1

ME 3103: Fluid Mechanics & Machinery

Md. Selim Reza

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 Definition of Fluid Machine 2

A fluid machine is a device either for converting the energy held by a

fluid into mechanical energy or vice versa.
A machine in which energy from a fluid is converted directly to the
mechanical energy of a rotating shaft is known as a turbine. If,
however, the initial mechanical movement is a reciprocating one the
term engine or motor is used.
A machine in which the transfer of energy from moving parts to the fluid
takes place is given the general title of pump.

If the primary object of the fluid machine is to increase the pressure of

the gas, the machine is termed a compressor.

A machine used primarily for causing the movement of a gas is known as

a fan or blower.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 2/35

 3
Positive Displacement vs. Rotodynamic Machines
The functioning of a positive-displacement machine derives from changes
of the volume occupied by the fluid within the machine.
Although hydrodynamic effects may be associated with a positive-
displacement machine, the operation of the machine itself depends only on
mechanical and hydrostatic principles.
In turbomachines, fluid passes thru a rotor (in a turbine it is called runner,
for a pump it is often termed impeller), that incurs a component of velocity
and thereby of momentum in a direction tangential to the rotor, and the
rate at which this tangential momentum is changed corresponds to a
tangential force on the rotor.
In a turbine there is a reduction of the tangential momentum of the fluid in
the direction of movement of the rotor; thus energy is transferred from the
fluid to the rotor. In a pump, energy from the rotor is used to increase the
tangential momentum of the fluid; subsequent deceleration of the fluid
produces a rise in pressure.
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 3/35
 Pertinence of Turbomachines 4

The flow from most positive-displacement machines is unsteady whereas, for

normal conditions of operation, that from a rotodynamic machine is
essentially steady.
Most positive-displacement machines require small clearances between moving
and stationary parts, and so are unsuited to handling fluids containing solid
particles; in general, rotodynamic machines are not restricted in this way.
If discharge from a positive-displacement pump is prevented – for example, by
the closing of a valve – the pressure within the pump rises and either the
pump stops or some part of the casing bursts; while if the discharge valve of a
rotodynamic pump is closed, however, the rotating impeller merely churns the
fluid round, and the energy consumed is converted to heat.

For dealing with a given overall rate of flow a rotodynamic machine is usually
less bulky than one of positive-displacement type.
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 4/35
 5
Basis Equations for Turbomachinery
The real flow through an impeller is three dimensional, that is, velocity of the
fluid is a function of three positional coordinates, say, in the cylindrical
system r, θ and z, as shown in Fig. 1. Thus, there is a variation of velocity
not only along the radius but also across the blade passage in any plane
parallel to the impeller rotation, say from the upper side of one blade to
the underside of the adjacent blade, which constitutes an abrupt change –
a discontinuity. Also, there is a variation of velocity in the meridional plane,
i.e. along the axis of the impeller. The velocity distribution is dependent upon the number of blades, their
shapes and thicknesses, as well as on the width of the impeller and its
variation with radius. The one-dimensional theory simplifies the problem
very considerably by making the following assumptions:
1. The blades are infinitely thin and the pressure difference across them is
replaced by imaginary body forces acting on the fluid and producing
torque.
2. The number of blades is infinitely large, so that the variation of velocity
across blade passages is reduced and tends to zero. This assumption is
equivalent to stipulating axisymmetric flow, in which there is perfect
symmetry with regard to the axis of impeller rotation. Thus, ∂v/ ∂Ө = 0
3. Over that part of the impeller where transfer of energy takes place
(blade passages) there is no variation of velocity in the meridional plane,
i.e. across the width of the impeller. Thus, ∂v/ ∂z = 0

Based on these assumptions for the 1-D flow, v = f (r, θ, z) reduces to

Fig. 1: A centrifugal impeller relative to cylindrical coordinates
v∞ = f (r).

