Nyein Myo San R.ep-14

YANGON TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL POWER ENGINEERING
DESIGN AND CALCULATION OF HIGH-INCOME GROUP

SOLAR HOME SYSTEM
BY
MA NYEIN MYO SAN
VI R. EP-14 (MAY, 2022)
(B.E. THESIS)
FEBRUARY, 2023
YANGON

SOLAR HOME SYSTEM
MA NYEIN MYO SAN

VI R. EP-14 (MAY, 2022)
A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL POWER ENGINEERING
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
(ELECTRICAL POWER)
FEBRUARY, 2023
YANGON
We certify that we have examined, and recommend to the University Steering

Committee for Undergraduate Studies for acceptance of the thesis entitled “DESIGN
AND CALCULATION OF HIGH-INCOME GROUP SOLAR HOME
SYSTEM” submitted by Ma Nyein Myo San, Roll No. VI R. EP-14 (MAY 2022) in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering.
Board of Examiners:
1. Dr. Hla Aye Thar

Professor
Department of Electrical Power Engineering -------------------------------
Yangon Technological University (Supervisor)
2. Daw Khin Moe Moe

Associate Professor
Yangon Technological University (Co-Supervisor)
3. Daw Eain Soe May

Tutor
Yangon Technological University (Member)
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, the author is deeply grateful to Dr. Myint Thein, Rector of
Yangon Technological University, for his kind permission to submit this thesis.
The author is obliged to Dr. Soe Win, Professor and Head of the Department of
Electrical Power Engineering at Yangon Technological University, for his
accomplished guidance, good will to share ideas, and helpful suggestions.
The author wishes to express her sincere gratitude to the supervisor of the Board
of Examiners, Dr. Hla Aye Thar, Professor of the Department of Electrical Power
Engineering at Yangon Technological University, for her helpful suggestions,
invaluable motivation, and encouragement.
The author takes this opportunity to extend our sincere gratitude and heartfelt
thanks to the co-supervisor, Daw Khin Moe Moe, Associate Professor of the
Department of Electrical Power Engineering at Yangon Technological University, for
her kind suggestion, continuous support, invaluable instruction, good willingness to
share her ideas, and infinite patience throughout this research.
The author wishes to extend her thanks to the member of the Board of
Examiners, Daw Eain Soe May, Tutor of the Department of Electrical Power
Engineering of Yangon Technological University, for all her kind help, immense
knowledge, and enthusiastic corrections on this thesis.
The author wants to thank all her teachers at the Electrical Power Engineering
Department, Yangon Technological University, for their comments, suggestions,
encouragement, corrections, and full attention during her presentation.
In addition, the author would like to express her deep gratitude to her beloved
parents, U Myo Kyaw and Daw Sandar Soe, for their kindness, understanding, and
financial assistance during the whole course of this work to enable her to attain her
destination without any trouble. Last but not least, the author wants to express her
deepest appreciation to her kind and supportive friends Myat Thu Htet, Aung Min Hein
and Aung Chan Myae for their invaluable advices and motivation that will benefit her
throughout the thesis.
ii
ABSTRACT
The availability of energy supply to all sectors of life is crucial for the
development of a nation, particularly electricity, which is the main driver of economic
development. Nowadays, electricity in Myanmar is generated by fuel generators and
hydroelectric power plants. However, rural areas, which are away from national grids,
cannot access the electricity generated by these sources. Solar energy is the most
abundant source of energy, and there is no carbon emission that can cause the
greenhouse effect. Since Myanmar is a land of plentiful sunshine, solar photovoltaic
technology has become more popular for supplying electricity for different
applications. The direct conversion of solar energy into electricity using photovoltaic
systems is used in rural areas to meet the basic electricity needs of a rural community.
This thesis demonstrates the design and calculation of a solar home system for high-
income group to provide the entire energy consumption of the appliances. The selected
site for the thesis is Sa Khan Thit village, which is situated in Kyun Su Township,
Tanintharyi Region. It is a coastal village in an off-grid area. Electricity is supplied by
diesel generators owned by private companies. The tariff is really high, and it is very
expensive to use electricity. In the proposed design, daily load energy consumption is
first calculated. The solar irradiation data for the site is collected for the whole year.
The system voltage is selected for the desired loads. The SHS uses 48V 200Ah batteries,
580W monocrystalline panels, MPPT 80-600-48V controllers, and an 8.5 kW inverter
for sufficient energy demand. Moreover, tilt angle and azimuth angles for the solar array
are considered, and the position for the solar array is mentioned as being suitable with
the space available on the rooftop area.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
ABSTRACT ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF TABLES viii
CHAPTER TITLE
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Aim and Objectives 2
1.3 Scope of the Thesis 3
1.4 Implementation Programme 3
1.5 Outline of the Thesis 3
2 SOLAR ENERGY 4
2.1 Sun as Solar Resource 4
2.2 Effect of the Earth’s Atmosphere on Solar Radiation 5
2.2.1 Direct, Diffuse and Albedo Radiation 6
2.2.2 Air Mass Ratio 7
2.2.3 Solar Irradiance 7
2.3 Earth-Sun Geometry 8
2.4 Solar Time 9
2.5 Declination 10
2.6 How to Mount Solar Modules for Capturing Sunlight 10
2.6.1 Tilt Angle 11
2.6.2 Azimuth Angle 11
3 COMPONENTS OF HIGH-INCOME GROUP
SOLAR HOME SYSTEM 13
3.1 General Review of the Solar Home System 13
3.2 Types of Solar PV System 14
iv
3.2.1 Standalone Solar PV System 14

3.2.2 Grid-connected Solar PV System 15
3.2.3 Hybrid Solar PV System 15
3.3 Photovoltaic cell 16
3.3.1 Types of PV Cell 17
3.3.2 Equivalent Circuit for PV Cell 19
3.3.3 Parameters and Electrical Characteristics of PV Cell 19
3.4 Battery 21
3.4.1 Battery Principles and Operation 21
3.4.2 Charging and Discharging of Batteries 22
3.4.3 Types of Batteries 23
3.5 Inverter 24
3.5.1 Working Principle of Solar Inverter 24
3.5.2 Types of Solar Inverter 24
3.6 Charge Controller 26
3.6.1 Function of Charge Controller 26
3.6.2 PWM and MPPT Charge Controller 27
4 DESIGN AND CALCULATION OF HIGH-INCOME
GROUP SOLAR HOME SYSTEM 29
4.1 Introduction 29
4.2 Design Process of High-Income Group Solar Home System 29
4.2.1 Load Estimation 30
4.2.2 System Voltage 30
4.2.3 Battery Sizing 31
4.2.4 Solar PV sizing 33
4.2.5 Charge Controller Selection 34
4.2.6 Inverter Selection 34
4.3 Site Orientation of Solar Home System 35
4.3.1 Determination of Tilt Angle 35
4.3.2 Determination of Azimuth Angle of
the PV Modules' Shadow 35
4.3.3 Determination of Space Need for Solar Modules 36
4.4 Designing of Solar Home System at Sa Khan Thit Village 37
4.5 Calculation of High-Income Group Solar Home System 38
v
4.5.1 Load Estimation 38

4.5.2 Solar Irradiation for Selected Site 40
4.5.3 Battery Sizing 41
4.5.4 Solar PV Sizing 43
4.5.5 Selection of Charge Controller 45
4.5.6 Inverter Selection 46
4.6 Placement of Solar Arrays 47
4.6.1 Selection of Tilt Angle 47
4.6.2 Calculation of Azimuth Angle of
the PV Modules' Shadow 47
4.6.3 Space Needed for Solar Modules 48
4.7 Summary of Proposed High-Income Group Solar Home System
5 DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
52
5.1 Discussions 52
5.2 Conclusions 53
5.3 Recommendations 53
REFERENCES 54
APPENDICES 56
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1. Solar Radiation Spectrum 4
2.2. Absorption and Reflection of Solar Radiation by the Atmosphere 5
2.3. From the Surface of the Earth, Air Mass is directly related to
the Altitude of the Sun 7
2.4. Solar Irradiance, in Watts per Square Meter 8
2.5. Earth-Sun Geometric Relationships 9
2.6. Tilt Angle of a Solar Panel 11
2.7. Azimuth Angle 12
3.1. Standalone Solar PV System 14
3.2. Grid-connected Solar PV System 15
3.3. Hybrid Solar PV System 15
3.4. Function of a Solar Photovoltaic Cell 16
3.5. Flow of Electrons and Current through a Photovoltaic Cell 17
3.6. Photovoltaic Cell, Module and Array 17
3.7. Types of PV Cell 19
3.8. A Simple Equivalent Circuit for a Photovoltaic Cell Consists of
a Current Source Driven by Sunlight in Parallel with a Real Diode 19
3.9. Two Important Parameters for Photovoltaic:
Short-Circuit Current and the Open-Circuit Voltage 20
3.10. The I-V Curve and Power Output of a PV Module 21
3.11. A Typical Single Unit of an Electrochemical Cell 22
3.12. Parts of a Lead-Acid Battery 23
3.13. Comparison of PWM and ΜΡΡΤ efficiency 28
4.1. Calculation of Length of Shadow 36
4.2. Minimum Row Spacing (d) 37
4.3. Location of Sa Khan Thit Village from Google Earth 37
4.4. LPBA48200 Battery from Felicity Solar 43
4.5. JKM580M-7RL4-V Solar Panel from JinKo Solar 45
4.6. Wiring Connection of PV Array 44
vii
4.7. Conext MPPT 80-600-48V Charge Controller from Schneider 45
4.8. GW8500-MS Inverter from GooDwe 47
4.9. Selected Components of Proposed High-Income Group 51
Solar Home System
A.1. LPBA48200 Battery from Felicity Solar 58
A.2. JKM580M-7RL4-V Solar Panel from Jinko Solar 59
A.3. Conext MPPT-80-600-48V Charge Controller from Schneider 60
A.4. GW8500-MS Inverter from GooDwe 62
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
4.1. Power Rating of Solar Home System 38
4.2. Energy Rating of Solar Home System 39
4.3. Monthly Average Solar Radiation Data of Sa Khan Thit Village 40
4.4. Technical Data of JKM580M-7RL4-V Solar Module 44
4.5. Specification of Conext MPPT-80-600-48V Charge Controller 46
4.6. Comparison of Required vs Actual Values 49
4.7. Summary of Components 50
A.1. Selection of System Voltage 57
A.2. Selection of Ambient Temperature Multiplier for Battey 57
B.1. Technical Data of LPBA48200 Battery 58
B.2. Data Sheet of JKM580M-7RL4-V Solar Module 59
B.3. Specification of Schneider Conext MPPT 80 600V Charge Controller 60
B.4. Technical Data of GW8500-MS Inverter 61
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
In this 21st century, energy becomes an integral part of our daily life, and it is
difficult to even think of a single day without consuming any energy. The natural
energy sources, such as coal, petroleum, oil, and natural gas, take thousands of years
to form naturally. Pollution emitted by coal and natural gas plants is the main reason
for global warming and climate change. The rate of consumption of these non-
renewable energy sources is quite high as compared to their production. In contrast,
the natural energy sources, which are called renewable energy sources and include
solar radiation, wind, biomass, and hydro, are continuously produced by natural
processes and naturally replenished on a human timescale.
The electrification rate in Myanmar is one of the lowest in Asia and especially
low in rural villages, which are mainly not connected to the power grid. Wood and
biomass are used as the primary sources of energy in these areas. Myanmar’s total
electricity consumption rate is 10.877 million, and only 38.4% of the population has
access to electricity, while the remaining 61.6% are still in need of electricity supply.
Yangon and Mandalay have the highest electricity consumption in Myanmar.
Most of Myanmar’s electricity (74.7%) is produced by hydropower. The rest
is from fossil fuels, with gas as the main fuel (20.5%), followed by coal and oil. In
2017, Myanmar installed a generation capacity of about 5 GW. The annual total
electricity production is 3,189 MW from 17 hydropower stations and 15 thermal
power production facilities, with 1,342 MW still needed. The country is targeting
12% of all electricity to be generated from renewable sources by 2025 and plans to
achieve 100% electrification by 2030.
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on Earth, and it is one of the
renewable energies. Energy from the sun reaches the earth in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. On the earth, the solar radiation energy gets converted into
various other forms of renewable energy. On reaching the earth, some of the radiation
2
energy is reflected back, some energy gets absorbed in the atmosphere, some parts
reach the earth’s surface without any conversion, some parts are converted into wind
energy, some parts are converted into biomass energy, and some parts are used in
water evaporation, causing rain, and become available in the form of hydro energy.
Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology converts sunlight into electricity (direct
current) through a phenomenon known as the photoelectric effect. The utilization of
solar energy can be divided into stand-alone PV installations and grid-connected
systems. Solar home systems (SHS) are stand-alone photovoltaic systems that offer a
cost-effective mode of supplying essential power for lighting, and appliances to
remote off-grid households. The Solar Home System (SHS) uses PV technology to
illuminate households and power other essential home appliances such as
refrigerators, air conditioners, TVs, etc. The main components include solar panels,
batteries, inverter, and charge controllers. No fossil fuel consumption is required as
sunlight is the main raw material. The sunlight is widely available, reasonable, and
reliable fuel source. Besides, with a little maintenance of the equipment, the solar
home system can run smoothly and generate electricity for decades.
Myanmar receives direct normal irradiation of solar power (DNI) in the range
of 2-5 due to its geographical location. Such an amount of irradiation is good enough
to generate electricity to fulfill our entire electricity requirement using solar energy,
that is why this thesis has focused on SHS as a technological option for the country’s
rural communities.
1.2 Aim and Objectives

