DEN323E WAVE MECHANICS

SEICHING

©Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu

Seiching
 Any natural basin, closed or open to a larger body of water, will
oscillate at its natural frequency if it is excited in some fashion,
such as by earthquake motion, impulsive winds, or other effects.
This is called "Seiching”.
 As an example, the seiching in a long rectangular lake with
essentially a constant depth will be examined first . A solution to
the linearized wave equation
  2  2   2
C  2  2   2
2

 x y  t

 for standing waves in this basin is

H
  cos kx cos  t
2

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 2

Seiching
 Here σ and k are both unknown. At the ends of the basin, the
horizontal velocities must be zero (BC). This requirement can be
satisfied using linearized frictionless long wave equation of
motion or using the knowledge that the antinodes must be
situated at the walls, x = 0,l.
U  
H
cos kx cos  t
 g
t x 2

 This requirement yields sin kx = 0 for x = 0,l . Therefore, kl = nπ,

where n is the number of oscillations of the wave within the
basin (equivalently the number of nodes). Substituting for k
gives us
2l
L
n
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 3
Seiching
 For three values of n, the wave lengths are shown for the basin in
the figure below . Each possible type of oscillation is called a
mode, and the mode that occurs in seiching is determined by the
cause (forces) that induces seiching. In reality, however, the
lower modes are most prevalent since the energy in the higher
modes is dissipated more rapidly.

 To determine the period of seiching, the dispersion relationship for

shallow water waves is used,
2l
 L or T Merian fomula
C   gh n gh
T
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 4
Example: Seiching
 Problem: The length of the Baikal Lake is 664km, and the
average depth is 680m . The period of seiching is measured to
be 4.64 hr. Use the Merian formula to find an approximate
period of seiching.

 Solution:

2l 2  664  103
T1    16.259sn  4.52hr
gh 9.81 680

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 5

Table 5-1 Modes of Free Oscillation in
Basins of Simple Geometrical Shape

Yrd. Doç. Dr. Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 6/36

Table 5-1 Modes of Free Oscillation in
Basins of Simple Geometrical Shape

Yrd. Doç. Dr. Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 7/36

Problem 1
 Compare the fundamental periods of seiching for a long narrow
basin with length (L) 1 km and maximum depth (h) of 10m, if its
bottom is flat or sloped.

2L
2L T1  1.640
T1  gh1
gh0

2 *1000 2 *1000
T1   201.93s T1  1.640  331.16 s
9.81*10 9.81*10

8
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu
 h L T1 T2 T3 T4
rectangular 10 1000 201.93 100.96 67.24 50.48
triangular 10 1000 331.16 180.81 124.85 95.37

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 9

DEN323E WAVE MECHANICS

LONG WAVES WITH BOTTOM FRICTION

©Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu

 Long Waves with Bottom Friction
 The bottom shear stress τb retarding the motion of the fluid in
unidirectional open channel flow can be exspressed in terms of a
quadratic friction law:
 fU 2
b 
8
 where f is the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor and U is the fluid velocity.
(This equation has been developed through dimensional analysis and
experimental data have been used to develop values of f.)
 For an oscillatory flow, it is clear that as the fluid reverses direction, so
also must the bottom friction. Therefore, an absolute value sign is
introduced.
 fU U
b 
8
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 11
Linearization
 For wave motions, the bottom friction is a nonlinear function and
due to the absolute value sign becomes difficult to work with
directly. A common procedure is to linearize the friction term.

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 12

**Fourier Series

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 13

Linearization
 For wave motions, the bottom friction is a nonlinear function and
due to the absolute value sign becomes difficult to work with
directly. A common procedure is to linearize the friction term.
 Consider U as a periodic function in time, U=Umcosσt, where Um
is the maximum magnitude of U. If we expand the shear stress
term in a Fourier cosine series ( a cosine series is chosen as U
and τb are even functions of time), we have

