applied

sciences
Review
Ultrafast and Wideband Microwave Photonic
Frequency-Hopping Systems: A Review
Qidi Liu and Mable P. Fok *
Lightwave and Microwave Photonics Laboratory, College of Engineering, The University of Georgia, Athens,
GA 30602, USA; qidi.liu@uga.edu
* Correspondence: mfok@uga.edu; Tel.: +1-706-542-2233




Received: 29 November 2019; Accepted: 26 December 2019; Published: 10 January 2020


Abstract: The increasing demands to enhance information security in data transmission, providing
countermeasures against jamming in military applications, as well as boosting data capacity in mobile
and satellite communication, have led to a critical need for high-speed frequency-hopping systems.
Conventional electronics-based frequency-hopping systems suffer from low data rate, low hopping
speed, and narrow hopping-frequency bandwidth. Unfortunately, those are important aspects to
facilitate frequency-hopping in emerging microwave systems. The recent advancement of microwave
photonics—the use of light to process microwave signals—provides promising solutions to tackle the
challenges faced by electronic frequency-hopping systems. In this paper, the challenges of achieving
real-time frequency-hopping systems are examined. The operation principles and results of various
microwave photonics-enabled frequency-hopping systems are comprehensively discussed, which
have wide hopping-frequency bandwidth and frequency-hopping speed from nanoseconds to tens
of picoseconds. Lastly, a bio-inspired jamming-avoidance system that could potentially be used for
adaptive frequency-hopping is also introduced.

Keywords: microwave photonics; frequency-hopping; photonic signal processing

1. Introduction
Frequency-hopping systems, which change the information carrier frequency between a series
of frequencies determined by a unique hopping code sequence (Figure 1), has always attracted
great interest in radar and satellite systems, wireless radio frequency (RF) communications, as well
as emerging dynamic communication systems (i.e., 5G/6G) [1]. The history of frequency-hopping
dates to 1941, when it was patented by a Hollywood actress Hedy Lamarr and pianist George
Antheil. The technology was not taken seriously in electronic countermeasures worldwide until the
1980s. With the merit of frequency-hopping systems, such as mitigating the effects of inter-symbol
interference and jamming, it significantly increases the communication capacity of emerging RF wireless
systems—making it an essential tool to fulfil the high RF spectral resource demand in the commercial,
defense, and civilian federal marketplaces [2–4]. Furthermore, the fast frequency-hopping capability
greatly increases the security of wireless services—the lack of amplitude variations and fast-changing
in carrier frequency makes it challenging for Eve to interpret the information. Moreover, signal
interference resulting from multi-path effects could be largely reduced by fast-changing frequency
carriers. Frequency-hopping systems have been widely implemented, e.g., in Bluetooth [5], Advanced
Extremely High-Frequency (AEHF) communications satellites [6], and the Military Strategic and
Tactical Relay (MILSTAR) communication satellites [7]. Although frequency-hopping systems have
been proved successfully in various RF systems, the hopping speed is limited to milliseconds, and
the hopping-frequency bandwidth is less than several GHz, which hinders its implementation in
emerging RF wireless communications and sophisticated electronic warfare systems. Due to the

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 521; doi:10.3390/app10020521 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 521 2 of 17

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW

inherent electronic bottleneck and available frequency bandwidth of electronic devices, it is2very
of 17

challenging for electronics-based frequency-hopping systems to achieve hopping-frequency bandwidth

devices, it is very challenging for electronics-based frequency-hopping systems to achieve hopping-
over several GHz in close to real-time hopping speed.
frequency bandwidth over several GHz in close to real-time hopping speed.

(a) (b)
Figure1.1. Principle
Figure Principle of
of frequency-hopping
frequency-hoppingcommunication
communicationsystems.
systems. (a)
(a) Frequency
Frequencychannel
channelassignment
assignment
foraasingle
for singleuser;
user;(b)
(b)Time-varying
Time-varyingspectral
spectralusage
usageofofthe
theallocated
allocatedfrequency
frequencyforforaaparticular
particularuser.
user.

Microwave
Microwavephotonics
photonics(MWP),(MWP), which bridges
which RF signal
bridges and photonic
RF signal signal processing,
and photonic is capableis
signal processing,
capable
of of overcoming
overcoming bottlenecks bottlenecks in electronics
in electronics due to itsdue to its
large large bandwidth,
bandwidth, instantaneous
instantaneous response, response,
as well
as flexibility
as well as flexibility and reconfigurability
and reconfigurability [8]. Various [8].RFVarious RF signal tasks
signal processing processing
have beentaskssuccessfully
have been
successfully demonstrated
demonstrated using photonicusing photonic[9–19],
technologies technologies
such as MWP [9–19], such as MWPconverters,
analog-to-digital analog-to-digital
MWP
converters,
filters, MWPMWP filters,
arbitrary MWP arbitrary
waveform waveform
generators, MWP generators,
image rejection MWPmixer,
imageand rejection
MWP mixer,
frequencyand
MWP frequency
measurement, to measurement,
name a few. Although to name amicrowave
few. Although microwave
photonic photonic
approaches areapproaches are capable
capable of generating
of generating
various types ofvarious
RF signalstypes[20],
of RF
it issignals [20],to
not trivial it use
is not
themtrivial to use themfrequency-hopping
for generating for generating frequency-
signals
hopping
due to the signals
limited due to thetunability
frequency limited frequency
and hopping tunability
speed inand the hopping speedgenerating
existing signal in the existing signal
approaches,
generating
as well as the approaches,
time required as well as the time
to stabilize at therequired
desiredto stabilize at the desired frequency.
frequency.
Inthis
In thisreview
reviewpaper,
paper,we wewill
willfirst
firstintroduce
introducethe theoperation
operationprinciple
principleand
andconfiguration
configurationof ofseveral
several
frequency-hoppingsystems
frequency-hopping systems based
based on microwave
on microwave photonics.photonics. Several
Several recent recent breakthroughs
breakthroughs in microwave in
microwave
photonic photonic frequency-hopping
frequency-hopping signal-generationsignal-generation
schemes that schemes
enable that enable
ultrafast andultrafast and operation
wideband wideband
operation
are compared.are compared.
In Section 3,InaSection 3, a bio-inspired
bio-inspired photonic
photonic circuit circuit the
mimicking mimicking the jamming-avoidance
jamming-avoidance system in a
system
gene in a gene
of electric fish of electric fish
is presented, is presented,
which which has
has great potential great potential
in facilitating in facilitating
an adaptive an adaptive
frequency-hopping
frequency-hopping
system. system.
Finally, the paper is Finally,
concluded theby
paper is concluded
a discussion of the byexisting
a discussion of the existingtechniques
frequency-hopping frequency-
hopping
and their techniques
potential inand their potential
dynamic in dynamic
and wideband and wideband
RF signal processing. RF signal processing.

2.
2. Microwave
Microwave Photonic
Photonic Frequency-Hopping
Frequency-Hopping Systems
Systems
Microwave
Microwave photonic
photonic frequency-hopping
frequency-hopping systems systems have have wider
wider hopping
hopping bandwidth
bandwidth and and roughly
roughly
1033–1066 times
10 –10 times faster faster hopping
hoppingspeedspeedwhen
whencompared
comparedwith withconventional
conventionalelectronic
electronic approaches.
approaches. Figure
Figure 2
shows
2 shows an illustration
an illustration of a ofmicrowave
a microwavephotonic frequency-hopping
photonic frequency-hopping systemsystem
that consists of a pre-encoded
that consists of a pre-
input
encoded data module
input data shown
modulein Figure
shown in 2a,
Figureand2a,a and
frequency-hopping
a frequency-hopping carrier generation
carrier generation modulemodulefor
generating
for generating the uplink carriercarrier
the uplink shownshown
in Figurein 2b,c.
Figure The pre-encoded
2b,c. input data
The pre-encoded is used
input data to is
modulate
used to
the RF carrier and then transmitted through a high-frequency antenna
modulate the RF carrier and then transmitted through a high-frequency antenna as a frequency- as a frequency-hopping signal.
There are mainly two types of MWP frequency-hopping carrier generation
hopping signal. There are mainly two types of MWP frequency-hopping carrier generation schemes, schemes, including (i)
MWP
including frequency
(i) MWP synthesizer
frequencywith ultrafastwith
synthesizer frequency
ultrafastswitching
frequency ability, such as
switching the use
ability, such of nonlinear
as the use
period-one
of nonlinear period-one dynamics of injected semiconductor laser to directly generate different
dynamics of injected semiconductor laser to directly generate different frequency at different
time
frequency[21,22];at(ii) MWP switch
different for fast switching
time [21,22]; of pre-generated
(ii) MWP switch frequencies,
for fast switching such as the usefrequencies,
of pre-generated of ultrafast
microwave
such as the photonic RF filter
use of ultrafast to switch out
microwave different
photonic frequency
RF filter carriers.
to switch out different frequency carriers.
There are two major challenges in MWP frequency
There are two major challenges in MWP frequency synthesizer approach: synthesizer approach:First,First,it itis is the
the need
need to
to establish
establish a stable
a stable desired
desired frequency
frequency in ainshort
a short period
period to enable
to enable fastfast frequency
frequency switching;
switching; second,
second, the
the
preciseprecise control
control of of
thethe hoppingcode
hopping codesequence
sequenceproperties
propertiesdue dueto to the
the required tighttight relationship
relationship
between
between the synthesized frequency and the applied hopping code sequence. In MWP
the synthesized frequency and the applied hopping code sequence. In MWP RF RF switch
switch
approaches,
approaches, the the twotwo major
major challenges
challenges are:are: (i) achieving
achieving fast fast switching
switching time time within
within aa cyclecycle of of the
the
carrier, and (ii) the ability to completely switch off the unwanted frequencies.
carrier, and (ii) the ability to completely switch off the unwanted frequencies. For both approaches, For both approaches,
itit isis even
even more
more challenging
challenging to to achieve
achieve aamulti-level
multi-levelfrequency-hopping
frequency-hopping system system with
with picoseconds
picoseconds
hopping speed and instantaneous reconfiguring capabilities. Table 1 shows a list of examples of the
state-of-the-art frequency-hopping signal-generation schemes based on various RF electronics and
microwave photonic approaches. In this section, we discuss and compare the principles, hopping
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 521 3 of 17

hopping speed and instantaneous reconfiguring capabilities. Table 1 shows a list of examples of the
state-of-the-art
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, xfrequency-hopping
FOR PEER REVIEWsignal-generation schemes based on various RF electronics and
3 of 17
microwave photonic approaches. In this section, we discuss and compare the principles, hopping
speed,
speed, flexibility
flexibility in
in the
the hopping
hopping frequency, and hopping-frequency
frequency, and bandwidth of
hopping-frequency bandwidth of various
various microwave
microwave
photonic frequency-hopping
photonic frequency-hopping signal-generation
signal-generation schemes.
schemes.

Figure 2.
Figure Schematic of
2. Schematic of microwave
microwave photonic
photonic frequency-hopping
frequency-hopping transmission
transmission systems. (a) Input—
systems. (a) Input—
encoded data
encoded data at
at baseband;
baseband; (b)
(b) Ultrafast
Ultrafast MWP-based frequency synthesizer
MWP-based frequency synthesizer controlled
controlled by
by an
an applied
applied
hopping pattern. (c) Frequency-hopping carrier generation using MWP RF switch
hopping pattern. (c) Frequency-hopping carrier generation using MWP RF switch (d) Output—(d) Output—
frequency-hopping signal.
frequency-hopping signal.

Table 1. Comparison of the State-of-the-Art Frequency-Hopping Signal-Generation Schemes.

Schemes.

