald cited in Musgrave, Life in Brighton, p. 171.
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Tom Fort in Channel Shore (2015) quotes the Gentleman’s Magazine obituary written for
Deen Mahomed, saying he
‘… enjoyed uninterrupted good health and retained all his faculties unimpaired almost to the
last hour of his life’.4
His son, Arthur Akhbar Mahomed continued the steam vapour bath service into the
1870s.
Deen’s efforts and popularity left a legacy in the town: a small number of British business
people opened similar Turkish-style steam baths in the town. Indeed, the Turkish-style
bath emerged as part of both Georgian and Victorian recreation. In one case, an ornate
Turkish bath built in a Moorish-style opened in 1868 at West Street, Brighton. It cost the
owners nearly £14,000 to build and decorate.5
1822: Royal Pavilion, Brighton

The Royal Pavilion was built between 1815 and 1822 by the architect John Nash for the
Prince Regent, later King George IV. The exterior design is in Eastern motif: Mughal,
Hindu-Indian, and Muslim Spain. In contrast, the interior is Chinese in style.
Orientalist architecture, strongly influenced by imperial realms in the East, was

popularised by some wealthy elites, particularly in buildings associated with leisure and
relaxation. In terms of general architectural impact on society, Geoffrey Mead says ‘The
Royal Pavilion is a Western idea of an exotic place.’6
Indeed, many writers have commented on the provenance of the pavilion, for example,
‘… Nash’s Mughal-style Pavilion seems about the most decorative, or dreamlike,
instantiation of the nation’s surging trading interests one could wish for,’ says Travis
Elborough.7
In 1850, Queen Victoria sold the Royal Pavilion to the local municipality. The story is
that she did not agree with King George IV's fondness for the town and some of its
inhabitants.
4 Tom Fort, Channel Fort: From the White Cliffs to Land’s End, Simon &
Schuster: London, 2015, pp. 95-99.
5 Musgrave, Life in Brighton, pp. 203-6.
6 Geoffrey Mead, ‘Royal Pavilion’, My Brighton and Hove. 2006. Available at
http://www.mybrightonandhove.org.uk/page_id__7530.aspx?path=0p115p195p890p
(accessed 23 February 2017).
7 Travis Elborough, Wish You Were Here: England by the Sea, Spectre Books:
London, p. 69.
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Seventy years later, after the First World War, the modernists and classical revivalists
criticised the seaside Orientalist architectural form.
Nevertheless, today, the Royal Pavilion has a vital role in the local heritage culture of the
city, and its Eastern influences form part of the brand image of the city.
Photograph 1: Royal Pavilion, Brighton (built circa 1815-1822)
(photographer S. Akyildiz, summer 2013.)

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Photograph 2: Royal Pavilion, Brighton
(Photographer S. Akyildiz, summer 2013.)
Numerous minarets elegantly set out in a row, framed by lush green gardens!
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The North Gate (north entrance) of the Royal Pavilion shows an influence of Mughal and
Indian styles. It was built in Portland stone topped by a copper dome. Joseph Good
designed the structure—it incorporates minarets and pillars. In 1859, a drinking fountain
was built in the north entrance.
Photograph 3: North Gate (built 1832), Royal Pavilion, Church Street, Brighton

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Photograph 4: North Gate (built 1832), Brighton Pavilion, Church Street, Brighton
The Prince of Wales feathers are placed at the top of the archway.
*
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1849: Frederick (Henry Horatio) Akbar Mahomed

Frederick Mahomed was born in Brighton (b. 1849-d. 1884)—he was a grandson of Sake
Deen Mahomed. Frederick pioneered research into high blood pressure as a primary
condition of kidney damage. In 1872, he qualified to join the Royal College of Surgeons.
In the following year, he married Ellen Clark.8
Indeed, the Mahomed family retained its links with the town. The Reverend James Deen
Kerriman Mahomed, a grandson of Sake Deen Mahomed, died in Hove in 1935.
1914 to 1916: Indian soldiers & Pavilion Hospital