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 5/35

 Turbomachinery: Euler’s Equation 6

The general expression for the energy transfer between the impeller and the fluid, based on
the one-dimensional theory. From Newton’s second law applied to angular motion,
Torque = Rate of change of angular momentum

Angular momentum = (Mass)×(Tangential velocity) ×(Radius)

Angular momentum entering the impeller per second = ṁvw1r1

Angular momentum leaving the impeller per second = ṁvw2r2
in which is ṁ the mass of fluid flowing per second.
Hence, rate of change of angular momentum = ṁvw2r2 - ṁvw1r1
So, torque transmitted, T = ṁ(vw2r2 - vw1r1)
Since the work done in unit time is given by the product of torque and angular velocity,
Work done per second = T.ω = ṁ(vw2r2 - vw1r1). ω
Fig. 2: 1-D flow through a centrifugal impeller
But, ωr2 = u2 and ωr1 = u1, hence, on substitution we get
Work done per second, Et = ṁ(vw2 u2 - vw1 u1) (1)
Dividing the above expression by ṁg we get
Work done per second per unit weight of the fluid, H = (1/g).(vw2 u2 - vw1 u1) (2)
Both equations (1) and (2) are known as Euler’s pump/turbine equation.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 6/35

 Set 1 Affinity Laws 7

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 7/35

 8
Set 2 Affinity Laws

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 8/35

 9

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur-1707 9/35

 10

ME 3103: Fluid Mechanics & Machinery

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 11
Cavitation
The cavitation phenomenon has received widespread
attention and intense investigation in many fields of
engineering, ranging from aerospace to civil
engineering, from ship building to turbine and pump
industry.
Cavitation in a pump is the collapse of vapour bubbles in
areas where the pressure locally drops to the fluid
vapour pressure. Cavitation is a thermodynamic
change of state with mass transfer from liquid to vapor
phase and vice versa.
Cavitation first occurs at the point in the pump where the pressure is lowest,
which is most often at the blade edge at the impeller inlet. The extent of
cavitation depends on how low the pressure is in the pump.
Unfortunately, economic or operational considerations often necessitate operation
with some cavitation, and then it is particularly important to understand the
(negative) effects of cavitation.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 12
Effect of Cavitation
Cavitation damage was first noticed in the cast iron propellers of the ship ‘Daring’ in
1894 and steel propellers of the ship ‘Turbania’ in 1895.
In Karnataka, India in 1947, a 30-m masonry dam was destroyed due to cavitation.
More than a hundred tonnes of concrete was ripped of within an hour and the
noise of bubble explosion could be heard from a kilometre away.
Cavitation may initiate/cause one or more of the following phenomena:
(i) Alteration of the flow pattern
(ii) Loss in efficiency (energy is lost due to auxiliary motion)
(iii) Setting up vibrations and noise
(iv) Increase in drag force
(v) Metal loss and damage due to cavitation pitting
(vi) Initiation of chemical reactions
(vii) Initiation of explosions
(viii) Nucleation of freezing
(ix) Change in biological properties
(x) Luminescent phenomenon (some liquids, viz., alcohol, glycol, phenol and
acetic acid may emit light during cavitation)
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur
 13
Typical Cavitation Damage

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 14
Installations Prone to Cavitation
Cavitation may occur in
(i) the underwater parts of the ships like propellers, rudders, hulls and hydrofoils
(ii) hydraulic, steam and gas turbines
(iii) rotodynamic pumps (centrifugal, axial-flow and mixed-flow)
(iv) flow control devices like valves, gates, regulators, etc.
(v) hydraulic structures like baffle piers, stilling basins, etc.
(vi) diesel engine cylinder liners, hydrodynamic bearings, defective underwater
weld joints
(vii) missiles and torpedos while entering water and/or at their impact with
floating targets like ships and submarines
(viii) aeroplanes and missiles subjected to impact of raindrops while flying at high
speed
(ix) underwater sound signalling, transmission and detection device
(x) human beings subjected to sudden changes in pressures in flight – a rapid
drop in cabin pressure can instigate cavitation in blood