The main aim of this thesis is to design and calculation of High-Income Group
Solar Home System for provide continuous and reliable power supply in Sa Khan Thit
Village located in Kyun Su Township at Tanintharyi Region. This thesis is calculated
the system on real conditions as a case study. The objectives of this thesis are as
follows:
1. Knowing and applying the most abundant solar energy potential of
Myanmar.
2. Electrifying the rural household off-grid village.
3. Observing the applications and characteristics of each part of the
standalone PV system.
3
4. Finding out the most suitable rated values and cost-effective way for solar
home system.
5. Evaluating the pre-sizing of the system that can be useful when the stand-
alone PV system is designed.
1.3 Scope of the Thesis

Solar PV technologies are becoming more and more popular for rural
electrification. These are highly recommended, and particularly suitable for remote,
inaccessible areas. The case study area for designing a solar home system is Sa Khan
Thit village in Kyun Su Township, Tanintharyi Region. The place is located in coastal
area that has an abundance of solar energy. The electricity distribution is done by
private companies, and the tariff is quite high. Hence, this thesis is expected to
provide guidelines for designing a stand-alone PV system with reliable and effective
for homes and residences.
1.4 Implementation Programme

The procedures to implement the thesis are as follows:
1. Studying the background theory of solar photovoltaic system,
2. Developing the application of SHS for off-grid rural households,
3. Collecting specific data to calculate the total energy demand,
4. Making the design and calculation of the Solar Home System with battery
backup,
5. Calculating the shading and site orientation of the solar modules.
1.5 Outline of the Thesis

This thesis is mainly composed of six chapters. In Chapter one, introduction,
aim and objective, scope of the thesis, implementation programme, and outline of the
thesis are expressed. In Chapter two, Fundamentals of Solar Energy are described.
Chapter three discusses overview and components of Solar Home System. Chapter
four considers designing and calculation of Solar Home System. The discussions,
conclusions and recommendation are summarized in the last Chapter.
CHAPTER 2
SOLAR ENERGY
2.1 Sun as Solar Resource

The Sun is considered an average-sized star at the center of the Solar System. It
is formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant interstellar molecular cloud about
4.6 billion years ago. It is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter. The central mass
became so hot and dense that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in its core. Most of
this matter gathered in the center, whereas the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that
became the Solar System. The solar system, the gravitationally bound system of the
sun, includes Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and
Pluto, which orbit the sun [1].
The Sun’s mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth. The average distance to
the Sun is about 93 million miles (150 million kilometers) from the earth. At its average
distance, light travels from the Sun’s horizon to Earth’s horizon in about 8 minutes.
Roughly three-quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen (~73%), the rest is
mostly helium (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including
oxygen, carbon, and neon, and iron [1].
Figure 2.1. Solar Radiation Spectrum

Source: [2]
5
Electromagnetic radiation consists of waves of the electromagnetic field, which

propagate through space and carry momentum and electromagnetic radiant energy. In
order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength, these are: radio waves,
microwaves, infrared radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays [2].
Sunshine reaches the earth as a type of energy called radiation. Radiation is
composed of millions of high-energy particles called photons. Each unit of solar
radiation, or photon, carries a fixed amount of energy. Depending on the amount of
energy, solar radiation falls into different categories, including ultraviolet (very high
energy radiation), visible light (radiation that we can see), and infrared (i.e. heat) [3].
The sun’s output of energy occurs between the wavelengths of 250 nm and 2500 nm,
which include the composition of 6-7% ultraviolet light, around 42% visible light, and
51% near infrared light [2]. The spectrum of solar radiation is close to that of a black
body with a temperature of about 5778 K (5505˚C or 9941˚F) [3].
The sun is the Earth’s nearest star and the source of virtually all the Earth’s
energy, producing 3.8×1023 kW of power in huge nuclear fission reactions. Most of
this power is lost in space, but the tiny fraction that does reach the Earth,
1.73 × 1016 kW , is thousands of times more than enough to provide all of humanity’s
energy needs [3].
2.2 Effect of the Earth’s Atmosphere on Solar Radiation
Figure 2.2. Absorption and Reflection of Solar Radiation by the Atmosphere

Source: [4]
6
When solar radiation arrives at the top of the Earth’s atmosphere, it has a peak
irradiance value of 1377 W/m 2 which is known as the solar constant. By the time it
reaches the Earth’s surface, it is reduced to a minimum of about 1000 W/m 2 . The solar
spectrum at the Earth’s surface has some wavelengths missing, and the overall intensity
is reduced because some is absorbed, some is scattered, and some passes through
unaffected molecules in the atmosphere and is either absorbed or reflected by objects
at ground level, as shown in Figure 2.2.
2.2.1 Direct, Diffuse and Albedo Radiation

Direct solar radiation is the solar radiation that passes directly through the
atmosphere from the sun without being scattered or absorbed by the atmosphere. The
solar radiation that reaches the ground, and has been scattered by an atmospheric
component such as air, water molecules, dust, or cloud is classified as diffuse solar
radiation. Clouds and dust absorb and scatter the radiation, reducing the amount that
reaches the ground. On a sunny day, most radiation reaching the ground is direct, but
on a cloudy day, up to 100 % of the radiation is diffuse. Sunlight that is reflected from
the ground is known as albedo radiation. The sum of all three components, direct,
diffuse, and albedo radiation, of sunlight is called global radiation [3].
Annual and even monthly solar radiation is predictable. The received solar
radiation area is affected by the area’s latitude, cloudy periods, humidity, and
atmospheric clarity. The solar regions near the Equator have high-intensity solar
radiation, and cloudy periods especially affect the solar radiation. Long cloudy periods
significantly reduce the amount of solar energy available. High humidity absorbs and
hence reduces radiation. Atmospheric clarity, reduced by smoke, smog, and dust, also
affects incoming solar radiation. The total amount of solar energy that a location
receives may vary from season to season, but is quite constant from year to year [3].
In cloudy weather, the radiation received on a surface can be as little as one-
tenth of that received in full sun. Therefore, solar systems must be designed to guarantee
enough power in cloudy periods and months with lower solar radiation levels.
Measurement of direct and diffuse solar irradiance can provide information on the
transformation of energy on the earth and in the atmosphere, the analysis and
distribution of the properties of atmospheric components, and the verification of
satellite measurements of radiation [3].
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2.2.2 Air Mass Ratio
The amount of sunlight either absorbed or scattered depends on the length of

path through the atmosphere. This path length is generally compared with a vertical
path directly to sea level, which is designated as air mass. Hence, air mass is a
representation of how much atmosphere sunlight must pass through to strike the earth,
as shown in Figure 2.3. Air mass will affect the irradiance at a location. The greater the
air mass, the higher the chance of light being reflected or scattered, meaning there will
be less solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface [4].
Figure 2.3. From the Surface of the Earth,

Air Mass is Directly Related to the Altitude of the Sun
Source: [4]
h2 1
Air mass radio: m = = Equation 2.1
h1 sinβ
where, h1= path length through the atmosphere with the sun directly overhead
h2 = path length through the atmosphere to reach a spot on the surface

β = the altitude angle of the sun
Air mass is zero outside the Earth’s atmosphere. When the sun is directly
overhead, air mass is 1. Actual air mass values vary widely depending on location on
the globe, the time of the year, and the time of day [4].
2.2.3 Solar Irradiance

The solar radiation striking a surface or the power received per unit area from
the sun is referred to solar irradiance. It is measured in watts per square meter ( W/m2 )
or kilowatts per square meter ( kW/m 2 ). If a solar module is facing perpendicular to
8
the sun directly, the irradiance will be much higher than if the module is at a large angle
to the sun [5].
The changes in the solar power received on a flat surface over the course of a
clear day are shown in Figure 2.4. In the morning and late afternoon, the flat surface
is not at an optimum angle to the sun as a result of receiving less power. At noon, the
amount of power received is at its highest. The actual amount of power received at a
given time also varies with passing clouds and the amount of dust in the atmosphere.
If a solar module is turned to face the sun throughout the day, its energy output
increases. This practice is called solar tracking [5].
Figure 2.4. Solar Irradiance, in Watts per Square Meter

Source: [5]
2.3 Earth-Sun Geometry

The diameter of the Earth is 12.7×103 km , which is approximately 110 times
less than the Sun’s. The earth rotates on its axis and it revolves around the sun in an
elliptical orbit. The polar axis of the earth is inclined by an angle of 23.45˚ to the plane
of the earth’s orbit about the sun. The earth completes one cycle travelling around the
sun in 365.25 days or one year. The amount and intensity of solar radiation reaching
the Earth’s surface depends on the geometric relationship of the Earth with respect to
the Sun. Figure 2.5 shows the geometric relationship and its effects for different seasons
in both hemispheres [6].
9
Figure 2.5. Earth-Sun Geometric Relationships

Source: [6]
The Earth’s orbit’s eccentricity is very small, about 0.0167, which causes the
elliptical path to be nearly circular. The elliptical path of the Earth varies from
14.7×107 km in early January (the closest distance to the Sun), called perihelion. In
early July, (the farthest distance to the sun) 15.2×107 km far from the sun and is called
aphelion. The average Earth–Sun distance of 14.9×107 km is defined as the
astronomical unit (AU), which is used for calculating distances within the solar system.
However, the Earth is about 4 % closer to the Sun at the perihelion than the aphelion.
Thus, Northern countries (i.e. Europe) have lower annual solar radiation levels than
countries nearer the Equator – mainly because they have shorter days in winter [6].
2.4 Solar Time

