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Bases
Base is a substance that reacts with acids to produce salt and water M
Example Na2O, CaO, Al2O3

2HCL + Na2O 2NaCl + H2O O

H2SO4 + CaO CaSO4 + H2O

Water Soluble Bases are known as Alkalis

O
Alkalis
The compound which produces OH- ions in an aqueous solution.
S
Types of Alkali A
1) Strong Alkali
Definition: The Alkali which fully ionizes in aqueous solutions.

Examples: NaOH, KOH etc..

it is generally said that every alkali is a base but not every

base is an alkali as every base is highly soluble in H2O
B
H
2) Weak Alkali
Definition: The Alkali which partially ionizes in aqueous solutions.

Examples: Mg(OH)2, Zn(OH)2, aq.NH3, Al(OH)3, etc..

K
H
A

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M Physical Properties of Alkali/Bases:

1. Bitter in taste
2. Turns red litmus paper blue
O 3. Are electrolytes
4. Soapy to touch

O NOTE: Alkali + Skin Oil Soap

5. Strong alkalis are corrosive

S
Chemical Properties of Alkali/Bases:
A 1) ACID + BASE/Alkali SALT + WATER
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
HCl + Na2O NaCl + H2O

2) Ammonium Salt + Alkali Salt + Water + Ammonia Gas

NH4Cl + NaOH NaCl + H2O + NH3

B (NH4)2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + 2H2O + 2NH3

H Uses:
1) Making Soap
2) As antacid Milk of Magnesia MgO, OR Mg(OH)2
Milk of Allumina Al2O3, OR Al(OH)3

3) To neutiraliz acidic soil

Example: CaO Quick lime
Ca(OH)2 Slaked lime

K Note: Why are Ammonium salt fertilizer and slaked lime not used together?
Answer: Because they react with ammonium fertilizers and form ammonia gas
H which escape
from the soil and causes deficiency of nitrogen in the soil.

A Ca(CH)2 + NH4CL CaCl2 + H2O + NH3

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Measuring pH of a Solution
1.Universal indicators M
It can be in paper or solution form. Universal paper can be dipped into a
solution then pH found is matched with the colour chart. It gives approximate
pH value. O
2.pH meter
A hand-held pH probe is dipped into solution and meter will show the pH
O
digitally or by a scale. Measures pH water in lakes, water, and streams
accurately S
3.pH sensor and computer
A probe is dipped into solution and will be sent to computer through interface
used to measure pH of solution. The pH reading is displayed on
A
computer screen.

pH Around Us
• Substances in body involved in good digestion have different pH values
• Blood to heart and lungs contains CO2 making blood slightly acidic
• Acids are used in food preservations (ethanoic acid to preserve vegetables;
benzoic acid used in fruit juices, jams and oyster sauce)
• pH affects plant growth – some plants grow in acidic soil; some need alkaline B
soil
• When hair is cleaned with shampoo which is alkali to dissolve grease, hair can
H
be damaged unless it’s rinsed or acid conditioner is used to neutalise excess
alkali

Ionic Equations
Ionic equation is equation involving ions in aqueous solution, showing formation
and changes of ions during the reaction

K
Rule to make ionic equations:
• Only formulae of ions that change is included; ions don’t change = omitted
• Only aqueous solutions are written as ions; liquids, solids and gases written in H
full
A

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M Reaction Between Metals and Acids

For example, reaction of sodium with hydrochloric acid

O 2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)

Its ionic equation is written as:

O
2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq) → 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + H2(g)

S Since 2Cl-(aq) ions don’t change, they’re not involved in reaction. As ionic
equation is used to show changes in reactions, we omit Cl-(aq) ions. So we’re
A left with:

2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + H2(g)

Reaction Between Soluble Ionic Compounds and Acids

e.g. Reaction of sodium hydrogencarbonate with hydrochloric acid

B NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)

H Its ionic equation is:

2-
Na+(aq) + H+(aq) + CO3 (aq) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Since Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit them, leaving:

H+(aq) + CO32- (aq) + H+(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)

CO32- (aq) + 2H+(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
K
H
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Reaction Between Insoluble Ionic Compounds and Acids

e.g. Reaction between iron(II) oxide and sulphuric acid
M
FeO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2O(g) O
Its ionic equation is:
2- 2-
O
FeO(s) + 2H (aq) + SO (aq) → Fe (aq) + SO (aq) + H2O(g)
+
4
2+
4

Note: FeO is written in full as it’s solid (although it’s an ionic compound)Since S
SO42- (aq) ions don’t change, we omit SO42- ions, leaving:

FeO(s) + 2H+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + H2O(g) A

E.g. Reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Its ionic equation is:

CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) B

Since 2 Cl-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit Cl- ions, leaving: H
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Reactions Producing Precipitate

E.g. Reaction between calcium hydroxide and barium sulphate

Ca(OH)2(aq) + BaSO4(aq) → Ba(OH)2(s) + CaSO4(aq)