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 15
Avoiding Cavitation: NPSH
NPSH is an acronym that stands for Net Positive Suction Head. NPSH is a measure
of the absolute pressure present in a liquid. It is an expression of how close the
fluid is to vaporization.
The pump manufacturer provides a NPSH requirement (called NPSH required,
NPSHR or critical NPSH, NPSHC). However, the NPSH available (NPSHA)
at operation is different from NPSHR and calculated as follows:
𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑣
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 =
𝜌𝑔
where pi is the absolute presure at pump inlet, pv is the absolute saturation vapor
pressure of the liquid, ρ is the density of the liquid.
In a pumping system, the placement of the pump in the system is of utmost
importance. If possible the pump should be placed below the liquid level to
avoid the risk of cavitation and necessity of priming. However, in most cases
it is not practicable and pumps must be placed above the liquid level. When
the pump suction is under a negative head or when volatile liquids or liquids
at elevated temperature are being pumped, in order to avoid cavitation it is
necessary to check and ensure that NPSHA > NPSHR
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur
 16
Calculation of NPSHA
In designing a pumping system, the pressure at the inlet
is not known but must be calculated. This is done by
applying Bernoulli’s equation between the sump and
the pump inlet.
Consider a typical pumping system where the pump is
placed at a height h above the free surface of the
sump. The gauge pressure over the sump is p1, flow
velocity through the suction pipe is u and head loss h U

is hL. Then, gauge pressure at pump inlet would be:

𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑢2
= − − ℎ − ℎ𝐿
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Note that p1 is zero if the sump is open to the
atmosphere. In that case, gauge pressure at pump
inlet would be
𝑝2 𝑢2
= − − ℎ − ℎ𝐿
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur
 17
Problem

Water at 30oC is being pumped from a sump at atmospheric pressure located 3 m

below the centreline of the pump inlet. The velocity of water through the suction
pipe is 2.5 m/s and head losses is 0.6 m. Determine the NPSHA, given that the
absolute vapor pressure of water at 30oC is 4.24 kPa.

Solution:
Since the sump is open to the atmosphere gauge pressure at pump inlet is:
𝑝2 𝑢2
= − − ℎ − ℎ𝐿
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Absolute pressure at pump inlet is : pi = p2 + patm

NPSHA at the pump inlet is calculated as follows:

𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑣
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 =
𝜌𝑔

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 18
Problem

At 30°C, vapour pressure of water is

0.43 m. Assuming that friction loss is
1 m, what would be the value of
NPSHA for pumping water at a rate
of 200 m3/h?

Solution:
From the NPSHR vs. Flow graph,
at 200 m3/h, NPSHR = 3 m
Therefore, the minimum inlet pressure to
avoid cavitation should be =
(3 + 1 + 0.43) = 4.43 m.

Good practice is to add a safety factor of 0.5 m. So, cavitation is avoided if the pump
suction pressure during operation is always around 5 m.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 19
Prevention of Cavitation: System Suction Design
To avoid cavitation, the design of the suction side of a pumping system need careful
attention. The NPSHA must be greater than NPSHR at the duty point; the greater
the difference between them the less likelihood of cavitation.

NPSHA may be kept high by attention of the following points:

1. Maintaining the sump pressure as high as possible (near to atm, air vent may be used)
2. Maintaining the saturation vapor pressure of the liquid as low as possible (since
vapor pressure increases with temperature the liquid temperature should be kept as low as
possible)
3. Maintaining the flow velocity in the suction pipe as low as possible (large dia pipe,
throttling the pump discharge, thereby reducing the flow velocity)
4. Keeping the suction lift as low as possible (by placing the pump as close as possible to
the liquid level; if possible place the pump below liquid level)
5. Keeping the head losses in the suction line as low as possible (use short pipe length,
large pipe dia, smooth pipe material, minimum fittings (particularly valves), choose long sweep
elbow, regular cleaning of filters and lines to avoid clogging, sedimentation, algae growth)

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 20
Parameter for Scaling Cavitation: Thoma number

Prediction of cavitation performance on all kinds of submerged bodies and hydraulic

machinery is derived from model tests in cavitation test facilities. For estimation of the
danger of cavitation of hydraulic machines, such as pumps and turbines, the beginning
and subsequent development of cavitation phenomena are evaluated experimentally.
The key parameter, which is used usually, is the dimensionless cavitation number
also known as Thoma number (σ).

Cavitation number or Thoma number (σ) is expressed as below:

𝑃∞− 𝑃𝑉
𝜎= 1Τ 𝜌𝑉 2
2 ∞

where P∞ and V∞ are a characteristic pressure and velocity of the flow upstream of the
body, ρ and PV represent the density and vapor pressure of the liquid, respectively

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 21

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur-1707 12/35

 22

ME 3103: Fluid Mechanics & Machinery

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 23
Importance of Similitude Study of Fluid Machines

The actual performance of rotodynamic machines is determined by

experimental testing

Different machines have different characteristics.

