Chapter 4 Dependent (DV) – A variable that may change in
response in variations with other variables; it is an
Research Idea – Is an initial idea that can be evolved
into a defined research project. It is the first step for a
research project proposal.
Rational Thinking Technique – Are those use to
generate research ideas using systematic approach such
as searching the literature or examining past projects.
Creative thinking technique – Is based on non-rational
criteria such as biases, preference of the researcher(s)
or adviser, ideas of an individual or others.
Introduction – Is the first passage in a journal article,
dissertation, or scholarly research study. It sets the stage
for the entire research study through establishing the
issue concern leading to the research, by conveying
information about a research problem (Research Paper
Advisor, 2017).
Statement of the problem – Is used in research work as
a claim that outlines the problem addressed by the
study (Bwisa 2018).
 Descriptive = What, When, Where, Why, How
 Exploratory = What and How
 Explanatory = Why
 Evaluative = What and How
Research aim – Is a brief statement of the purpose of
the research project.
Research objectives – Is used to provide a clear sense of
purpose and direction for the research. Research
objectives should be closely related to the statement of
the problem and summarized what the researcher(s)
hope to achieve.
Criteria for useful objectives
 Transparency (What does it mean?)
 Specificity (What I am going to do?)
 Relevance (Why I am going to do this?)
 Interconnectivity (How will it help to complete
the research project?)
 Answerability (Will this be possible?) (Where
shall I obtain data?)
 Measurability (When will it be done?)
Hypothesis – Is an educated guess and used as the basis
for conducting research. Hence, it is considered as the
backbone of the research where from an educated
guess a result can be found by gathering evidence base
knowledge. Research hypothesis is a testable statement
that there is an association, difference or relationship
between two or more variables. It is a testable
proposition about the relationship between two or
more events or concepts (Saunders, 2016).
Types of Research Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis (H01) – Predicts that there will not be a
significant difference or relationship between variables.
Null hypothesis is tested statistically.
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha or H1) – Predicts that there
may be a significant difference or relationship between
variables.
Types of Variables
Independent (IV) – A variable that is being used or
altered to measure its impact on a dependent variable.
It is also considered as the cause.
observed outcome or the result from the changes of
another variable. It is also called as the effect.
Mediating (MV) – It is a variable in the middle of
independent and dependent variables which would
explain possible relationship between independent and
dependent variables.
Moderator – A new variables that will be used that may
affect the relationship between independent and
dependent variable.
Control – Is an additional or measurable variable that
needs to be controlled in order to not influence the
effect of the independent on the dependent variable.
Confounding – It is a variable that is difficult to observe
or measure that can lessen the inferences drawn
between the IV and DV.
Theoretical Framework - It is the blueprint or guide for
research (Adom, Hussein, and Agyem, 2018 quoting
Grant & Osanloo, 2014). Furthermore, theoretical
framework is based on an existing and establish theory
(widely known, accepted, and used) which reflects the
hypothesis of the study. Also, according to Adom,
Hussein, and Agyem (2018), it is often ‘borrowed’ by the
researcher(s) to build his/her own research inquire.
Conceptual Framework - A conceptual framework
illustrates the expectations to find through the research.
It defines the relevant variables for the study and maps
out their relationship (Swaen, 2020). According to
Afribary (2015), it is the researchers’ idea on how the
research problem will have to be explored. It is also
called the research paradigm.
Significance of the Study - The significance of the study
is written with a purpose of making it clear why the
current study is needed and its contribution to further
the academic knowledge in a specific field
(discoverphds.com, 2020). It should outline who are the
group of people or audience that will directly or
indirectly benefit from the study and what are the said
benefits to them. The beneficiaries of the research
should be from specific (direct beneficiaries) to general
(indirect beneficiaries).
Time and Place of the Study - Should discussed the time
the study to be conducted from the research proposal
or outline defense date until the target date when the
research manuscript is submitted and approved by the
dean or campus administrator.
Scope and Limitation of the Study - The scope of a
study explains the extent to which the research area will
be explored in the work and specifies the parameters
within the study will be operating.
Limitations – Are influences that the researcher cannot
control. They are the shortcomings, conditions or
influences that cannot be controlled by the researcher
that place restrictions on your methodology and
conclusions.
Delimitations – Are choices made by the researcher(s)
which should be declared.
Assumptions – Are accepted as true (or at least
reasonable) by the researcher(s) and approved through
peer review.
Definition of Terms – An alphabetical list of important
terms or acronyms that you define, particularly
ambiguous terms or those used in a special way.
Theoretical definitions – Are basic dictionary definitions
while Operational definitions define an object, event,
variable, concept, or construct in terms of the specific
processes, tests, and measurements used to determine
its presence or quantity.
Chapter 5
Literature review is a research activity undertaken to
demonstrate knowledge about the extant literature of
the field and a critical evaluation of those studies. It
identifies the gaps between studies previously
conducted with a view of locating one’s investigation at
a broader context.
Purpose and Types of Critical Review (University of
Southern California, 2014)
The precise purpose and type of critical review you
undertake will depend on your research question and
aim.