Solar time is based on the apparent position of the sun in azimuth with respect
to the local meridian, or line of longitude, Ψ. Standard time was developed to partition
Earth into 24 “time zones,” each approximately 15° in width. The reference point for
standard time is the line of zero longitude running through Greenwich, England, which
is the “standard meridian” for time zone 0. The standard meridian Ψs for each other
time zone runs through the center (±7.5° from the boundaries) of the zone. Zones are
numbered positive for east of Greenwich and negative for west of Greenwich [7].
For civil, geopolitical, or practical reasons designated boundaries of time zones
deviate significantly from the ±7.5° theoretical lines of longitude for the boundaries.
For some locations, time zone designators are also in terms of ½-h intervals. Thus,
10
quoted “civil time zone” designations for sites near zone boundaries or in special “1/2
time zones” may need adjustment by plus 0.1 or  0.5 time zone for correct solar
geometry calculations. It is always the true longitude Ψ of the site, with respect to the
Greenwich meridian Ψ = 0°, and the standard meridian Ψs of the theoretical integral
time zone number for the site that should be used to designate the time zone in solar
position calculations [7].
2.5 Declination
Because of the 23.5° axial tilt of Earth’s rotation axis (with respect to the plane
of Earth’s orbit), the location (azimuth from north) of sunrise and sunset on the horizon,
the path of the sun, and the length of the solar path from sunrise to sunset (or day length
in hours) vary for each location on a daily basis throughout the year. The projection of
Earth’s equator onto the sky dome is the equatorial plane. The angle between the
equatorial plane and the plane of Earth’s orbit (or the apparent orbit of the Sun about
the Earth or the “plane of the ecliptic”) changes as the Earth moves along its orbit
through the year. This angle is the declination δ of the sun. At the equinoxes (spring
and fall, equal day length of 12 h, the Sun at the intersection of the equatorial and
ecliptic planes), the declination is zero. At the solstices (winter and summer, shortest
and longest day length, respectively), the Sun is at the greatest declination or deviation
below (–23.5°) and above (+23.5°) the equatorial plane [7]. The declination of the sun
can be computed from Equation 2.2.
360
δ = 23.45o sin[ (n+284)] Equation 2.2
365
where, n = the nth day from Jan 1.
2.6 How to Mount Solar Modules for Capturing Sunlight

Solar radiation depends on geographic latitude, season, and time of day due to
the various sun positions under unpredictable weather conditions. The amount of solar
radiation falling on the PV module strongly affects the amount of power generated by
the PV system. PV mounting systems are used for attaching solar modules to a roof, the
ground, the side of the building, or anywhere else that need to get the maximum possible
energy from the sunlight. In mounting the solar modules, it is important to design the
optimal tilt angle and azimuth of a fixed solar module for maximizing its energy
collection.
11
2.6.1 Tilt Angle

The angle between the horizontal plane and the solar panel is known as tilt angle
which is shown in Figure 2.6. The tilt angle of solar panel is the key to an optimum
energy yield because a solar panel produces the most power when the sun’s ray hit its
surface perpendicularly. The more increasing the tilt angles, the less energy output is
produced by the solar panels [8].
The optimal tilt angle for a PV panel in winter will differ from the optimal tilt
angle for the summer because the sun is lower in winter and higher in summer.
Therefore, increasing tilt angle of the array in winter and reducing the angle in summer
and set the array perpendicular to the sun in order to get the maximum array’s energy
output [8].
Generally, the optimum tilt angle is calculated by adding 15 degrees to the
location’s latitude during winter, and subtracting 15 degrees from the latitude during
summer. Adjusting the tilt angle twice a year gives a meaningful boost in energy from
solar panels [8].
Figure 2.6. Tilt Angle of a Solar Panel

Source: [8]
2.6.2 Azimuth Angle

The angle between the sun and the North is called Azimuth angle which is
measured in clockwise around observer’s horizon as shown in Figure 2.7. The
placement and orientation of solar panels is important to get the maximum sunlight
availability at a location because irradiance directly affects the amount of current that a
PV array produces [8].
For a given tilt angle, PV panels facing South always generate the largest energy
outputs for the northern hemisphere. In southern hemisphere, solar panels should be
facing as close to true north as possible. If the panels are oriented to the outside of the
12
South, up to a maximum of 45 degrees (South-East and South-West), the annual output

is reduced quite low (1-3%). However, if the panels are turned at an angle greater than
45° with respect to the South, the production starts to decrease considerably due to the
fact that the panels, during most of the day, are affected by sunlight weak and not
perpendicular. Figure 2.7 is a diagram that compares the sun’s path on the summer and
winter solstice [8].
Figure 2.7. Azimuth Angle

Source: [8]
CHAPTER 3
COMPONENTS OF SOLAR HOME SYSTEM
3.1 General Review of the Solar Home System

Solar home systems (SHS) are stand-alone photovoltaic systems that offer a
cost-effective mode of supplying amenity power for lighting and appliances to remote
off-grid households. In rural areas, that are not connected to the grid, SHS can be used
to meet a household's energy demand fulfilling basic electric needs such as home
appliances, lighting, computers and water pumps. The SHS is generally designed and
sized to supply DC and/or AC electrical appliances. Globally SHS provide power to
hundreds of thousands of households in remote locations where electrification by the
grid is not feasible. It consists of PV modules connected to a PV charge controller,
stand-alone inverter and battery system. The generated DC power is stored in the battery
and converted to AC power for supplying to AC loads. Ground or roof-mounted
systems are applied for solar panels and other appliances in this system.
A solar PV system is defined as the function of generating electricity using
sunlight and supply electricity to the load when required. Many components are
connected together in solar PV system, mainly consists of PV modules, batteries,
inverters, charge controllers. A solar PV module can convert sunlight into electricity
during the daytime. But the load may need electricity supply during non-sunshine
hours. In order to make the use of electricity generated by PV modules by the loads as
per desire, batteries are required to use as energy storage application. The battery stores
energy in the form of DC although most of the loads use only AC power, therefore, the
conversion of DC power to AC power is required. This power conversion is done by
the device called inverter. The load may require constant power supply, which may not
be possible to provide by the PV modules or batteries in the system. Thus, some kinds
of power conditioning may be required. In this way, in order to supply a reliable power
to the load using PV module, several components are required. To conclude, solar cell
modules are used for harvesting solar energy, batteries are needed for storing solar
energy, charge controllers and inverters are connected for managing solar energy as the
14
result of using electrical appliances efficiently. The combination of all the components
is referred as solar PV system. A solar PV system is the perfect sustainable solution for
anyone interested in reducing their carbon footprint and any bills. This is because
generating solar energy does not produce any pollutants and is free [9].
3.2 Types of Solar PV System

There are many ways in which PV modules and loads can be connected together
in PV system. The type of connection depends on the type of load, the availability of
grid and other power generator, etc. The solar PV systems can be divided in 3 types.
They are Standalone Solar PV System, Grid-connected Solar PV System and Hybrid
Solar PV System.
3.2.1 Standalone Solar PV System
Figure 3.1. Standalone Solar PV System

Source: [9]
Standalone solar PV systems are used in areas that are not easily accessible or
have no access to an electric grid. These systems are self-sufficient in themselves and
do not depend on any other sources. The system stores energy in batteries for night time
application when there is no sunlight. A typical stand-alone system would consist of
PV modules, batteries and charge controllers. An inverter is also needs to convert DC
current generated by the PV modules to AC current form required by normal appliances.
It includes a solar lantern, solar PV home lighting system, a solar PV water pumping
system, Television, Radio and others. Generators are used in off-grid systems as backup
power in case solar system can’t produce enough to meet the property’s needs [9].
15
3.2.2 Grid-connected Solar PV System
Figure 3.2. Grid-connected Solar PV System

Source: [9]
Grid-connected PV System is connected with nearby available electricity grid

in order to feed the generated electricity into the grid. No battery storage is used in this
process. But the conversion of DC electricity generated by solar PV modules into AC
electricity and proper power conditioning such as converting PV generated electricity
to appropriate voltage and frequency level are required before feeding to the grid.
Therefore, in this system, the inverter not only performs the function of DC to AC
conversion, but also performs the function of grid synchronization which is related to
bring generated PV energy to appropriate voltage and frequency level [9].
3.2.3 Hybrid Solar PV System
Figure 3.3. Hybrid Solar PV System

Source: [9]
16
Hybrid solar panel systems are similar to a grid solar system but use batteries to
store energy for later use. This ability to store energy enables most hybrid systems to
also operate as a backup power supply during a blackout, similar to Uninterrupted
Power Supply (UPS). Hybrid solar panels refers to solar and battery storage which
unlike off-grid systems is connected to the electricity grid. In some cases, an auxiliary
source of energy like diesel generator is used in addition to solar PV modules and/or
grid. This need to be done when solar PV modules are not designed to supply the full
required energy by the load. Hybrid solar systems are a good deal and must be
considered in high energy usage [9].
3.3 Photovoltaic Cell

A photovoltaic cell is a material or device that is capable of converting the
energy contained in photons of light into an electrical voltage and current. When
photons (packs of solar energy from the sunlight) strike the photovoltaic cell, photons
are absorbed and hole-electron pairs may be formed. If these mobile charge carriers
reach the vicinity of the p-n junction, the electric field in the depletion region will push
the holes into the p-side and push the electrons into the n-side, as shown in Figure 3.4.
The p-side accumulates holes and the n-side accumulates electrons, which creates a
voltage that can be used to deliver current to a load. If a load is connected between the
negative and positive sides of the cell, the electrons flow as a current. More intense
sunlight gives a stronger current. If the light stops striking the cell, the current stops
flowing immediately [10].
Figure 3.4. Function of a Solar Photovoltaic Cell

Source: [10]
17
When electrical contacts are attached to the top and bottom of the cell, electrons
will flow out of the n-slide into the connecting wire, through the load and back to the
p-side as shown in. Since wire cannot conduct holes, it is only the electrons that actually
move around the circuit. When they reach the p-side, they recombine with holes
completing the circuit. By convention, positive current flows in the direction opposite
to electron flow, so the current arrow in the figure shows current going from the p-side
to the load and back into the n-side as shown in Figure 3.5. [10].
Figure 3.5. Flow of Electrons and Current through a Photovoltaic Cell

Source: [10]
3.3.1 Types of PV Cell

Arrangements of several solar cells wired in series, sealed between glass and
plastic, and supported inside a metal frame are called photovoltaic modules. Groups of
modules mounted together are called arrays as shown in Figure 3.6.
There are three different types of PV cells which can make PV modules;
1. Mono-crystalline silicon PV cell
2. Poly-crystalline silicon PV cell
3. Thin film PV cell
Figure 3.6. Photovoltaic Cell, Module and Array

Source: [4]
18
1. Mono-crystalline silicon PV cell

Monocrystalline solar cells are specially treated wafers sliced from very pure
cylindrical silicon crystals. Anti-reflective coatings are applied to cell surfaces in order
to absorb radiation more effectively. After this, thin metal wires are soldered to the front
of the cell. These ribbons of metal on the cell act as the positive contact, whereas a solid
layer of metal on the back of the cell acts as a negative contact. Production cells have a
laboratory efficiency of up to 21.5 %, which means, if solar radiation is striking the
cells at a perpendicular angle with an intensity of 1000W/m2, about 215W/m2 of solar
energy is converted to electricity. Monocrystalline cells are chemically stable, long
lasting and expensive, hence, high quality solar panels are mostly used this type of PV
cell [4].
2. Poly-crystalline silicon PV cell

Polycrystalline, also called multi-crystalline cells have a slightly lower
laboratory efficiency than monocrystalline cells, up to 20 %. Because the cells are not
grown in single crystals and they are sliced from cast ingots of polycrystalline silicon
which are made by the different process than monocrystalline silicon. Like
monocrystalline cells, they have a long lifetime and do not degrade. Whereas
monocrystalline cells have a single-color tone, polycrystalline cell surfaces have
multiple patterns. The typical blue appearance is due to an anti-reflective layer. The
thickness of this layer determines the color. Blue has the best optical qualities. It reflects
the least and absorbs the most light. Like Mono-crystalline cells, they are also then
sliced into wafers to produce the individual cells that make up the solar panel [4].
3. Thin film PV cell

Thin film modules use non-crystalline PV material that can be deposited in fine
layers on various types of surfaces. Amorphous silicon cells are the most common thin
film PV technology which do not use silicon in crystalline form, instead, high
temperature silane (SiO4) gas is deposited as very thin layers of amorphous silicon on
the back of a glass or plastic substrate. Amorphous silicon cells are commonly used in
toys, calculators, garden lights and watches. Amorphous modules must be three to four
times the size of monocrystalline or polycrystalline modules to generate the same
power, efficiency between 7–10%, but they are cheaper to produce [4].
19
Multi-junction cells utilize two or more layers of amorphous films deposited on

one surface to collect a higher portion of the solar radiation which efficiency is twice
of single junction amorphous cells. Some multi-junction modules have another
advantage of being flexible and less breakable so the modules are being transported
over rough roads in remote areas. Apart from silicon, other light-sensitive materials like
cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium selenide (CIS) are also used [4].
Figure 3.7. Types of PV Cell

Source: [10]
3.3.2 Equivalent Circuit for PV Cell

A simple equivalent circuit model for a photovoltaic cell consists of a real diode
in parallel with an ideal current source as shown in Figure 3.8. The ideal current source
delivers current in proportion to the solar flux to which it is exposed [10].
Figure 3.8. A simple equivalent circuit for a photovoltaic cell consists of a current
source driven by sunlight in parallel with a real diode.
Source: [10]
3.3.3 Parameters and Electrical Characteristics of PV Cell

There are two conditions of particular interest for the actual PV and for its
equivalent circuit. Figure 3.9 shows the conditions of ; (a) the current that flows when
the terminals are shorted together (the short-circuit current, ISC and (b) the voltage
across the terminals when the leads are left open (the open-circuit voltage, VOC ). When
20
the leads of the equivalent circuit for the PV cell are shorted together, short-circuit
current ( ISC ) will flow, but the output voltage will be zero. Also, before the load is
connected, the module sitting in the sun will produce an open-circuit voltage ( VOC ), but
no current will flow. In both cases, since power is the product of current and voltage,
no power is delivered by the module and no power is received by the load [10].
Figure 3.9. Two Important Parameters for Photovoltaic:

Short-Circuit Current ISC and the Open-Circuit Voltage VOC
Source: [11]
Before the load is connected to PV module, the module sitting in the sun will
produce an open-circuit voltage VOC , but no current will flow. If the terminals of the
module are shorted together, the short-circuit current ISC will flow, but the output
voltage will be zero. In both cases, since power is the product of current and voltage,
no power is delivered by the module and no power is received by the load. When the
load is actually connected, some combination of current and voltage will result and
power will be delivered. To figure out how much power, we have to consider the I –V
characteristic curve of the module as well as that of the load [10].
The generic I –V curve for a PV module, identifying several key parameters is
as shown in Figure 3.10. At the two ends of the I –V curve, the output power is zero
since either current or voltage is zero at those points. The maximum power point (MPP)
is that spot near the knee of the I –V curve at which the product of current and voltage
reaches its maximum. The voltage and current at the MPP are sometimes designated as
Vm and I m for the general case and designated VR and IR for rated voltage and rated
current under the standard test condition STC. Another quantity that is often used to
characterize module performance is the fill factor (FF). The fill factor is the ratio of the
power at the maximum power point to the product of VOC and ISC [10].
21
Figure 3.10. The I-V Curve and Power Output of a PV Module

Source: [10]
3.4 Battery
In solar home system, electrical energy is also needed for running appliances in
non-sunshine hours. Batteries are the energy storage medium which are very important
and delicate part of standalone solar PV systems. Without energy storage, a solar PV
system will not be able to store energy during the daytime and deliver the energy to the
load when there is no sunlight. The performance of PV systems is dependent on the
quality of imported batteries available. As a battery is charged, it stores electrical energy
in the form of chemical energy and the chemical energy stored is converted into
electrical energy when it is used [9].
The types of batteries include single time use ‘non-rechargeable’ and multiple
time use ‘rechargeable’ batteries. The batteries are identified by different features like
the type of battery, voltage, capacity, charging-discharging cycles and shelf-life. The
solar home system is concerned with rechargeable battery only [9].
3.4.1 Battery Principles and Operation

A battery is made of a combination of two or more units of electrochemical cells
connected together in series or parallel combination. It is also called electrochemical
cell because of dealing with the electrical and chemical energy. The electrochemical
cell consists of two-half cell and each half-cell consists of an electrode and an
electrolyte which is shown in Figure 3.11. The two half-cells are connected to each
22
other by salt bridge. The electrodes in the two half-cells are of different metals. In each
half-cell, a chemical reaction occurs at the metal electrode [4].
load
Electrolyte Electrolyte
Figure 3.11. A Typical Single Unit of an Electrochemical Cell

Source: [4]
The operation of the battery mainly consists of anode, cathode, electrolyte and
salt bridge. Anode is generally referred as positive terminal or positive node or positive
lead. It is the electrode which gives up electrons to the external circuit, as a result the
electrode is oxidized during the discharging reaction. Cathode is generally referred as
negative terminal or negative node or negative lead. It is the electrode which gains
electrons from the external circuit, as a result of which the electrode is reduced during
the discharging reaction. Electrolyte is a medium which provides conductivity to ions
between anode and cathode and current flows internally in it. An electrolyte is typically
a liquid, such as water or other solvents with dissolved salts, acids or alkalis. Salt bridge
is a porous material used to keep the two electrodes connected but keep them separate
from each other; otherwise the chemical reaction would stop. It is also referred as a
separator [4].
3.4.2 Charging and Discharging of Batteries

Oxidation is a process in which electrons are lost or release and the reduction
reaction is a process in which electrons are accepted or gained. Both oxidation and
reduction reaction take place at the time of charging and discharging. While charging,
the oxidation reaction takes place at negative terminal (cathode) and reduction takes
place at positive terminal (anode) during discharging. A charging process and
subsequent discharge process together are defined as charging-discharging cycle or a
23
single cycle. When the battery is completely filled with charge up to its maximum level
is said to be fully charged. When the charge is completely used or finished, the battery
is said to be fully discharged [4].
3.4.3 Types of Batteries

Types of batteries commonly used in PV systems are Alkaline Batteries and
Lead-Acid Batteries.
1. Alkaline Batteries
Alkaline batteries are only recommended where extremely cold temperatures (-
50˚F or less) are anticipated or for certain commercial or industrial applications
requiring their advantages over lead-acid batteries. These advantages include tolerance
of freezing or high temperatures, they require low maintenance, and the ability to be
fully discharged or over-charged without harm. [11].
2. Lead-Acid Batteries (Flooded and Sealed)
Figure 3.12. Parts of a lead-acid battery

Source: [4]
Lead-acid batteries are most common in PV systems in general and sealed lead
acid batteries are most commonly used in grid-connected systems. Sealed batteries are
spill-proof and do not require periodic maintenance. Flooded lead acid batteries are
usually the least expensive but require adding distilled water at least monthly to
replenish water lost during the normal charging process [11].
There are two types of sealed lead acid batteries: sealed absorbent glass mat
(AGM) and gel cell. AGM lead-acid batteries have become the industry standard, as
they are maintenance free and particularly suited for grid-tied systems where batteries
24
are typically kept at a full state of charge. Gel-cell batteries, designed for freeze-
resistance, are generally a poor choice because any overcharging will permanently
damage the battery. Lead-acid batteries have good efficiency and easily available in the
market. Today, lead-acid batteries are the most commonly used in present solar home
systems [11].
3.5 Inverter
Solar inverters, also known as PV inverters, play a crucial role in the solar
energy system. Most of the appliances in Standalone Photovoltaic System use AC
power while the PV modules produce DC power. Inverters convert the DC power
coming from the PV modules to AC power, used for running the appliances. Also, in
standalone solar PV system, energy is stored in the batteries, in the form of DC power
during non-sunshine hours. The conversion of DC power in batteries into AC is done
by inverters.
3.5.1 Working Principle of Solar Inverter

Solar panels produce direct electricity with the help of electrons that are moving
from negative to positive direction. Most of the appliances that we use at home work
on alternative current. This AC is created by the constant back and forth of the electrons
from negative to positive. In AC electricity, the voltage can be adjusted according to
the use of the appliance. As solar panels only produce direct current and an inverter
produces square waves or a sine wave which can be used for running lights, televisions,
lights, motors etc. However, these inverters also produce harmonic distortion.
Expensive inverters make use of lots of steps to produce a sinewave and thus are found
in residential solar inverters [12].
Solar inverters continually keep track of the solar array voltage to discover the
maximum power at which the modules can function. If modules are degraded, or
shading happens from environmental factors, the inverters can unintentionally identify
the string’s wrong peak. This reduces the system’s general energy production.
3.5.2 Types of Solar Inverter

Solar panel inverter technologies comprise three types, micro-inverters, power
optimizers, and string inverters. String inverters are the most common option
worldwide. Below are the three categories explained;
25
1. String Inverters
String inverters work by connecting a string of solar panels to one single
inverter, which converts the total DC input into AC output. Because string inverters are
the oldest and most common type of solar inverters, they are also the most reliable.
After decades of being on the market, string inverters have had most of the kinks
worked out. They are also the least expensive solar inverter option. String inverters are
also centrally located on the side of the house, or ground mount. This allows easier
access to monitor, repair, or replace the inverter [13].
While string inverters are reliable, they are also less efficient at optimizing solar
energy output. Because string inverters are connected to an entire string of solar panels,
shading on one solar panel will cut the power output of the entire string. Also, string
inverters only offer total-system monitoring as opposed to panel-level monitoring [13].
2. Power Optimizers
Power optimizers are located on the back of each solar panel, and they work in
conjunction with a string inverter to convert DC to AC. They do this by conditioning
the DC electricity from each panel and sending that conditioned DC to the string
inverter to convert to AC electricity. Because, power optimizers can condition the DC
electricity produced by each individual solar panel, they can decrease the impact of
shading on individual panels. If one solar panel is partially shaded, it will not degrade
the output of the entire string as with a simple string inverter setup. Power optimizers
also have the benefit of allowing panel-level monitoring, along with system-level
monitoring thanks to the string inverter. This means any issues with solar output can be
diagnosed more easily, with each solar panel being monitored individually [13].
Power optimizers are more expensive than using just a string inverter, but they
are still less expensive than microinverters. Power optimizer systems also require
additional power optimizers and potentially additional string inverters if you expand
your solar panel system in the future. It is also important to note that because power
optimizers are located on the roof, it is more difficult to repair and replace them if they
would happen to have any issues [13].
3. Microinverters
Microinverters are the latest in solar inverter technology, and they work by
converting DC to AC directly from the back of each solar panel. No string inverter is
26
needed because each microinverter takes care of DC conversion on the spot. Because
each microinverter is handling the conversion from DC to AC on each panel, that allows
the system to be minimally impacted by shading on individual panels. If shade covers
one panel, only that panel will produce less power output as opposed to the whole
system output decreasing, as in a string inverter setup. Micro-inverters are also easy to
expand with your solar system in the future. Any solar panel that is added to the system
just needs to have a microinverter installed on the back of the panel. Similar to power
optimizers, microinverters also allow for panel-level monitoring of the solar system,
allowing any solar output issues to be diagnosed more easily and accurately [13].
Microinverters are the most expensive of the solar inverter options. However,
their benefits can easily outweigh the costs in certain situations, especially if shading is
an issue. Because microinverters are installed on the back of each solar panel, it is more
difficult to repair or replace any microinverter that might have issues [13].
3.6 Charge Controller

Charge controllers are included in most photovoltaic systems to protect the
batteries from overcharge or excessive discharge. Overcharging can boil the electrolyte
from the battery and cause failure. Allowing the battery to be discharged too much will
cause premature battery failure and possible damage to the load. The controller is a
critical component in the PV system. A controller’s function is to control the system
depending on the battery state-of-charge (SOC). When the battery nears full SOC the
controller redirects or switches off all or part of the array current. When the battery is
discharged below a preset level, some or the entire load is disconnected if the controller
includes the low voltage disconnect (LVD) capability. Most controllers use a
measurement of battery voltage to estimate the state-of-charge. Measuring battery
temperature improves the SOC estimate and many controllers have a temperature probe
for this purpose [14].
3.6.1 Function of Charge Controller

1. Protection against overcharging
The controller restricts the accumulator’s voltage to a maximum value (voltage
regulation set point - VR). The respective current is either regulated as long as the set
voltage is stable or it remains disconnected until accumulator’s voltage drops below the
value set as the reconnect voltage-AVR [15].
27
2. Protection against over discharging

This is achieved by open circuiting the connection between the accumulator and
the load when the voltage reaches a predefined/set point of low voltage load disconnect
set point-LVD. Most of charge controllers have either a light or audio alarm that inform
the PV system user of the load's disconnection. After a specific point of recharging the
accumulator, the loads are connected again [15].
3. Provision for controlled loading

It is possible to define the automatic connection and disconnection of one or
more electric loads at a specific time during the day, e.g. for the function of a light load
when PV system does not work (from sunset till dawn) [15].
3.6.2 PWM and MPPT Charge Controller

The technology of charge controllers has evolved and now the most used
systems are PWM and MPPT. To be more specific, PWM system (pulse width
modulation) gradually decreases the power provided to the accumulator as it reaches
the point of full charge. Longer lifetime of the accumulator is achieved this way, as it
is less worn out when it is charged [15].
The most popular and better charge controlling system is MPPT (maximum
power point tracking). To increase output efficiency and decrease generated power cost,
the Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technique is widely used. MPPT can track
the maximum power point without measuring weather conditions. A MPPT system has
a sequential workflow. First, it reads the output from the PV panels, analyzes and
calculates the output power, then changes the value to obtain the maximum power of
any given environmental conditions. Traditional MPPT controllers usually track by
changing the duty rate of a transistor that controls the current level. To obtain the
maximum power, the product of current and voltage has to reach the maximum level.
When the weather is changing, for instance, the sun blocked by a piece of cloud will
decrease solar radiance sharply, then the maximum power point will have corresponded
change. The purpose of MPPT is to locate and keep tracking the maximum power point
even if the solar radiance or temperature change rapidly [16].
28
Figure 3.13. Comparison of PWM and ΜΡΡΤ Efficiency

Source: [15]
CHAPTER 4
SOLAR HOME SYSTEM
4.1 Introduction
Currently, the majority of Myanmar's electricity is generated by fuel and
hydroelectric power plants. However, rural areas that are away from the national grids
cannot access the electricity generated by these sources. Since Myanmar is a land of
plentiful sunshine, especially in the central and southern regions of the country, the
direct conversion of solar energy into electricity using photovoltaic systems becomes
the final solution to the energy supply problem of the developing country Myanmar.
In this case, to design a power system for the house in off-grid area, standalone
solar home systems (SHS) are the only source of the power supply. SHS does not
depend on the grid or any other electrical supply. It consists of PV modules connected
to PV charge controllers, stand-alone inverter, battery system, and other accessories
such as cables, connectors, etc. Although SHS often has higher upfront costs than other
solutions, PV systems require comparatively little maintenance and last over 20 years.
4.2 Design Process of High-Income Group Solar Home System

The design and calculation of Solar Home System is guided in this chapter. It
consists of six steps in sizing an off-grid PV system. The first step is to estimate total
daily load consumption because loads determine the size of the system and should be
considered when using energy efficient appliances. Secondly, the battery bank, which
is the backbone of the system, must be sized to meet the system voltage and required
energy storage capacity. Then, a number of PV modules are selected according to the
system’s parameters to provide the total power consumption of the loads. After that, the
balance of the system is needed according to system requirements and voltage by sizing
the solar charge controller and inverter. The last one is to consider site orientation and
the total surface area of the roof according to the sun’s position.
30
4.2.1 Load Estimation

For off-grid solar systems, the worst load case scenario has to be considered.
But to design a cost-efficient system, averaged values have to be considered as affecting
the system's performance. Only AC loads are used in this solar home system. The daily
load energy demand is the amount of energy required each day to power the load, which
is measured in watt-hours and amp-hours. The daily load energy consumption is done
by the following steps:
1. List the different types of AC loads and the total number of each.
2. List the hours of the day and the days per week of each load used.
3. Apply inverter efficiency to determine the DC energy required for AC loads.
4. Select the system voltage to compute the daily energy demand in Ah.
The average daily energy consumption by the load can be calculated by using
the following equations.
Actual Watt Consumption (W) = Watt Rating ( W ) × No. of Units Equation 4.1
Average Daily Energy Consumption (Wh)

Actual Watt Consumption (W)×Hours per Day (h/d)×Days per Week (d)
=
7
Equation 4.2
Daily AC Energy Consumption (Wh / d)
Sum of AC Load = Equation 4.3
Inverter Efficiency
Sum of AC Load (Wh / d)

Total Apparent Load = Equation 4.4
Wiring and Other Efficiency
Total Apparent Load results in DC energy, which is divided by inverter

efficiency and wiring and other efficiency. This energy value is required in calculation
of PV array sizing.
4.2.2 System Voltage

The system voltage is the voltage of the solar system array should be operated.
The size of the battery bank required will depend on the storage capacity required, the
maximum discharge rate, the maximum charge rate, and the temperature at which the
batteries will be used. In most solar home systems, 12V is the most widely used DC
system voltage as 12V DC appliances are more common in the market. DC appliances
31
with higher volts (24V, 36V, 48V) are good choice for solar home system. Higher
system voltage is selected in order to reduce the size of cable. With higher voltage, the
same power can be delivered at lower current. And since the required size of the cable
depends upon the magnitude of the current, usually high voltage low current
configuration is used. DC-DC converters can be used to scale down or scale up DC
voltages for mismatched appliances. Desired system voltage is obtained from
Specification of System Voltage shown in Appendix A.
4.2.3 Battery Sizing

Additional backup is required as the sun does not always shine, especially at
night, in the winter, or during periods of low solar insolation, batteries are need to store
power after the sun goes down. Batteries can be arranged in parallel to increase current
while keeping the same voltage, and they can be arranged in series to increase voltage.
Increased battery voltage will result in less current, shorten the wire length, and fewer
losses. The system voltage should be equal to or higher than the available battery
voltage. Each string must have an equal number of batteries.
Peak sun hours refer directly to the solar insolation a particular area would
receive when the sun’s intensity is highest for a specific number of hours. Solar
insolation is the amount of solar radiation that falls on the earth’s surface in a given
span of time. The hours between midday and early afternoon are the peak hours for
solar radiation. Since the sun is highest in the sky during these hours, solar modules
receive the sun’s rays at the most direct angle.
Annual Average Solar Radiation of the Site (kWh / m 2 / d)

Peak Sun Hour =
1000 W / m 2
Equation 4.5
Days of Autonomy (D) represents the number of cloudy days in a row that might
occur and for which the batteries will need to supply energy to the building, which is
critical for battery sizing. The cost of batteries rises as the number of days of autonomy
increases. A standard number of autonomy days is usually 3 days.
Days of Automy (Dcrit ) = − 1.9 Tmin + 18.3 ,for critical loads Equation 4.6
Days of Automy (D non-crit ) = − 0.48 Tmin + 4.58 ,for non-critical loads Equation 4.7
Tmin = Peak Sun Hour

32
Depth of Discharge (DOD) is a measure of the maximum capacity to be

withdrawn from a battery. The batteries that are used for solar applications have a high
DOD, about 50%. The Li-ion batteries have a DOD of 70% to 95%.
Lower temperatures result in higher battery voltage, lower capacity, and a
longer battery lifespan. Higher temperatures, on the other hand, result in lower battery
voltage, increased capacity, and decreased lifespan. To compensate for the temperature
effect, a battery temperature multiplier is used. Battery temperature multiplier data can
be found for the specific battery shown in Appendix A.
Energy is lost in storage, charging, and discharging in batteries, and efficiency
is the measure of energy loss in the entire discharge and recharge cycle. Lead-acid
batteries have efficiencies of 80% to 90%, as can be expected; however, this decreases
with use, age, sulfation, and stratification. The total amount of capacity needed from
the battery bank is determined by the following equations:
Battery Requirement in Wh
Total Apparent Load (Wh/d) × Days of Autonomy (d) × Battery Temp Multiplier
=
Depth of Discharge × Charging Discharging Efficiency
Equation 4.8
Battery Requirement in Ah = Equation 4.9
Desired System DC Voltage
To meet the requirements of the application load, a number of batteries have to
be connected in series for the system voltage specification and in parallel for the current
specification. The number of batteries connected in series is obtained from the system
DC voltage and the voltage of each individual battery using the following equations:
Desired System Voltage (V)

No. of Batteries in Each String =
Available Battery Voltage (V)
Equation 4.10
Battery Requirement in Ah
No. of Battery Strings in Parallel = Equation 4.11
Available Battery Ah
Total no. of Batteries (round-off) =
Equation 4.12
No. of Batteries in Each String × No. of Battery Strings in Parallel
Actual Wh from Battery = Total no. of Battery × Selected Battery Voltage

× Selected Battery in Ah Equation 4.13
33
4.2.4 Solar PV sizing

The PV array should be designed to meet the energy needs of the battery bank.
There are different parameters required to design the PV array in a proper way. PV
array layout will be designed according to maximum voltage ( Vm ), maximum current
( I m ), derating factor of the module and columbic efficiency of the battery. Annual
average solar radiation in kilowatt-hours per square meter per day (kWh/ /day) is
checked from meteorological data to determine the annual average solar radiation of
the selected site area.
A derating factor in a PV array is used to account for factors like wiring losses,
shading, soiling of the module, etc. This experiment uses a derating factor of 0.95,
which represents that the testing yielded power measurements at STC that were 5% less
than the manufacturer’s nameplate rating.
Coulombic efficiency is usually used to describe the released battery capacity.
It refers to the ratio of the discharge capacity after the full charge and the charging
capacity of the same cycle. It is usually a fraction of less than 1.
Total Wattage Required by the PV array is determined by the following
equation:
Daily Load Requirement in Wh
Total Wattage Required (W) =
Peak Sun Hour (h) × De-rating factor × Coulombic Efficiency
Equation 4.14
The main difference between wiring solar modules in series or parallel is the
output voltage and current. In series connection, the resulting voltage will be the sum
of all of the module voltages. However, the total current will be equal to the output
current of a single module. In parallel connection, the resulting current will be the sum
of all of the module amperages in the parallel array and the total voltage will be equal
to the output voltage of a single module.
The temperature loss from the modules should be considered.
Pmax = Pmax (STC) − Temperature Coefficient × Pmax (STC) × ΔT Equation 4.15
where, Pmax = Maximum Power of the Module at Operating Temperature
Pmax (STC) = Maximum Power of Panel at STC
ΔT(o C) = Change in Temperature in o C

34
Total number of PV modules are calculated by the following equations:

Total Wattage Required (W)
Actual Total no. of Modules (round-off) = Equation 4.16
Pmax
Actual Wattage from PV Array (W) = Pmax × Total no. of Modules Equation 4.17
4.2.5 Charge Controller Selection

The charge controller connected to the PV array in a battery-based system needs
to be large enough to handle all the power provided by the array. MPPT charge
controllers are used in grid tied or large scale off-grid systems. MPPT charge controllers
regulate the voltage and current from the solar modules to match the battery bank’s
voltage without sacrificing power. The maximum number of solar modules connected
in a string is determined by the maximum input voltage of the inverter or charge
controller.
4.2.6 Inverter Selection

To determine the minimum power rating for the inverter, estimate the total
wattage of all AC appliances that will be used at the same time. Multiply the total AC
watts by 1.25, as the inverter size should be 25–30% larger than the total wattage of
appliances. In the case of appliances that draw a large amount of power for a short time,
such as a motor or compressor, the inverter size should be at least three times the
capacity of those appliances to handle surge current during starting. For stand-alone,
battery-based systems, the inverter’s power output rating does not need to account for
the PV array’s power output because the battery bank is between the inverter and the
PV array, acting as a buffer. The future loads should be considered so that the inverter
installed today can handle growth in the next few years.
Total Apparent Load (W)

Min. Wattage (W) = × Safety Factor Equation 4.18
Peak Sun Hour (h)
This will provide the maximum direct current amperes that the system will
require. The inverter specification should be based on AC watts because it will
primarily supply this load. The inverter should meet the system’s wattage specification.
35
4.3 Site Orientation of Solar Home System

The amount of power generated by the PV system is affected by the amount of
solar radiation falling on the PV module, which is related to season, geographic latitude,
and time of day due to the various sun positions under the unpredictable weather
conditions. The effect of tilt and azimuth angle is also important in mounting the fixed
solar modules to receive the maximum amount of energy.
4.3.1 Determination of Tilt Angle

The tilt angle is the angle of the photovoltaic modules from the horizontal plane
for a fixed (non-tracking) mounting. The tilt angle of a solar module is the key to
achieving the best orientation of the solar module toward solar radiation because a solar
module produces the most power when the sun’s rays hit its surface perpendicularly.
Generally, the energy output by PV decreases with increasing tilt angles.
The energy usage between winter time and summer time is different; otherwise,
the optimal tilt angle for a PV module in the winter will differ from that of the summer
because the sun is lower in the winter and higher in the summer. Therefore, increasing
the tilt angle of the array in winter and reducing the angle in summer makes the array
perpendicular to the sun and maximizes the array’s energy output. The default value is
a fixed-mount tilt angle of the site equal to the latitude of the site.
4.3.2 Determination of Azimuth Angle of the PV Modules' Shadow

Azimuth is the angle between the sun and the North, measured in clockwise
around observer’s horizon. The placement and orientation of solar modules is important
to get the maximum sunlight availability at a location because irradiance directly affects
the amount of current that a PV array produces.
The polar axis of the earth is inclined by an angle of 23.44˚ to the plane of the
earth’s orbit about the sun. The earth completes one cycle of travel around the sun in
365.25 days, or one year. A solstice is an event that occurs when the sun appears to
reach its mostly northerly or southerly excursion relative to the equator. Two solstices
occur annually, around June 21 and December 21.
To calculate the angle of declination ( δ ), nth day from Jan 1(n) is assumed to
June 21 or December 21.
360
δ = − 23.44o × cos ( (n+10)) Equation 4.19
365
36
Hour angle ( ω ) of local solar time (LST) is calculated by

ω = 15o (LST − 12) Equation 4.20
Azimuth angle ( ψ ) of the PV modules' shadow of the site is determined by;
sin(α) = sin( ) sin(δ) + cos( ) cos(δ) cos(ω) Equation 4.21
sin(δ) cos( ) − cos(δ) sin( ) cos(ω)

ψ = cos-1[ ] Equation 4.22
cos(α)
Where;
n = nth day from Jan 1
δ = Angle of Declination
LST = Local Solar Time
ω = Hour Angle
α = Solar Elevation Angle
ψ = Azimuth Angle
4.3.3 Determination of Space Need for Solar Modules

The orientation of solar modules is determined by the length of the selected
solar modules and the spacing between them.
Figure 4.1. Calculation of Length of Shadow
h = L  sin (T) Equation 4.23

where, L = Length of the Selected Solar Module
T = Tilt Angle
37
Figure 4.2. Minimum Row Spacing (d)

Length of shadow ( d' ) is calculated by;
h
d' = Equation 4.24
tan (α)
In the southern hemisphere, solar modules should be facing as close to the north
as possible to get maximum solar energy. Since, Myanmar is located in the northern
hemisphere, PV modules facing south always generate the largest energy outputs at any
given tilt angle. For the exact value of site orientation, Azimuth angle ( ψ ) of the PV
modules’ shadow is used in calculation of minimum spacing between rows.
Minimum spacing between rows is; d = d' × cos (180 − ψ) Equation 4.25
4.4 Designing of Solar Home System at Sa Khan Thit Village
Figure 4.3. Location of Sa Khan Thit Village from Google Earth

38
One of the houses at Sa Khan Thit village, which is situated in Kyun Su

Township in Tanintharyi Region, is chosen as the case study area. It is a remote coastal
village on the Andaman Sea, and it is located at 12.089o North Latitude and 98.429o
East Longitude. The village is far from the grid, and electricity is supplied by diesel
generators owned by a private company. It costs 1350 MMK for 1 unit of electricity.
Households cannot use an efficient amount of electricity due to the highest tariff rate
compared to the government. The solar home system is the best way to supply
electricity for sustainable and effective energy demand in households.
4.5 Calculation of High-Income Group Solar Home System
4.5.1 Load Estimation

Table 4.1. Power Rating of Solar Home System
Per Unit Watt No. of Unit Actual Watt
Load
(W) (n) Consumption (W)
TV Set 100 1 100
Tube Light 40 7 280
Air Con: 1hp 1500 2 3000
Washing machine 350 1 350
Refrigerator 150 1 150
Water Pump 370 1 370
Rise-Cooker 1000 1 1000
Hot Plate 1500 1 1500
Iron 1000 1 1000
AC Peak Wattage (W) 7750
The load profile can be determined by summing up the power rating of all the
appliances in the house shown in Table 4.1. All loads are AC type which are having
230 V. According to Equation 4.1.
Actual Watt Consumption (W) = Watt Rating ( W ) × No. of Units
Actual Watt Consumption of each load is calculated and resulting the AC Peak
Wattage 7750 W is got from summing of the actual watt consumption of each load.
39
Table 4.2. Energy Rating of Solar Home System

Actual Watt Hours Days per Average Daily
Load Consumption per Day Week Energy Consumption
(W) (h/d) (d/w) (Wh/d)
TV Set 100 4 7 400
Tube Light 280 2 7 560
Air Con: 1Hp 3000 7 7 21000
Washing Machine 350 1 4 200
Refrigerator 150 24 7 3600
Water Pump 370 1 7 370
Rise-Cooker 1000 1 7 1000
Hot Plate 1500 1 7 1500
Iron 1000 1 3 429
Daily Energy Consumption (Wh/d) 29059
Energy requirement of the building can be determined based on the hours of

usage per day. An estimation of the requirement done for the house is shown in Table
4.2. Average Daily Energy Consumption (Wh) is determined by Equation 4.2.
Average Daily Energy Consumption (Wh/d)

Actual Watt Consumption (W) × Hours per Day (h/d) × Days per Week (d)
=
7 (d)
100×4×7 280×2×7 3000×7×7 350×1×4 150×24×7
=( )×( )×( )×( )×( )×
7 7 7 7 7
370×1×7 1000×1×7 1500×1×7 1000×1×3
( )×( )×( )×( )
7 7 7 7
= 400 + 560 + 21000 + 200 + 3600 + 370 + 1000 + 1500 + 429
= 29059 Wh/d
Total Apparent Load is calculated from Equation 4.3 and Equation 4.4. Inverter
Efficiency is assumed to 0.9 and Wiring and Other Efficiency is assumed to 0.96.
Average Daily Energy Consumption (Wh/d)
Sum of AC Load (Wh/d) =
Inverter Efficiency
29059
= = 32288 Wh/d
0.9
40
Sum of AC Load (Wh/d)

Total Apparent Load (Wh/d) =
Wiring and other efficiency
32288 Wh/d
=
0.96
= 33633 Wh/d
Total Apparent Load results in DC type because of diving by inverter efficiency
and wiring and other efficiency. This energy is used in calculation of solar PV sizing.
4.5.2 Solar Irradiation for Selected Site

Sa Khan Thit village is situated near the Equator and gets large amount of solar
energy. Monthly Average Solar Radiation Data of Sa Khan Thit village are as follow.
Table 4.3. Monthly Average Solar Radiation Data of Sa Khan Thit Village
Month Average Solar Radiation ( kW/m2 /d )
January 5.69
February 6.33
March 6.60
April 6.56
May 4.51
June 3.47
July 3.48
August 3.25
September 4.00
October 4.94
November 5.28
December 5.50
Annual Average Solar Radiation 4.9675
Source: [21]
From Equation 4.5,
Annual Average Solar Radiation of the site (kWh/m 2 /d)
Peak Sun Hour =
1000W/m 2
4967.5 Wh/m 2 /d
=
1000 W/m 2
= 4.9675 h/d  5 h/d
41
4.5.3 Battery Sizing

Day of Autonomy is calculated from Equation 4.6 and Equation 4.7.
Tmin = Peak Sun Hours
Days of Automy (Dcrit ) = − 1.9 Tmin + 18.3 ,for critical loads
= ( − 1.9 × 5) + 18.3
= 8.8
Days of Automy (D non-crit ) = − 0.48 Tmin + 4.58 ,for non-critical loads
= ( − 0.48 × 5) + 4.58
= 2.18
 2
Solar Home System is applied for non-critical loads; hence, Day of Autonomy
is chosen as 2 days. Battery Temp Multiplier is chosen as 1, for 26.7o C , and this
temperature is close to the yearly average temperature for Myanmar which is shown in
Appendix A. The battery requirement in Wh is calculated from Equation 4.8.
Where;
Depth of Discharge = 0.95
Charging Discharging Efficiency = 0.85
Total Apparent Load (Wh/d) × Days of Autonomy (d) × Battery Temp Multiplier
=
Depth of Discharge × Charging Discharging Efficiency
33633×2×1
=
0.95×0.85
= 83302 Wh
Desired system voltage, 48V is selected from Specification of System Voltage

shown in Appendix B. Battery Requirement in Ah is calculated from Equation 4.9.
Battery Requirement in Ah =
Desired System DC Voltage
83302
=
48
= 1735 Ah
42
48V 200Ah, LPBA48200 from Felicity Solar Battery is selected. Technical

Data of LPBA48200 is shown in Appendix B.
Figure 4.4. LPBA48200 Battery from Felicity Solar

Source: [17]
Battery sizing is calculated from Equation 4.10, Equation 4.11 and Equation 4.12.
Desired System Voltage (V)
No. of Batteries in Each String =
Available Battery Voltage (V)
48
=
48
=1
Battery Requirement in Ah
No. of Battery Strings in Parallel =
Available Battery Ah
1735
=
200
= 8.675
9
Total no. of Batteries (round-off) = No. of Batteries in Each String×

No. of Battery Strings in Parallel
= 1× 9
=9
There are 9 batteries connected in parallel. Actual Wh from Battery is calculated
from Equation 4.13.
43
Actual Wh from Battery

= Total no. of Battery × Selected Battery Voltage × Selected Battery in Ah
= 9  48  200
= 86400 Wh
Actual Wh from the battery is enough for the desired 83302 Wh of the battery.
4.5.4 Solar PV Sizing

After calculation of battery sizing, number of solar modules required for solar
home system is calculated from Equation 4.14.
Where;
Derating Factor = 0.95
Columbic Efficiency = 0.9
Daily Load Requirement in Wh
Total Wattage Required (W) =
Peak Sun Hour (h) × De-rating factor × Coulombic Efficiency
33633
=
5 × 0.95 × 0.9
= 7867 W
JKM580M-7RL4-V solar module from JinKo Solar is selected.
Figure 4.5. JKM580M-7RL4-V Solar Module from JinKo Solar

Source: [18]
44
The specifications of the module are shown in Appendix B.

Table 4.4. Technical Data of JKM580M-7RL4-V Solar Module
Type Mono-crystalline
Power at STC ( Pmpp ) 580 W
Current at STC ( Impp ) 13.15 A
Voltage at STC ( Vmpp ) 44.11 V
Length 2.411 m
Width 1.134 m
The maximum temperature of the selected site during a year is 40°C, and it is
used to calculate the power output of the module to cover heat loss during hot season.
The power generated by the module depends on the temperature, and the module power
at the operating temperature is calculated from Equation 4.15.
Pmax = Pmax (STC) − Temperature Coefficient × Pmax (STC) × ΔT
= 580 – 0.0035 × 580 × (40 − 25)

= 550 W
From Equation 4.16,

Total Wattage Required (W)
Actual Total no. of Modules (round-off) =
Pmax
7867
=
550
= 14.3
 16
There are assumed to 16 solar modules which can be connected in appropriate
arrangement. The selected charge controller can accept 16 modules in each string.
Therefore, 8 modules will be connected in series in each string and there must be 2
strings connected in parallel. According to Equation 4.17.
Actual Wattage from PV Array (W) = Pmax × Total no. of Modules
= 550 × 16
= 8800 W
Actual Wattage from PV array is sufficient for total wattage required of 7867 W.
45
Figure 4.6. Wiring Connection of PV array
4.5.5 Selection of Charge Controller

Conext MPPT 80-600-48V from Schneider is selected and the specifications are
shown in Appendix B.
Figure 4.7. Conext MPPT-80-600-48V Charge Controller from Schneider

Source: [19]
46
Table 4.5. Specification of Conext MPPT 80-600-48V Charge Controller

Input side (DC PV field) Output side (Battery and Load)
Minimum MPP Voltage (V) 195 Nominal Output Voltage (V) 48
Maximum MPP Voltage (V) 550 Nominal Output Power (kW) 4.8
Maximum Array Voltage (V) 600 Maximum Output Power (kW) 4.8
Power Threshold (W) 19.2 Nominal Output Current (A) 100
No. of Modules Connected in Series = 8

Actual Voltage from PV array = 8 × Vmpp of solar module
= 8 × 44.11 V
= 352.88 V
Maximum MPP Voltage of Charge Controller = 550 V

Vmpp of Solar Module = 44.11 V
Maximum solar modules in each string = 550/44.11 = 12 modules

Actual Voltage from PV array is 352.88V and maximum MPP voltage of charge
controller is 550V which is enough for the solar home system. Output voltage is 48 V
which is equal to the system voltage and this voltage will go to the battery for energy
storage and inverter for converting AC voltage. Maximum available solar module in
each string of controller is 12 and there are 8 modules connected in each string. Total
number of PV module is 16, therefore, 2 charge controllers are needed for the system.
4.5.6 Inverter Selection

Min Wattage required for the inverter is calculated from Equation 4.18.
Total Apparent Load (Wh)
Min. Wattage (W) = × Safety Factor
Peak Sun Hour (h)
33633
= ×1.25
5
= 8.408 kW
 8.5 kW
47
GW8500-MS inverter from GooDwe is selected which is shown in Appendix B.
Figure 4.8. GW8500-MS Inverter from GooDwe

Source: [19]
4.6 Placement of Solar Arrays

4.6.1 Selection of Tilt Angle
Solar arrays are installed at an angle that best optimizes sunlight exposure for
that location. Sa Khan Thit village is located at 12.0894o N Latitude and 98.4292o E
Longitude. The fixed mounted tilt angle of solar modules is equal to the Latitude of the
site. Therefore, T = Latitude = 12.0894o  12o
4.6.2 Calculation of Azimuth Angle of the PV Modules' Shadow

To calculate the angle of declination ( δ ), nth day from Jan 1 (n) is assumed to
December 21 as the sun path is the lowest on that day for an annual. Therefore, nth day
from Jan 1 is 365 − 10 = 355. According to Equation 4.19,
360
δ = − 23.44o × cos ( (n+10))
365
360
= − 23.44o × cos( (355+10))
365
= − 23.44o
Local Solar Time (LST) of the site is assumed to 8:30AM. By Equation 4.20.
 = 15o (LST − 12)
= 15o (8.5 − 12)
= − 52.5o
48
Azimuth angle ( ψ ) of the PV modules’ shadow at the site is calculated by

Equation 4.21 and Equation 4.22.
Where,  = Latitude of the site, δ = − 23.44 , ω = − 52.5
o
sin(α) = sin( ) sin(δ) + cos( ) cos(δ) cos( )

= sin(12o ) sin( − 23.44o ) + cos(12o ) cos( − 23.44o ) cos( − 52.5o )
= 0.4636
α = sin -1 (0.4636)
= 27.62o
sin(δ) cos( ) − cos(δ) sin( ) cos(ω)

Ψ = cos -1[ ]
cos(α)
sin( − 23.44o ) cos(12o ) − cos( − 23.44o ) sin(12o ) cos( − 52.5o )

= cos-1[ ]
cos(27.62o )
= 124.76o
 125o
Therefore, Azimuth angle ( ψ ) of the PV modules’ shadow is 125 facing South-

o
East from North.
4.6.3 Speed Need for Solar Modules

On December 21, the tilt angle for a module is 12˚.The length of module is
2.411m.
From Equation 4.23,
h = L sin(T) = 2.411  sin 12 = 0.5m
Length of Shadow ( d' ) is calculated from Equation 4.24.
h
d' =
tan(α)
0.5
=
tan(27.62°)
= 0.955 m
49
Min spacing between rows is calculated from Equation 4.25.
d = d' × cos (180 − Ψ)
= 0.955×cos (180 − 125o )
= 0.548 m
=1.798 ft  2 ft
Length of Solar Module = 2.411 m = 8 ft, Width of Solar Module = 1.134 m = 4 ft
Total Space Needed for Parallel Rows = (8 × 2) + (2 × 1) = 18 ft
Total Space Needed for the Series Modules = 4 × 8 = 32 ft
Total Area of the PV Modules = 18 × 32 = 576 ft 2

The selected site needs area of 576 ft 2 on rooftop to get the maximum solar
radiation without shade.
4.7 Summary of Proposed High-Income Group Solar Home System

Table 4.6. Comparison of Required vs Actual Values
Solar PV Sizing
Total Wattage Required 7867 W Actual Wattage from PV 8800 W
Array
Battery Sizing
Desired Wh from Battery 83302 Wh Actual Wh from Battery 86400 Wh
Required Numbers of Battery 9 in Available Batteries 12 in
parallel Connection parallel
Charge Controller Selection
Actual Voltage from PV 352.88 V Maximum MPP Voltage 550 V
Array of Charge Controller
Solar Module in Each String 8 Available Solar 12
Modules in Each String
Inverter Selection
Min Wattage Required 8.408 kW Selected Wattage 8.5 kW
50
Table 4.7. Summary of Components

Solar Module
Type Mono-crystalline
Power at STC (Pmpp ) 580 W
Current at STC (Impp ) 13.15 A
Voltage at STC (Vmpp ) 44.11 V
Solar Module Configuration

Number of modules 16
Number of modules in each string 8
Number of strings 2
Battery
Type Lithium Ion, LiFePO4
Voltage 48 V
Capacity 200 Ah
Battery Configuration
Number of batteries 9
Number of batteries in each string 1
Number of battery strings in parallel 9
Charge Controller
PV operating voltage 195 – 550 V
Maximum battery charging current 80 A
Battery voltage range 16 – 67 V
Charge Controller Configuration
Number of charge controllers 2
Inverter
Nominal Output Power 8.5 kW
Site Orientation of Solar Array
Tilt Angle 12o
Azimuth Angle of Modules’ Shadow 125o
Min Spacing between rows 2 ft
Total area of the PV modules 576 ft 2
51
Figure 4.9. Selected Components of Proposed High-Income Group Solar Home System
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Discussions
Among the renewable energies available, the potential of solar energy is one of
the great interests in Myanmar. The government of Myanmar has set a goal to electrify
the whole country by 2030. On the other hand, ASEAN has a target that is to increase
23% of renewable energy in ASEAN generation mix by 2025. For the time being,
Myanmar has mainly relied on hydropower system for the generation of electricity. Due
to the lack of water in summer season in Myanmar, solar energy will be a vital role in
the generation of electricity because of the high number of sunshine hours during that
time. Therefore, the government of Myanmar is trying to increase the utilization of solar
energy for rural electrification. In this regard, 7% of the population lives in rural areas
without access to electricity. For the off-grid area, Myanmar has mainly emphasis on
solar home systems and mini-grid systems that are sustainable, affordable, and
environmental-friendly.
In rural areas where electrification by the grid is not feasible, solar home system
is the finest solution to meet a household’s energy needs. SHS uses renewable solar
energy which avoids greenhouse gas emissions by reducing the use of conventional
energy resources like fossil fuels, kerosene, natural gas, dry cell batteries, and
generators for electricity generation. It works quietly without causing noise pollution.
Although the installation of a solar home system has high investment cost, it requires
low maintenance, easy to control and poses a low risk of electric shock. The reliable
and effective proposed design of the solar home system in Sa Khan Thit Village will
provide up to 25 years of insurance and it provide cost-effective for long term use. This
system will be one of the best solutions of high tariff rate at Tanintharyi Region.
This thesis focuses on how to design a standalone solar home system, the
availability of solar energy, and the geographical conditions of the selected location.
The calculation of load estimation, battery sizing, solar PV sizing, selection of charge
53
controller, inverter requirement, and the orientation of solar panels according to the
geographical conditions of the selected location have been studied.
5.2 Conclusions
A proposed high-income solar home system at Sa Khan Thit village had been
developed to meet a daily energy demand of 33633 Wh. The average solar irradiation
for the site was 4.9675 and the desired system voltage was 48V. There were 9 numbers
of 48V 200Ah batteries, LPBA48200 from Felicity Solar Battery, were supplied for 2
days of autonomy. 16 numbers of JKM580M-7RL4-V monocrystalline solar panels
from JinKo Solar were selected. 2 numbers of Conext MPPT-80-600-48V controller
from Schneider, and an 8.5-kW GW8500-MS inverter from GooDwe were selected for
the desired solar home system. Tilt and azimuth angles of solar modules were calculated
based on the geographic position of the sun in order to collect a large amount of solar
array. The total surface area of the PV modules was also calculated for proper
orientation of the site.
5.3 Recommendations
The design and calculation of a high-income group solar home system has been
carried out in this thesis. The solar panels should be mounted on the flat surface of the
rooftop and be less shaded from trees or nearby buildings. As the selected site is in a
coastal area, moisture can cause failure and degradation points in conventional solar
panels, and salt spray can corrode panels, creating a compromised energy production
output over time. These can be the challenges of system maintenance, and salt mist
corrosion resistance panels are more suitable to select. The cleaning of solar panels
should be done regularly so that the solar panels can produce constant power for the
loads. Solar tracking system can also be considered for maximum energy availability
during the day time. A back-up generator can be coupled with solar home system in the
absence of the sunlight or when extra loads are added.
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[3] Mark Hankins 2010. Stand-Alone Solar Electric Systems: The Earth scan
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[6] Robert Foster, Majid Ghassemi and Alma Cota 2010. Solar Energy: Renewable
Energy and the Environment. New York: CRC Press. Taylor & Francis Group.
[7] Daryl R. Myers 2013. Solar Radiation Practical Modeling for Renewable
Energy Applications. New York: CRC Press. Taylor & Francis Group.
[8] Messenger, Roger A., and Amir Abtahi, 2017. Photovoltaic Systems
Engineering, 4th Edition, Boca Raton.
[9] Chetan Singh Solanki, 2013. Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: A
Manual for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers. India: PHI Learning Private
Limited.
[10] Gilbert M. Masters 2004. Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems.
Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
[11] Carolyn Roos 2009. Solar Electric System Design, Operation and Installation.
Washington: Energy Trust of Oregon, Inc
[12] https://www.academia.edu/40406472/Solar_Inverter_Introduction
[13] https://greenridgesolar.com/types-of-solar-inverters/
[14] Botto Victor Emmanuel 2009. Solar PV System Sizing.Kenya: University of

Nairobi.
55
[15] Tsiliki Despoina. Stand-alone photovoltaic system components
[16] Sun Yang. Solar Energy Control System Design: KTH Information and
Communication Technology
[17] https://www.felicitysolar.com/48v-200ah-10kwh-grade-a-lithium-phosphate-
solar-batteries-pack-with-bms_p126.html
[18] https://www.solarfeeds.com/product/jinko-solar-tr-78m-570-590w-mono-
facial/
[19] https://realgoods.com/schneider-conext-mppt-80-600-charge-controller
[20] https://df03152d-4378-470d-9f4d-
b0fae28d41f1.usrfiles.com/ugd/df0315_a6e683e0902945d0873fb12a258a38f1
.pdf
[21] https://footprinthero.com/peak-sun-hours-calculator
APPENDICES
APPENDICE A
PARAMETERS USED IN SIZING OF HIGH-INCOME GROUP
SOLAR HOME SYSTEM
Table A.1. Selection of System Voltage
AC Watt Peak (kW) Nominal System Voltage

(V)
Max 2 12
2 to 5 24
More than 5 48
Table A.2. Selection of Ambient Temperature Multiplier for Battey

80F 26.7℃ 1.00
70F 21.2℃ 1.04
60F 15.6℃ 1.11
50F 10.0℃ 1.19
40F 4.4℃ 1.30
30F -1.1℃ 1.40
20F -6.7℃ 1.59
APPENDICE B
TECHNICAL DATA AND SPECIFICATIONS OF SELECTED COMPONENTS
OF SOLAR HOME SYSTEM
Table B.1. Technical Data of LPBA48200 Battery

Model Number: LPBA48200 Place of Origin: Guangdong, China
Brand Name: Felicity solar Battery Type: Lithium Ion, LiFePO4
Application: Solar Energy Storage System Nominal Voltage: 51.2 V
Rated Voltage: 51.2 V Charge Voltage: 57.6
Max Charge & Discharge Current: Rated Charge & Discharge Current:
120A@10s 80A
Capacity: 200AH Cycle life:  6000@25o C
Models Connection: 1-12 in parallel Working Temperature Range

-10o C -50o C
Usable Capacity: 10kWh DOD: >= 95%
Ingress Protection: IP21 Warranty: 7 years
Net Weight: 70.5KG Dimension: 755*600*160MM
Figure B.1. LPBA48200 Battery from Felicity Solar

59
Table B.2. Data Sheet of JKM580M-7RL4-V Solar Module

Maximum Rating Material Data
Maximum System 1500 V Panel Dimension 2411x1134x35
Voltage (H/W/D) mm
Series Fuse Rating 25 A Weight 31.1 Kg
Electrical Data At NOCT Cell Type Monocrystalline
Temperature 45±2 °C Cell Number 156
Thermal Rating Glass Thickness 3.2 Mm
Temperature -0.35 %/°C Glass Type Tempered, Anti-
Coefficient Pmax Reflection
Coating, High
Transmittance,
Low Iron
Temperature -0.28 %/°C Frame Type Anodized
Coefficient of Voc Aluminium
Alloy
Temperature 0.048 %/°C Junction Box IP 68
Coefficient of I sc Protection Class
Cable Cross-section 4 mm2
Figure B.2. JKM580M-7RL4-V Solar Panel from Jinko Solar

60
Table B.3. Specification of Schneider Conext MPPT 80 600 48V Charge Controller
Dimension 30" H x 8.6" W x 8.6"
Weight 30 lbs
Max efficiency: 94% at 24V, 96% at 48V
Nominal system voltage: 24V or 48V
PV operating voltage: 195 - 550V
Maximum battery charging current: 80A
Maximum output power: 2560W (in 24V systems), 4800W (in 48V
systems)
Battery voltage range: 16 - 67V

Maximum open circuit voltage: 600V
Connections: #6 AWG to #14 AWG
Manufacturer: Schneider Electric
Model number: MPPT 80 600
Figure B.3. Conext MPPT 80 600 48V Charge Controller

61
Table B.4. Technical Data of GW8500-MS Inverter

Input
Max Input Voltage (V) 600
MPPT Operating Voltage Range (V) 80 ~ 550
Start-up Voltage (V) 80
Nominal Input Voltage (V) 360
Max. Input Current per MPPT (A) 16
Max. Short Circuit Current per MPPT (A) 20
Number of MPP Trackers 3
Number of Strings per MPPT 1
Output
Nominal Output Power (W) 8500
Nominal Output Apparent Power (VA) 80 ~ 550
Max. AC Active Power (W)*1 80
Max. AC Apparent Power (VA)*2 360
Nominal Output Voltage (V) 16
Nominal AC Grid Frequency (Hz) 20
Max. Output Current (A) 3
Power Factor 1
Max. Total Harmonic Distortion <3%
Efficiency
Max. Efficiency 97.7%
European Efficiency 97.3%
Protection
PV Insulation Resistance Detection Integrated
Residual Current Monitoring Integrated
PV Reverse Polarity Protection Integrated
Anti-islanding Protection Integrated
AC Overcurrent Protection Integrated
AC Short Circuit Protection Integrated
62
Table B.4. Continued:
AC Overvoltage Protection Integrated

DC Switch Integrated
DC Surge Protection Type II
AC Surge Protection Type III (Type II
Optional)
AFCI Optional
Remote Shutdown Optional
Figure B.4. GW8500-MS Inverter from GooDwe

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YANGON TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL POWER ENGINEERING

DESIGN AND CALCULATION OF HIGH-INCOME GROUP

DESIGN AND CALCULATION OF HIGH-INCOME GROUP

MA NYEIN MYO SAN

We certify that we have examined, and recommend to the University Steering

1. Dr. Hla Aye Thar

2. Daw Khin Moe Moe

3. Daw Eain Soe May

3.2.1 Standalone Solar PV System 14

4.5.1 Load Estimation 38

1.2 Aim and Objectives

1.3 Scope of the Thesis

1.4 Implementation Programme

1.5 Outline of the Thesis

2.1 Sun as Solar Resource

Figure 2.1. Solar Radiation Spectrum

Electromagnetic radiation consists of waves of the electromagnetic field, which

2.2 Effect of the Earth’s Atmosphere on Solar Radiation

Figure 2.2. Absorption and Reflection of Solar Radiation by the Atmosphere

2.2.1 Direct, Diffuse and Albedo Radiation

2.2.2 Air Mass Ratio

The amount of sunlight either absorbed or scattered depends on the length of

Figure 2.3. From the Surface of the Earth,

h2 = path length through the atmosphere to reach a spot on the surface

2.2.3 Solar Irradiance

Figure 2.4. Solar Irradiance, in Watts per Square Meter

2.3 Earth-Sun Geometry

Figure 2.5. Earth-Sun Geometric Relationships

2.4 Solar Time

2.6 How to Mount Solar Modules for Capturing Sunlight

2.6.1 Tilt Angle

Figure 2.6. Tilt Angle of a Solar Panel

2.6.2 Azimuth Angle

South, up to a maximum of 45 degrees (South-East and South-West), the annual output

Figure 2.7. Azimuth Angle

3.1 General Review of the Solar Home System

3.2 Types of Solar PV System

3.2.1 Standalone Solar PV System

Figure 3.1. Standalone Solar PV System

3.2.2 Grid-connected Solar PV System

Figure 3.2. Grid-connected Solar PV System

Grid-connected PV System is connected with nearby available electricity grid

3.2.3 Hybrid Solar PV System

Figure 3.3. Hybrid Solar PV System

3.3 Photovoltaic Cell

Figure 3.4. Function of a Solar Photovoltaic Cell

Figure 3.5. Flow of Electrons and Current through a Photovoltaic Cell

3.3.1 Types of PV Cell

Figure 3.6. Photovoltaic Cell, Module and Array

1. Mono-crystalline silicon PV cell

2. Poly-crystalline silicon PV cell

3. Thin film PV cell

Multi-junction cells utilize two or more layers of amorphous films deposited on

Figure 3.7. Types of PV Cell

3.3.2 Equivalent Circuit for PV Cell

3.3.3 Parameters and Electrical Characteristics of PV Cell

Figure 3.9. Two Important Parameters for Photovoltaic:

Figure 3.10. The I-V Curve and Power Output of a PV Module

3.4.1 Battery Principles and Operation

Figure 3.11. A Typical Single Unit of an Electrochemical Cell

3.4.2 Charging and Discharging of Batteries

3.4.3 Types of Batteries