Principles of dynamic similarity can help to predict the performance of

one machine from the tests results on a geometrically similar
machine.

Machines having the same design (shape) and all angles being the
same, but manufactured in different sizes (scaled up or down)
constitute a series of geometrically similar machines, called
homologous series or family.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 2/35

 24
Importance …

Machines belonging to the same family (homologous series) may run

at different speeds within practical limits. Each size and speed
combination will produce a unique set of characteristics, so that for
one family of machines the number of characteristics needed to be
determined is impossibly large.

The problem is solved by the application of dimensional analysis and

by replacing the variables by the dimensionless groups so obtained.

Also, performance of the same machine under conditions different from

the test conditions can be predicted.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 3/35

 25
Dimensional Analysis

The following variables are associated with all fluid machines:

P = Power transferred between impeller and fluid

Q = Volumetric flow rate through the machine
H = Difference of head across the machine
N = Rotational speed of the impeller
D = Diameter of the impeller
ρ = Density of the fluid
µ = Dynamic viscosity of the fluid
K = Bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid
ε = Absolute roughness of flow passage of the fluid

Flow coefficient, KQ = Q/ND3

Head coefficient, KH = gH/N2D2
Power coefficient, KP = P/ρN3D5

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 4/35

 26
Similarity or Affinity Laws
Consider the following cases:
1. It may become necessary to reduce the head. It would make little sense to
completely replace a given pump in order to simply reduce the head in a system. It
may be more efficient to simply “turndown” the impeller, i.e., change the diameter,
to produce the desired result. In so doing, we would want to know how the flow
rate may be affected with this new impeller diameter.

2. It may become necessary to estimate the performance of a centrifugal pump whose

impeller diameter or speed may not be indicated on a standard performance curve.
The approximate curves for a new impeller diameter or new speed could be
determined by means of some mathematical relationships.

Similarity or affinity laws are mathematical relationships that allow for

the estimation of changes in pump performance as a result of a
change in one of the basic pump parameters.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 5/35

 27
Affinity Laws

Since for all machines belonging to a homologous series and operating

under dynamically similar conditions the dimensionless coefficients are
the same at corresponding points of their characteristics, it follows that
the similarity laws governing the relationships between such
corresponding points may be stated as follows:

Since KQ = Q/ND3 = constant Q ∝ ND3

Since KH = gH/N2D2 = constant gH ∝ N2D2
Since KP = P/ρN3D5 = constant P ∝ ρN3D5

There are two sets of affinity laws:

(1) Set 1 Affinity Laws based on the impeller diameter as a constant
(2) Set 2 Affinity Laws based on the speed variable as a constant

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 6/35

 28
Set 1 Affinity Laws

Usually there is no appreciable change in efficiency within the range of

normal pump operational speeds and changes in density for liquid is
negligible. Hence, for the same impeller size (i.e., D = constant):
Q∝N ; H ∝ N2 ; P ∝ N3
The premise of the first set of affinity laws is:
For a given pump with a fixed diameter impeller, the capacity will be directly proportional
to the speed, the head will be directly proportional to the square of the speed, and the
required power will be directly proportional to the cube of the speed.

Therefore, set 1 affinity laws can be written as:

𝑄1 𝑁1 𝐻1 𝑁1 2 𝑃1 𝑁1 3
= ; = ; =
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝐻2 𝑁2 𝑃2 𝑁2

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 7/35

 29
Set 2 Affinity Laws

Usually there is no appreciable change in efficiency with the change in

impeller size, and changes in density for liquid is negligible. Hence, for
the same speed (i.e., N = constant):
Q ∝ D3 ; H ∝ D2 ; P ∝ D5
The premise of the second set of affinity laws is:
For a given pump with a constant speed, the capacity will be directly proportional to the
cube of the impeller diameter, the head will be directly proportional to the square of
the impeller diameter, and the required power will be directly proportional to the fifth
power of the impeller diameter.
Therefore, set 2 affinity laws can be written as:
𝑄1 𝐷1 3 𝐻1 𝐷1 2 𝑃1 𝐷1 5
= ; = ; =
𝑄2 𝐷2 𝐻2 𝐷2 𝑃2 𝐷2

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 8/35

 30
Problems
At the point of maximum efficiency, a centrifugal pump running at 1450 rpm
delivers 38 L/s of water to a head of 20 m. The power input is 9.2 kW and
efficiency 81%. Determine the discharge, head, power at the maximum
efficiency point if the pump speed is increased to 2900 rpm. Show that the
efficiency and the specific speed are the same.

Solution:
At the point of maximum efficiency, affinity laws for the same pump are:
𝑄1 𝑁1 𝐻1 𝑁1 2 𝑃1 𝑁1 3
= ; = ; =
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝐻2 𝑁2 𝑃2 𝑁2

Applying the above relations flowrate, head and power at 2900 rpm are:
Q2 = ; H2 = ; P2 =
Efficiency at 2900 rpm is, η = (ɣQ2H2/P2) =

Specific speed at 1450 rpm is,

Specific speed at 2900 rpm is,

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 9/35

 31
Specific Speed or Type Number
In theory, in order to achieve the required head almost any type of pump may be used in application
through staging. However, each type of pump (radial-flow, axial-flow or mixed-flow) has its
distinct regions of operation (a combination of head and flow) to which each type is most
applicable. This combination of head and flow can be expressed as a single number called
type number or specific speed. For rotodynamic pumps type number is given by:

𝑁 𝑄
𝑁𝑠 = 3Τ4
𝐻

Specific speed may be calculated at any point of operation but for comparison purposes it is usually
expressed at the point of maximum efficiency. Hence,
At the point of maximum efficiency, all geometrically similar impellers (i.e., belonging to a homologous series)
have the same specific speed.
Or
At the point of maximum efficiency, a single type number apprehend all geometrically similar impellers.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 10/35

 32
Type Number

The type number, since it is obtained from dimensionless coefficients, is also a

dimensionless quantity provided a consistent system of units, such as SI, is used.
The rotational speed may be in either rev/s or rad/s.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 11/35

 33
Problems
Determine the most suitable pumps for the following applications:
(i) Head 2 m, discharge 20 L/s, shaft speed 1450 rpm
(ii) Head 8 m, discharge 15 L/s, shaft speed 1450 rpm
(iii) Head 20 m, discharge 12 L/s, shaft speed 1450 rpm

Solution:
𝑁 𝑄
We calculate the specific speed or type number for each case: 𝑁𝑠 =
𝐻 3Τ4
(i) Ns =
(ii) Ns =
(iii) Ns =
From the figure, the most suitable pumps for each case are:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 12/35

 34
Problems

A double-suction centrifugal pump delivers 2000 litres

of water per second against a head of 25 m while
running at 725 rpm. What type of impeller should be
used for this pump?

Solution.
Considering only one half of the impeller
H= 25 m
Q = 2000/2=1000 lit/s = 1 m3/s
N= 725 rpm
Ns = N√ Q / H3/4
= 725√1/ (25)3/4
= 64.8
Thus, a radial impeller should be used.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 13/35

 35
Problems
A six-stage centrifugal pumps delivers 0.1 m3/s against
a total head of 480 m. What is its specific speed if it
routes at 1450 rpm ? What type of impeller would you
recommended for the pump?

Solution.
Q = 0.1 m3/s
N= 1450 rpm
Head developed per impeller,
H = 480/6 = 80 m
Ns = N√ Q / H3/4
= 1450√0.1/ (80)3/4
= 17.14
For this specific speed, radial impeller is suitable.
.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 14/35

 36
Problems
Determine a suitable pumps for the following application:
Head 50 m, discharge 5 L/s, shaft speed 1450 rpm

Solution:
𝑁 𝑄
We calculate the specific speed as: 𝑁𝑠 = = 172
𝐻 3Τ4

From the figure, we see this type number is well below the minimum obtainable
even with a centrifugal impeller of large outlet/inlet diameter ratio. So, we can
go for a multistage centrifugal pump for which we choose a type number of 500
(since it is the minimum available type number in the chart).
𝑁 𝑄
Now, Ns = 500, i.e., = 500
𝐻 3Τ4
Since Q = 5 L/s and N = 1450 rpm, revised head will be H = m
Generally, multistage pumps are designed with equal head stage per.
Hence, the number of stages required will be = 50/ =

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 15/35

 37

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur-1707 16/35

 38

ME 3103: Fluid Mechanics & Machinery

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 39
Power Transmission: Shaft Coupling

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 40
Hydrodynamic Transmission

Fluid machinery is primarily classified according to the direction in which

energy is transferred: in pump, energy is transferred from the machine
to the fluid while the opposite happens in turbine.

However, another class of machines exists in which the fluid is used as a

medium of energy transfer. They receive energy from a moving
mechanical part only to give it up to another moving mechanical part. If
the fluid action is rotodynamic, this class of machines constitutes
hydrodynamic transmissions.

Hydrodynamic transmissions include two distinctly different types: fluid (or

hydraulic) couplings and torque converters.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 41
Fluid Coupling

Fundamentally, fluid couplings consist of two elements: a pump, usually referred

to as the primary, and a turbine, known as the secondary.

The pump is driven by a prime mover,

such as an electric motor or an
internal combustion engine; it gives
energy to the fluid, usually oil of low
viscosity, which then enters the turbine
and transmits its acquired energy to it.

The turbine shaft provides the mechanical

energy output. No solid contact exists
between the primary and the secondary.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 42
How does a fluid coupling work?

In a fluid coupling, two identical impellers are involved. They have radial blades
within bowl-shaped shrouds. The space between the blades is full of oil.
As the primary begins to rotate,
the oil within its impeller
moves towards the
periphery and is discharged
radially into the secondary at
the outer radius.

Within the secondary, it flows

radially inwards towards
the centre and is
discharged back into the
primary near the hub.
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur
 43
Slip and Efficiency of Fluid Coupling
To continue the flow, the speed of the primary is greater than that of the
secondary. Thus, for torque transmission there must be a speed
difference giving rise to the ‘slip’, defined as
𝜔𝑝 − 𝜔𝑠
𝑠=
𝜔𝑝
where ωp and ωs are angular velocity of the primary and the secondary.

Power input to the primary is Power output from the secondary is

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇𝑝 . 𝜔𝑝 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑇𝑠 . 𝜔𝑠

Therefore, the efficiency of the Since there is no other part between

transmission is the primary and the secondary to alter
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇𝑠 . 𝜔𝑠 reaction torque, Ts = Tp . So,
𝜂= = 𝜔𝑠
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑝 . 𝜔𝑝 𝜂= =1-s
𝜔𝑝

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 44
Advantages of Fluid Coupling

1. The main advantage of fluid couplings over other types of transmission

lies in applications involving unsteady operation. Because torsional
vibrations in either of the two halves of the coupling are not transmitted
to the other.

2. Starting of prime movers considerably easier with fluid couplings since

the starting torque is low. This is simply because torque is proportional
to the speed and full torque is not developed until the full speed is
reached.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 45
Characteristics of Fluid Coupling

The efficiency of fluid coupling is

usually greater than 94%.

The losses are due to friction and

turbulence created when the fluid
enters each impeller because the
blades are not shaped to meet the
flow without shock.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 46
Torque Converter
The difference between the fluid coupling and the torque converter is that while
the former consists of only two runners, the latter also has a set of stationary
vanes interposed between the two runners.

While a fluid coupling is a two element

drive that is incapable of multiplying
torque, a torque converter has at least
one extra element—the stator—which
alters the drive's characteristics during
periods of high slippage, producing an
increase in output torque.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 47
Torque Converter
Since the stationary vanes change the angular momentum of the fluid passing through them,
they are subjected to a torque. Also, since they do not rotate, an equal and opposite torque
must be exerted on them from the housing. Thus, the existence of this additional torque to
the system means that the torque on the secondary runner is not the same as that on the
primary.
The relationship between the torques is now
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇𝑝 + 𝑇𝑣
where Ts is torque on the secondary, Tp is torque on the primary and Tv is torque on the
stationary vanes.
It is possible for Tv to be either positive or negative. If the vanes’ design is such that they receive
torque from the fluid, Tv is positive, signifying an increased output torque. It may in fact be as
much as five times the input torque of the primary runner.
On the other hand, if the vanes by virtue of their design receive the torque which is in the same
direction as that of the driven shaft, Tv is negative and the secondary torque is reduced.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 48
Torque Converter Characteristics