Potential
Potential for
Reference
Reference Techniques
Techniques Speed Speedfor Multi- Methods Methods TuningTuning Mechanism
Mechanism
Multi-level
level
[23][23] FourFour
wavewave mixing
mixing 50 ps 50 ps No No switch switch Polarization
Polarization tuning tuning
[24]
[24]
SBS
SBS filter
filter 100 ps
100 ps Yes
Yes switch
switch SBS
SBS tuning
tuning
[25] EO-based comb filter 100 ps Yes switch EO Pockels effect
[25] EO-based comb filter 100 ps Yes switch EO Pockels effect
[26] Notch filter 190 ps No switch EO Pockels effect
[26] Notch filter 190 ps No switch EO Pockels effect
Nonlinear
[27][27] LyotLyot
filterfilter 200 ps200 ps Yes Yes switch switch
Nonlinear polarization rotation
polarization rotation
[28] DD-MZM bias control 1 ns No switch EO Pockels effect
[28] DD-MZM bias control 1 ns No switch EO Pockels effect
[29] Optical injection 10 ns Yes synthesizer Nonlinear dynamics
[29] Optical injection 10 ns Yes synthesizer Nonlinear dynamics
[30] Delay line-based comb filter 40 ns Yes switch Optical delay line
[30] Delay line-based comb filter 40 ns Yes switch Optical delay line
[31] PM-PSFBG OEO 100 ns Yes synthesizer Polarization tuning
[31] PM-PSFBG OEO 100 ns Yes synthesizer Polarization tuning
[32] Microring resonator 500 us Yes synthesizer Thermal tuning
[32] Microring resonator 500 us Yes synthesizer Thermal tuning
[33] RF-MEMS 300 us Yes switch MEMS capacitor
[33] RF-MEMS 300 us Yes switch MEMS capacitor
[34] Integrated spectrum shaper 7 ms Yes switch Thermal tuning
[34] Integrated spectrum shaper 7 ms Yes switch Thermal tuning

2.1. Microwave Photonic Opto-Electronic Oscillator Enabled Frequency-Hopping System

2.1. Microwave Photonic Opto-Electronic Oscillator Enabled Frequency-Hopping System
Opto-electronic oscillator (OEO) has attracted great interest for decades [35–37] to replace the
Opto-electronic oscillator (OEO) has attracted great interest for decades [35–37] to replace the
conventional RF signal generator for applications that have precise timing requirement due to the
conventional RF signal generator for applications that have precise timing requirement due to the
OEO’s high stability and low phase noise performance over a wide frequency bandwidth. OEO
OEO’s high stability and low phase noise performance over a wide frequency bandwidth. OEO usually
usually consists of a laser source, an electro-optic modulator, a section of optical fiber, a
consists of a laser source, an electro-optic modulator, a section of optical fiber, a photodetector,
photodetector, an electrical amplifier, a microwave bandpass filter, and an electrical power coupler,
an electrical amplifier, a microwave bandpass filter, and an electrical power coupler, such that the
such that the RF signal is repeatedly selected by an electrical bandpass filter and amplified to ensure
RF signal is repeatedly selected by an electrical bandpass filter and amplified to ensure gain is
gain is larger than the loss in the OEO cavity to achieve a high-Q factor. Once the accumulated gain
larger than the loss in the OEO cavity to achieve a high-Q factor. Once the accumulated gain and
and phase of the oscillation condition are satisfied, high quality microwave signal is resultant, where
phase of the oscillation condition are satisfied, high quality microwave signal is resultant, where the
the oscillating frequency is governed by the center frequency of the microwave bandpass filter. To
oscillating frequency is governed by the center frequency of the microwave bandpass filter. To generate
generate frequency-hopping signal using OEO, the center frequency of the microwave bandpass filter
must be changed rapidly according to the applied hopping code sequence. Unfortunately, microwave
bandpass filters have narrow frequency tuning range and slow tuning speed due to the inherent
limitation in tuning mechanism, making it not suitable for high-speed and large dynamic range
frequency-hopping generation [38,39]. To solve this problem, microwave photonic filter is used in
place of the microwave bandpass filter that is incorporated in the OEO.
Figure 3a shows the use of a polarization-maintaining phase-shifted fiber Bragg grating (PM-
PSFBG)-based OEO for the generation of wideband frequency-hopping signal [31]. The polarization
modulator
Appl. Sci. 2020,(PolM),
10, 521 optical circulator, PM-PSFBG, and photodetector form an MWP filter. When the
4 of 17
PM-PSFBG is used with a PolM, the MWP filter exhibits a polarization-dependent RF response with
narrow 3-dB bandwidth, as illustrated on the right of Figure 3b. It is important to note that there are
frequency-hopping signal using OEO, the center frequency of the microwave bandpass filter must be
two notches in the PM-PSFBG reflection spectrum for each principal polarization axis of the PM-
changed rapidly according to the applied hopping code sequence. Unfortunately, microwave bandpass
PSFBG to achieve phase to intensity conversion during photodetection. Therefore, two different
filters have narrow frequency tuning range and slow tuning speed due to the inherent limitation in
frequency responses, each with two transmission peaks are observed through a vector network
tuning mechanism, making it not suitable for high-speed and large dynamic range frequency-hopping
analyzer (VNA), as shown in Figure 3b. To achieve frequency-hopping signal generation,
generation [38,39]. To solve this problem, microwave photonic filter is used in place of the microwave
polarization of a continuous wave light wave is aligned at 45° with respect to the principal axis of the
bandpass filter that is incorporated in the OEO.
PolM for polarization modulation. The modulated light is then sent to PM-PSFBG via an optical
Figure 3a shows the use of a polarization-maintaining phase-shifted fiber Bragg grating (PM-PSFBG)-
coupler (OC) such that the light will go through both the principle polarization axes of the PM-
based OEO for the generation of wideband frequency-hopping signal [31]. The polarization modulator
PSFBG. The reflected signal is detected by a photodetector and an ultra-narrow (~40 MHz) passbands
(PolM), optical circulator, PM-PSFBG, and photodetector form an MWP filter. When the PM-PSFBG is
are observed at the microwave photonic filter. The resultant hopping frequency is determined by the
used with a PolM, the MWP filter exhibits a polarization-dependent RF response with narrow 3-dB
power distribution between the two PM-PSFBG axes (i.e., governed by the control signal, i.e., the
bandwidth, as illustrated on the right of Figure 3b. It is important to note that there are two notches in
hopping code sequence applied to the PolM) and the frequency spacing between the laser wavelength
the PM-PSFBG reflection spectrum for each principal polarization axis of the PM-PSFBG to achieve
and notches at the MWP filter.
phase to intensity conversion during photodetection. Therefore, two different frequency responses,
Therefore, by changing the laser wavelength, modifying the DC voltage applied to the PolM,
each with two transmission peaks are observed through a vector network analyzer (VNA), as shown
and adjusting the light polarization launching to the PM-PSFBG, frequency-hopping RF signal can
in Figure 3b. To achieve frequency-hopping signal generation, polarization of a continuous wave
be generated. Figure 4a,b◦ show two resultant frequency-hopping signals that successfully hop
light wave is aligned at 45 with respect to the principal axis of the PolM for polarization modulation.
between 17.1 GHz and 15.75 GHz as well as 9.58 GHz and 8.65 GHz, respectively, with 100 ns
The modulated light is then sent to PM-PSFBG via an optical coupler (OC) such that the light will go
hopping speed. Although frequency-hopping signal can be generated using MWP filter-based OEO
through both the principle polarization axes of the PM-PSFBG. The reflected signal is detected by a
scheme, there are still room for improvements in the following aspects: (1) reduction of the long
photodetector and an ultra-narrow (~40 MHz) passbands are observed at the microwave photonic filter.
establishment time of oscillating mode to increase frequency-hopping speed; (2) improvement of
The resultant hopping frequency is determined by the power distribution between the two PM-PSFBG
signal phase noise that was currently deteriorated due to uncorrelated phase relationship between
axes (i.e., governed by the control signal, i.e., the hopping code sequence applied to the PolM) and the
adjacent oscillation modes; (3) achieving multi-level frequency-hopping signal generation that is
frequency spacing between the laser wavelength and notches at the MWP filter.
currently hindered by mode competition in the OEO.

(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a)
(a) Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram of
of an
an OEO-based
OEO-based frequency-hopping
frequency-hopping signal-generation
signal-generation scheme.
scheme.
PoIM: polarization
polarization modulator;
modulator; OC:
OC: optical
opticalcoupler;
coupler;PD:
PD:photodetector;
photodetector;PA:
PA:electrical
electricalpower
poweramplifier.
amplifier.
(b) Operation principle of the OEO (with the courtesy of Dr J. Yao).
Yao).

Therefore, by changing the laser wavelength, modifying the DC voltage applied to the PolM,
and adjusting the light polarization launching to the PM-PSFBG, frequency-hopping RF signal can be
generated. Figure 4a,b show two resultant frequency-hopping signals that successfully hop between
17.1 GHz and 15.75 GHz as well as 9.58 GHz and 8.65 GHz, respectively, with 100 ns hopping speed.
Although frequency-hopping signal can be generated using MWP filter-based OEO scheme, there are
still room for improvements in the following aspects: (1) reduction of the long establishment time of
oscillating mode to increase frequency-hopping speed; (2) improvement of signal phase noise that
(a) (b)
was currently deteriorated due to uncorrelated phase relationship between adjacent oscillation modes;
(3) achieving multi-level
Figure 4. Measured frequency-hopping
hopping signal waveform
code sequence (green), generation ofthat is currently
the generated hindered by mode
frequency-hopping
microwave
competition signal
in the (blue), and the calculated instantaneous frequency of the frequency-hopping signal
OEO.
 (a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Schematic diagram of an OEO-based frequency-hopping signal-generation scheme.
Appl. Sci.
PoIM:2020, 10, 521
polarization modulator; OC: optical coupler; PD: photodetector; PA: electrical power amplifier.5 of 17
(b) Operation principle of the OEO (with the courtesy of Dr J. Yao).

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Measured hopping code sequence (green), waveform of the generated frequency-hopping
Appl. Figure Measured
Sci. 2020,4.10, hopping
x FOR PEER code sequence (green), waveform of the generated frequency-hopping5 of 17
REVIEW
microwave
microwave signal
signal (blue),
(blue), and
and the
the calculated
calculated instantaneous
instantaneous frequency
frequency of
of the
the frequency-hopping
frequency-hopping signal
signal
(red). (a) Frequency-hopping
(red). (a) Frequency-hoppingbetween
between17.1
17.1GHz
GHz andand 15.75
15.75 GHz;
GHz; (b) (b) Frequency-hopping
Frequency-hopping between
between 9.58
9.58
GHzGHzand and
8.65 8.65
GHzGHz (with
(with the courtesy
the courtesy ofJ.Dr
of Dr J. Yao).
Yao).