U U  a0  a
n 1
n cos n  t

T
U m2
a0 
T  cos  t cos  t dt
0

T
2U m2
an 
T  cos  t cos  t cos n  tdt
0

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 14

Linearization
 Evaluating several of these integrals yields

a0  0
8U m2
a1 
3
a2  0
8U m2
a3 
15

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 15

**End of Fourier Series

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 16

 Linearization
 All of the even harmonics are zero while the odd harmonics are nonzero.
Keeping only the first term in the Fourier expansion (recognizing, however, that
the next term in the series expansion is only one-fifth of the leading term)

 fU m2  fU mU
b  cos  t 
3 3
 For uniform depth the vertically integrated equation of motion in the x direction
can now be written with τb=τzx(-h) as

U U U  1   xx  yx  1
U V  g       zx ()   zx (h)
t x y x   x y  (h  )

U   zx ( h) 
 g   g  AU
t x h x

 Where A  fU m / 3h , typically a small number, much less than unity.

17
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu
Wave Equation including Friction
 The continuity equation remains unchanged.

U (h   ) V (h   ) 
 
x y t

 Cross-differentiating the two equations assuming A is locally

constant and substituting, the wave equation can be derived ( see
next slide), including friction.

 2   2 A  fU m / 3h
A  gh 2
t 2
t x

  2
  2
   2

 Wave equation without friction is C 2  2  2   2
 x y  t
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 18
 Attention:
 In deriving the equations of motion and continuity, the linearized
one-dimensional equations valid along the channel centerline
U   (Uh) 
  g  AU (1)  (2)
t x x t

 Differentiating the second equation with respect to time, and

substituting the first equation yields

  U   2      2
h  2 h  g  AU    2
x  t  t x  x  t

 2   2
A  gh 2
t 2
t x
19
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu
 Remember:
Channels with Variable Cross Sections
 In deriving the equations of motion and continuity, had we not
taken a unit width in the derivation, but considered a channel of
width b, the linearized one-dimensional equations valid along
the channel centerline would have been:
 ( Uhb )   (Uh)  (Vh) 
 b  
x t x y t

U  U 
b   gb  g
t x t x
 Differentiating the first equation with respect to time, and
substituting the second equation yields

  U   2 g      2
 hb   b 2  bh   2
x  t  t b x  x  t

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 20

 Remember:
Channels with Variable Cross Sections
 Which reduces to the wave equation if b and h are constant.

  2  2   2
C  2  2   2
2

 x y  t

 As in the previous case for the constant depth basin, assume

that ( x, t )   ( x ) cos t . The equation then becomes

 g d  d ( x )  (**)
bh    2
0
b dx  dx 
 The resulting wave height is different from that predicted by
Green’s law, as the above equation allows for the reflection of
waves by the topographic changes, while Green’s law assumes
that the bathymetric changes are so gradual as to not cause
reflection. Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 21
Standing Waves with Frictional
Damping
 2   2 A  fU m / 3h
A  gh 2
t 2
t x
 If a standing wave is assumed of the form
H
 f ( I t ) cos k I x
2
 where k remains fixed, such as would occur with a standing
wave in a basin with fixed length, and f ( I t ) is some unknown
function of time, then the equation is
 H df
 cos k I x
t 2 dt
d2 f df

 2 H d2 f 2
 A  ghk I f 0
2
(**)
 cos k I x 2 dt dt
t 2
2 dt
 2 H 2
  fk I cos k I x 23
x 2
2
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu
Standing Waves with Frictional
Damping
 The total solution is then found to be
  2  
H I (  A / 2)t  1  A  
 e cos  I  1    t  cos k I x
2   4 I   
   

 where  I  k I CI (the subscript I refers to undamped condition),

and CI  gh and HI(t=0) is the initial wave height or

H I  it Damping ratio
 e cos  r t cos k I x
2
2
A 1 A 
i  and r I 1 -  
2 4 I 

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 24

 Standing Waves with Frictional
Damping
 The horizontal velocity can be found using the continuity equation.
1 
U   dx
h t
HI i
U  r2   i2 eit sin( r t   ) sinkI x   tan
1

2kI h r

 The parameters σi and σr are plotted in Figure 5.7 versus the ratio A/σI.
As σr decreases with friction, the period of oscillation increases; friction
slows the wave motion. The damping ratio A/σI in the expression for σr
must be less than 2; otherwise, excessive damping occurs and there is
no wave-like motion.


Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 25

Figure 5- 7 Angular frequency and phase
angle for a damped standing wave.

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu

26/32
Standing Waves with Frictional
Damping
 The relative reduction in amplitude over one wave period is a
constant value and is expressed as

 (t  T )  ( A / 2)T
e  e  (A /  )  e  T
I i

 (t )
 Which decreases rapidly with increasing σi or A. For example,
for A/σI=0.05 this ratio is 0.85, or a 15% reduction in height
within one wave period.
 For A/σI=1 this ratio is 0.04, or a 96% reduction in height within
one wave period.

A  fU m / 3h

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 27

 Standing Waves with Frictional
Damping
Standing wave with frictional damping
1.2

 (t  T )  ( A / 2 )T
 e  (A /  )  e  T
0.8
e I i

 (t )
Eta2/Eta1

0.6

0.4

0.2 Standing wave with frictional damping

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 1.5
A/sigma
1

0.5

-0.5

-1
eta-1 eta-2 eta-3 eta-4 eta-5
-1.5

28
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu
Progressive Waves with Frictional
Damping
 For a periodic progressive wave, the free surface is assumed of
a similar form as before, except for a spatial amplitude
dependence,
H I  ki x
 e cos(k r x   t )
2
 The kr and ki are determined from the differential equation

 2   2
A  gh 2 A  fU m / 3h
t 2
t x
1/ 2
kI    1  A 2 
2
 A
 1     1
kr   k I 1    
2
   
  8    
 Where the second expression is valid for small A/σ and k I   / gh
29
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu
Progressive Waves with Frictional
Damping
 The ki value is
1/ 2
kI  
2
 A
 1     1
kI A
ki   for small A / 
2
   

2 

 These wave numbers are plotted in Figure 5.9 as a function of

A/σ. As can be seen, kr increases with A/σ; therefore, friction
decreases the wave length of the wave, thus slowing it.


A  fU m / 3h

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 30

Wave number and phase angle for a
damped progressive long wave.

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 32

 Progressive Waves with Frictional
Damping
 The change in wave amplitude over one wave length of travel can
be readily found to be

 ( x  L)  k L
e  e  2 ( k
i i / kr )
 e  ( A /  )
 ( x)

 Which decreases rapidly with increasing A/σ. For example, with

A/σ=0.05, this ratio is 0.85, or a 15% reduction in wave height. The
horizontal velocity is then found by the same means as before.
H I e ki x
U cos(kr x  t   )
2h k  k i
2 2
r
 where
ki
  tan 1

kr
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 33
 Progressive Waves with Frictional
Damping
Progressive wave with frictional
damping
1.2
1
0.8  ( x  L)  k L
Eta2/Eta1

0.6 e  e  2 ( k
i i / kr )
 e  ( A /  )
0.4  ( x)
0.2
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
A/sigma

Progressive wave with frictional damping

1.5

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

34

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu

DEN323E WAVE MECHANICS

GEOSTROPHIC EFFECTS ON LONG WAVES

©Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu

Earth’s Rotation and the Coriolis
Effect
 The earth’s rotation plays an important role in long wave motion
when the Coriolis acceleration becomes significant, or
equivalently when the wave frequency σ is the same order as fc,
the Coriolis parameter.
 The Coriolis parameter is defined as , where φ is the
earth’s latitude measured positive and negative in the northern
and southern hemispheres, respectively, and ω is the rotation
rate of the earth, ω = 7.27 x 10-5 rad/s (The earth rotates once
every 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.09053 seconds)
 Typically, the Coriolis acceleration can produce significant
effects in tidal waves.

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 36

 Stationary Earth

If the Earth did not rotate on its axis and

remained stationary, the atmosphere would
only circulate between the Earth's polar
regions (areas of high pressure) and the
equator (a low pressure area) in a simple
back-and-forth pattern. Image B shows a
"cutaway" view of this hypothetical
circulation pattern.

37
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu
 Coriolis Effect

The rotation of the Earth on its axis

deflects the atmosphere toward the right in
the Northern Hemisphere and toward the
left in the Southern Hemisphere, resulting
in curved paths. The deflection of the
atmosphere sets up the complex global
wind patterns which drive surface ocean
currents. This deflection is called the
Coriolis effect.