The efficiency of power

transmission is
𝑇𝑠 . 𝜔𝑠 𝑇𝑝 + 𝑇𝑣 𝜔𝑠
𝜂= =
𝑇𝑝 . 𝜔𝑝 𝑇𝑝.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 49

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur-1707 12/35

 50

ME 3103: Fluid Mechanics & Machinery

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 51
Axial-flow Pumps
Axial flow pumps, also called propeller pumps, are centrifugal
pumps which move fluid axially through an impeller. They
provide high flow rate and low head, but some models can be
adjusted to run efficiently at different conditions by changing
the impeller pitch.

The axial flow or propeller pump is the converse of axial flow

turbine and is very similar to it an appearance. The impeller
consists of a central boss with a number of blades mounted on
it. The impeller rotates within a cylindrical casing with fine
clearance between the blade tips and the casing walls.

Fluid particles, in course of their flow through the pump, do not

change their radial locations. The inlet guide vanes are
provided to properly direct the fluid to the rotor. The outlet
guide vanes are provided to eliminate the whirling component
of velocity at discharge. The usual number of impeller blades
lies between 2 and 8, with a hub diameter to impeller diameter
ratio of 0.3 to 0.6.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 2/35

 52
Velocity Triangle Analysis: Maximum energy transfer
The blade has an aerofoil section. The fluid does not impinge
tangentially to the blade at inlet, rather the blade is inclined at
an angle of incidence (i) to the relative velocity at the inlet (Vr1).

If we consider the conditions at a mean radius rm then

𝑢2 = 𝑢1 = 𝑢 = 𝜔𝑟𝑚 where ω is angular velocity of the impeller

Work done on the fluid per unit weight, 𝐻 = 𝑢Τ𝑔 𝑣𝑤1 − 𝑣𝑤2

For maximum energy transfer, 𝛼1 = 90𝑜 , 𝑣𝑤1 = 0

Again , from the outlet velocity triangle, 𝑣𝑤2 = 𝑢 − 𝑣𝑓2 cot 𝛽2

Assuming a constant flow from inlet to outlet, 𝑣𝑓1 = 𝑣𝑓2 = 𝑣𝑓

So, maximum energy transfer to the fluid per unit weight,

𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑢Τ𝑔 𝑢 − 𝑣𝑓 cot 𝛽2

For constant energy transfer over the entire span of the blade from hub to tip , the right hand side of equation has
to be same for all values of . It is obvious that increases with radius , therefore an equal increase in must take
place, and since is constant then must increase. Therefore , the blade must be twisted as the radius changes.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 3/35

 53
Performance Curves

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 4/35

 54
Applications of Axial-flow Pumps

The applications for axial flow pumps are not nearly as abundant however as for
radial flow pumps, so the equipment is not as common.

Axial flow pumps are used in applications requiring very high flow rates and low
pressures. They are used to

▪ circulate fluids in power plants,

▪ maintain flow in sewage digesters
▪ circulate fluid in evaporators.
▪ flood dewatering
▪ irrigation systems.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 5/35

 55
Problem

There are two sets of affinity laws:

(1) Set 1 Affinity Laws based on the impeller diameter as a constant
(2) Set 2 Affinity Laws based on the speed variable as a constant

What changes in ……

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 6/35

 56

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur-1707 7/35

 57

ME 3103: Fluid Mechanics & Machinery

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

 58
Positive-displacement Pumps

The functioning of a positive-displacement machine Typical reciprocating pump types are:

derives essentially from changes of the volume
occupied by the fluid within the machine.
A positive-displacement pump moves a fluid by
repeatedly enclosing a fixed volume and moving it
mechanically through the system. The pumping action
is cyclic and can be driven by pistons, screws, gears,
rollers, diaphragms or vanes.
Although hydrodynamic effects may be associated with a
positive-displacement machine, the operation of the
machine itself depends only on mechanical and
hydrostatic principles.
The positive displacement pumps can be divided in two
main classes:
• reciprocating
• rotary
• Piston/plunger pumps
• Diaphragm pumps
Piston/plunger pumps comprise of a cylinder with a
reciprocating plunger in it. In the head of the cylinder
the suction and discharge valves are mounted. In the
suction stroke, the piston/plunger retracts, and the
suction valves opens causing suction of fluid into the
cylinder. In the forward stroke, the piston/plunger
pushes the liquid out the discharge valve.
A diaphragm pump (also known as a Membrane pump)
is a positive displacement pump that uses a
combination of the reciprocating action of a rubber,
thermoplastic or Teflon diaphragm and suitable valves
on either side of the diaphragm (check valve, butterfly
valves, flap valves, or any other form of shut-off
valves) to pump a fluid.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 2/35

 59
Reciprocating Pumps and Rotary Pumps

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 3/35

 60
Functioning of a Reciprocating Piston Pump

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 4/35

 61
Basic Indicator Diagram

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 5/35

 62
Effect of Inertia Pressure & Acceleration
The simplified analysis does not take into account:
• effect of inertia of the liquid in the pipes and
• effect of friction in the pipe
At the end of each stroke, the liquid in the cylinder and in the relevant pipe must be
brought to rest, i.e. decelerated. Immediately afterwards, the fluid in the cylinder and in
the associated pipe must be accelerated. These accelerations and decelerations result
in additional pressures known as inertia pressure. Inertia pressure is given by:
dv
pi =  g hi =  l ,
dt
where l is the length of the pipe and dv/dt is the acceleration of the liquid inside the pipe.

If the cross-section of the cylinder is A and that of the pipe is a, and velocity of fluid (which is equal
to piston speed) inside the cylinder is u, then using continuity equation we get v = A u ,
dv A du a
From which, = Thus, A du
dt a dt p =l
i
a dt

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 6/35

 63
Effect of Inertia Pressure & Acceleration
The frictional losses in pipes are given by the Darcy equation:
fl v 2
hf = 4 ,
d 2g
Using continuity equation, fluid velocity inside the pipe maybe substituted by the fluid velocity
inside the cylinder u (i.e., piston velocity) as:
𝑓𝑙 𝐴 2 𝑢2
ℎ𝑓 = 4
𝑑 𝑎 2𝑔

Now, the piston velocity may be obtained from the displacement equation, assuming simple
harmonic motion, in terms of the crank radius r and crank angle θ and ultimately in
terms of the angular velocity ω and time t. For an angular displacement of θ, the linear
displacement of the piston x can be given by:
𝑥 = 𝑟 − 𝑟 cos 𝜃 = 𝑟 − 𝑟 cos 𝜔𝑡
Therefore, the velocity of the piston is:
𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = = 𝜔𝑟 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜔𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑡

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 7/35

 64
Indicator Diagram Considering Inertia Pressure

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 8/35

 65
Air Vessel or Air Cylinder

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 9/35

 66
Problem
A single-acting, single-cylinder, positive displacement pump is used to drain an excavation. The pump has a bore of 150 mm
and a stroke of 400 mm. The suction and discharge pipes are both of 50 mm diameter, the suction pipe being 2 m long and
the discharge pipe 15 m long. The suction lift to the pump is 1.5 m while the discharge is 6 m above the level of the water
surface in excavation. In the absence of any air chambers on either (a) pump suction or (b) discharge, Calculate for (a, b) the
absolute pressure head in the cylinder at the (i) start (ii) end and (iii) middle of each stroke if the pump drive is at 0.2 rev/s
and may be assumed to be simple harmonic. Also, determine (c) the maximum pump speed if separation is to be avoided on
the piston face. (d) For the above data of the reciprocating pump, calculate the increase in pump speed in rev/min if a large
air chamber (vessel) were fitted close to the pump suction valve.
Assume a friction factor of 0.01 for both pipes, a pump slip of 4 per cent, an atmospheric pressure of 10.3 m of water, and a
fluid vapour pressure of 2.4 m.

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 10/35

 67
Multi-cylinder Pumps and Double-acting Pumps

Three cylinder single-acting pump

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur 11/35

 68

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur-1707 12/35