UNIT - 4: GEOMETRY OF SPACE CURVES CONTD.

STRUCTURE
4.0 Learning Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Vector Function of Two Scalar Variables
4.3 Tangent and Normal to a Surface
4.4 Arc Element and Area Element
4.5 Parametric Curves
4.5.1 Curves on a Right Circular Cylinder
4.5.2 Curves on a Sphere
4.6 Cylindrical and Spherical Polar Coordinates
4.7 Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
4.8 Examples
4.9 Summary
4.10 Unit End Questions
4.11 References

4.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, student will be able to:

1. Learn Vector Function of Two Scalar Variables

2. Find Tangent to a Surface

3. Calculate normal to a surface

4. Calculate Cylindrical, Spherical Polar Coordinates

5. Find the Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Curved space often refers to a spatial geometry which is not "flat", where a flat space is
described by Euclidean geometry. Curved spaces can generally be described by Riemannian
geometry though some simple cases can be described in other ways. Curved spaces play an
essential role in general relativity, where gravity is often visualized as curved space.
The Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric is a curved metric which forms the
current foundation for the description of the expansion of space and shape of the universe.

A very familiar example of a curved space is the surface of a sphere. While to our familiar
outlook the sphere looks three-dimensional, if an object is constrained to lie on the surface, it
only has two dimensions that it can move in. The surface of a sphere can be completely
described by two dimensions since no matter how rough the surface may appear to be, it is still
only a surface, which is the two-dimensional outside border of a volume. Even the surface of
the Earth, which is fractal in complexity, is still only a two-dimensional boundary along the
outside of a volume.

‘Geometry of curved spaces’ shows that the curvature of a curve is an extrinsic property that
is visible to people when it is viewed sitting on the plane and can be defined as a curve on the
Euclidean plane. German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss discovered that curvature is an
intrinsic property of the surface in 1828. Gauss called it Theorema Egregium, which translates
from Latin as Remarkable Theorem. The extrinsic curvature of curves, defines Gaussian
curvature can be computed intrinsically. Higher-dimensional generalizations of surfaces are
called manifolds.

Differential geometry is the branch of mathematics used by Albert Einstein when he formulated
the general theory of relativity, where gravity is the curvature of spacetime. It was originally
invented by Carl Friedrich Gauss to study the curvature of hills and valleys in the Kingdom of
Hanover.

To imagine what geometry on curved spaces looks like, imagine a globe. Instead of x and
y coordinates, we can use latitude and longitude. One can now see just how different geometry
is on this globe. Vertical lines (the lines of constant x) on a flat surface are always the same
distance apart. On a globe, the analogues of these vertical lines, the lines of constant longitude,
are closer near the poles than they are near the equator.

Run two perpendicular line segments from the north pole to the equator. They will meet the
equator at a right angle and form a triangle with three right angles for a total of 270 degrees.

4.2 VECTOR FUNCTION OF TWO SCALAR VARIABLES

A vector function r(t)=⟨ f(t),g(t),h(t)⟩ r(t)=⟨ f(t),g(t),h(t)⟩ is a function of one variable—that

is, there is only one "input'' value. What makes vector functions more complicated than the
functions y=f(x)y=f(x) that we studied in the first part of this book is of course that the "output''
values are now three-dimensional vectors instead of simply numbers.

Vector Function of Two Scalar Variable is a function of one or more variables whose range is one-
dimensional, as compared to a vector function, whose range is three-dimensional (or, in general, -
dimensional).

So, it is a function f( x1….xn) of one or more variables whose range is one-dimensional, as

compared to a vector function, whose range is three-dimensional (or, in general, -

dimensional).

4.3 TANGENT AND NORMAL TO A SURFACE

A tangent line to a curve was a line that just touched the curve at that point and was “parallel”
to the curve at the point in question. Well tangent planes to a surface are planes that just touch
the surface at the point and are “parallel” to the surface at the point.

Use gradients and level surfaces to find the normal to the tangent plane of the graph of z = f(x,
y) at P = (x0,y0,z0). w = f(x, y) - z. The graph of z = f(x, y) is just the level surface w = 0. We
compute the normal to the surface to be vw = <fx,fy, -1.

Let z=f(x,y)z=f(x,y) be the equation of a surface SS in R3R3, and let P=(a,b,c)P=(a,b,c) be a

point on SS. Let TT be a plane which contains the point PP, and
let Q=(x,y,z)Q=(x,y,z) represent a generic point on the surface SS. If the (acute) angle between
the vector PQ→PQ→ and the plane TT approaches zero as the point QQ approaches PP along
the surface SS, then we call TT the tangent plane to SS at PP.

Note that since two lines in R3R3 determine a plane, then the two tangent lines to the
surface z=f(x,y)z=f(x,y) in the xx and yy directions described in Figure 2.3.1 are contained in
the tangent plane at that point, if the tangent plane exists at that point. The existence of those
two tangent lines does not by itself guarantee the existence of the tangent plane. It is possible
that if we take the trace of the surface in the plane x−y=0x−y=0 (which makes a 45◦ angle with
the positive xx-axis), the resulting curve in that plane may have a tangent line which is not in
the plane determined by the other two tangent lines, or it may not have a tangent line at all at
that point. Luckily, it turns out that if ∂f∂x∂f∂x and ∂f∂y∂f∂y exist in a region around a
point (a,b)(a,b) and are continuous at (a,b)(a,b) then the tangent plane to the
surface z=f(x,y)z=f(x,y) will exist at the point (a,b,f(a,b))(a,b,f(a,b)). In this text, those
conditions will always hold.
Suppose that we want an equation of the tangent plane TT to the surface z=f(x,y)z=f(x,y) at a
point (a,b,f(a,b))(a,b,f(a,b)). Let LxLx and LyLy be the tangent lines to the traces of the surface
in the planes y=by=b and x=ax=a, respectively, and suppose that the conditions for TT to exist
do hold. Then the equation for TT is

A(x−a)+B(y−b)+C(z−f(a,b))=0(2.3.1)(2.3.1)A(x−a)+B(y−b)+C(z−f(a,b))=0

where n=(A,B,C)n=(A,B,C) is a normal vector t

Since TT contains the lines LxLx and LyLy, then all we need are vectors vxvx and vyvy that
are parallel to Lxand LyLxand Ly, respectively, and then let n=vx×vyn=vx×vy.

Figure 4.1: Tangent and Normal to a Surface

Since the slope of LxLx is ∂f∂x(a,b)∂f∂x(a,b), then the vector

vx=(1,0,∂f∂x(a,b))vx=(1,0,∂f∂x(a,b)) is parallel to LxLx (since vxvx lies in the xzxz-plane and
lies in a line with slope ∂f∂x(a,b)1=∂f∂x(a,b)∂f∂x(a,b)1=∂f∂x(a,b).

Similarly, the vector vy=(0,1,∂f∂y(a,b))vy=(0,1,∂f∂y(a,b)) is parallel to LyLy.

Hence, the vector

n=vx×vy=∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∣i10j01k∂f∂x(a,b)∂f∂y(a,b)∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∣=−∂f∂x(a,b)i−∂f∂y(a,b)j+kn=vx×vy=|ijk10∂f
∂x(a,b)01∂f∂y(a,b)|=−∂f∂x(a,b)i−∂f∂y(a,b)j+k is normal to the plant TT.

Thus the equation of TT is

−∂f∂x(a,b)(x−a)−∂f∂y(a,b)(y−b)+z−f(a,b)=0(2.3.2)(2.3.2)−∂f∂x(a,b)(x−a)−∂f∂y(a,b)(y−b)+z−
f(a,b)=0
The equation of the tangent plane at (x0,y0,z0)(x0,y0,z0) is given by

fx(x0,y0)(x–x0)+fy(x0,y0)(y–y0)–(z–z0)=0.fx(x0,y0)(x–x0)+fy(x0,y0)(y–y0)–(z–z0)=0.

Notes

Recall that the equation of the plane containing a point (x0,y0,z0)(x0,y0,z0) and normal to the
vector n=(a,b,c)n=(a,b,c) is

a(x–x0)+b(y–y0)+c(z–z0)=0.a(x–x0)+b(y–y0)+c(z–z0)=0.

The derivation of the equation for the tangent plane just involves showing that the tangent plane
is normal to the vector n=(fx(x0,y0),fy(x0,y0)

The normal vector, often simply called the "normal," to a surface is a vector which is
perpendicular to the surface at a given point. When normals are considered on closed surfaces,
the inward-pointing normal (pointing towards the interior of the surface) and outward-pointing
normal are usually distinguished.

The normal vector, often simply called the "normal," to a surface is a vector which is
perpendicular to the surface at a given point. When normals are considered on closed surfaces,
the inward-pointing normal (pointing towards the interior of the surface) and outward-pointing
normal are usually distinguished.

To find a normal vector to a surface, view that surface as a level set of some function g(x,y,z).
A normal vector to the implicitly defined surface g(x,y,z) = c is \nabla g(x,y,z). We identify
the surface as the level curve of the value c=3 for g(x,y,z) = x^3 + y^3 z.

Let's say you have some surface, SSS. If a vector at some point on SSS is perpendicular
to SSS at that point, it is called a normal vector (of SSS at that point). More precisely, you
might say it is perpendicular to the tangent plane of SSS at that point, or that it is perpendicular
to all possible tangent vectors of SSS at that point.

When a normal vector has magnitude 111, it is called a unit normal vector. Notice, there will
always be two unit normal vectors, each pointing in opposite directions.

Find a normal vector to the surface x3+y3z=3 at the point (1,1,2).

Recall that

To find a normal vector to a surface, view that surface as a level set of some function g(x,y,z).

A normal vector to the implicitly defined surface g(x,y,z)=c is ∇g(x,y,z).

We identify the surface as the level curve of the value c=3 for g(x, y, z) =x3+y3z.

The gradient of g(x,y,z) is

∇g(x,y,z)=3x2 i+3y2z j+y3 k.

Evaluating at x=1,y=1,z=2, we get

∇g(1,1,2)=3 i+6 j+k.

Hence a normal vector to the surface at (1,1,2) is:

3 i+6 j+k

4.4 ARC ELEMENT AND AREA ELEMENT

In a similar fashion, if we define a smooth curve using a vector-valued

function ⇀r(t)=f(t)ˆi+g(t)ˆj, where a≤t≤b, the arc length is given by the formula
s=∫ba√(f′(t))2+(g′(t))2dt.

In three dimensions, if the vector-valued function is described

by ⇀r(t)=f(t)ˆi+g(t)ˆj+h(t)ˆk over the same interval a≤t≤b, the arc length is given by

s=∫ba√(f′(t))2+(g′(t))2+(h′(t))2dt.

Calculate the arc length for each of the following vector -valued functions:

a. r⇀(t)=(3t−2)i^+(4t+5)j^,1≤t≤5r⇀(t)=(3t−2)i^+(4t+5)j^,1≤t≤5
 b. r⇀(t)=⟨tcost,tsint,2t⟩,0≤t≤2πr⇀(t)=⟨tcos⁡t,tsin⁡t,2t⟩,0≤t≤2π

Solution

Using Equation 13.3.213.3.2, r⇀'(t)=3i^+4j^r⇀′(t)=3i^+4j^, so

s=∫ba∥r⇀'(t)∥dt=∫5132+42−−−−−−√dt=∫515dt=5t∣∣51=20.s=∫ab‖r⇀′(t)‖dt=∫1532+42dt=∫155dt
=5t|15=20.

Using
Equation 13.3.413.3.4, r⇀'(t)=⟨cost−tsint,sint+tcost,2⟩r⇀′(t)=⟨cos⁡t−tsin⁡t,sin⁡t+tcos⁡t,2⟩,
so

s=∫ba∥r⇀'(t)∥dt=∫2π0(cost−tsint)2+(sint+tcost)2+22−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
−√dt=∫2π0(cos2t−2tsintcost+t2sin2t)+(sin2t+2tsintcost+t2cos2t)+4−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√dt=∫2π0cos2t+sin2t+t2(cos2t+sin2t)+4−−−
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√dt=∫2π0t2+5−−−−−√dts=∫ab∥r⇀′(t)∥dt=∫02π(cos⁡t−tsin
⁡t)2+(sin⁡t+tcos⁡t)2+22dt=∫02π(cos2⁡t−2tsin⁡tcos⁡t+t2sin2⁡t)+(sin2⁡t+2tsin⁡tcos⁡t+t
2cos2⁡t)+4dt=∫02πcos2⁡t+sin2⁡t+t2(cos2⁡t+sin2⁡t)+4dt=∫02πt2+5dt

Here we can use a table integration formula

∫u2+a2−−−−−−√du=u2u2+a2−−−−−−√+a22ln∣∣u+u2+a2−−−−−−√∣∣+C,∫u2+a2du=u2u2+a2+a
22ln|u+u2+a2|+C,

so we obtain

∫2π0t2+5−−−−−√dt=12(tt2+5−−−−−√+5ln∣∣t+t2+5−−−−−√∣∣)2π0=12(2π4π2+5−−−−−−√+5ln
(2π+4π2+5−−−−−−√))−52ln5–√≈25.343units.

Arc Length

In polar coordinates r = r(θ) where r is the radial distance to the point, P, on the curve

r = r(θ) and θ is the angle of the ray to the point, P, shown in the figure below.,
 Figure 4.2: Arc Length

The element of area, dA, is the ”triangular” area of OPQ dA = ½ r2 dθ

The element of arc length, dS, is the length along the arc, PQ.

From the Pythagorean Theorem dS = √ ( dx2 + dy2 ) . Convert to polar coordinates using

x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ [ remember r = r(θ) ] Use the “chain rule”.

dx = (dr/dθ) cos θ + r(θ) (- sin θ ) dθ and dy = (dr/dθ) sin θ + r(θ) cos θ dθ

so dS = √ [ ( r2 + (dr/dθ)2 ] dθ

So the total area under the curve, r = r(θ) is A = ∫ ½ [ r(θ)2 ] dθ

θ=a

θ=b

So the total arc length, L, L = ∫ √ [ ( r2 + (dr/dθ)2 ] dθ

θ=a

Arc length formula is used to calculate the measure of the distance along the curved line making
up the arc (a segment of a circle). In simple words, the distance that runs through the curved
line of the circle making up the arc is known as the arc length. It should be noted that the arc
length is longer than the straight line distance between its endpoints.
 Figure 4.3: Arc Length Formula
Area Element

Area Between the curves

Area is a quantity that expresses the region covered for the given interval in the two-
dimensional surface or a planar lamina. To find the area between the given two curves, it uses
the concept of integration. The area between the two curves can be determined by calculating
the difference between the integrals of two functions.

Figure 4.4: Area Element

The area between two curves that is measured between two values “a” and “b” is given by the
integral from a to b of the given function. Here, the value of b is defined as the larger value
than the value of a.

Therefore, the area between the two curves is defined as

A=∫ab(f(x)−g(x))dx

Where

f(x) is the curve with greater value.

4.5 PARAMETRIC CURVES

Parametric curves allow us to graph relationships between two or more quantities and at the
same time represent each quantity's directions or orientations. In this article, we'll take a look
back at what we know of parametric equations so far.

Figure 4.5: Parametric Curve

Learning about parametric curves will give us one more with special attributes (time to be
specific). There are instances when modeling quantities using parametric curves is more helpful
than graphing them in the coordinate systems that we know – rectangular and polar coordinate
systems. This is why it’s important that we learn how to graph and interpret parametric
curves. Parametric curves allow us to graph relationships between two or more quantities and
at the same time represent each quantity’s directions or orientations. In this article, we’ll take
a look back at what we know of parametric equations so far. We’ll also establish the
fundamentals needed to parametrize and graph parametric curves. By the end of this discussion,
you’ll have the essential tool kits to graph common plane curves to their parametric form. We’ll
also show you how some conics in a planar curve can be defined by simpler parametric curves.

What is a parametric curve?

The parametric curve is defined by its corresponding parametric

equations: x=f(t) and y=g(t) within a given interval. Parametric curves highlight the orientation
of each set of quantities with respect to time. In the rectangular coordinate system, we are
limited to defining functions, y=f(x), that pass the vertical line test. If you’ve noticed, we’ve
been working with graphs such as the circle or ellipse that clearly do not pass the vertical line
test.

Not being able to define circles and other intersecting curves (like the one shown above) as one
function becomes problematic when we deal with its rates of change later. This is why it’s
important that we establish a new approach to define such curves.x=f(t)y=g(t)We begin by
defining our variables, x and y, through a new parameter – t. Hence, the two equations shown
above are what we call parametric equations. The points, (x,y)=(x(t),y(t)), are the points that
make up the graph of a parametric curve. Now how does t affect our curve? The new
parameter, t, determines the curve’s direction.

To motivate you to master this topic, even more, let us write down three major advantages of
using parametric curves:

 It is a great model that highlights the direction and orientation of (x,y) based on t. This
means that we now have a way to model physical representations of quantities that
depend on time.

 It is much easier to adjust the parametric curve if we want to change the value of t or
we want to switch the orientations.

 There are instances when curves such as implicit curves can only be modeled by
parametric equations (ie modeling both the volume of a container and its spillage
simultaneously with respect to time).

 Now that we have established the importance of parametric curves as well as their key
components, let’s refresh our understanding of parametrizing equations and their
graphs.

How to parametrize a curve?

When given a plane curve, we can parametric it to a parametric curve by redefining x and y as
a set of parametric equations defined by t. There are infinitely many ways to parametrize a
given curve – what matters is that their definition as a plane curve remains the same. The
simplest way to parametrize a curve is by setting x=t.

Parametrizing A Plane Curve The most straightforward option when parametrizing a plane
curve defined by y=f(x) is to use the following parametric equations:x=ty=f(t)Keep in mind
that t has to be within the domains of f(x).
This strategy works when we want to parametrize a line. We simply use x=t and y=mt+b. This
allows us to observe the behavior of the curve as t increases. However, there are instances when
it’s best to strategize when choosing the right parametric equations. Let us show you the
standard way we redefined equations of circles using parametric equations:

4.5.1 CURVES ON A RIGHT CIRCULAR CYLINDER

Right Circular Cylinder

A right circular cylinder is a three-dimensional solid figure. It is a type of cylinder that has a
closed circular surface with two parallel bases on both ends. It is also commonly known as the
right cylinder. The right cylinder has two major properties, i.e., surface area and volume. In
this lesson, we will discuss the properties, surface area, and volume of the right circular
cylinder.

What is Right Circular Cylinder?

A right circular cylinder is a three-dimensional solid shape that consists of two parallel bases
linked by a closed circular surface where each base is like a circular disk in shape. The line that
passes through the center or joins the centers of two circular bases is known as the axis of the
right cylinder. The distance between the two bases of the cylinder is referred to
as perpendicular distance which is represented as height, “h”. The distance from the center to
the outer boundary for either of the two bases is known as the radius of the right circular
cylinder as is represented by “r”. Thus, a right circular cylinder is formed by a combination of
two circles and a rectangle. Look at the given image showing the formation of the right circular
cylinder.
 Figure 4.6: Parts of right circular cylinder
Properties of Right Circular Cylinder

 As ever, the two-dimensional shape has its own properties, thus, the properties of the
right circular cylinder are:

 It has two curved edges, one curved surface, and two flat faces.

 Cylindrical bases always are congruent to each other.

 The size of the cylinder depends on the dimension of the radius of the base and the
height of the cylinder.

 The axis forms a right angle with the bases, exactly over each other.

 It does not have any vertex or a specific corner.

 The base and the top of the cylinder always are identical to each other.

A right circular cylinder is a cylinder that has a closed circular surface having two parallel
bases on both the ends and whose elements are perpendicular to its base. It is also called a right
cylinder. All the points, in a right circular cylinder, lying on the closed circular surface is at a
fixed distance from a straight line known as the axis of the cylinder. The two circular bases of
the right circular cylinder have the same radius and are parallel to each other. It is one such
geometric shape that is used frequently in real life. Basically, to derive the formulas for the
surface area and volume of the cylinder, the right cylinder is considered. If the bases of the
cylinder are not parallel to each other, then such cylinder is known as an oblique cylinder in
3D geometry.

What is a Right Circular Cylinder?

A cylinder whose bases are circular in shape and parallel to each other is called the right circular
cylinder. It is a three-dimensional shape. The axis of the cylinder joins the center of the two
bases of the cylinder. This is the most common type of cylinder used in day to day life. Whereas
the oblique cylinder is another type of cylinder, which does not have parallel bases and
resembles a tilted structure.

Curved Surface Area of right circular cylinder

The surface area of a closed right circular cylinder is the sum of the area of the curved surface
and the area of the two bases. The curved surface that joins the two circular bases is said to be
the lateral surface of the right circular cylinder.

Lateral or Curved Area = 2 π r h square units

where r is the radius of circular bases and h is the height of cylinder.

Total Surface Area of right circular cylinder

The sum of the lateral surface area and the base area of both the circles will give the total
surface area of the right circular cylinder.

TSA = 2 π r (h + r) square units

where r is the radius of circular bases and h is the height of cylinder.

What do you mean by right circular cylinder?

A right circular cylinder is a cylinder whose bases are circular in shape and parallel to each
other. Both the bases are connected to each other through a lateral or curved surface.

How many faces a right circular cylinder has?

A right circular cylinder has three faces. Two circular faces and one lateral face.

How many edges does a right circular cylinder has?

A right circular cylinder has two edges.

What is an example of right circular cylinder?

Gas cylinders, cans, pipes, etc., are real-life examples of a right circular cylinder.

4.5.2 CURVES ON A SPHERE

Since the sphere is a complete curved shape therefore the curved surface area is equal to the
total area of sphere. It is also called lateral surface area. Surface Area of Sphere = 4πr², where
r is the radius of sphere. A sphere has no edges and therefore no corners. It has one curved
face that goes all the way around.

A sphere is a three-dimensional object that is round in shape. The sphere is defined in three
axes, i.e., x-axis, y-axis and z-axis. A sphere has only a curved surface, no flat surface, no edges
and no vertices.

4.6 CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL POLAR COORDINATES

The Cartesian coordinate system provides a straightforward way to describe the location of
points in space. Some surfaces, however, can be difficult to model with equations based on the
Cartesian system. This is a familiar problem; recall that in two dimensions, polar coordinates
often provide a useful alternative system for describing the location of a point in the plane,
particularly in cases involving circles. In this section, we look at two different ways of
describing the location of points in space, both of them based on extensions of polar
coordinates. As the name suggests, cylindrical coordinates are useful for dealing with problems
involving cylinders, such as calculating the volume of a round water tank or the amount of oil
flowing through a pipe. Similarly, spherical coordinates are useful for dealing with problems
involving spheres, such as finding the volume of domed structure.

Cylindrical Coordinates

When we expanded the traditional Cartesian coordinate system from two dimensions to three,
we simply added a new axis to model the third dimension. Starting with polar coordinates, we
can follow this same process to create a new three-dimensional coordinate system, called
the cylindrical coordinate system. In this way, cylindrical coordinates provide a natural
extension of polar coordinates to three dimensions.

In the cylindrical coordinate system, a point in space as shown in the figure is represented by
the ordered triple (r,θ,z)(r,θ,z), where(r,θ)(r,θ) are the polar coordinates of the point’s
projection in the xyxy-plane zz is the usual zz-coordinate in the Cartesian coordinate system
 Figure 4.7: Cylindrical Coordinates

The right triangle lies in the xyxy-plane. The length of the hypotenuse is rr and θθ is the
measure of the angle formed by the positive xx-axis and the hypotenuse. The zz-coordinate
describes the location of the point above or below the xyxy-plane.

The rectangular coordinates (x,y,z)(x,y,z) and the cylindrical coordinates (r,θ,z)(r,θ,z) of a

point are related as follows:

These equations are used to convert from cylindrical coordinates to rectangular coordinates.

x=rcosθx=rcos⁡θ

y=rsinθy=rsin⁡θ

z=zz=z

These equations are used to convert from rectangular coordinates to cylindrical coordinates

r2=x2+y2r2=x2+y2

tanθ=yxtan⁡θ=yx

z=zz=z

As when we discussed conversion from rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates in two

dimensions, it should be noted that the equation tanθ=yxtan⁡θ=yx has an infinite number of
solutions. However, if we restrict θθ to values between 00 and 2π2π, then we can find a unique
solution based on the quadrant of the xyxy-plane in which original point (x,y,z)(x,y,z) is
located. Note that if x=0x=0, then the value of θθ is either π2,3π2,π2,3π2, or 00, depending on
the value of yy.

Notice that these equations are derived from properties of right triangles. To make this easy to
see, consider point PP in the xyxy-plane with rectangular coordinates (x,y,0)(x,y,0) and with
cylindrical coordinates (r,θ,0)(r,θ,0), as shown in the figure.

The Pythagorean theorem provides equation r2=x2+y2r2=x2+y2. Right-triangle relationships

tell us that x=rcosθ,y=rsinθ,x=rcos⁡θ,y=rsin⁡θ, and tanθ=y/x.tan⁡θ=y/x.

Let’s consider the differences between rectangular and cylindrical coordinates by looking at
the surfaces generated when each of the coordinates is held constant. If cc is a constant, then
in rectangular coordinates, surfaces of the form x=c,y=c,x=c,y=c, or z=cz=c are all planes.
Planes of these forms are parallel to the yzyz-plane, the xzxz-plane, and the xyxy-plane,
respectively. When we convert to cylindrical coordinates, the zz-coordinate does not change.
Therefore, in cylindrical coordinates, surfaces of the form z=cz=c are planes parallel to
the xyxy-plane. Now, let’s think about surfaces of the form r=cr=c. The points on these
surfaces are at a fixed distance from the zz-axis. In other words, these surfaces are vertical
circular cylinders. Last, what about θ=cθ=c? The points on a surface of the form θ=cθ=c are
at a fixed angle from the xx-axis, which gives us a half-plane that starts at the zz-axis .
 Figure 4.8: Rectangular Coordinates

In rectangular coordinates, (a) surfaces of the form x=cx=c are planes parallel to the yzyz-
plane, (b) surfaces of the form y=cy=c are planes parallel to the xzxz-plane, and (c) surfaces of
the form z=cz=c are planes parallel to the xyxy-plane.

Figure 4.9: Cylindrical Coordinates

In cylindrical coordinates, (a) surfaces of the form r=cr=c are vertical cylinders of radius rr, (b)
surfaces of the form θ=cθ=c are half-planes at angle θθ from the xx-axis, and (c) surfaces of
the form z=cz=c are planes parallel to the xyxy-plane.

The use of cylindrical coordinates is common in fields such as physics. Physicists studying
electrical charges and the capacitors used to store these charges have discovered that these
systems sometimes have a cylindrical symmetry. These systems have complicated modeling
equations in the Cartesian coordinate system, which make them difficult to describe and
analyze. The equations can often be expressed in more simple terms using cylindrical
coordinates. For example, the cylinder described by equation x2+y2=25x2+y2=25 in the
Cartesian system can be represented by cylindrical equation r=5r=5.
Spherical Coordinates

In the Cartesian coordinate system, the location of a point in space is described using an ordered
triple in which each coordinate represents a distance. In the cylindrical coordinate system ,
location of a point in space is described using two distances (r(r and z)z) and an angle
measure (θ)(θ). In the spherical coordinate system , we again use an ordered triple to describe
the location of a point in space. In this case, the triple describes one distance and two angles.
Spherical coordinates make it simple to describe a sphere , just as cylindrical coordinates make
it easy to describe a cylinder

. Grid lines for spherical coordinates are based on angle measures, like those for polar
coordinates.

In the spherical coordinate system a point PP in space is represented by the ordered

triple (ρ,θ,φ)(ρ,θ,φ) where ρρ (the Greek letter rho) is the distance between PP and the
origin (ρ≠0);(ρ≠0); θθ is the same angle used to describe the location in cylindrical coordinates;
φφ (the Greek letter phi) is the angle formed by the positive zz-axis and line segment OP¯OP¯,
where OO is the origin and 0≤φ≤π.0≤φ≤π.

Figure 4.10: Rectangular Coordinates

The relationship among spherical, rectangular, and cylindrical coordinates. By convention, the
origin is represented as (0,0,0)(0,0,0) in spherical coordinates.
Spherical coordinates are useful in analyzing systems that have some degree of symmetry
about a point, such as the volume of the space inside a domed stadium or wind speeds in a
planet’s atmosphere. A sphere that has Cartesian equation x2+y2+z2=c2x2+y2+z2=c2 has the
simple equation ρ=cρ=c in spherical coordinates.

In geography, latitude and longitude are used to describe locations on Earth’s surface , as
shown in Figure. Although the shape of Earth is not a perfect sphere , we use spherical
coordinates to communicate the locations of points on Earth. Let’s assume Earth has the shape
of a sphere with radius 40004000 mi. We express angle measures in degrees rather
than radians because latitude and longitude are measured in degrees.

Figure 4.11: Spherical Coordinates

In the latitude–longitude system, angles describe the location of a point on Earth relative to the
equator and the prime meridian.

Let the center of Earth be the center of the sphere , with the ray from the center through the
North Pole representing the positive zz-axis. The prime meridian represents the trace of
the surface as it intersects the xzxz-plane.The equator is the trace of the sphere intersecting
the xyxy-plane.
Convert from spherical coordinates to cylindrical coordinates

These equations are used to convert from spherical coordinates to cylindrical coordinates.

c. r=ρsinφr=ρsin⁡φ
d. θ=θθ=θ
e. z=ρcosφz=ρcos⁡φ

Convert from cylindrical coordinates to spherical coordinates

These equations are used to convert from cylindrical coordinates to spherical coordinates.

a. ρ=r2+z2−−−−−−√ρ=r2+z2
b. θ=θθ=θ
c. φ=arccos(zr2+z2−−−−−−√)

4.7 ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES

Essentially, a coordinate system will associate with every point in R3 a triple of real numbers.
Depending on the coordinate system chosen this triple may have bounded or unbounded
variation. The most useful type of coordinate system is one in which the coordinates are
orthogonal to each other: for example, if a point is labeled by (p1, p2, p3) than the curve (p1 =
constant, p2 = constant) is orthogonal to the curve (p1 = constant, p3 = constant) (in the sense
that their tangents are orthogonal to each other). (Same condition for the other choices of
curves.) If these curves are straight lines, you get the familiar cartesian coordinates; in other
cases, you could get curvilinear coordinates. In principle, any coordinate system is as good as
any other; however, some systems are more useful than others, e.g. because the Laplacian
separates in these systems.

Simple examples are spherical polar coordinates (p1 = r, p2 = theta, p3 = phi) and cylindrical
polar coordinates (p1 = r, p2 = phi, p3 = z).

Let , , be a set of standard right-handed Cartesian coordinates. Furthermore,

let , , be three independent functions of

these coordinates which are such that each unique triplet of , , values is associated

with a unique triplet of , , values. It follows that , , can be used as

an alternative set of coordinates to distinguish different points in space. Because the surfaces

of constant , , and are not generally parallel planes, but rather curved surfaces,
this type of coordinate system is termed curvilinear.

A simple method for generating orthogonal coordinates systems in two dimensions is by a

conformal mapping of a standard two-dimensional grid of Cartesian coordinates (x, y). A
complex number z = x + iy can be formed from the real coordinates x and y, where i represents
the imaginary unit.

These surfaces are not all planes, but they do intersect at right angles. If the coordinate surfaces
intersect at right angles (i.e. the unit normals intersect at right angles), as in the example of
spherical polars, the curvilinear coordinates are said to be orthogonal

4.8 EXAMPLES

Example 1:

Find the equation of a tangent to the curve y = (x-7)/[(x-2)(x-3)] at the point where it cuts the
x-axis.

Solution:

As the point cut at the x-axis, then y=0. Hence, the equation of the curve, if y=0, then the value
of x is 7. (i.e., x=7). Hence, the curve cuts the x-axis at (7,0)

Now, differentiate the equation of the curve with respect to x, we get

dy/dx = [(1-y)(2x-5)] / [(x-2)((x-3)]

dy/dx](7, 0) = (1-0)/[(5)(4)] = 1/20

Hence, the slope of the tangent line at (7, 0) is 1/20.

Therefore, the equation of the tangent at (7, 0) is

Y-0 = (1/20)(x-7)

20y-x+7 = 0.

Example 2

Calculate the length of an arc if the radius of an arc is 8 cm and the central angle is 40°.

Solution:
Radius, r = 8 cm

Central angle, θ = 40°

Arc length = 2 π r × (θ/360°)

So, s = 2 × π × 8 × (40°/360°)

= 5.582 cm

Example 3

What is the curved surface area of the right circular cylinder having a radius of 10 units and a
height of 21 units?

Solution: Given that r = 10 units, h = 21 units and let the curved surface of the right circular
cylinder is CSA.

As we know, the CSA of a right circular cylinder, CSA = 2πrh

CSA = 2 × (22/7) × 10 × 21

⇒ CSA = 2 × 22 × 10 × 3

⇒ CSA = 1320 square units.

Therefore the curved surface area of the right circular cylinder is 1320 square units.

Example 4

Calculate the curved surface area of a sphere having radius equals to 3.5 cm(Take π=
22/7)

Solution–

Curved surface area = Total surface area = 4 π r2 square units

= 4 × (22/7) × 3.5 × 3.5

Therefore, the curved surface area of a sphere= 154 cm2

Example 5

Plot the point with spherical coordinates (8,π3,π6)(8,π3,π6) and express its location in both
rectangular and cylindrical coordinates.
 Figure 4.12: Spherical Coordinates

Solution

xyz=ρsinφcosθ

=8sin(π6)cos(π3)

=8(12)12=2

=ρsinφsinθ

=8sin(π6)sin(π3)

=8(12)3–√2

=23–√

=ρcosφ

=8cos(π6)=8(3–√2)=43–
√x=ρsin⁡φcos⁡θ=8sin⁡(π6)cos⁡(π3)=8(12)12=2y=ρsin⁡φsin⁡θ=8sin⁡(π6)sin⁡(π3)=8(12)
32=23z=ρcos⁡φ=8cos⁡(π6)=8(32)=43.

The projection of the point in the xyxy-plane is 44 units from the origin. The line from the
origin to the point’s projection forms an angle of π/3π/3 with the positive xx-axis. The point
lies 43–√43 units above the xyxy-plane.
The point with spherical coordinates (8,π3,π6)(8,π3,π6) has rectangular coordinates (2,23–
√,43–√).

4.9 SUMMARY

 Curved space often refers to a spatial geometry which is not "flat", where a flat space
is described by Euclidean geometry.

 The normal vector, often simply called the "normal," to a surface is a vector which is
perpendicular to the surface at a given point.

 When normals are considered on closed surfaces, the inward-pointing normal (pointing
towards the interior of the surface) and outward-pointing normal are usually
distinguished.

 Parametric curves allow us to graph relationships between two or more quantities and
at the same time represent each quantity's directions or orientations.

 A right circular cylinder is a three-dimensional solid figure. It is a type of cylinder that

has a closed circular surface with two parallel bases on both ends. It is also commonly
known as the right cylinder.

 As the name suggests, cylindrical coordinates are useful for dealing with problems
involving cylinders, such as calculating the volume of a round water tank or the amount
of oil flowing through a pipe. Similarly, spherical coordinates are useful for dealing
with problems involving spheres, such as finding the volume of domed structure.

4.10 LEARNING ACTIVITY

1. One real-life example of a tangent is when you ride a bicycle, every point on the
circumference of the wheel makes a tangent with the road. Write a tangent to the
surface equation for any such point.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______

2. If a rocket is launched along a parabolic path, we might want to know how far the
rocket travels. Find the arc length along this path.
 ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______

4.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS

A. Descriptive

Short Questions

1. Define vector valued function.

2. Determine the equation of the tangent plane to the surface z – x3 -3xy = y3 at the point
( 1,2,3).

3. Find the equation of the tangent plane to the hyperboloid in 2 sheets x2 -y2 -z2 = 4 at
the point ( 3,2,1) .

4. Find the unit normal to the-surface x2y + 2zx = 4 at the point ( 2, -2, 3).

5. Convert the rectangular coordinate (2,2,−1) to cylindrical coordinates.

Long Questions

3. Find a rectangular equation for a surface whose cylindrical equation is given

as z2=1−5r2.

4. Onvert the rectangular coordinate (2,2,−1) to spherical coordinates.

5. Convert the point (−2,−2,1)(−2,−2,1) from Cartesian coordinates to (a) cylindrical and
(b) spherical coordinates.

6. Write the equation of the cylinder x2+y2=4x2+y2=4 in cylindrical coordinates.

7. Describe the surface given by θ=zθ=z in cylindrical coordinates.

B. Multiple Choice Questions

1. The tangent line to a plane curve at a given point is the

a. Straight line that just touches the curve at that point.

b. Straight line that does not touches the curve at that point
c. Straight line that runs through the curve at that point
d. Straight line that is parallel to the curve at that point

2. A “space curve” is a curve in

 a. No Dimension
b. 2D
c. 4D
d. 3D

3. The tangent line to the curve y=f(x)y=f(x) at the point (x0,f(x0))(x0,f(x0)) is

a. The curved line that fits the curve best at that point.
b. The straight line that fits the curve best at that point.
c. The straight line that does not fits the curve at that point.
d. The parallel line that runs through at that point.

4. Well tangent planes to a surface are planes that

a. Are only running in parallel to the surface at the point

b. Do not touch the surface at the point.
c. Just touches the surface at the point and are parallel to the surface at the point.
d. Outside the given point.

5. Arc length is the

a. Connection between two points along a section of a curve

b. Degrees between two points along a section of a curve
c. Distance between two points along a section of a curve
d. Empty space between two points along a section of a curve.

Answers

1 A, 2 D, 3 B, 4 C, 5 C

4.12 REFERENCES

Textbooks

 Application of Derivatives Tangents and Normals (Calculus) Mathematics Question

Bank by MOHAMMAD KHAJA SHAREEF (2015)

 Derivatives 2017 by T. V. Somanathan (Author), V. Anantha Nageswaran

 Calculus Made Easy 2017 by Silvanus Thompson

 Ordinary Differential Equations by Vladimir I. Arnold 1978

  Mathematical Analysis II Zorich Vladimir A 2016

Websites

 https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/calciii/gradientvectortangentplane.aspx

 https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Calculus/Supplemental_Modules_(Calculus)/
Vector_Calculus/1%3A_Vector_Basics/1.7%3A_Tangent_Planes_and_Normal_Lines

 https://www2.math.uconn.edu/~stein/math210/Slides/math210-09notes.pdf

 https://activecalculus.org/multi/S-11-6-Parametric-Surfaces-Surface-Area.html

 https://www.math.purdue.edu/~neptamin/324Au17/Notes/16.6/16.6.pdf