2.2. Frequency-Hopping through Period-One Nonlinear Dynamcis in Semiconductor Lasers

2.2. Frequency-Hopping through Period-One Nonlinear Dynamcis in Semiconductor Lasers
When a slave semiconductor laser experiences optical pumping from a master laser, various
When a slave semiconductor laser experiences optical pumping from a master laser, various
nonlinear dynamics can be excited, such as chaotic dynamics, injection locking dynamics, and periodic
nonlinear dynamics can be excited, such as chaotic dynamics, injection locking dynamics, and
oscillations [21,22,40,41]. Depending on the detuning frequency, injection power ratio, as well as
periodic oscillations [21,22,40,41]. Depending on the detuning frequency, injection power ratio, as
the controlling of polarization relationship between the slave and master lasers, different nonlinear
well as the controlling of polarization relationship between the slave and master lasers, different
dynamics and characteristics could be induced. Among all the nonlinear dynamics in semiconductor
nonlinear dynamics and characteristics could be induced. Among all the nonlinear dynamics in
lasers, period-one (P1) dynamics is a good candidate to achieve frequency-hopping due to its unique
semiconductor lasers, period-one (P1) dynamics is a good candidate to achieve frequency-hopping
spectral phenomenon as well as fast hopping speed of up to nanoseconds range.
due to its unique spectral phenomenon as well as fast hopping speed of up to nanoseconds range.
The schematic diagram of period-one dynamics-based frequency-hopping system [29] is shown
The schematic diagram of period-one dynamics-based frequency-hopping system [29] is shown
in Figure 5a. A master laser that is emitting continuous wave at fm is attenuated and then intensity
in Figure 5a. A master laser that is emitting continuous wave at fm is attenuated and then intensity
modulated by a hopping code sequence S(t). The modulated master laser light is launched to a free
modulated by a hopping code sequence S(t). The modulated master laser light is launched to a free
running slave laser at fs via an optical circulator. The lasing frequency difference between the master
running slave laser at fs via an optical circulator. The lasing frequency difference between the master
and slave lasers is fs . Through injection locking, the master laser pulls the slave laser oscillating
and slave lasers is fs. Through injection locking, the master laser pulls the slave laser oscillating
frequency towards the master laser frequency fm by locking its phase, forcing the slave laser to lase at
frequency towards the master laser frequency fm by locking its phase, forcing the slave laser to lase at
fm . At the same time, the gain region of the slave laser is red-shifted (i.e., shifting f s to f s ’) due to the
fm. At the same time, the gain region of the slave laser is red-shifted (i.e., shifting fs to fs’) due to the
refractive index change inside the cavity resulted from an increase in carrier density through master
refractive index change inside the cavity resulted from an increase in carrier density through master
laser light injection. Therefore, the two effects compete—injection-induced gain region shifting to
laser light injection. Therefore, the two effects compete—injection-induced gain region shifting to red
red while phase locking from master laser shift the lasing to blue, leading to period-one nonlinear
while phase locking from master laser shift the lasing to blue, leading to period-one nonlinear
dynamics,
dynamics, i.e.,
i.e., the
the slave
slave laser
laser lases
lases at bothfm
at both and ffss’.’. As
fm and As illustrated
illustrated inin Figure
Figure 5b,
5b, aa RF
RF signal
signal with
with
frequency f
frequency fo results after photodetection, which is governed by the frequency difference between the
o results after photodetection, which is governed by the frequency difference between the
two lasing frequencies of the slave laser (f o = f m − f s ’). The observed asymmetric
two lasing frequencies of the slave laser (fo = fm − fs’). The observed asymmetric double-sideband double-sideband
spectrum
spectrumis is duedue to
to Hopf
Hopf bifurcation.
bifurcation. TheThe resultant
resultant lasing frequencyffss’’ due
lasing frequency due to
to refractive
refractive index
index change
change
is
is determined by the strength of the injection light. Therefore, frequency of the resultantsignal
determined by the strength of the injection light. Therefore, frequency of the resultant RF can
RF signal
be
canadjusted
be adjustedthrough the control
through of theofinjection
the control lightlight
the injection power. power.

(a) (b)
Figure 5.
Figure 5. (a)
(a) Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram ofof the
the period-one
period-one (P1)
(P1) nonlinear
nonlinear dynamic-based
dynamic-based frequency-hopping
frequency-hopping
signal-generation scheme. (b) Operation principle of P1 dynamics in
signal-generation scheme. (b) Operation principle of P1 dynamics in an optically injected an optically injected
semiconductor
semiconductor laser. ML: master laser, Att: optical attenuator; IM: intensity modulator, S(t):
laser. ML: master laser, Att: optical attenuator; IM: intensity modulator, S(t): hopping code sequence; hopping
codepolarization
PC: sequence; PC: polarization
controller, controller,
CIR: optical CIR: optical
circulator; circulator;
SL: slave laser, PD:SL: slave laser, PD:
photodetector (withphotodetector
the courtesy
(with the courtesy
of Dr S. Pan). of Dr S. Pan).

Figure 6a–c show the temporal measurement of the generated RF signal under different injection
conditions, while the corresponding hopping code sequence S(t) is shown in the insets. The injection
strength is defined as ξ, which is proportional to the injected power. Therefore, for a fixed detuning
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 521 6 of 17

Figure 6a–c show the temporal measurement of the generated RF signal under different injection
conditions, while the corresponding hopping code sequence S(t) is shown in the insets. The injection
strength is defined as ξ, which is proportional to the injected power. Therefore, for a fixed detuning
frequency fi = fs − fm , the generated RF signal frequency fo would increase linearly with the injection
amplitude. Therefore, by controlling the optical injection power using a hopping code sequence,
frequency-hopping signal can be generated. Figure 6d–f shows the measured instantaneous frequency
of the generated RF signal. By setting the hopping code sequence to a two-level square wave,
frequency-hopping signal with frequencies at 13.1 and 17.6 GHz is resultant. Thanks to the fast P1
dynamic response, ~10 ns hopping speed is demonstrated. P1 dynamic-based frequency-hopping
signal-generation scheme can generate multi-level frequency-hopping signal. With a four-level hopping
code sequence,
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10,the resultant
x FOR frequency-hopping signal can hop between four different frequencies,
PEER REVIEW 6 of 17
as shown in Figure 6e,f. Since the resultant frequency greatly depends on the injection light amplitude,
frequencies,
it is importantastoshown in amplitude
reduce Figure 6e,f. fluctuation
Since the resultant
in the frequency greatly
injection light to depends
prevent on the injection
instability in the
light amplitude, it is important to reduce amplitude fluctuation in the injection light to prevent
frequency-hopping signal frequency.
instability in the frequency-hopping signal frequency.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure
Figure 6. (a)–(c)
6. (a–c) Measured
Measured temporal
temporal waveforms
waveforms of theoffrequency-hopping
the frequency-hopping
signalsignal
underunder different
different injection
injection conditions.
conditions. (Insets) Corresponding
(Insets) Corresponding hopping code hopping code S(t).
sequence sequence S(t). (d)–(f)instantaneous
(d–f) Recovered Recovered
instantaneous
frequency frequencyto
corresponding corresponding to (a)–(c),
(a–c), respectively (withrespectively (with
the courtesy the S.
of Dr courtesy
Pan). of Dr S. Pan).

2.3.2.3.
Bias Control
Bias ControlininDual-Drive
Dual-DriveMach–Zehnder
Mach–Zehnder Modulater for Frequency-Hopping
Modulater for Frequency-HoppingSignal
SignalGeneration
Generation
ToTo achievea afaster
achieve fasterfrequency-hopping
frequency-hopping speed, speed, Pockels
Pockels effecteffectininaadual-drive
dual-driveMach–Zehnder
Mach–Zehnder
modulator
modulator (DD-MZM)
(DD-MZM) is used
is used [28],[28], as illustrated
as illustrated in Figure in Figure 7a. approach,
7a. In this In this approach, a reference
a reference microwave
microwave signal f with amplitude V is injected into one arm of the
signal fs with amplitude V 0 is injected into one arm of the DD-MZM, while a hopping code sequence
s 0 DD-MZM, while a hopping code
sequence S(t) is applied to the other arm of the DD-MZM. The DC ports
S(t) is applied to the other arm of the DD-MZM. The DC ports of the two arms are driven by a DC power of the two arms are driven
by a DC
supply power supply
to introduce phasetodifference.
introduce phase
When difference.
a hopping When a hoppingS(t)
code sequence code sequence
with S(t) with
an amplitude of an
Vs is
amplitude of V s is applied to DD-MZM, the transmission function of the frequency-hopping system
applied to DD-MZM, the transmission function of the frequency-hopping system can be expressed as,
can be expressed as,
π(V0 cos(2π fs t) − Vs S(t) − VDC )
" #
1
T =1 + cos  π (V0 cos(2 π f s t ) − Vs S (t ) − VDC )  (1)
T = 2+ cos  Vπ  (1)
2  Vπ 
where Vπ is the half wave voltage of the DD-MZM and VDC is the DC bias difference between the
where Vπ is the half wave voltage of the DD-MZM and VDC is the DC bias difference between the two
two arms. As shown in Figure 7b, if VDC is at the quadrature transmission point, the output RF
arms. As shown in Figure 7b, if VDC is at the quadrature transmission point, the output RF signal is at
signal is at the original reference signal frequency f s due to the linear region in the transmission
the original reference signal frequency fs due to the linear region in the transmission curve; while
curve; while
biasing biasing
at the minimum at the minimum transmission
transmission point will leadpoint will leadinto
to a doubling a doubling
output in output
RF signal frequencyRF(i.e.,
signal
frequency (i.e., 2f s
2fs) due to the folding) due to the folding in the transmission curve. Thus, by setting
in the transmission curve. Thus, by setting the static DC bias at minimum the static DC bias
at transmission
minimum transmission point and dynamically
point and dynamically apply S(t) to shift applythe S(t) to to
bias shift the bias point,
quadrature to quadrature point,
a frequency-
a frequency-hopping
hopping signal is resulted signal andis resulted and can be
can be expressed as,expressed as,

1 1
 2 RE0 − 2 RE0 J 0 ( m) + RE0 J 2 ( m) cos(4π f s t ), S (t ) = 1
2 2 2

i (t ) =  (2)
 1 RE 2 + RE 2 J (m) cos(2π f t ), S (t ) = 0
 2 0 0 1 s
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 521 7 of 17