1. Integrative review - Critiques and synthesizes
representative literature on a topic in an integrative way
to generate new frameworks and perspectives on a
topic.
2. Historical review - Which examines the evolution of
research on a particular topic over a period of time to
place it in an historical context.
3. Theoretical review - Which examines the body of
theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue,
concept, theory or phenomenon.
4. Methodological review - Which focuses on research
approaches strategies, data collection techniques or
analysis procedures, rather than the research findings.
Methodological reviews are often used to provide a
framework for understanding a method or methodology
and to enable researchers to draw on a wide body of
methodological knowledge.
5. Systematic Review - Which uses a comprehensive
pre-planned strategy for locating, critically appraising,
analyzing and synthesizing existing research that is
pertinent to a clearly formulated research question to
allow conclusions to be reached about what is known.
Approaches used in critical review
1. Deductive approach - use the literature to help
identify theories and ideas to test using data.
2. Inductive approach - explores data to develop
theories that will subsequently relate to the literature in
subsequent discussion.
Useful skills for effective reading (Harvard College
Library, 2013)
1. Previewing - which is considering the precise purpose
of the text before you start reading in order to establish
it.
2. Annotating - conducting a dialogue with oneself, the
author and the issues and ideas at stake. Outlining the
argument of a text can be done quite informally in the
margins of the text.
3. Summarizing - the best way to determine that you’ve
really got the point is to be able to state it in your own
words.
4. Comparing and contrasting - asking oneself how the
thinking has been altered by a certain reading or how it
has affected the researcher’s response to the issues and
themes in your research.
Sources of Information for Literature Review
Primary resources contain first-hand information. It is
the researcher’s own account on the specific topic.
These are the researcher’s original works or raw data
without interpretation or pronouncements that
represent an official opinion or position.
Secondary sources are interpretations of primary data.
Secondary sources often lack the freshness and
immediacy of the original material.
Evaluating Information Sources
Researchers using secondary sources of information
should always make it a point to evaluate the source
regardless of whether they are in printed or electronic
form. It is suggested that the following criteria be used
to evaluate the information source.
Criteria for evaluating information sources
1. Purpose - The researcher should always look for the
explicit or hidden agenda of the information source.
2. Scope - The researcher should check the breadth and
depth of topic coverage, including time period,
geographic limitations, and the criteria for information
inclusion.
3. Authority - The researcher should evaluate the level
of the data and the credentials of the source author(s).
4. Audience - The researcher should evaluate the
characteristics and background of the people or groups
for whom the source was created.
5. Format - The researcher should evaluate how the
information is presented and the degree of ease of
locating specific information within the source.
Framework of a literature review
1. Chronological – Older to recent or vice-versa.
2. Thematic – Group according to sub topics; General to
specific or vice-versa.
3. Methodological – Comparison of different methods
used on different research.
4. Theoretical – Use to discuss opposing theories or
models or perception or result.
Plagiarism - Plagiarism is defined as presenting
someone else’s work or ideas as one’s own, with or
without consent, by incorporating it into one’s work
without full acknowledgment.
Types of Plagiarism
1. Secondary source (also called inaccurate citation) - It
happens when a researcher uses a secondary source,
but only cites the primary sources contained within the
secondary one.
2. Invalid source attribution (also called misleading
citation, fabrication, falsification) – It occurs when
researchers reference either an incorrect or nonexistent
source.
3. Duplication (also called self-plagiarism, reuse) - It
happens when the researcher reuses work from their
own previous studies and papers without attribution.
4. Paraphrasing (also called intellectual theft) - It
happens when a researcher takes another person’s
writing and change the words making it appear that an
idea or even a piece of research is original when, in
truth, it came from an uncited outside source.
5. Repetitive research - It happens when a data or text
from a similar study with a similar methodology is
repeated without proper attribution.
6. Replication (also called author submission violation) -
It happens when a research paper is submitted to
multiple publications, resulting in the same manuscript
being published more than once with the researcher
claiming that it is new when it has been published
elsewhere.
7. Misleading attribution (also called inaccurate
authorship) - It happens when authors are denied credit
for partial or significant contributions made to a study
or the opposite – when authors are cited in a paper
although no contributions were made.
8. Unethical collaboration - It happens when people
who are working together violate a code of conduct.
9. Verbatim plagiarism (also called copy-and-paste) - It
happens when a researcher copies another author’s
works without proper attribution, indentation, or
quotation marks.
10. Complete plagiarism (also known as stealing) - It
happens when a researcher takes the entire work of
another and resubmits it as his/her own.
APA Format - APA is the stye of documentation of
sources used by the American Psychological Association.
This form of writing research papers is used mainly in
social sciences as well as education and other fields.
Different APA Style
1. Books = Author - Year - Title - Place of Publication –
Publisher.
2. Online Articles = Authors surname, (initials) - Year,
month, day of publishing - Title - Retrieved from URL.
3. Journals = Author - Year - Article Title - Journal Title -
Volume - Pages – DOI.

4. Dissertation = Author last name - Author and second

initial - Year - Title of doctoral dissertation or masteral
thesis - Publication Number - Institution – Publisher.