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 38

Geostrophic Effects on Long Waves
 The frictionless equations of motion for long waves on a rotating
surface are modified by the introduction of two terms as follows:

U U U 
U V  f cV   g
t x y x
V V V 
U V  f cU   g
t x y y

 Where shear stresses have been neglected. The continuity

equation is the same as before:

 U (h   ) V (h   )
  0
t x y

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 40

Geostrophic Effects on Long Waves
 To illustrate the effects of the Coriolis acceleration, consider the
propagation of long progressive waves in an infinitely long
straight canal in the x direction with a flat bottom. The transverse
velocity V is considered negligible. The equation of motion in the
x direction, therefore, is not affected by the presence of the
Coriolis force. In the y direction the equation reduces to :

f cU   g   f ( x, y , t )
y

 which states that the Coriolis force is balanced by a cross-

channel hydrostatic force in the form of a water surface slope,
which varies in magnitude and sign with the longitudinal
velocities in the channel.

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 41

 Geostrophic Effects : Kelvin Wave
 Where C  gh . The total water surface profile and horizontal water
profile motions are now

H  fc y / C
 e cos(kx   t )
2
H C  fc y / C
U e cos( kx   t )
2 h
 At the wave crest, the wave amplitude and velocity decrease
across the channel (y increasing). The wave is called a Kelvin
wave after Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson), who derived an
expression for it in 1879. The speed of propagation of the Kelvin
wave is found by the continuity equation and it is the same as any
other long wave,

C  gh
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 43
At the wave crest, the wave amplitude and velocity decrease across the channel (y
increasing). The wave is called a Kelvin wave (Lord Kelvin, 1879). The speed of
propagation of the Kelvin wave is found by the continuity equation and it is the same as
any other long wave, C  gh .
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 44
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 45/36
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jSWmhkcPsHw

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eOQwSrK93ew

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 46

Kelvin Wave
 A Kelvin wave is a wave in the ocean that balances the Earth's Coriolis
force against a topographic boundary such as a coastline, or a
waveguide such as the equator. Kelvin wave is non-dispersive (the
phase speed of the wave crests is equal to the group speed of the
wave energy for all frequencies. This means that it retains its shape as
it moves in the alongshore direction over time. )

 Kelvin wave is a special gravity wave affected by rotational effects

and trapped near a coast or a mountain range.

 Coastal Kelvin waves always propagate with the shoreline on the right
in the northern hemisphere and on the left in the southern hemisphere.

 At the Equator Kelvin waves ("equatorial Kelvin wave") can only travel
eastwards, reaching their maximum magnitude at the Equator and
decaying exponentially with increasing latitude.

 The wave amplitude is largest at the boundary and decays

exponentially with distance from it.
48
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu
Coastal Kelvin waves always propagate with the shoreline on the right in the
northern hemisphere and on the left in the southern hemisphere.
At the Equator Kelvin waves ("equatorial Kelvin wave") can only travel
eastwards, reaching their maximum magnitude at the Equator and decaying
exponentially with increasing latitude.
Amphidromic Waves in Canals
 Consider the superposition of two Kelvin waves, traveling in
opposite directions but with the same height:
H  fc y / C H
 e cos( kx   t )  e fc y / C cos( kx   t )
2 2
 The resulting water surface elevation is always zero at the
origin, (x,y)=0; however, the wave amplitudes reinforce across
the channel. The wave propagating in the positive x direction
has a surface slope increasing in the negative y direction, while
the wave propagating in the negative x direction has a positive
surface slope in the positive y direction (right hand rule).
 Lines of maximum water surface elevation may be found by
maximizing  ( x, t ) as a function of time,

0
t
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 51
Figure 5- 10 Co-tidal lines