1 2 − 12 RE20 J0 (m) + RE20 J2 (m) cos(4π fs t), S(t) = 1

(
i(t) = 2 RE0 (2)
1 2
2 RE0 + RE20 J1 (m) cos(2π fs t), S(t) = 0
where R is responsivity of the PD and m = πV 0 /Vπ is the modulation index. As shown in Figure 7c,
the temporal waveform of the frequency-hopping signal indicates that the frequency is hopping
between 12 GHz and 24 GHz when a 64-bit 1 Gbps pseudorandom binary sequence (PRBS) hopping
code sequence is used. The hopping speed is measured to be 1 ns in this experiment. Since the
DD-MZM has a higher modulation efficiency at the quadrature transmission point than that at the
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 17
minimum transmission point, the generated frequency-hopping signal at fs will always be stronger
than the signal at 2fs , as shown in Figure 7c,d. Furthermore, the frequencies in the frequency-hopping
signal at 2fs, as shown in Figure 7c,d. Furthermore, the frequencies in the frequency-hopping signal
signal will always have a fixed relationship of f and 2fs .
will always have a fixed relationship of fs and 2fs s.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 7. (a)
(a) Experimental setup
setup of
of frequency-hopping
frequency-hoppingsignal signalgeneration
generationbybyswitching
switching thethe bias
bias point
point of
of
anan optical
optical dual-drive
dual-drive Mach–Zehnder
Mach–Zehnder modulator:
modulator: LD, LD,
laserlaser diode;
diode; PC, polarization
PC, polarization controller;
controller; DD-MZM, DD-
MZM, dual-drive
dual-drive Mach–Zehnder
Mach–Zehnder modulator;modulator; MSG, microwave
MSG, microwave signal generator;
signal generator; PPG, pulsePPG, pulse
pattern pattern
generator;
generator; EA,amplifier;
EA, electrical electrical PD,
amplifier; PD, photodetector;
photodetector; EBPF,bandpass
EBPF, electrical electrical filter;
bandpass
DSO, filter; DSO,
digital digital
sampling
sampling oscilloscope.;
oscilloscope.; (b) Transmission
(b) Transmission characteristics
characteristics of the DD-MZMof the DD-MZM
at quadratureat quadrature
(QTP) and(QTP) minimum and
minimum (MITP)
(MITP) biasing biasing
points. (c) points. (c) The measured
The measured frequency-hopping
frequency-hopping signal waveforms
signal waveforms (blue solid (blue
line)solid
and
line) and the calculated
the calculated instantaneous
instantaneous frequencies frequencies
(red dotted(red dotted
line). (d) A line). (d) Aview
zoom-in zoom-in
of the view of the
generated
frequency-hopping
generated RF signal inRF
frequency-hopping the yellow
signal in dotted line region
the yellow dotted in (c)region
line (with the courtesy
in (c) of Dr
(with the Y. Chen).
courtesy of
Dr Y. Chen).
2.4. MWP RF Switch for Frequency-Hopping Signal Generation
2.4. MWP RF Switch
Microwave for Frequency-Hopping
switches, or RF switches are Signal Generation
an essential tool in microwave systems for signal routing
and signal modulation.
Microwave switches, RF orswitches usuallyare
RF switches haveanswitching
essential speed
tool inofmicrowave
hundreds ofsystemsnanoseconds and
for signal
operation bandwidth of several tens of GHz. To enable fast switching
routing and signal modulation. RF switches usually have switching speed of hundreds of of RF signal for the generation of
frequency-hopping signal, microwave photonic RF switches with switching
nanoseconds and operation bandwidth of several tens of GHz. To enable fast switching of RF signaltime at tens of picosecond
speed
for the [42], whichof
generation is frequency-hopping
way faster than anysignal, existing RF switch
microwave technologies,
photonic is a promising
RF switches with switchingcandidate.
time
In this section, we will discuss two techniques to achieve high-speed RF
at tens of picosecond speed [42], which is way faster than any existing RF switch technologies, switching—(1) Tunable
is a
microwave photonics filter, (2) Optical nonlinear wave mixing. The use of
promising candidate. In this section, we will discuss two techniques to achieve high-speed RFtunable microwave photonic
filter with tens Tunable
switching—(1) of gigahertz frequency
microwave tuning speed
photonics is an
filter, (2) effective
Optical way to wave
nonlinear use microwave
mixing. The photonic
use of
tunable microwave photonic filter with tens of gigahertz frequency tuning speed is an effective been
technology for performing RF switching. MWP filters with single and multiple passbands have way
intensively
to demonstrated
use microwave photonic using various techniques
technology for performing including the use ofMWP
RF switching. opticalfilters
combwith filtersingle
[25,43,44],
and
stimulated
multiple Brillouin have
passbands scattering
been (SBS) [24,45],demonstrated
intensively and liquid crystal
usingonvarious
silicon techniques
(LCoS) [46,47]. Variousthe
including MWPuse
filters could have slightly different pros and cons; for example, the use of SBS
of optical comb filter [25,43,44], stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) [24,45], and liquid crystal onfilter [24] could give
a sharper
silicon MWP
(LCoS) filter Various
[46,47]. profile andMWP results
filtersincould
a finer frequency
have slightly resolution in the
different pros andfrequency-hopping
cons; for example,
the use of SBS filter [24] could give a sharper MWP filter profile and results in a finer frequency
resolution in the frequency-hopping scheme. The use of an electrical delay line in a MWP filter [25]
could limit the operation bandwidth of the frequency-hopping signal. However, most of the
techniques have a fixed passband frequency or the tuning mechanism are based on manual control
of tunable optical delay line, thermal tuning, or mechanical laser array tuning, which are too slow to
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 521 8 of 17

scheme. The use of an electrical delay line in a MWP filter [25] could limit the operation bandwidth
of the frequency-hopping signal. However, most of the techniques have a fixed passband frequency
or the tuning mechanism are based on manual control of tunable optical delay line, thermal tuning,
or mechanical laser array tuning, which are too slow to achieve fast switching. To perform RF switching,
only the techniques that are capable of fast tuning of the passband/bandstop frequency at GHz speed
can be used. In this section, we will discuss several techniques for achieving high-speed RF signal
switching for the generation of frequency-hopping signals.

2.4.1. Pockels Effect Based Fast Tunable MWP Switch for Frequency-Hopping Signal Generation
Pockels effect in LiNbO3 modulators is well known for its fast response time in the order of tens
of picosecond. By incorporating a LiNbO3 phase modulator in a loop mirror filter, an ultrafast RF
switch can be achieved, as shown in Figure 8a [26,48]. First, a single sideband modulated optical
signal is generated at the dual-drive Mach–Zehnder modulator (DD-MZM), which is then launched
into a phase modulator incorporated loop mirror filter (PM-LMF) for optical spectral filtering. If the
RF spectral component in the single sideband optical signal is being blocked by the PM-LMF, the RF
signal cannot be reconstructed at the photodetector and results in a notch in the frequency response at
that particular frequency. The PM-LMF consists of a piece of polarization-maintaining fiber (PMF),
a polarization controller (PC), a phase modulator (PM), and an OC. First, the input light is spilt into
two branches at the OC, then the two light beams counter propagate in the LMF and interferer when
they arrive at the OC again. Depending on the phase difference experienced by the two light beams,
a periodic transmission function is resulted and can be expressed as,

1
T (λ) = [1 − cos(ϕ(λ))] (3)
2
where ϕ(λ) denotes the phase difference between the light travelling clockwise and anti-clockwise.
Due to the total phase difference induced by both the PMF and a short tunable birefringence medium
(e.g., PM), periodic optical comb response is resulted. When the transverse electric axis of the PM is
aligned with the fast axis of the PMF, the corresponding comb spacing can be described as,

λ2
∆λ = (4)
BPMF LPMF + BPM LPM

where BPMF , LPMF , BPM , and LPM are the birefringence and length of the PMF and PM, respectively.
Birefringence of the PM is proportional to the electric field around the LiNbO3 crystal waveguide.
Therefore, the comb spacing can be shifted by controlling the applied DC voltage to the PM. Considering
a small optical spectral region, a shift in the optical comb is observed, resulting in a shift in the
transmission notch of the comb filter, as shown in Figure 8b. Since there is a direct corresponding
between the transmission notch in the optical comb filter and the transmission notch in the RF filter,
the RF transmission notch can also be tuned by controlling the DC voltage applied to the PM, as shown
in Figure 8c.
To generate a frequency-hopping signal, two RF signals at f 1 and f 2 are modulated onto the
optical carrier as a single sideband signal. A hopping code sequence with two voltage levels at V 1
and V 2 is used to control the birefringence of the PM, i.e., the RF transmission notch. When the RF
notch is aligned with f 1 , then only f 2 can be found at the output while f 1 is being blocked, or vice
versa. Therefore, when the control signal is switched between V 1 and V 2 , a frequency-hopping signal
between f 1 and f 2 can be generated. As shown in Figure 8d, two-level frequency-hopping signal
between 6 GHz and 12 GHz with 170 ps hopping speed is achieved by setting the applied voltage of
bit “1” at 2.8 V and that of bit “0” at 0 V. Due to the fast response time of Pockels effect, hopping speed
of tens of GHz can be achieved which is governed by the modulation bandwidth of PM. Although
the hopping speed is fast, there is a requirement of the frequency separation between the hopping
frequencies due to the periodicity and bandwidth of the MWP filter.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 521 9 of 17

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure
Figure 8.
8.(a)
(a)Experimental
Experimentalsetup
setupof ofthe
thePM-LMF-based
PM-LMF-basedMWP MWPnotch
notchfilter
filterfor
forRF
RFsignal
signalswitching.
switching.DFB:
DFB:
distributed feedback
distributed feedback laser;
laser; DD-MZM:
DD-MZM: dual-drive
dual-drive Mach–Zehnder
Mach–Zehndermodulator;
modulator;PM: PM:phase
phase modulator;
modulator;
PMF: polarization-maintaining
PMF: polarization-maintainingfiber; fiber; PC:
PC: polarization
polarization controller;
controller; PD:
PD: photo
photo detector;
detector; (b)
(b) Measured
Measured
transmission optical spectra
transmission spectra ofofthe
thetunable
tunablePM-LMF
PM-LMFatatdifferent control
different control voltages. (c)(c)
voltages. Corresponding RF
Corresponding
notch
RF filter
notch response
filter at at
response different
differentcontrol
controlvoltage;
voltage;(d)
(d)Close-up
Close-upofofthe
the frequency-hopping that
frequency-hopping signal that
switches between
switches between 66 GHz
GHz andand 12
12 GHz.
GHz.

2.4.2. Nonlinear Polarization Rotation Enabled Lyot Loop Filter as an RF Signal Switching
2.4.2. Nonlinear Polarization Rotation Enabled Lyot Loop Filter as an RF Signal Switching
To overcome the periodicity characteristic in the above MWP filter, finite impulse response
To overcome the periodicity characteristic in the above MWP filter, finite impulse response
(FIR)-based MWP bandpass filter can be used instead, such that distinct passbands at the desired
(FIR)-based MWP bandpass filter can be used instead, such that distinct passbands at the desired
frequencies can be obtained. Figure 9a shows the schematic of an optically controlled FIR-based
frequencies can be obtained. Figure 9a shows the schematic of an optically controlled FIR-based
reconfigurable MWP dual-band filter [27]. Unlike the last microwave photonic filter that uses the
reconfigurable MWP dual-band filter [27]. Unlike the last microwave photonic filter that uses the
transmission characteristic of the optical comb to shape the RF frequency response, this MWP dual-band
transmission characteristic of the optical comb to shape the RF frequency response, this MWP dual-
filter uses FIR (i.e., weighting and delaying of RF signal copies for summation) to generate the desired
band filter uses FIR (i.e., weighting and delaying of RF signal copies for summation) to generate the
RF filter
desired RF spectral shape. Moreover,
filter spectral nonlinearnonlinear
shape. Moreover, polarization rotation in
polarization semiconductor
rotation optical amplifier
in semiconductor optical
(SOA) is used
amplifier (SOA) instead as the
is used switching
instead mechanism,
as the switchingwhere the birefringence
mechanism, where the in abirefringence
SOA changesin according
a SOA
to the power
changes of a pump
according to thelight,
power resulting
of a pumpin polarization
light, resulting rotation of the signal
in polarization light. A
rotation of broadband light
the signal light.
source is first shaped by an optical Gaussian shape filter and is then
A broadband light source is first shaped by an optical Gaussian shape filter and is then spectrally spectrally sliced by an optically
controlled
sliced by an Lyot loop filter
optically to generate
controlled Lyottheloop optical
filter carriers
to generate neededthe for the FIR
optical filter needed
carriers taps. The forLyot
the loop
FIR
filter consists of a pair of polarizers (P1, P2), two optical circulators, a length
filter taps. The Lyot loop filter consists of a pair of polarizers (P1, P2), two optical circulators, a length of PMF, a SOA, an OC, and
a distributed
of PMF, a SOA, feedback
an OC, laserand a(DFB). As shown
distributed feedbackin Figure
laser 9b,
(DFB).the As
circulator-SOA
shown in Figure loop9b,enables the input
the circulator-
SOA loop enables the input light to transmit through a piece of PMF twice and allowstate
light to transmit through a piece of PMF twice and allow rapid adjustment of the polarization rapid of
the return light through optical injection at the SOA. Within the Lyot
adjustment of the polarization state of the return light through optical injection at the SOA. Withinloop filter, the input optical signal
is linearly polarized at 45 ◦ with respect to the principle axis of the PMF. After the first transmission
the Lyot loop filter, the input optical signal is linearly polarized at 45° with respect to the principle
through
axis of the thePMF.
PMF,After the phase difference
the first ∆ϕ between
transmission through fastthe
andPMF,slowtheaxisphase
can bedifference
expressedΔφ as ∆ϕ = 2πBL/λ,
between fast
B and L
and slow axis can be expressed as Δφ = 2πBL/λ, where B and L are the birefringence and lengththe
where are the birefringence and length of the PMF, and λ is the light wavelength. Then, of
lightPMF,
the passes and through
λ is the the circulator-SOA
light wavelength.loop Then,andthewill travel
light backthrough
passes through the the circulator-SOA
same PMF in theloop opposite
and
propagation
will travel back direction
through withthea polarization
same PMF inrotation angle (∆θ).
the opposite By properly
propagation modify
direction withtheaoptical pump
polarization
power being
rotation angle injected
(Δθ). to Bythe SOA, the
properly polarization
modify rotation
the optical pump anglepower
can bebeing
optically switched
injected to 0,
to the 45◦ , and
SOA, the
0, 45°,∆ϕ
◦
90 , resultingrotation in a phase difference switching between
polarization angle can be optically switched to 2∆ϕ, andand90°,0. resulting
Therefore, inthe resultant
a phase phase
difference
difference between
switching between 2Δφ, the light
Δφ aligned with the two
and 0. Therefore, the axis changes
resultant phaseaccordingly
differencetobetween
the equivalent length
the light aligned(Le )
of PMF
with thebeing
two axis changedchangesbetween 2L, L, and
accordingly to the0. equivalent
Based on the phase
length (Ldifference, the Lyot loop filter will
e) of PMF being changed between