During the First World War (1914-1918), several thousand injured Indian soldiers
(Hindu, Sikh, and Muslim) recovered from their battle injuries in the converted hospitals
at Brighton’s Royal Pavilion (including the Corn Exchange and the Dome parts of the
building). The Pavilion was labelled: ‘… the most delightfully picturesque hospital in the
world,’9 and it served as a hospital between 1914 and 1915.
Troops were also treated at Brighton Workhouse on Elm Grove, renamed the Kitchener
Hospital.
Sensitive to the cultural needs of its soldiers, and keen to win favour among the
population of India, the British authorities ensured that at the Pavilion Hospital
‘Separate water supplies were provided for Hindus and Muslims in each ward, and nine
kitchens catered for the different requirements of the patients. Separate areas were also
provided for worship with a marquee being erected in the grounds for Sikhs and an east-
facing area of the lawn reserved for Muslim prayer. Wounded soldiers were cared for by
orderlies of the same caste and religion.’10
Nonetheless, in the empire's climate, and in need to control the movements around the
colonial soldiers' town, the authorities ringed the Royal Pavilion with barbed wire. It
was done to prevent any contact between the soldiers and locals. A British Army
officer monitored all visits outside of the hospital. Indeed, the authorities, fearful of
8 ‘Frederick Mahomed’, Making Britain: Discover How South Asian Shaped the
Nation, 1870-1950. Available:
http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/frederick-
mahomed (accessed 5 March 2017).
9 Musgrave, Life in Brighton, p. 371.
10 Chris Kempshall, ‘Indian Soldiers in East Sussex’, East Sussex County
Council, 2014. Available at http://www.eastsussexww1.org.uk/indian-

soldiers-east-sussex/ (accessed 2 March 2017).
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‘khaki fever’ spreading, sought to discourage friendships between recovering Indian
troops and the local Brighton women.
Muslim soldiers of the British Indian Army who died from their combat wounds,
while staying at Brighton’s hospitals, were buried at Woking Muslim Cemetery, Surrey
(established 1915). Twenty-one Muslim Indian soldiers from the Pavilion Hospital are
buried here.11
Musgrave says that in 1915, Lord Kitchener visited the ‘Indian Hospital’, so did King
George V and Queen Mary. Visiting Brighton in August 1915, the royals presented
Jemadar Mir Dost (Dast) with the Victoria Cross for his bravery on the Western Front
in fighting German soldiers.12
The Brighton Gazette (1915) reports: ‘Throughout the war Brighton had fulfilled an
important mission… it had an important role to play in providing a haven of refuge’,13
for both British citizens and allied soldiers.
11 Samuel Hyson and Alan Lester, ‘British India on trial’: Brighton

Military Hospitals and the politics of empire in World War I’, Journal of
Historical Geography, January 2012, p. 23.
12 Musgrave, Life in Brighton, p. 372.
13 Brighton Gazette, 15 September 1915, cited in Musgrave, Life in
Brighton, p. 372.
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1960 to 2017: Students, workers, & business people

After the Second World War (1939-1945) few people from Muslim-majority countries
visited the seaside towns of Eastbourne, Hastings, and Brighton. Perhaps a student from a
Middle Eastern or African country attended one of the numerous local independent
schools. At the same time, London visitors might have travelled down to Brighton for a
short visit during the summer.
All through the 1960s and 1970s, a small number of international students from Muslim-
majority countries journeyed to the Sussex coastal towns to learn English at the local
feepaying language schools. Others might have attended a course at the newly opened
University of Sussex, or the University of Brighton. However, these students departed for
home once the academic year was complete.
Generally speaking, the economic migration of ‘working class’ Muslim men and their
families to Britain during the 1960s and 1970s involved them looking for employment in
the industrial centres of northern England and London.
Conversely, British seaside towns, dependent upon the service industries, would have
attracted fewer Muslim migrants. One exception here was the hotel and restaurant sector.
This local employment structure continued into the mid-2000s, for example, in Bangla
Brighton (2006) one Bangladeshi interviewee says:
‘The Bangladeshi community living in Brighton and Hove are mostly in the food industry. This
is their main source of income. There are over forty restaurants and takeaways run by
Bangladeshi people here.'14
Today, Brighton’s Muslim population is numerically small (as noted in the Census
Statistical Tables i & ii below), and consists of students, migrants, business people,
professionals (National Health Service employees), and semi-skilled workers.
Certainly, the Muslim cultural influence in central Brighton, even if in a small way, has a
legacy in the seaside city, dating back almost 200 years. Contemporary Brighton is very
much part of the vibrant, diverse, and multicultural British society that can be found in
London, Birmingham, Manchester, and in the other big cities of the United Kingdom.
14Peter Oakes (ed.) Bangla Brighton: Voices from the Bangladeshi Community
in Brighton, Queen Spark: Brighton & Hove, 2006, p 11.
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2011: Census data (Religion)
The resident population of East Sussex (a county in South East England) is approximately
½ million people (nearly 526,671 people, 2011 census).
The population of Brighton and Hove is approximately 273,369 people (2011).15
• In 2011, Muslim residents constituted almost 6,095 residents in Brighton and