Its ionic equation is written as:

K
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + Ba2+(aq) + SO42- (aq) → Ba(OH)2(s) + Ca2+(aq) + SO42- (aq) H
Since Ca2+(aq) and SO42-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit them, leaving:
A
Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) → Ba(OH)2(s)

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M Displacement Reactions
E.g. Reactions between magnesium with zinc sulphate

O Mg(s) + ZnSO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + Zn(s)

Its ionic equation is written as:

O 2- 2-
Mg(s) + Zn2+(aq) + SO4(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + SO4(aq) + Zn(s)

S Since SO42-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit them, leaving:

A Mg(s) + Zn2+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + Zn(s)

Neutralization is the reaction between acid and base to form salt and water
only. From ionic equation, we know that the reaction only involves H+ ions
from acids with OH- ions from alkali to form water .
E.g. NaOH + H2SO4 forms Na2SO4 + H2O

H2SO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(g)

Ionic equation is:
B H (aq) + OH-(aq)→ H2O(g)
+

H Plants don’t grow well in acidic soil. Quicklime (calcium hydroxide) is added
to neutralise the acidity of soil according to equation:

Acid(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca(acid anion)(aq) + H2O(g)

Reaction between Base and Ammonium Salts

E.g. Reaction between NaOH and NH4OH

K NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(g)

Ionic equation:
H +
NH4(aq) + OH-(aq) → NH3(g) + H2O(g)

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SALTS
M
Definition: A compound formed when a metal displaces hydrogen partially or
completely from an acid.
OR O
A compound formed when neutralization reaction takes place when an acid re-
acts with a base.
O
Examples
1) Na + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + 1/2 H2
S
Sodium hydrogen sulphate salt → acidic salt

OR
A
2) 2Na + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2

Sodium sulphate salt → neutral salt

Note: NaHSO4 is an acidic salt because it releases H+ ions in an aqueous

solution
B
Preparation of Salts
H
Soluble and Insoluble Salts
Soluble Insoluble
All Nitrates -
All Suphates BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4
All Chlorides PbCl, AgCl
Potassium, Sodium, Ammonium salts
K2CO3, Na2CO3, NH4CO3
-
All Carbonates
K
Preparation of Insoluble Salts H
Insoluble salts, e.g. BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4, PbCl, AgCl and most carbonates, can be
prepared by reacting compound containing the wanted cation with another
compound containing the wanted anion. This is precipitation reaction. A
E.g. Preparation of BaSO4

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First BaCl, since it contains wanted barium ion, is reacted with H2SO4, since it
M contains wanted sulphate ion, to produce solid BaSO4 & aqueous KCl. BaSO4 then
separated from KCl by filtration, leaving filtrate KCl & BaSO4 left on filter paper.

O Salt is washed with water to completely remove KCl & filter paper is squeezed
with another filter paper to dry BaSO4

O
S
A
Preparation of Soluble Salts
By Neutralization
25.0cm3 acid, as standard solution, is placed in conical flask using pipette. Add
few drops of indicator & titrate with alkali from burette until indicator changes
colour, showing all acid has just reacted. Volume of alkali added is measured.
B Prepare new 25.0cm3 acid again with pipette & add same volume of alkali as be-
fore to prevent excess alkali/acid because both reactant & product are aqueous.
H Next, the product is evaporated to dryness to obtain the salt.

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By Reacting Metal with Acid

M
O
O
S
A

Only metals like zinc and magnesium, which moderately react with dilute acids,
are used.
E.g. Reacting Zn with H2SO4 to prepare ZnSO4
B
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
H
Zn is added to H2SO4 until in excess to ensure no more H2SO4 is present. Then the
mixture is filtered off to separate Zn from ZnSO4. The filtrate (ZnSO4) is then placed
in evaporating dish to evaporate most of water then it’s cooled after ZnSO4 crys-
tals are formed. The crystals then filtered and squeezed between filter papers to
dry.

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M ByE.g.Reacting Insoluble Base with Acid

Reacting MgO with Acids

O MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

The same method as reaction of acid with metal is used, so refer to diagram and
O above explanation, substituting reactants and products.
By Reacting Carbonate with Acid
E.g. Reacting CaCO3 with Acids
S K2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

A The same process is used as reaction of acid with metal, just that carbon dioxide
is produced. Carbon dioxide can be tested by bubbling it into limewater which will
turn limewater colourless to milky

OXIDES
Binary compound of Oxygen with other items

Types of Oxides
B 1. Basic Oxides
2. Acidic Oxides
H 3. Neutral Oxides
4. Amphoteric Oxides

1. Basic Oxides
These are the Oxides of Metals
Examples: Na2O, CaO, CuO, Fe2O3, etc

Q) Why are these basic oxides?

K 1) When dissolved in water, form alkaline solutions.

Examples: Na2O + H2O 2NaOH
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
H 2) When they react with acid, form salt.
Examples: Na2O + HCL 2NaCl + H2O
A Cuo + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O

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NOTE:
1) The are Ionic Compounds. M
2) Oxides of 1st group are readily water soluble.
Oxides of 2nd group are partially water soluble.
Oxides of Transition Metals are generally water insoluble. O
3) Oxides of 1st & 2nd group are white solids while Oxides of Transition Metals are
generally coloured.
O
2. Acidic Oxides:
These are the Oxides of Non-Metals.
Examples: SO2/ SO3, CO2, P4O10, NO2, etc
S
Q) Why are these acidic oxides?
1) When dissolved in water, form acidic solutions.
A
Examples:
NO2 + H2O HNO3
SO2 + H2O H2SO3
SO3 + H2O H2SO4

2) When they react with a base, forms salt.

Examples:
CO2 + 2NaOH Na2CO3 + H2O B
SO3 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + H2O
H
NOTE:
1. They are covalent oxides.
2. SO2, SO3 & NO2 are highly water soluble while CO2 partially water soluble.

3. Neutral Oxides
These are the Oxides of few-non-metals
They are neither acidic nor basic.
Examples: H2O, CO, etc K
Note: They are covalent oxides.
H
A

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M 4.These
Amphoteric Oxides:
are the Oxides of few metals which are dual in character, i.e. they are acids
towards bases and bases towards acids.
O They dissolve in both acids and bases resulting in salt formation.
Examples: Al2O3, ZnO, etc
O Al2O3 + HCl AlCl3 + H2O

S Base Acid Salt

Al2O3 + NaOH NaAlO2 + H2O

A
Acid Base Salt (Sodium Alluminate)

Complex Salt

Or
Al2O3 + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) 2Na[Al(OH)4](aq)
B Allumina Sodium Alluminate

H NOTE:
1. Ionic in nature
2. Al2O3 & ZnO are water insoluble.

K
H
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 Cambridge O Level Chemistry 5070 syllabus for 2023, 2024 and 2025. Details of the assessment

Notes for use in qualitative analysis

Tests for anions
anion test test result
2−
carbonate, CO3 add dilute acid then test for carbon dioxide effervescence, carbon dioxide produced
gas
chloride, Cl − acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add white ppt.
[in solution] aqueous silver nitrate
bromide, Br − acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add cream ppt.
[in solution] aqueous silver nitrate
iodide, I− acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add yellow ppt.
[in solution] aqueous silver nitrate
nitrate, NO3– add aqueous sodium hydroxide, then ammonia produced
[in solution] aluminium foil; warm carefully
sulfate, SO42− acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add white ppt.
[in solution] aqueous barium nitrate
sulfite, SO32− add a small volume of acidified aqueous the acidified aqueous
potassium manganate(VII) potassium manganate(VII) changes
colour from purple to colourless

Tests for aqueous cations

cation effect of aqueous sodium hydroxide effect of aqueous ammonia
3+
aluminium, Al white ppt., soluble in excess, giving a white ppt., insoluble in excess
colourless solution
ammonium, NH4+ ammonia produced on warming —

calcium, Ca2+ white ppt., insoluble in excess no ppt. or very slight white ppt.
3+
chromium(III), Cr green ppt., soluble in excess green ppt., insoluble in excess
copper(II), Cu2+ light blue ppt., insoluble in excess light blue ppt., soluble in excess, giving a
dark blue solution
iron(II), Fe2+ green ppt., insoluble in excess, ppt. turns green ppt., insoluble in excess, ppt. turns
brown near surface on standing brown near surface on standing
iron(III), Fe3+ red-brown ppt., insoluble in excess red-brown ppt., insoluble in excess
2+
zinc, Zn white ppt., soluble in excess, giving a white ppt., soluble in excess, giving a
colourless solution colourless solution

Back to contents page www.cambridgeinternational.org/olevel 37

Cambridge O Level Chemistry 5070 syllabus for 2023, 2024 and 2025. Details of the assessment

Tests for gases

gas test and test result
ammonia, NH3 turns damp red litmus paper blue
carbon dioxide, CO2 turns limewater milky
chlorine, Cl 2 bleaches damp litmus paper
hydrogen, H2 ‘pops’ with a lighted splint
oxygen, O2 relights a glowing splint
sulfur dioxide, SO2 turns acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII) from purple to colourless

Flame tests for metal ions

metal ion flame colour
+
lithium, Li red
+
sodium, Na yellow
potassium, K+ lilac
2+
calcium, Ca orange-red
barium, Ba2+ light green
2+
copper(II), Cu blue-green

38 www.cambridgeinternational.org/olevel Back to contents page

Indicators and pH
Indicators are substances that has different colours in acidic and alkaline solutions
Common indicators:
Litmus
Methyl orange
Phenolphtalein
The table shows the change of colours made by some indicators

Indicator Colour in acids Colour in alkalis

Phenolphtalein Colourless Pink
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Litmus Red Blue
Screened methyl orange Red Green
Bromothymol blue Yellow Blue
Thymolpthalein Colourless Purple