2L, L, and 0. Based on the phase difference, the Lyot loop filter will have the sameinreconfigurable
have the same reconfigurable periodic transmission function as the one described above section,
which is used to spectrally slice the broadband light source. The spectrally sliced optical carrier is then
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

of RF signals via an optically controlled comb filter can be successfully achieved. Figure 9c shows the
measurement of nonlinear polarization rotation response speed, where a 1 Gbps “10101100” hopping
code sequence
Appl. Sci. is used to modulate the pump laser via an electro-optic intensity modulator.
2020, 10, 521 The
10 of 17
rise/fall time of the nonlinear polarization rotated output is 200 ps. Figure 9d shows the study of RF
signal switching speed and the purity of removing the unwanted frequency. A 6.8 GHz RF signal is
launched to a dispersive
used to modulate medium
the optical to obtain
carrier, wavelength
and the dependent
MWP filter delay,tosuch
is configured turnthat a FIR
on and offfilter is formed
the passband
at the photodetector, resulting in a microwave photonic filter with two reconfigurable
at 6.8 GHz, resulting in an on/off switching of the RF signal with a 200 ps switching speed. passbands.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 9.
Figure 9. (a)
(a)Experimental
Experimentalsetup
setup ofof
thethe
optically controlled
optically controlledfastfast
reconfigurable microwave
reconfigurable photonic
microwave dual-
photonic
band filterfilter
dual-band for RF
for signal switching
RF signal switching based ononnonlinear
based nonlinearpolarization
polarizationrotation.
rotation. BBS:
BBS: broadband lightlight
source. EDFA: erbium-doped
source. erbium-doped fiber fiber amplifier.
amplifier. DFB:
DFB: distributed
distributed feedback
feedback laser.
laser. SOA:
SOA: semiconductor
semiconductor
optical amplifier. P1–P2:
optical P1–P2:polarizers.
polarizers.PM: phase
PM: phasemodulator.
modulator. PMF:PMF:polarization-maintaining
polarization-maintaining fiber.fiber.
PD:
photodetector.
PD: photodetector.DCF:DCF:
dispersion
dispersion compensating
compensating fiber. (b)(b)
fiber. Operation
Operationprinciple
principleofof the optically
the optically
reconfigurable Lyot
reconfigurable Lyotloop
loopfilter;
filter;(c)(c)
Measured
Measured response
response speed of the
speed of nonlinear polarization
the nonlinear rotation
polarization effect.
rotation
PurplePurple
effect. waveform: 1 Gbps
waveform: hopping
1 Gbps hoppingcodecode
sequence
sequence with
witha a“10101100”
“10101100”pattern.
pattern. Blue waveform:
Blue waveform:
Corresponding output
Corresponding output signal
signal of
ofthetheSOA
SOAthat
thatexperienced
experiencednonlinear
nonlinearpolarization
polarizationrotation.
rotation. (d)
(d) Switching
Switching
speed measurement of the optically controlled
speed controlled RF
RF signal
signalswitching
switchingwithwithrise/fall
rise/falltime
timeless
lessthan
than200
200ps.ps.

It is important
2.5. Integrated to note
Photonic that
Based MWPthe SOA combined
Bandpass with
Filter for pump laser works
Frequency-Hopping as anGeneration
Signal optically controllable
polarization controller. By applying different optical pump powers, birefringence of the SOA is
Currently, most photonics-based frequency-hopping systems have been demonstrated using
changed, leading to nonlinear polarization rotation of the light inside the SOA. It has been proven that
discrete fiber-optic components, which ◦are bulky, with larger loss, and are sensitive to peripheral
a polarization rotation angle of up to 180 [49] and a nonlinear polarization rotation response speed at
environment such as temperature changes and vibration, resulting in a significant degradation in the
GHz can be achieved [50]. By turning the two reconfigurable passbands in the dual-passband MWP
frequency-hopping system performance. Therefore, photonic integration is a necessity to minimize
filter on and off via nonlinear polarization rotation in the SOA, either f 1 or f 2 of the input RF signal can
the frequency-hopping system footprint, increase system stability, and make it more comparable with
be switched out, resulting in a frequency-hopping signal. As a result, ultrafast switching of RF signals
RF circuits [51,52]. Integrated microwave photonics have been used for demonstrating photonic
via an optically controlled comb filter can be successfully achieved. Figure 9c shows the measurement
filters [34], on-chip stimulated Brillouin scattering-based RF signal processor [53], and photonic
of nonlinear polarization rotation response speed, where a 1 Gbps “10101100” hopping code sequence
oscillator based on Kerr comb [54,55]. Regarding the generation of microwave signal on an optical
is used to modulate the pump laser via an electro-optic intensity modulator. The rise/fall time of the
chip, a Kerr optical frequency comb excited in a high-Q magnesium fluoride whispering-gallery-
nonlinear polarization rotated output is 200 ps. Figure 9d shows the study of RF signal switching speed
mode resonator was reported to have a phase noise as low as −120 dBc/Hz at a 1-kHz offset frequency
and the purity of removing the unwanted frequency. A 6.8 GHz RF signal is used to modulate the
[54]. Figure 10 shows the diagram of a fast-switching integrated optical spectral shaper that forms
optical carrier, and the MWP filter is configured to turn on and off the passband at 6.8 GHz, resulting
part of an MWP filter (i.e., essentially replacing the Lyot loop filter in the previous section by the
in an on/off switching of the RF signal with a 200 ps switching speed.
optical spectral shaper). The optical spectral shaper chip has a size of 9.6 cm × 2.4 cm, which consists
of six
2.5. delay elements
Integrated Photonicmade
Basedby silicaBandpass
MWP [34]. TheFilter
polarization independent 2Signal
for Frequency-Hopping × 2 thermal optical switches
Generation
are used as interconnectors between delay lines, which can be switched between bar-state and cross-
Currently, most photonics-based frequency-hopping systems have been demonstrated using
state by change the driving voltage. Since six stages of time delay are used in this chip, 26 − 1 = 63
discrete fiber-optic components, which are bulky, with larger loss, and are sensitive to peripheral
different delay combinations can be obtained. Therefore, the resultant passband frequency can be
environment such as temperature changes and vibration, resulting in a significant degradation in the
adjusted through the control of the time delay configuration via the optical switches, as shown in
frequency-hopping system performance. Therefore, photonic integration is a necessity to minimize the
frequency-hopping system footprint, increase system stability, and make it more comparable with RF
circuits [51,52]. Integrated microwave photonics have been used for demonstrating photonic filters [34],
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 521 11 of 17

on-chip stimulated Brillouin scattering-based RF signal processor [53], and photonic oscillator based
on Kerr comb [54,55]. Regarding the generation of microwave signal on an optical chip, a Kerr optical
frequency comb excited in a high-Q magnesium fluoride whispering-gallery-mode resonator was
reported to have a phase noise as low as −120 dBc/Hz at a 1-kHz offset frequency [54]. Figure 10 shows
the diagram of a fast-switching integrated optical spectral shaper that forms part of an MWP filter
(i.e., essentially replacing the Lyot loop filter in the previous section by the optical spectral shaper).
The optical spectral shaper chip has a size of 9.6 cm × 2.4 cm, which consists of six delay elements made
by silica [34]. The polarization independent 2 × 2 thermal optical switches are used as interconnectors
between delay lines, which can be switched between bar-state and cross-state by change the driving
voltage. Since six stages of time delay are used in this chip, 26 − 1 = 63 different delay combinations
can be obtained. Therefore, the resultant passband frequency can be adjusted through the control
Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2020,
2020,10,
10,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 11 of
11 of 17
17
of the time delay configuration via the optical switches, as shown in Figure 11a. The fast-switching
frequency-hopping
Figure 11a.
11a. The signal waveform
The fast-switching
fast-switching between 1.782 GHz
frequency-hopping andwaveform
signal 3.635 GHzbetween
is shown1.782in Figure
GHz11b,andwhich
3.635
Figure frequency-hopping signal waveform between 1.782 GHz and 3.635
has a hopping
GHz isis shown
shown in speed of
in Figure 0.7
Figure 11b, ms. So
11b, which far,
which has the limitation
has aa hopping
hopping speed on tuning
speed of
of 0.7 speed
0.7 ms.
ms. So of most
So far,
far, the integrated
the limitation photonics
limitation on
on tuning
tuning
GHz
circuits
speed ofand
mostsilicon photonic
integrated signal processors
photonics circuits aresilicon
and governed by thesignal
photonic largeprocessors
coefficient are
of thermal-optic
governed by
speed of most integrated photonics circuits and silicon photonic signal processors are governed by
effect [56].
thelarge
largecoefficient
coefficientof ofthermal-optic
thermal-opticeffect
effect[56].
[56].
the

Figure 10.
Figure (a)Structure
10.(a) Structurediagram
diagramof
ofthe
theoptical
opticalspectral shaper.(b)
spectralshaper.
shaper. (b)The
Theoverall
overalllayout
layoutof
ofthe
thedevice. (c)
device.(c)
Cross-section
Cross-section view
view of
of the
the waveguide
waveguide (with
(with
Cross-section view of the waveguide (with the the
the courtesy
courtesy of
of Dr
Dr M.
M. Li).
Li).

Figure 11.(a)
Figure (a) Measuredfrequency
frequency responseof of thesingle
single passbandmicrowave
microwave photonicfilter
filter based
Figure 11.
11. (a) Measured
Measured frequency response
response of the
the single passband
passband microwave photonic
photonic filter based
based
on
on an integrated optical spectral shaper. (b) Temporal waveform of the generated frequency-hopping
onan
anintegrated
integratedoptical
opticalspectral
spectralshaper.
shaper. (b)
(b)Temporal
Temporalwaveform
waveformofofthe
thegenerated
generatedfrequency-hopping
frequency-hopping
signal, inset:zoom-in
signal, zoom-in viewof of thetwo
two hoppingfrequencies
frequencies (withthe
the courtesyofof DrM.M. Li).
signal, inset:
inset: zoom-inview
view ofthethe twohopping
hopping frequencies (with
(with the courtesy
courtesy of Dr
Dr M. Li).
Li).

2.6. Real-TimeNonlinear
2.6. Real-Time Nonlinear Optical
Optical Mixing forFrequency-Hopping
Mixing for
for Frequency-HoppingSignal
Frequency-Hopping SignalGeneration
Signal Generation
Generation

In the above
In the
the above MWP-based
above MWP-based frequency-hopping
MWP-based frequency-hopping signal-generation
frequency-hopping signal-generation schemes,
signal-generation schemes, frequency-hopping
schemes, frequency-hopping
frequency-hopping
signal is strongly depending
depending on
on the
the center
center frequencies
frequencies
signal is strongly depending on the center frequencies of the MWP passbands. Inof
of the
theMWP
MWP passbands.
passbands. InInthis
this
this approach,
approach,
approach, aa
more
a more
more flexible
flexible
flexible allocation
allocation
allocation of
of ofthe
thethehopping
hopping
hopping frequency
frequency
frequency can
cancanbe achieved
be achieved
be achieved using
usingusingnonlinear
nonlinear
nonlinear optical mixing
optical
optical mixing
mixing for
for
the the
for
the generation
generation
generation of frequency-hopping
of frequency-hopping
of frequency-hopping signal.
signal.
signal. Optical
Optical
Optical nonlinear
nonlinear
nonlinear four
four
four wave mixing
wavemixing
wave (FWM)
(FWM)isis well
mixing(FWM) well
known for
known for its transparencyto
its transparency
transparency amplitude,phase
to amplitude,
amplitude, phaseand
phase frequency[57–59],
and frequency
frequency [57–59],and
[57–59], andhas
and beenused
has been
been usedfor
used for aa wide
wide
range of
range signal processing
of signal
signal processing applications,
processing applications,including
applications, including wavelength
including wavelength conversion,
wavelength conversion, multicasting,
conversion, multicasting, parametric
multicasting, parametric
parametric
amplification,and
amplification,
amplification, andlaser
and laser
laser spectroscopy.
spectroscopy.
spectroscopy. In this
In In
this this section,
section, theofuse
the use
section, the use
FWM of FWM
of FWM
for for generating
generating
for generating frequency-
frequency-hopping
frequency-
hopping
signal withsignal with
instantaneous instantaneous
hopping hopping
speed speed
(Figure 12) (Figure
will be 12) will
discussed
hopping signal with instantaneous hopping speed (Figure 12) will be discussed [23]. The key be discussed
[23]. The [23].
key of The
the keyof
system ofisthe
the
to
system isis to
system to modulate
modulate RF RF signals
signals on on different
different polarization
polarization of of the
the input
input light—such
light—such that that only
only the the
polarization aligned
polarization aligned with with that
that ofof the
the hopping
hopping codecode sequence
sequence isis switched
switched out out byby FWM.
FWM. In In this
this
approach,aaPM
approach, PMisisusedusedforforpolarization
polarizationmodulation
modulationby byaligning
aligningthe theinput
inputoptical
opticalcarrier
carrieratat45°
45°with
with
respect to
respect to the
the PM PM waveguide
waveguide axes. axes. Therefore,
Therefore, the the polarization
polarization of of the
the pump
pump light
light will
will change
change withwith
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 521 12 of 17

modulate RF signals on different polarization of the input light—such that only the polarization aligned
with that of the hopping code sequence is switched out by FWM. In this approach, a PM is used for
polarization modulation by aligning the input optical carrier at 45◦ with respect to the PM waveguide
axes. Therefore, the polarization of the pump light will change with specified hopping code sequence
Appl. Sci. 2020,
applied onto10, x FOR
the PM.PEER REVIEW FWM, FWM efficiency is the strongest if the polarization of the
In degenerate 12 of 17
two
signals are the same, while no FWM occurs if the polarization of the two signals is orthogonal. Thus,
speed for two-level frequency-hopping signals can be up to tens of picoseconds (<50 ps) resulting
the hopping code sequence modulated pump light will only interact with the either f 1 or f 2 modulated
from the instantaneous response of nonlinear optical mixing and is currently limited by the rise and
light that has the same polarization.
fall time of the hopping code sequence, as shown in Figure 13f.

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17

speed for two-level frequency-hopping signals can be up to tens of picoseconds (<50 ps) resulting
from the instantaneous response of nonlinear optical mixing and is currently limited by the rise and
fall time of the hopping code sequence, as shown in Figure 13f.

Figure 12. Experimental

Experimental setup
setup and
and operation
operation principle
principle of
of real-time
real-time RFRF switching
switching for
for frequency
frequency
hopping
hopping system
system using optical four wave mixing. CW: CW: continuous
continuous wavelength
wavelength laser
laser source;
source; EOM:
EOM:
electro optical modulator;
modulator; EDFA:
EDFA: Erbium-doped
Erbium-doped fiber
fiber amplifier;
amplifier; HNLF:
HNLF: highly
highly nonlinear
nonlinear fiber;
fiber; OTF:
OTF:
optical tunable filter; PD: photodetector. (a) hopping code sequence; (b) and (c) modulated
optical tunable filter; PD: photodetector. (a) hopping code sequence; (b) and (c) modulated RF signals RF
signals
on the on the wavelength
same same wavelength but different
but different polarization;(d)
polarization;(d) FWM FWM results
results afterHNLF;
after HNLF;(e)(e) resultant
frequency-hopping signals.

In the scheme, the optical carrier at λm carries the RF signals f 1 and f 2 at two orthogonal
polarizations, while the hopping code sequence for frequency-hopping control is modulated on λc ,
with x polarization to represent bit 1 and y-polarization to represent bit 0. Therefore, only f 1 is switching
Figure 12. Experimental setup and operation principle of real-time RF switching for frequency
out when the hopping code sequence is at bit 1, while only f 2 is switched out when the hopping code
hopping system using optical four wave mixing. CW: continuous wavelength laser source; EOM:
sequence is at bit 0, as shown in Figure 13a,b. The experiment also shows that switching speed for
electro optical modulator; EDFA: Erbium-doped fiber amplifier; HNLF: highly nonlinear fiber; OTF:
two-level frequency-hopping signals can be up to tens of picoseconds (<50 ps) resulting from the
optical tunable filter; PD: photodetector. (a) hopping code sequence; (b) and (c) modulated RF signals
instantaneous
on the sameresponse of nonlinear
wavelength optical polarization;(d)
but different mixing and is currently limited
FWM results byHNLF;
after the rise(e)
and fall time of
resultant
the hopping code sequence,
frequency-hopping signals. as shown in Figure 13f.

Figure 13. (a) and (b) Temporal waveforms of only 5 GHz or 8 GHz RF signals when a hopping code
sequence of “1011010010” is used in the FWM RF switch; (c) Generated frequency-hopping signal
between 5 GHz and 8 GHz from FWM RF switch controlled by a “1011010010” code sequence, inset:
zoom-in waveform of the orange shaded area; (d) and (e) FWM outputs at x- and y-polarization when
no RF signals are used; (f) Response time measurement for (i) Rising and (ii) Falling edge.

3. Adaptive Frequency-Hopping System Bio-Inspired by a Gene of Electric Fish—Eigenmania

The above frequency-hopping systems are solely depending on a hopping code sequence to
determine what frequency the system should be using. The applied pseudorandom hopping code
Figure
sequence
Figure 13. (a)
(a) and
and (b)
(corresponding
13. (b) Temporal
Temporal
to channel waveforms of only
assignment)
waveforms of onlyis55pre-set
GHz or
GHz or 8to
8 GHz
GHz RF signals
achieve
RF signals when aa hopping
a pre-determined
when hopping code
frequency-
code
sequence
hopping of
sequence
sequence “1011010010”
and is only known
of “1011010010” is used in
is used by the FWM
theFWM
in the RF
transmitter switch; (c)
and target
RF switch; Generated
receiver.
(c) Generated frequency-hopping
Frequency-hopping
frequency-hopping signal
system
signal
between
between
reduces 55 GHz
GHz and
the possibilityandof88jamming
GHz from
GHz fromby
FWM
FWM RF switch
RF
hopping switch controlled
controlled
to different by aa “1011010010”
by
pre-set “1011010010”
frequency at codecode sequence,
sequence,
different inset:
time,inset:
resulting
zoom-in waveform
zoom-in
in extremely waveform of the
of
short dwelling the orange
orange
time atshaded
shaded area; (d)
area;
a particular (d)frequency.
and (e)
and (e) FWM
FWM outputs
Tooutputs at x-
at
facilitatex-aand
and y-polarization
y-polarization
dynamic when
usage when
of the RF
no
no RF
RF signals
signals are
are used;
used; (f)
(f) Response
Response time
time measurement
measurement for
for (i)
(i) Rising
Rising
spectrum, it is desirable to have an adaptive frequency-hopping scheme that responses to the and
and (ii)
(ii) Falling
Falling edge.
edge.
population in the RF spectrum, and hops its frequency to the available spot to avoid jamming and
3. Adaptive Frequency-Hopping System Bio-Inspired by a Gene of Electric Fish—Eigenmania
increases the use of the whole spectrum effectively. Inspired by the jamming-avoidance response (JAR)
The of
in a gene above frequency-hopping
electric fish—Eigenmania,systems are solely
an adaptive depending onphotonic
frequency-hopping a hopping code
circuit sequence
that is capableto
determine
of detectingwhat frequency
potential jamming theandsystem
then should
spectrallybe moves
using. away
The applied
from thepseudorandom
potential jamming hopping
frequencycode
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 521 13 of 17

3. Adaptive Frequency-Hopping System Bio-Inspired by a Gene of Electric Fish—Eigenmania

The above frequency-hopping systems are solely depending on a hopping code sequence
to determine what frequency the system should be using. The applied pseudorandom hopping
code sequence (corresponding to channel assignment) is pre-set to achieve a pre-determined
frequency-hopping sequence and is only known by the transmitter and target receiver. Frequency-
hopping system reduces the possibility of jamming by hopping to different pre-set frequency at
different time, resulting in extremely short dwelling time at a particular frequency. To facilitate a
dynamic usage of the RF spectrum, it is desirable to have an adaptive frequency-hopping scheme that
responses to the population in the RF spectrum, and hops its frequency to the available spot to avoid
jamming and increases the use of the whole spectrum effectively. Inspired by the jamming-avoidance
response (JAR) in a gene of electric fish—Eigenmania, an adaptive frequency-hopping photonic circuit
that is capable of detecting potential jamming and then spectrally moves away from the potential
jamming frequency is experimentally demonstrated [60]. By mimicking the JAR neural algorithm with
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17
photonics [60–62], the resultant dynamic frequency-hopping system has wideband and instantaneous
response benefiting from photonic systems. The dynamic frequency-hopping system is efficient and
from photonic systems. The dynamic frequency-hopping system is efficient and have adaptive
have adaptive capability thanks to the unique design of the neural algorithm. Figure 14 shows the
capability thanks to the unique design of the neural algorithm. Figure 14 shows the block diagram of
block diagram of the bio-inspired photonics-based adaptive frequency-hopping system.
the bio-inspired photonics-based adaptive frequency-hopping system.

Figure
Figure14.
14. Illustration
Illustrationof
ofthe
theJAR
JARdesign
designfor
foradaptive
adaptivefrequency-hopping
frequency-hopping system.
system. The
Thefour
fourfunctional
functional
units are ZeroX unit, Phase unit, Amplitude unit, and Logic
units are ZeroX unit, Phase unit, Amplitude unit, and Logic unit.unit.

