First Law of Thermodynamics

Reading Problems
3-1 → 3-8 3-35, 3-39, 3-64, 3-68, 3-72, 3-78, 3-116
4-1 → 4-3 4-19, 4-29, 4-38, 4-45, 4-54

Control Mass (Closed System)

A thermodynamic analysis of a system can be performed on a fixed amount of matter known as a
control mass or over a region of space, known as a control volume. In this section we will examine
the case of a control surface that is closed to mass flow, so that no mass can escape or enter the
defined control region. Since mass is fixed, the system is considered to be a control mass.

The two underlying conservation equations for performing a thermodynamic analysis on a Closed
System or a Control Mass, are:

1. Conservation of Mass, and

2. Conservation of Energy

Conservation of Mass

Conservation of Mass, which states that mass cannot be created or destroyed, is implicitly satisfied
by the definition of a control mass.

Conservation of Energy

The first law of thermodynamics states:

Energy cannot be created or destroyed it can only change forms.

• energy transformation is accomplished through energy transfer as work and/or heat. Work
and heat are the forms that energy can take in order to be transferred across the system
boundary.

1
 • the first law leads to the principle of Conservation of Energy where we can stipulate the
energy content of an isolated system is constant.

energy entering − energy leaving = change of energy within the system

Example: A Gas Compressor

Performing a 1st law energy balance:

   
 Initial    F inal 
  + Energy gain W1−2  
Energy =  Energy

 
 − Energy loss Q1−2  

E1 E2

E1 + W1−2 − Q1−2 = E2

or

∆E = Q − W

2
A first law balance for a control mass can also be written in differential form as follows:

dE = δQ − δW

From this energy balance we can note:

2
1. energy, E, is a property of the system, dE = E2 − E1
1

2. work and heat transfer are not properties of the system, they are just the forms taken to
transfer energy across the system boundary

3. what happens inside the system boundary does not affect the first law as work or heat transfer

The differential form of the energy balance can be written as a rate equation by dividing through
by dt, a differential time, and then letting dt → 0 in the limit to give

dE δQ δW dE
= − ⇒ = Q̇ − Ẇ
dt dt dt dt

where

dE dU d KE d PE
= rate of energy increase within the system, ≡ + +
dt dt dt dt
Q̇ = rate of heat transfer

Ẇ = rate of work done, ≡ power

• most closed systems encountered in practice are stationary i.e. the velocity and the elevation
of the center of gravity of the system remain constant during the process

• in this course, a closed system is assumed stationary unless stated otherwise

• sign convention: Pick a sign convention and stick with it!

The text book chooses to use the following:

Work: the +ve direction of work transfer is out of the system, i.e. the work done by the
system
Heat Transfer: the +ve direction of heat transfer is into the system

I prefer the following: Anything into the system is positive and anything directed out of the
system is negative.

3
Fluid in a Rigid Tank

Given: U1 = 800 kJ, Q = 500 kJ, W = 100 kJ

Find: U2

Solution: Assume the closed system is stationary, i.e. ∆KE = ∆P E = 0

From the 1st law

E 1 − Q + W = E2 ⇒ E2 − E1 = W − Q

If we assume KE = P E ≈ 0, then

U 2 − U1 = W − Q

or

U2 = U1 + W − Q = 800 kJ + 100 kJ − 500 kJ

= 400 kJ ⇐ Ans.

Note:

1. if Q = 0 and W = 0, the 1st law gives E2 = E1 ⇒ such as system is called an

isolated system, i.e. it has no interactions with its surroundings.
2. if Q = 0 ⇒ such a system is called an adiabatic system.

4
Raising an Object

W v2
Q=0 m

state 2
z2
m v1 process
z1
state 1

reference

Given: z1 , z2 , v1 , v2 , m, U1 = U2

Find: W the work done by the motor on the object

Solution: from the 1st law ∆E = Q − W = ∆KE + ∆P E

where Q = 0 and ∆U = 0

Therefore

−W = ∆KE + ∆P E

This says the work done on the system is equivalent to the sum of the kinetic energy plus the
potential energy changes. This is known as the Work-Energy Theorem of Mechanics.

We can then write

1 1
−W = mV22 − mV1 )2 + (mgz2 − mgz1 )
2 2  
  ∆P E
∆KE

Note: ∆U = 0 is true for most mechanical Systems without friction.

5
Forms of Energy Transfer
Work Versus Heat
• Work is macroscopically organized energy transfer.

• Heat is microscopically disorganized energy transfer.

Heat Energy
• heat is defined as a form of energy that is transferred solely due to a temperature difference
(without mass transfer)

• Note: It is the thermal (internal) energy that can be stored in a system. Heat is a form of
energy in transition and as a result can only be identified at the system boundary.

• Notation:

– Q (kJ ) amount of heat transfer

– Q̇ (kW ) rate of heat transfer (power)
– q (kJ/kg) - heat transfer per unit mass
– q̇ (kW/kg) - power per unit mass

• heat transfer is a directional (or vector) quantity with magnitude, direction and point of action

• modes of heat transfer:

– conduction: diffusion of heat in a stationary medium (Chapters 8 & 9)

– convection: it is common to include convective heat transfer in traditional heat transfer
analysis. However, it is considered mass transfer in thermodynamics. (Chapters 10 &
11)
– radiation: heat transfer by photons or electromagnetic waves (Chapter 12)

6
Some Interesting Points

1. the internal energy of a system will depend to a large extent but not exclusively on tempera-
ture
−→ for an ideal gas

u = u(T ) only

2. a change in the system temperature does not necessarily imply that heat transfer is taking
place

This forms a need for the 2nd law.

Adiabatic does not always mean isothermal.

3. no change in the system temperature does not necessarily imply “no energy transfer as heat”
−→ isothermal compression of a gas

Q gas W

T= constant (isothermal)

7
Work Energy

• work is a form of energy in transit. One should not attribute work to a system.

• work (like heat) is a “path function” (magnitude depends on the process path)

– i.e ∆w is incorrect, use

2
δw = w12
1

• Notation:

– W (kJ ) amount of work transfer

– Ẇ (kW ) power
– w (kJ/kg) - work per unit mass
– ẇ (kW/kg) - power per unit mass

• work transfer mechanisms in general, are a force acting over a distance

Mechanical Work

• force (which generally varies) times displacement

2
W12 = F ds
1

• if there is no driving or resisting force in the process (e.g. expansion in a vacuum) or the
boundaries of the system do not move or deform, W12 = 0.

8
Moving Boundary Work

• consider compression in a piston/cylinder,

where A is the piston cross sectional area (fric-
tionless)

• the area under the process curve on a P − V

2
diagram is proportional to P dV
1

• the work is:

– +ve for compression

– −ve for expansion

• sometimes called P dV work or

compression /expansion work

2 2 2
W12 = − F ds = − P · A ds = − P dV
1 1 1

• a decrease in the volume, dV → −ve results in work additiion (+ve) on the system

• polytropic processes: where P V n = C

• examples of polytropic processes include:

Isobaric process: if n = 0 then P = C and we have a constant pressure process

Isothermal process: if n = 1 then from the ideal gas equation P V = RT and P V is

only a function of temperature

Isometric process: if n → ∞ then P 1/nV = C 1/n and we have a constant volume

process

Isentropic process: if n = k = Cp /Cv then we have an isentropic process

• the moving boundary work for a polytropic process is

2 2 2 dV
W12 = − P dV = − CV −n dV = −C
1 1 1 Vn

9
 – if n = 1 → P V = C = RT (process is isothermal)
V2
W12 = −C ln (if compression, V2 < V1 and W12 is positive)
V1

– if n = 1
 2  
1 V21−n − V11−n
W12 = −C V 1−n
= −C
1−n 1 1−n

but C = P V n = P1 V1n = P2 V2n

P1 V1nV11−n − P2 V2nV21−n P1 V1 − P2 V2
W12 = =
1−n 1−n

– for an ideal gas, P V = mRT

mR(T1 − T2 )
W12 = , (n = 1)
1−n

Gravitational Work

• if dz is a component parallel to gravity

2 2 2
W12 = − F ds = − mg ds = − mg dz
1 1 1

• work is added to the system when gravity assists, i.e. dz → −ve

• integrating from state 1 to state 2 gives

W12 = −mg(z2 − z1 )

• gravitational work just depends on the end states and is independent of the path followed

10
Acceleration Work

• if the system is accelerating, the work associated with the change of the velocity can be
calculated as follows:
2 2 2 dV 2 ds
W12 = − F ds = − ma ds = − m ds = − m dV
1 1 1 dt 1 dt
and we can then write
2 V12 V22
W12 = − mV dV = m −
1 2 2

• work must be done on the system, i.e. work is negative, in order to see an increase in velocity
and in turn the kninetic energy of the system

Charge Transfer Work (Electrical Work)

• charge is a conserved quantity, like mass and energy

• current, I is the rate of charge transfer

d q+ coulomb
I≡ , = Ampere
dt sec
where

q + = −N e

with N being the number of electrons and e the charge of the electron.
• the electrical work done is given as

δWe = (1 − 2 ) dq + =  dq +

J oule
where  is the electrical potential difference with units volt =
Coulomb
• the electrical work done per unit time is power
δWe
Ẇe = P ower = = I (W )
dt

2
We =  I dt
1

=  I∆t

11
A Pneumatic Lift

state 1 state 2
atm.
A B A
Ap
B
air
mp

control mass
valve closed valve open system

Given:

Patm = 100 kP a 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

mp = 500 kg Ap = 0.0245 m2
VA,1 = 0.4 m3 VB,1 = 0.1 m3
PA,1 = 500 kP a PA,2 = 100 kP a
TA,1 = 298 K TB,1 = 298 K = 25 ◦ C

final temperatures are the same as the initial temperatures

Find:

1. final pressures, PA,2 and PB,2

2. W12

Solution: Assume:

1. Air can be treated as an ideal gas, i.e. P V = mRT

2. The process is slow such that the system goes through quassi-equilibrium states

PA,2 = PB,2 = P2 = Patm + mp g/Ap = 300 kP a ⇐ Ans.

TA,2 = TB,2 = T2 = T1 = 298 K

2 VB,2
W12 = − P dV = − PB dV = P2 (VB,1 − VB,2 )
1 VB,1

From ideal gas law we know

P V = mRT

12
and from conservation of mass we know

mA,1 + mB,1 = mA,2 + mB,2

Therefore

PA,1 VA,1 + PB,1 VB,1 = PA,2 VA,2 + PB,2 VB,2

500 × 0.4 + 100 × 0.1 = 300 × 0.4 + 300 × VB,2

therefore, VB,2 = 0.3 m3

W12 = 300 kP a × (0.1 − 0.3) = −60 kJ ⇐ Ans.

A negative value for the work means it is directed out of the control volume.

13
A Cyclic Process
Consider an ideal gas that undergoes

1 → 2: isothermal expansion

2 → 3: isobaric compression

3 → 1: isovolumetric pressurization

1
P1

2
P2 = P3
3
b a
V1 = V3 V2 V

Given: V1 , V2 , T1 , P2

Find: An expression for the net transfer of energy as heat to or from the gas during this cyclic
process.

Solution: The 1st law for any cyclic process

 
Einitial + δW + δQ = Ef inal

for the cyclic process

Ef inal = Einitial

Therefore
 
δQ = − δW for any cyclic process

Hence for any cyclic process, if the work is done by the system (−ve) then heat is trans-
ferred into the system (+ve); if the work is done on the system(+ve) then heat has to be
transferred out of the system (−ve).

14
To calculate the work done

0 (V ≡ const)
δW = W1→2 + W2→3 + W3→1

V2 V2 dV V2
W1→2 = − P dV = −mRT1 = −mRT1 ln
V1 V1 V V1
V3
W2→3 = − P dV = −P2 (V3 − V2 ) = P2 (V2 − V3 )
V2

V2
Qnet = mRT1 ln − P2 (V2 − V1 )
V1

where this is +ve net heat transfer to the system.

15
Control Volume (Open System)
The major difference between a Control Mass and and Control Volume is that mass crosses the
system boundary of a control volume. We will define a region in space that may be moving or
changing shape. As the process proceeds we will monitor the volume as mass, heat and work cross
the system boundary. The control volume approach will be used for many engineering problems
where a mass flow rate is present, such as:

• turbines, pumps and compressors

• heat exchangers
• nozzles and diffusers, etc.

CONSERVATION OF MASS:
Unlike a control mass approach, the control volume approach does not implicitly satisfy
conservation of mass, therefore we must make sure that mass is neither created nor destroyed
in our process.

m OUT

m cv

m IN
cv

     

 rate of increase 
 
 net rate of 
 
 net rate of 


of mass within

= 
mass f low

− 
mass f low

     
the CV IN OU T

d
(mCV ) = ṁIN − ṁOUT
dt
where:

mCV = ρ dV
V

ṁIN = (ρ V A)IN

ṁOUT = (ρ V A)OUT

16
 with V = average velocity

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:

The 1st law states:

ECV (t) + δQ + δWshaf t + (∆EIN − ∆EOUT )+

(δWIN − δWOUT ) = ECV (t + ∆t) (1)

where:

∆EIN = eIN ∆mIN

∆EOUT = eOUT ∆mOUT

δW = flow work
E V2
e = = u +
 + gz
m 2 
internal  potential
kinetic

17
What is flow work?
This is the work required to pass the flow across the system boundaries. When mass en-
ters/leaves a control volume, some work is done on/by the control volume.

volume
  
∆mIN = ρIN AIN VIN ∆t

δWIN = F · distance

= PIN AIN · VIN ∆t

   
F ∆s

PIN ∆mIN
=
ρIN

with

1
v=
ρ

δWIN = (P v ∆m)IN → flow work (2)

Similarly

∆dOUT = (P v ∆m)OUT (3)

18
Substituting Eqs. 2 and 3 into Eq. 1 gives the 1st law for a control volume

ECV (t + ∆t) − ECV (t) = δQ + δWshaf t + ∆mIN (e + P v)IN

− ∆mOUT (e + P v)OUT (4)

Equation 4 can also be written as a rate equation → divide through by ∆t and take the limit
as ∆t → 0

d
ECV = Q̇ + Ẇshaf t + [ṁ(e + P v)]IN − [ṁ(e + P v)]OUT
dt

where:

ṁ = ρ v ∗ A

Note that:

(v ∗ )2
e + P v = u +P v + + gz
2
= h(enthalpy) + KE + P E

By using enthalpy instead of the internal energy to represent the energy of a flowing fluid,
one does not need to be concerned with the flow work.