Hove.
Table i: Brighton & Hove Unitary Authority: 2011 Census: Religion in Numbers (all usual
residents).
Area Name All Christian Buddhist Hindu Jewish Muslim Sikh Other No Religion
categories: religion religion not stated
Religion
Persons Persons Persons Persons Persons Persons Persons Persons Persons Persons
Number Number Number Number Number Number Number Number Number Number
Brighton & 273,369 117,276 2,742 1,792 2,670 6,095 342 2,409 115,954 24,089
Hove UA
Source: Adapted from Office for National Statistics Census, 27 March 2011,
'2011 Census Title: Religion, Local Authorities in England and Wales, Table
Number: KS209EW'. Under the terms of the Open Government Licence
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/).
• In 2011, Muslim residents constituted 2.2 per cent of residents in Brighton and
Hove.
Table ii: Brighton & Hove Unitary Authority: 2011 Census: Religion in Percentages (all
usual residents).
Area Name All Christian Buddhist Hindu Jewish Muslim Sikh Other No religion Religion
categories: religion not stated
Religion
Persons Persons % Persons % Persons % Persons % Persons % Persons % Persons Persons % Persons
Number % %
East Sussex 526,671 59.9 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.8 0.0 0.7 29.6 8.1
Brighton & Hove 273,369 42.9 1.0 0.7 1.0 2.2 0.1 0.9 42.4 8.8
Source: Adapted from Office for National Statistics Census, 27 March 2011,
'2011 Census Title: Religion, Local Authorities in England and Wales, Table
Number: KS209EW'. Under the terms of the Open Government Licence
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/
15Office for National Statistics Census 27 March 2011, '2011 Census Title:
Religion, Local Authorities in England and Wales, Table Number: KS209EW'.
Office for National Statistics. Available at https://www.ons.gov.uk (16
February 2017).
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Three Mosques
In the context of mosque type, the mosques in Brighton, like those in Eastbourne (pre-
2018) and Hastings, represent the converted religious-Islamic prayer space: such as
former shops, rooms, warehouses, and schools. It has been common practice since the
1960s and 1970s among Muslim communities in Britain, notably those living outside of
the big cities.
The three Brighton mosques are
1. Al-Medinah Mosque, Bedford Place, Brighton

2. Al-Quds Mosque, Dyke Road, Brighton
3. Shah Jalal Mosque, Portland Road Hove.
A fourth Muslim prayer room space is available for students and staff at the University of
Sussex, Falmer (a 1960’s modern university set in parkland).
Photograph 5: Al Medinah Mosque, Bedford Place, Brighton
(Photographer: S. Akyildiz, Spring 2016.)

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Photograph 6: Looking south from the top of Bedford Place
(Photographer: S. Akyildiz, Spring 2016.)
In the above photograph of buildings in western Brighton, the Al-Medinah Mosque

(unseen here) is situated approximately 20 metres further down the road, on the left-hand
side.
At the lower end of Bedford Place (above photograph) is Bedford Square and King’s Road.
(Bedford Square was first built circa 1807, with many dwellings used as lodging houses.
Nearby is Oriental Place, in 1825, it was proposed to build an oriental garden and
landscape, with a library and museum. Alas, due to funding problems, the project never
came to pass.) In fact, between 1811 and 1821, Brighton was the fastest growing town in
England. By the 1830s large numbers of tourists were accommodated in the town’s hotels
and lodging homes. The opening of a railway station in the town, circa 1841, increased
the visitor numbers further. Moreover, by 1850 ‘day-trippers’ from London constituted
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the largest group of visitors—the masses had arrived intending to enjoy seaside
recreation.16
At King’s Road we find the seafront promenade—and the cooling, blustery, English
Channel, and Brighton’s grey-brown shingle beaches, and (sea-) gulls, and popular
seafront entertainment sites. Here, democratically, everyone, regardless of background,
can relax and enjoy their free time.
To conclude, one Bangladeshi Briton explains a leisure benefit of living in Brighton:
‘My favourite pastime in this seaside city is fishing. We go by boat from the marina and we
catch mostly Mackerel and Sea Bass. The fish are greatly appreciated at family barbeques in the
summer.’17
‘All in all, living in Brighton is wonderful and I wouldn’t move from here for anything in the
world.’18
By the same author
1) Hastings Mosque and Muslims in “1066 Country”:

Seaside Resort Town Muslims of Hastings & St. Leonards-on-Sea, East Sussex, United
Kingdom (circa 1985 to 2015).
https://www.academia.edu/20257970/Hastings_Mosque_and_Muslims_in_1066_Country_East_Susse
x_Seaside_Resort_Muslims
Or
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316862077_Hastings_Mosque_and_Muslims_in_1066_Cou
ntry_Seaside_Resort_Town_Muslims_of_Hastings_St_Leonards-on-
Sea_East_Sussex_United_Kingdom_circa_1985_to_2015
2) Brighton: Muslim and Western Cultural Fusion in ‘London-on-sea’ (East Sussex).

https://www.academia.edu/32914527/Brighton_Muslim_and_Western_Cultural_Fusion_in_london-
on-sea_East_Sussex_
Or
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316776768_Brighton_Muslim_and_Western_cultural_fusio
n_in_'london-on-sea'_East_Sussex
3) The History of Eastbourne Mosque Community: East Sussex Muslims.

https://www.academia.edu/6797333/The_History_of_Eastbourne_Mosque_Community_-
_East_Sussex_Muslims
16 Francis Pryor, The Making of the British Landscape, p. 552.

17 Bangladeshi interviewee cited in Peter Oakes (ed.) Bangla Brighton, p.
12.
18 Bangladeshi interviewee cited in Peter Oakes (ed.) Bangla Brighton, p.
12.
2021 edition
4) The Rediscovery of a Freshwater Spring beside the Sea: a Local Holy Well?
https://www.academia.edu/1030111/The_Rediscovery_of_a_Freshwater_Spring_beside_the_Sea_a_L
ocal_Holy_Well
5) Wannock Glen, Eastbourne: Nature, Chalk Stream, Wild Garlic, & Tea Dance Pavilion.
https://www.academia.edu/31105665/Wannock_Glen_Eastbourne_Nature_Chalk_Stream_Wild_Garli
c_and_Tea_Dance_Pavilion
Or
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316862253_Wannock_Glen_Eastbourne_Nature_Chalk_Str
eam_Wild_Garlic_and_Tea_Dance_Pavilion
6) Bexhill Mosque and Muslims.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322992900_Bexhill_Mosque_Muslims
Or
https://www.academia.edu/38221520/Bexhill_Mosque_and_Muslims
7) Bexhill, Sussex, England -- Seafront Architecture & Interculturality: Mixing British Secular
& Mughal Indian & Muslim North African Styles.
https://www.academia.edu/37269235/Bexhill_Sussex_England_--
_Seafront_Architecture_and_Interculturality_Mixing_British_Secular_and_Mughal_Indian_and_Mus
lim_North_African_Styles
Or
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327137575_Bexhill_Sussex_England_Seafront_Architectur
e_Interculturality_Mixing_British_Secular_Mughal_Indian_Muslim_North_African_Styles
8) Saracen Sussex: Sarsen Stones, Morris Dance and Tipteer Plays: Three English Folk
Customs with links to the Saracens, Moors, and Seljuk Turks.
https://www.academia.edu/43267092/Saracen_Sussex_Sarsen_Stones_Morris_Dance_and_Tipteer_Pl
ays_Three_English_folk_customs_with_links_to_the_Saracens_Moors_and_Seljuk_Turks
Or
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341945669_Saracen_Sussex_Sarsen_Stones_Morris_Dance
_Tipteer_Plays_Three_English_folk_customs_with_links_to_the_Saracens_Moors_Seljuk_Turks

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© Sevket Hylton Akyildiz, Eurasia Studies Society of Great Britain & Europe Journal,

Brighton, East Sussex:

Brighton is situated in coastal South East England—approximately 65 miles from London.

Intercultural and historical influences and encounters

1814: Sheikh Deen Mahomed

1 Clifford Musgrave, Life in Brighton from the Earliest Times to the

2 Francis Pryor, The Making of the British Landscape: How We Transformed

1822: Royal Pavilion, Brighton

Orientalist architecture, strongly influenced by imperial realms in the East, was

Photograph 1: Royal Pavilion, Brighton (built circa 1815-1822)

(photographer S. Akyildiz, summer 2013.)

Photograph 2: Royal Pavilion, Brighton

(Photographer S. Akyildiz, summer 2013.)

(Photographer S. Akyildiz, summer 2013.)

(Photographer S. Akyildiz, summer 2013.)

1849: Frederick (Henry Horatio) Akbar Mahomed

1914 to 1916: Indian soldiers & Pavilion Hospital

Council, 2014. Available at http://www.eastsussexww1.org.uk/indian-

11 Samuel Hyson and Alan Lester, ‘British India on trial’: Brighton

1960 to 2017: Students, workers, & business people

The population of Brighton and Hove is approximately 273,369 people (2011).15

• In 2011, Muslim residents constituted almost 6,095 residents in Brighton and

The three Brighton mosques are

1. Al-Medinah Mosque, Bedford Place, Brighton

Photograph 5: Al Medinah Mosque, Bedford Place, Brighton

(Photographer: S. Akyildiz, Spring 2016.)

Photograph 6: Looking south from the top of Bedford Place

(Photographer: S. Akyildiz, Spring 2016.)

In the above photograph of buildings in western Brighton, the Al-Medinah Mosque

To conclude, one Bangladeshi Briton explains a leisure benefit of living in Brighton:

By the same author

1) Hastings Mosque and Muslims in “1066 Country”:

2) Brighton: Muslim and Western Cultural Fusion in ‘London-on-sea’ (East Sussex).

3) The History of Eastbourne Mosque Community: East Sussex Muslims.

16 Francis Pryor, The Making of the British Landscape, p. 552.

6) Bexhill Mosque and Muslims.

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