As
As shown
shownininFigureFigure14,14, therethereareare
fourfourbuilding blocks
building that enables
blocks that enablesthe JAR,
the including
JAR, including (1) Zero- (1)
crossing point detection
Zero-crossing point detectionunit (ZeroX unit), (2)
unit (ZeroX Phase
unit), detection
(2) Phase unit, (3)
detection Amplitude
unit, unit, and
(3) Amplitude unit, (4)and
Logic(4)
unit.
LogicInunit.
the In
scheme,
the scheme,the reference
the reference signal is the
signal current
is the currenttransmitting
transmitting frequency,
frequency,whilewhilethe thejamming
jamming
signal
signalcould
couldbe bethe
thetransmitting
transmitting frequency
frequency occupied
occupiedby byanother
another user. All signals
user. are modulated
All signals are modulated onto
optical carriers
onto optical such that
carriers suchtheythat cantheybecan processed in theinoptical
be processed domain
the optical usingusing
domain the photonic
the photonic JAR. JAR.
The
photonic
The photonicZeroX unit unit
ZeroX uses uses
self-phase
self-phasemodulation
modulation and offset spectral
and offset filtering
spectral to generate
filtering to generatespikes at the
spikes at
positive zero-crossing
the positive zero-crossing points
pointsof the reference
of the reference signal.
signal.AAbeat beatsignal,
signal,SSBB(t)(t)==sin(2πf
sin(2πfRRt)t)++ sin(2πf
sin(2πfJt),J t),
between
betweenthe thereference
referencesignalsignaland andthe thejamming
jammingsignal signalisisgenerated
generatedand andwillwillbebeused
usedin inthe
thephase
phaseunit.unit.
The
The phase unit takestakes bothboththethezero-crossing
zero-crossingspikes spikesandandthe the
beatbeat signal
signal as as
thethe input,
input, andand use use cross-
cross-gain
gain modulation
modulation in SOAin SOA to identify
to identify the phase
the phase relationship
relationship between
between them. them.
The The
beatbeat signal
signal is theis pump
the pump that
that
triestries to deplete
to deplete the carriers
the carriers in the inSOA
the SOA to induce
to induce cross-gain
cross-gain modulation,
modulation, whilewhile the zero-crossing
the zero-crossing point
point
spikesspikes
are theare the probe
probe signalsignal
that couldthat could experience
experience the cross-gain
the cross-gain modulation
modulation effect.effect. Each in
Each peak peak
the
in thesignal
beat beat signal
and theandzero-crossing
the zero-crossing spikes spikes
are a are a pair,
pair, which which is either
is either able able
or not orable
not able
to haveto have cross-
cross-gain
gain modulation,
modulation, depending
depending on theon thephase phase relationship
relationship within
within thethe pair.
pair. If the
If the phase
phase of of
thethe beat
beat signalis
signal
is leading,
leading, the
the peak
peak ofof
thethe beat
beat signal
signal enters
enters thethe
SOASOA before
before thethe zero-crossing
zero-crossing spike
spike andandcausescauses cross-
cross-gain
gain modulation
modulation to thetozero-crossing
the zero-crossing spike.spike.
On the Onother
the hand,
other hand, if the of
if the phase phase of the
the beat beatissignal
signal lagging, is
lagging, the peak of the beat signal enters the SOA after the zero-crossing
the peak of the beat signal enters the SOA after the zero-crossing spike, making it unable to cause spike, making it unable to
cause cross-gain
cross-gain modulation
modulation to the zero-crossing
to the zero-crossing spike. Therefore,
spike. Therefore, a weak zero-crossing
a weak zero-crossing spike is resultedspike isif
resulted if the phase of the beat signal is leading, while a strong zero-crossing spike is resulted if the
phase of the beat signal is lagging. Then, the amplitude unit takes the envelope of the beat signal and
make an inverted copy using cross-gain modulation at an SOA. By adding the non-inverted beat
signal envelope with a delayed inverted beat signal envelope, a high output is resulted if the envelope
amplitude is increasing, while a low output is resulted if the envelope amplitude is decreasing. Lastly,
the logic unit takes the phase and amplitude information and determine if the JAR should increase,
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 521 14 of 17

the phase of the beat signal is leading, while a strong zero-crossing spike is resulted if the phase of the
beat signal is lagging. Then, the amplitude unit takes the envelope of the beat signal and make an
inverted copy using cross-gain modulation at an SOA. By adding the non-inverted beat signal envelope
with a delayed inverted beat signal envelope, a high output is resulted if the envelope amplitude is
increasing, while a low output is resulted if the envelope amplitude is decreasing. Lastly, the logic
unit takes the phase and amplitude information and determine if the JAR should increase, decrease,
or maintain the reference signal frequency based on a XOR relationship.
Figure 15 shows the spectral waterfall of the reference signal measured by a software-defined
radio (SDR) that represents how the reference signal adaptively hops to a different frequency when a
jammer is approaching it spectrally. Figure 15a,b corresponds to a lower jamming frequency (in the
red box), while Figure 15c,d corresponds to a higher jamming frequency (in the red box). The JAR
maintains a minimum frequency separation of 150 MHz between the jammer and the reference signal
Appl.
by Sci. 2020, to
hopping 10,ax different
FOR PEER frequency
REVIEW when it is spectrally too close. 14 of 17

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 15.
Figure 15. Spectral waterfall measurement of the photonic JAR in in action
action withwith sinusoidal
sinusoidal reference
reference
signal f
signal fR R and jamming signals fJ
J .(a) The jamming signal fJJ is approaching
approaching R f R from the low frequency
frequency
side and triggers
side triggers the
theJAR,
JAR,(b)
(b)The
Thejamming signalfJ is
jammingsignal fJ approaching
is approaching fR from
fR fromthe the
lowlow
frequency
frequencysideside
and
triggers
and the JAR,
triggers and then
the JAR, and isthen
moved away, away,
is moved (c) The(c)jamming
The jammingsignal fJsignal
is approaching fR from the
fJ is approaching fR high-
from
frequency
the side andside
high-frequency triggers the JAR,the
and triggers (d)JAR,
The(d)jamming
The jamming fJ is approaching
signal signal fJ is approachingfR fromfR the
from high-
the
frequency side and
high-frequency sidetriggers the JAR
and triggers the and
JAR then is moved
and then away.
is moved away.

4. Discussions and
4. Discussions and Conclusions
Conclusions
This
This paper
paper reviews
reviews several
several state-of-the-art
state-of-the-art microwave
microwave photonic
photonic frequency-hopping
frequency-hopping systemssystems that
that
enable
enable fast frequency-hopping for wireless RF systems. Frequency-hopping systems has the potential
fast frequency-hopping for wireless RF systems. Frequency-hopping systems has the potential
to
to improve
improve information
information security,
security, mitigate
mitigate jamming
jamming and and interference,
interference, and and increase
increase spectral
spectral efficiency,
efficiency,
which
which are
are of
of great
great interest
interest in
in military,
military, commercial,
commercial,and and consumer
consumer applications.
applications. Microwave
Microwave photonics
photonics
have
have been promising in providing improved hopping speed and frequency-hopping bandwidth
been promising in providing improved hopping speed and frequency-hopping bandwidth
compared
comparedtotoits its electronic counterparts,
electronic which which
counterparts, essentially increasesincreases
essentially the capabilitythe ofcapability
data transmission,
of data
improves information security as well as enhanced signal fidelity. Recent advancement
transmission, improves information security as well as enhanced signal fidelity. Recent advancement in microwave
photonic frequency-hopping
in microwave schemes enableschemes
photonic frequency-hopping hoppingenable
speed ranging
hoppingfrom speed picoseconds
ranging fromto nanoseconds
picoseconds
and the hopping-frequency bandwidth over tens of GHz with hopping
to nanoseconds and the hopping-frequency bandwidth over tens of GHz with hopping stability. stability. Moreover, some
of the microwave photonic approaches could be used for multi-level frequency-hopping,
Moreover, some of the microwave photonic approaches could be used for multi-level frequency- including
flexible
hopping, OEOs, tunable
including MWP
flexible filters,
OEOs, and nonlinear
tunable MWP filters,period-one dynamics
and nonlinear in lasers.
period-one To achieve
dynamics both
in lasers.
multi-level
To achievefrequency-hopping
both multi-level and fast switching speed,
frequency-hopping and multiple frequency-hopping
fast switching speed, multipleapproaches with
frequency-
fast switching time could be incorporated together to increase the level of frequency-hopping
hopping approaches with fast switching time could be incorporated together to increase the level of while
maintaining the highwhile
frequency-hopping hopping speed. the high hopping speed.
maintaining
The
The rapid development ofreal-time
rapid development of real-time frequency-hopping
frequency-hopping speed
speedas well as the
as well as transparency of data
the transparency of
formats, frequency, phase and amplitude in the frequency-hopping system
data formats, frequency, phase and amplitude in the frequency-hopping system could be potentially could be potentially
used
used inin the
the future
future THzTHz wireless
wireless communication
communication and and be be used
used in in any
any wireless
wireless communication
communication
transmission scenario. Furthermore, the development of bio-inspired adaptive frequency-hopping
system could identify the available hopping frequency and simultaneously allow the jamming-free
frequency-hopping data transmission. Looking forward, the practical application of microwave
photonic frequency-hopping system can be further improved and optimized by miniature,
integration, and incorporating intelligence to adapt to more sophisticated wireless communications.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 521 15 of 17

transmission scenario. Furthermore, the development of bio-inspired adaptive frequency-hopping

system could identify the available hopping frequency and simultaneously allow the jamming-free
frequency-hopping data transmission. Looking forward, the practical application of microwave
photonic frequency-hopping system can be further improved and optimized by miniature, integration,
and incorporating intelligence to adapt to more sophisticated wireless communications.

Author Contributions: Resources and Review, Q.L.; Project Administration and Supervision, M.P.F.; All authors
contributed to data analysis and manuscript writing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: The research work is supported by research grant from National Science Foundation, grant numbers
ECCS 1653525 and ECCS 1917043.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Simon, M.K.; Omura, J.K.; Scholtz, R.A.; Levitt, B.K. Spread Spectrum Communications Handbook; McGraw-Hill:
New York, NY, USA, 1994; Volume 2.
2. Hu, W.; Willkomm, D.; Abusubaih, M.; Gross, J.; Vlantis, G.; Gerla, M.; Wolisz, A. Dynamic frequency
hopping communities for efficient IEEE 802.22 operation. IEEE Commun. Mag. 2007, 45, 80–87. [CrossRef]
3. Mahafza, B.R. Introduction to Radar Analysis; Chapman and Hall/CRC: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2017.
4. Aykin, I.; Krunz, M.; Xiao, Y. Adaptive frequency-hopping schemes for CR-based multi-link satellite networks.
Int. J. Satell. Commun. Netw. 2018, 36, 315–331. [CrossRef]
5. Muller, N.J. Bluetooth Demystified; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 2001; Volume 1.
6. Fritz, D.A.; Moy, D.W.; Nichols, R.A. Modeling and simulation of Advanced EHF efficiency enhancements.
In Proceedings of the MILCOM, Atlantic City, NJ, USA, 31 October–3 November 1999; pp. 354–358.
7. Montgomery, J.; Runyon, D.; Fuller, J. Large multibeam lens antennas for EHF SATCOM. In Proceedings
of the MILCOM 88, 21st Century Military Communications-What‘s Possible? Conference record, Military
Communications Conference, San Diego, CA, USA, 23–26 October 1988; pp. 369–373.
8. Capmany, J.; Novak, D. Microwave photonics combines two worlds. Nat. Photonics 2007, 1, 319. [CrossRef]
9. Liu, Q.; Yan, J.; Xin, F. Microwave waveform generation with reconfigurable envelope and high fidelity based
on spectrum compensated frequency-to-time mapping. Opt. Fiber Technol. 2017, 36, 291–296. [CrossRef]
10. Pan, S.; Zhang, Y. Tunable and wideband microwave photonic phase shifter based on a single-sideband
polarization modulator and a polarizer. Opt. Lett. 2012, 37, 4483–4485. [CrossRef]
11. Fok, M.; Lee, K.; Shu, C. 4/spl times/2.5 GHz repetitive photonic sampler for high-speed analog-to-digital
signal conversion. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 2004, 16, 876–878. [CrossRef]
12. Liu, Q.; Fok, M.P. Dual-Function Frequency and Doppler Shift Measurement System using a Phase Modulator
Incorporated Lyot Filter. In Proceedings of the Optical Fiber Communications Conference and Exhibition,
San Diego, CA, USA, 3–7 March 2019; pp. 1–3.
13. Xin, F.; Yan, J.; Liu, Q. Microwave frequency measurement based on optical phase modulation and stimulated
Brillouin scattering. Electron. Lett. 2017, 53, 937–939. [CrossRef]
14. Su, F.; Wu, G.; Chen, J. Photonic analog-to-digital conversion with equivalent analog prefiltering by shaping
sampling pulses. Opt. Lett. 2016, 41, 2779–2782. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
15. Ma, Y.; Liang, D.; Peng, D.; Zhang, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, S.; Liu, Y. Broadband high-resolution microwave
frequency measurement based on low-speed photonic analog-to-digital converters. Opt. Express 2017, 25,
2355–2368. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Dai, Y.; Li, J.; Zhang, Z.; Yin, F.; Li, W.; Xu, K. Real-time frequency-to-time mapping based on spectrally-discrete
chromatic dispersion. Opt. Express 2017, 25, 16660–16671. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Yao, J. Photonics to the rescue: A fresh look at microwave photonic filters. IEEE Microw. Mag. 2015, 16, 46–60.
[CrossRef]
18. Zhang, J.; Chan, E.H.W.; Wang, X.; Feng, X.; Guan, B. High conversion efficiency photonic microwave mixer
with image rejection capability. IEEE Photonics J. 2016, 8, 1–11. [CrossRef]
19. Zhu, D.; Hu, X.; Chen, W.; Ben, D.; Pan, S. Photonics-enabled simultaneous self-interference cancellation and
image-reject mixing. Opt. Lett. 2019, 44, 5541–5544. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 521 16 of 17