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 54/36

 Amphidromic Waves
 When a rotary wave is confined to a basin, amphidromic circulation results
 Amphidromic points/nodes: central points of no vertical displacement (no tide)
 Antinodes: points of maximum vertical displacement (greatest tidal range), rotating
around the edge of the system
 Cotidal lines: connect all points experiencing the same phase of the tide (e.g.
maximum or minimum), radiating from the central amphidromic point to the
antinodes. Because tide waves do not travel with constant speed, but instead
respond to changing depth, cotidal lines will not be evenly spaced or consistently
shaped.
 Corange lines: connect all points with equal tidal range. They form irregular circles
which are concentric about the amphidromic point. Tidal range increases with
distance from the central point.
 The tide progresses around the amphidromic node once during each tidal period. At
each point in a basin, water levels vary sinusoidally, according to a combination of
multiple periodic functions.
 An amphidromic system is created by each periodic tidal component. Wave periods,
amplitudes, cotidal/corange lines and amphidromic points will be different for each
harmonic
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 55
 Amphidromic Waves in Canals
 The origin is called an amphidromic point and the tides are seen to
apparently rotate around the origin.
 Amphidromic tides of this nature are frequently seen in
semienclosed bodies of water; such as Adriatic Sea, Irish Sea, etc.
 The mechanism for opposite traveling Kelvin waves requires a
narrow channel in order that the motion be rectilinear and either two
connected seas or a reflecting end to the channel.

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 56

Cotidal charts of simulated K1
and M2 tidal constituents for the
Adriatic Sea (modifed from
Lovato et al., 2010).

The red circles indicate tide

gauges with mean tidal
amplitudes (in centimeters) and
Central European Time (CET
=UTC + 1 hr) phase lags (in
degrees) shown at the
respective sites. The dashed thin
lines are phase lags every 10° for
K1 and 30° for M2; the solid lines
are mean tidal amplitudes (in
cm).

Medvedev, I. P., Vilibić, I.,

& Rabinovich, A. B. (2020). Tidal
resonance in the Adriatic Sea:
Observational evidence. Journal of
Geophysical Research: Oceans, 125,
e2020JC016168. https://doi.org/
10.1029/2020JC016168
 Map showing the amphidromic systems in
the seas surrounding the British Isles. Only
the M2 (principal lunar semidiurnal tide) is
considered.

Cotidal lines are perpendicular to the

coast, which means that the tidal wave
travels parallel to the coast, creating tidal
currents that are also coast-parallel.
Further offshore (e.g. near the Atlantic
continental margin), co-tidal (or phase)
lines are nearly parallel to the shelf edge,
bringing about currents perpendicular to
the isobaths. The tidal range increases
outward from each amphidromic point, with
the highest tidal ranges within embayments
such as the German Bight and The Wash,
England

•DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-0123-6_13
•In book: Principles of Tidal Sedimentology
•Publisher: Springer
•Editors: Davis, R.A., Jr, and Dalrymple, R.W.
Amphidromic systems in narrow and long basins (S. Todd, College of the Atlantic)

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 60/36

The M2 tidal constituent, the amplitude indicated by color. The white lines
are cotidal lines spaced at phase intervals of 30° (a bit over 1 hr). The
amphidromic points are the dark blue areas where the lines come together.

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 62/36

 Arctic Ocean

M2=12.42hr(100%)
S2=12.00hr(46.6%)
N2=12.66hr(19.2%)
K2=11.97hr(12.7%)

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu 63

Red lines are co-phase (cotidal) lines of the M2 tide,
labelled in hours after the moon's transit through the
meridian of Greenwich.

Blue lines give the mean tidal range at spring tide

(co-range lines of the sum of M2 and S2).

The progress of the tidal wave from the Atlantic

Ocean into the North Sea is demonstrated by the co-
phase lines.
The wave enters from the north and propagates
along the British coast; it then proceeds around two
amphidromic points along the Dutch, German and
Danish coastline.
Another wave enters from the south west, through
the English Channel.
In the Irish Sea the wave enters from the south.

The influence of the Coriolis force (amplification on

the right side of the wave) is seen in the English
Channel, where the tidal range along the French
coast is as high as 11 m compared with 3 m on the
English coast, and in the Irish Sea, where 8 m on the
English coast compared with 2 m on the Irish coast.

(M. Tomczak, Flinders Institute for Atmospheric and

Marine Science)

64
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Şafak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoğlu