III.

DIFFERENT LEARNERS IN MARGINALIZED GROUPS

A. Child Laborers/Domestic Workers

The International Labor Organization (ILO) describes child labor as "work that deprives children
of their childhood, their potential, and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental
development." Child labor is caused by poverty, the lack of education, and the lack of schools.

By law, a child is a human being who is below the age of 18 (The World Counts 2014). The ILO
on child labor that was presented in Geneva in 2017 noted a big decline in child labor over the
years but still presents the following statistics:

"A total of 152 million children-64 million girls and 88 million boys- are in child labor globally,
accounting for almost one in ten of all children worldwide. Nearly half of all those in child labor-
73 million children in absolute terms-are in hazardous work that directly endangers their health,
safety, and moral development. Children in employment, a broader measure comprising both
child labor and permitted forms of employment involving children of legal working age, number
218 million."

One of the key results noted in the report is "Child Labor is frequently associated with
educational marginalization." This report was the first to acknowledge the connection between
education and child labor. It clearly stated that a large number of child laborers are unable to get
an education because of poverty, situations of armed conflict, and calamities. Those children
who are able to study are emotionally and physically tired from work and are incapable of
gaining much from studying in school more so doing self-study. They also tend to perform below
par compared to their classmates in terms of learning achievement (ILO 2016).

In June 2015, the theme of World Day Against Child Labor was "No to Child Labor-Yes to
Quality Education." The challenge was to grant free, mandatory, and quality education for all
children at least to the minimum age for admission to employment covering those currently in
child labor. There are more dynamic attempts to make sure that national policies on child labor
are strong and persistent. This is to ensure that quality child education is available and teacher
education is excellent.

We are still quite far from the Sustainable Development Goals 8.7 that aims to eradicate child
labor by 2025. This means there is still so much work to be done, policies to put in place, and
cooperation among nations to put an end to this.

B. Indigenous People

There is no commonly acknowledged meaning of the term indigenous people. José R. Martínez
Cobo's Study on the Problem of Discrimination against Indigenous Populations presented a
"working definition of indigenous communities, peoples, and nations" (as cited in State of the
World's Indigenous People 2010):

"Indigenous communities, peoples, and nations are those which, having a historical continuity
with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider
themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing on those territories, or
parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to
preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories and their ethnic
identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own
cultural patterns, social institutions and legal system. This historical continuity may consist of the
continuation, for an extended period reaching into the present of one or more of the following
factors:

a. Occupation of ancestral lands, or at least of part of them;

b. Common ancestry with the original occupants of these lands; religion,

c. Culture in general, or in specific manifestations (such as living under a tribal system,

membership of an indigenous community, dress, means of livelihood, lifestyle, etc.); or as

d. Language (whether used as the only language, as mother-tongue, as the habitual means of
communication at home or in the family, the main, preferred, habitual, general or normal
language);

e. Residence in certain parts of the country, or in certain regions of the world; and

f. Other relevant factors.

On an individual basis, an indigenous person is one who belongs to these indigenous

populations through self-identification as indigenous (group consciousness) and is recognized
and accepted by these populations as one of its members (acceptance by the group). This
preserves for these communities the sovereign right and power to decide who belongs to them,
without external interference."

Based on several sources including the work of the Working Group on Indigenous Populations,
the provisions of convention No. 169 of the ILO, and the contents of the United Nations
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, indigenous peoples possess one or all of the
following characteristics: "they are descendants of the peoples who inhabited the land or
territory prior to colonization or the establishment of state borders; they possess distinct social,
economic, and political systems, languages, cultures, and beliefs, and are determined to
maintain and develop this distinct identity; they exhibit strong attachment to their ancestral lands
and the natural resources contained therein; and/or they belong to the non-dominant groups of
a society and identify themselves as indigenous peoples" (Minority Rights: International
Standards and Guidance for Implementation, UN and Geneva 2010).
In the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007), indigenous
people are acknowledged to have suffered from "historic justices as a result of their colonization
and dispossession of their lands, territories, and resources, thus preventing them from
exercising, in particular, their right to development in accordance with their own needs and
interests." The very first State of the World's Indigenous Peoples (SOWIP) (2010) prepared by
the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) highlighted very
disturbing statistics on indigenous people's sufferings both in developing and developed
countries: human rights abuses committed against them, marginalization, excessive poverty,
absence or lack of quality education, poor health, unsanitary and poor living conditions,
malnutrition, unemployment and unequal opportunities for employment, and expulsion from their
lands. Mr. Sha Zukang, Under-Secretary-General for Economic and Social Affairs, in his
foreword for the SOWIP (2010) said that even their languages, their value systems, culture,
traditions, and their way of life is continuously vulnerable to threats of destruction.

Focusing on education, indigenous people generally lack access to education because they
usually stay in places that are quite far from schools and also because of their marginalized
status in the community. The curriculum of the schools they get into, if there is a school
available for their children to go to, is not adapted to their culture and language. They are not
included or even consulted in decision-making processes that identify the kind of education they
need, the curriculum that will be implemented, and the teachers who will teach them. Teachers
are not trained to teach indigenous people-they do not speak their language and, more often
than not, are unable to provide materials and activities that are relevant to the uniqueness of
their culture. Even the materials that they use are problematic because these feature
stereotypical and inaccurate views on indigenous people. A consequence of all these is an
"education gap"-in the same countries, there are less indigenous students who enroll, more
indigenous students who dropout, and lower achievement outcomes than non-indigenous
people. Another consequence is the destruction of their culture and the loss of their identity.
This is brought about by an educational system that is foreign and that did not consider their
culture in the first place. It is also good to note that a number of indigenous people who have
gone through formal schooling have become progressive and helpful in uplifting the plight of
their indigenous community. The status of indigenous women who have gone to formal
schooling has also empowered them (SOWIP 2010).

Education is a right and a means for self-improvement. Its terminal goal is a better life for the
individual and his/her family. Quality education will eventually equate to better lives for
indigenous people. The Declaration of Rights of Indigenous People (2007) notes that quality
education is significant for indigenous people. It declares that indigenous people have the right
to build and manage their own system of education using their own language, considering their
very own cultural diversity. It declares that indigenous people have the right to use, pass on,
and invigorate their languages, traditions, beliefs, value systems, literature, culture, ceremonies,
practices, and way of writing to the next generations of children through education. UNESCO
has international frameworks, guides, guidelines, tools, and tool kits for ensuring inclusion and
equity for indigenous people in education. For inclusion to take root in education, awareness,
respect, and tolerance for cultural diversity are significant components.
C. Abused Children

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines child maltreatment as "the abuse and neglect
that occurs to children under 18 years of age. It includes all types of physical and/or emotional
ill-treatment, sexual abuse, neglect, negligence, and commercial or other exploitation, which
results in actual or potential harm to the child's health, survival, development, or dignity in the
context of a relationship of responsibility, trust, or power. Exposure to intimate partner violence
is also sometimes included as a form of child maltreatment." (WHO 2016) Child maltreatment is
identified globally as a valid "social, public health, and human rights issue."

Child maltreatment or child abuse is a serious matter that has direct, extensive, and life-time
effects on children. It may lead to physical harm or impairments, negatively affect cognitive
functioning and socio-emotional adjustment, weaken the nervous and immune systems, and
lead to death. A global systematic review and meta-analysis of the relationships between
violence in childhood and educational outcomes (Fry et al. 2018), showed that all kinds of abuse
and cruelty in childhood have an effect on 'educational outcomes' which included "school
dropout/graduation, school absence, academic achievement, and other educational outcomes
such as grade retention, learning outcomes, and remedial classes."

D. Refugees or Displaced Children

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) defines refugee as "someone
who has been forced to flee his or her country because of persecution, war, or violence. A
refugee has a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political
opinion, or membership in a particular social group. Most likely, they cannot return home or are
afraid to do so. War and ethnic, tribal, and religious violence are leading causes of refugees
fleeing their countries." (UNHCR)

An internally displaced person, or IDP, is "someone who has been forced

to flee their home but never cross an international border. These individuals seek safety
anywhere they can find it-in nearby towns, schools, settlements, internal camps, even forests
and fields. IDPs, which include people displaced by internal strife and natural disasters, are the
largest group that UNHCR assists. Unlike refugees, IDPs are not protected by international law
or eligible to receive many types of aid because they are legally under the protection of their
own government." (UNHCR)

According to the most recent statistics from the UN, there are 21.3 million refugees and 51% are
below 18 years of age. This is the highest record so far since WWII. The refugees and the
internally displaced children have something in common-they are not in their homes, they are
not secure. There is also a big possibility that they could be or are separated from their family,
friends, and community. They are lonely and feel they are treated unfairly. They are in a
situation that does not allow them to enjoy freedom of movement and also freedom to go to
school. They are often mixed with people from different cultures and beliefs. They live in tents or
desolate housing facilities that are boxed in by barbed wires or fences. They are in distress,
scared, and uncertain about what is going to happen to them, for how long and what their future
is going to be like. The present situation of these children is complicated and there are no
answers to this problem yet. However, other questions are arising-who or what will they be in
the future? Will they grow up to be good citizens of their country or will they be the next group of
terrorists who will be a burden and a threat to the world? Concerns over what will become of
these children should be enough to make us take a serious look at how we can make education
work for them (Cardarelli 2018).

The Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention of Child's Rights emphasize that
education is the right of every person, every child. This means that education policies are in
place. The 2030 United Nations Agenda for Sustainable Development considers education as
essential to the advancement of humankind. It is clearly stated that "UN Sustainable
Development Goal #4, which calls for ensuring inclusive and quality education for all and
promoting lifelong learning. Its specific objectives include: ensuring that all girls and boys have
access to quality early childhood development, care, and pre-primary education so that they are
ready for primary education, eliminating gender disparities in education, and ensuring equal
access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons
with disabilities, indigenous peoples, and children in vulnerable situations by 2030." (UN SDG
2015) Despite all these, in the resettlement areas or places these children are confined to, food
and shelter are given priority over education. Aside from the lack of resources, there are other
complications that are hindrances to the quality of education given to these children:

1. Countries that host them are unable to protect refugee rights to education simply because
they themselves have a distended system of education and vulnerable government and
economic institutions.

2. Because of the length of time refugees and displaced children are in resettlement and
refugee areas, educational resources given to them do not allow for quality education-shifts to
accommodate children, over tire the teachers, and shorten learning time.

3. Language and the lack of materials is also a concern.

4. The children who have been exposed to war and violence demonstrate signs of psycho-social
problems that are not addressed (Cardarelli 2018).

E. Children in Conflict Zones

"All wars, whether just or unjust, disastrous or victorious, are waged against the child."
Eglantyne Jebb
In December 2018, Manuel Fontaine, UNICEF Director for Emergency Programs, said,
"Children living in conflict zones around the world have continued to suffer through extreme
levels of violence over the past 12 months, and the world has continued to fail them. For too
long, parties to conflict have been committing atrocities with near-total impunity, and it is only
getting worse. Much more can and must be done to protect and assist children." It is said that
children in counties that are at war are being used as "human shields, killed, maimed, or
recruited to fight. Rape, forced marriage, and abduction have become standard tactics in
conflicts from Syria to Yemen, and from the Democratic Republic of the Congo to Nigeria, South
Sudan, and Myanmar (UNICEF Press Release 2018). The children have rights accorded to
them by law, by the Convention on Child's Rights, but it is the utter disrespect and disregard for
these rights that is brought about by the unresponsiveness of governments and even, at times,
connivance with the perpetrators that is causing the children harm. It is also sad to note that
other countries are not helpful in solving this problem (Save The Children Report 2019).

"The UN has identified 6 categories of human rights violations against children, known as the 6
grave violations. These violations include the killing and maiming of children, the abduction of
children, the recruitment or use of children as soldiers, sexual violence against children, attacks
against schools or hospitals, and the denial of humanitarian access. The first 4 are direct acts of
violence against children, and the last 2 are indirect actions that cause harm to children and
directly relate to health care and health workers. The commission of any of these violations
constitutes a breach of international humanitarian law." (UN Working Paper 1, 2013 as cited in
Kadir et al. 2018).

Despite the laws, the number of children caught in conflict zones is still increasing and many are
being deliberately targeted. The way wars are being fought, in this present day, demonstrates a
total disregard for children and schools. Children are constantly getting killed and/or hurt lost
their parents/ family, have very poor health, and mental states are under "toxic stress." This
causes both physical and "psychological trauma" that will have enduring effects. When they are
raped, they are condemned and if they get pregnant, their unborn children are unwanted and
stigmatized. Being a child soldier makes them lose their identity and exposes them to conditions
that will have a long-lasting effect on their mental health. There are countless effects of armed
conflict on children who are very vulnerable and unable to protect themselves. The effect on the
children's education: enrolment is going down, a lot of children are dropping out of school,
school conditions are bad, there are low levels of educational attainment, and abuse is
committed. (Kadir et al. 2018)

Is there something that can be done for the children caught in armed conflict? There have been
governments and countries that have upheld children's rights. They are firm with their laws and
values and look out for the children's welfare and safety. Leaders and governments have an
important role to play to put a stop to this injustice and violence against children in has armed
conflicts. The responsibility does not stop with them, every person the responsibility to look out
for these children and make a stand for them.

This chapter has presented information on learners from marginalized groups, specifically the
child laborers, indigenous people, abused children, refugees, and children in conflict zones.