20. Azaña, J.; Chen, L.R. Synthesis of temporal optical waveforms by fiber Bragg gratings: A new approach
based on space-to-frequency-to-time mapping. J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 2002, 19, 2758–2769. [CrossRef]
21. Tseng, C.-H.; Hung, Y.-H.; Hwang, S.-K. Frequency-modulated continuous-wave microwave generation
using stabilized period-one nonlinear dynamics of semiconductor lasers. Opt. Lett. 2019, 44, 3334–3337.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. Zhou, P.; Li, N.; Pan, S. Photonic microwave harmonic down-converter based on stabilized period-one
nonlinear dynamics of semiconductor lasers. Opt. Lett. 2019, 44, 4869–4872. [CrossRef]
23. Liu, Q.; Fok, M.P. Real-time Temporal Signal Stitching Using Polarization-Dependent Optical Wave Mixing.
In Proceedings of the Frontiers in Optics, Washington, DC, USA, 15–19 September 2019; p. FTu5B. 4.
24. Jiang, H.; Yan, L.; Pan, W.; Luo, B.; Zou, X. Ultra-high speed RF filtering switch based on stimulated Brillouin
scattering. Opt. Lett. 2018, 43, 279–282. [CrossRef]
25. Jiang, H.; Yan, L.; Pan, Y.; Pan, W.; Luo, B.; Zou, X.; Eggleton, B. Microwave photonic comb filter with
ultra-fast tunability. Opt. Lett. 2015, 40, 4895–4898. [CrossRef]
26. Ge, J.; Fok, M.P. Ultra high-speed radio frequency switch based on photonics. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 17263.
[CrossRef]
27. Ge, J.; Fok, M.P. Optically controlled fast reconfigurable microwave photonic dual-band filter based on
nonlinear polarization rotation. IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. 2016, 65, 253–259. [CrossRef]
28. Chen, Y. High-speed and wideband frequency-hopping microwave signal generation via switching the bias
point of an optical modulator. IEEE Photonics J. 2018, 10, 1–7. [CrossRef]
29. Zhou, P.; Zhang, F.; Ye, X.; Guo, Q.; Pan, S. Flexible frequency-hopping microwave generation by dynamic
control of optically injected semiconductor laser. IEEE Photonics J. 2016, 8, 1–9. [CrossRef]
30. Supradeepa, V.; Long, C.M.; Wu, R.; Ferdous, F.; Hamidi, E.; Leaird, D.E.; Weiner, A.M. Comb-based
radio-frequency photonic filters: Routes to nanosecond tuning speed and extremely high stopband
attenuation. arXiv 2011, arXiv:1105.0722.
31. Li, W.; Zhang, W.; Yao, J. Frequency-hopping microwave waveform generation based on a frequency-tunable
optoelectronic oscillator. In Proceedings of the Optical Fiber Communication Conference, San Francisco, CA,
USA, 9–13 March 2014; pp. 1–3.
32. Zhou, F.; Wang, X.; Yan, S.; Hu, X.; Zhang, Y.; Qiu, H.; Xiao, X.; Dong, J.; Zhang, X. Frequency-hopping
microwave generation with a large time-bandwidth product. IEEE Photonics J. 2018, 10, 1–9. [CrossRef]
33. Hindle, P. The state of RF/microwave switches. Microw. J. 2010, 53, 20–36.
34. Shi, N.; Zhu, X.; Sun, S.; Li, W.; Zhu, N.; Li, M. Fast-Switching Microwave Photonic Filter Using an Integrated
Spectrum Shaper. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 2019, 31, 269–272. [CrossRef]
35. Yan, J.; Liang, A.; Xin, F.; Liu, Q. An Optical Microwave Generator based on Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
with Fine Tunability. In Proceedings of the Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, San Jose, CA, USA,
13–18 May 2018; pp. 1–2.
36. Cheng, Y.; Yan, J.; Zhao, S. Self-Oscillating Parametric Optical Frequency Comb Generation Using an
Electroabsorption Modulated Laser-Based Optoelectronic Oscillator. IEEE Photonics J. 2019, 11, 1–9. [CrossRef]
37. Liu, A.; Dai, J.; Xu, K. Stable and Low-Spurs Optoelectronic Oscillators: A Review. Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2623.
[CrossRef]
38. Hunter, I.; Rhodes, J.D. Electronically tunable microwave bandpass filters. IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech.
1982, 30, 1354–1360. [CrossRef]
39. Zhang, X.Y.; Xue, Q.; Chan, C.H.; Hu, B.-J. Low-loss frequency-agile bandpass filters with controllable
bandwidth and suppressed second harmonic. IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. 2010, 58, 1557–1564.
[CrossRef]
40. Zhang, L.; Chan, S.-C. Cascaded injection of semiconductor lasers in period-one oscillations for
millimeter-wave generation. Opt. Lett. 2019, 44, 4905–4908. [CrossRef]
41. Usechak, N.G.; Suelzer, J.S.; Haefner, J.W. High-speed wideband voltage-controlled oscillator via an
injection-locked laser. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 2017, 29, 1132–1135. [CrossRef]
42. Ge, J.; Garon, D.A.; Liu, Q.; Fok, M.P. Reconfigurable microwave photonic spectral shaper. In Proceedings of
the Optical Fiber Communication Conference, San Diego, CA, USA, 3–7 March 2019; pp. 1–3.
43. Ge, J.; Fok, M.P. Passband switchable microwave photonic multiband filter. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 15882.
[CrossRef]
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 521 17 of 17

44. Fok, M.P.; Ge, J.; Liu, Q. Dynamic and multiband RF spectral processing. In Proceedings of the Smart
Photonic and Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits XXI, San Francisco, CA, USA, 4 March 2019; pp. 105–113.
45. Marpaung, D.; Morrison, B.; Pagani, M.; Pant, R.; Choi, D.-Y.; Luther-Davies, B.; Madden, S.J.; Eggleton, B.J.
Low-power, chip-based stimulated Brillouin scattering microwave photonic filter with ultrahigh selectivity.
Optica 2015, 2, 76–83. [CrossRef]
46. Liu, Q.; Ge, J.; Fok, M.P. Microwave photonic multiband filter with independently tunable passband spectral
properties. Opt. Lett. 2018, 43, 5685–5688. [CrossRef]
47. Hamidi, E.; Leaird, D.E.; Weiner, A.M. Tunable programmable microwave photonic filters based on an optical
frequency comb. IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. 2010, 58, 3269–3278. [CrossRef]
48. Ge, J.; Feng, H.; Scott, G.; Fok, M.P. High-speed tunable microwave photonic notch filter based on phase
modulator incorporated Lyot filter. Opt. Lett. 2015, 40, 48–51. [CrossRef]
49. Fu, S.; Wang, M.; Zhong, W.-D.; Shum, P.; Wen, Y.J.; Wu, J.; Lin, J. SOA nonlinear polarization rotation with
linear polarization maintenance: Characterization and applications. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 2008,
14, 816–825. [CrossRef]
50. Mathlouthi, W.; Vacondio, F.; Lemieux, P.; Rusch, L.A. SOA gain recovery wavelength dependence: Simulation
and measurement using a single-color pump-probe technique. Opt. Express 2008, 16, 20656–20665. [CrossRef]
51. Marpaung, D.; Roeloffzen, C.; Heideman, R.; Leinse, A.; Sales, S.; Capmany, J. Integrated microwave
photonics. Laser Photonics Rev. 2013, 7, 506–538. [CrossRef]
52. Zou, X.; Zou, F.; Cao, Z.; Lu, B.; Yan, X.; Yu, G.; Deng, X.; Luo, B.; Yan, L.; Pan, W. A Multifunctional Photonic
Integrated Circuit for Diverse Microwave Signal Generation, Transmission, and Processing. Laser Photonics
Rev. 2019, 13, 1800240. [CrossRef]
53. Marpaung, D.; Pagani, M.; Morrison, B.; Eggleton, B.J. Nonlinear integrated microwave photonics. J. Light.
Technol. 2014, 32, 3421–3427. [CrossRef]
54. Liang, W.; Eliyahu, D.; Ilchenko, V.S.; Savchenkov, A.A.; Matsko, A.B.; Seidel, D.; Maleki, L. High spectral
purity Kerr frequency comb radio frequency photonic oscillator. Nat. Commun. 2015, 6, 7957. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
55. Xue, X.; Xuan, Y.; Liu, Y.; Wang, P.-H.; Chen, S.; Wang, J.; Leaird, D.E.; Qi, M.; Weiner, A.M. Mode-locked
dark pulse Kerr combs in normal-dispersion microresonators. Nat. Photonics 2015, 9, 594. [CrossRef]
56. Reed, G.T.; Mashanovich, G.; Gardes, F.Y.; Thomson, D. Silicon optical modulators. Nat. Photonics 2010, 4,
518. [CrossRef]
57. Fok, M.P.; Prucnal, P.R. Polarization Effect on OpticalxorPerformance Based on Four-Wave Mixing. IEEE
Photonics Technol. Lett. 2010, 22, 1096–1098. [CrossRef]
58. Fok, M.P.; Prucnal, P.R. All-optical XOR gate with optical feedback using highly Ge-doped nonlinear fiber
and a terahertz optical asymmetric demultiplexer. Appl. Opt. 2011, 50, 237–241. [CrossRef]
59. Yu, C.; Christen, L.; Luo, T.; Wang, Y.; Pan, Z.; Yan, L.-S.; Willner, A.E. All-optical XOR gate using polarization
rotation in single highly nonlinear fiber. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 2005, 17, 1232–1234.
60. Lin, R.; Ge, J.; Tran, P.; Perea, L.A.; Toole, R.; Fok, M.P. Biomimetic photonics: Jamming avoidance system in
Eigenmannia. Opt. Express 2018, 26, 13349–13360. [CrossRef]
61. Toole, R.; Fok, M.P. A photonic RF jamming avoidance response system bio-inspired by Eigenmannia.
In Proceedings of the Optical Fiber Communications Conference and Exhibition (OFC), Anaheim, CA, USA,
20–24 March 2016; pp. 1–3.
62. Toole, R.; Fok, M.P. Photonic implementation of a neuronal algorithm applicable towards angle of arrival
detection and localization. Opt. Express 2015, 23, 16133–16141. [CrossRef]

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).