19
Some Practical Assumptions for Control Volumes

Steady State Process: The properties of the material inside the control volume do not change
with time. For example
P2 > P1

P1 P2 Diffuser: P changes inside the control volume, but

the pressure at each point does not change with
time.

V2 < V1

Steady Flow Process: The properties of the material crossing the control surface do not change
with time. For example

T = T(y)
Inlet Pipe: T at the inlet may be different at differ-
ent locations, but temperature at each boundary
T ≠ T(t) point does not change with time.
y

The steadiness refers to variation with respect to time

• if the process is not steady, it is unsteady or transient

• often steady flow implies both steady flow and steady state

Uniform State Process: The properties of the material inside the control volume are uniform and
may change with time. For example
o
50 C
t=0
o
50 C 50 oC
o
50 C
Heating Copper: Cu conducts heat well, so that it
Q heats evenly.
o
60 oC
t=10 60 C o
60 oC
60 C

20
Uniform Flow Process: The properties of the material crossing the control surface are spatially
uniform and may change with time. For example

P ≠ P(y)
Inlet Pipe: P at the inlet is uniform
across y.
y

x
Uniformity is a concept related to the spatial distribution. If the flow field in a process is not
uniform, it is distributed.

Steady-State, Steady-Flow Process

Idealizations:

• the control volume does not move relative to the reference frame

• the state of the mass at each point with the control volume does not change with time

• the flows in and out of the control volume are steady, i.e. there is no mass accumulation
within the control volume

• the rates at which work and heat cross the control volume boundary remain constant

Nozzles:
• used to increase the velocity of a fluid (sub-
sonic flow)

• common assumptions and idealizations 2

1
– Q̇ = 0 (no time for heat transfer)
– Ẇ = 0
– ∆P E = 0
– steady flow, steady state, uniform flow
V2 > V1

21
 • simplified mass and energy balances:
Mass

0 = ṁ1 − ṁ2

ṁ1 = ṁ2 ⇒ ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2

Energy

0 = ṁ1 e1 − ṁ2 e2

e1 = e2 ⇒ h1 + KE1 + P E1 = h2 + KE2 + P E2
V12 V22
⇒ h1 + = h2 +
2 2

Diffusers:
• used to increase the pressure of a fluid (sub-
sonic flow)

• common assumptions and idealizations

1 2
– Q̇ = 0
– Ẇ = 0
– ∆P E = 0
– steady flow, steady state, uniform flow
P2 > P1

• simplified mass and energy balances:

Mass

ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2

Energy

V12 V22
h1 + = h2 +
2 2

22
Turbines (steam, gas, hydraulic):

1
• used to produce power (output = shaft power)

• common assumptions and idealizations

Wout
– Q̇ = 0
– ∆KE = 0
– ∆P E = 0
– steady flow, steady state, uniform flow

2
• simplified mass and energy balances:
Mass

ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2

Energy

Ẇout = ṁ1 e1 − ṁ2 e2

ẇout = e1 − e2

ẇout = h1 − h2

23
Compressors (pumps, fans):

1
• used to increase the pressure of the fluid using
power input

• common assumptions and idealizations

– Q̇ = 0
Win
– ∆KE = 0
– ∆P E = 0
– steady flow, steady state, uniform flow

2
• simplified mass and energy balances:
Mass

ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2

Energy

−Ẇin = ṁ1 e1 − ṁ2 e2

−ẇin = e1 − e2

ẇin = h2 − h1

24
Throttling Valves:

• used to drop the pressure and/or temperature

(converts u to P v)

• common assumptions and idealizations a) an adjustable valve

– Q̇ = 0












– Ẇ = 0





– ∆KE = 0





b) a porous plug
– ∆P E = 0
– steady flow, steady state, uniform flow
c) a capillary tube

• simplified mass and energy balances:

Mass

ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2

Energy

h1 = h2

Mixing Chambers (direct contact heat exchangers):

• used to mix two or more fluids

• common assumptions and idealizations 1 2

– Q̇ = 0
– Ẇ = 0
– ∆KE = 0
– ∆P E = 0
3
– steady flow, steady state, uniform flow

• simplified mass and energy balances:

Mass

ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2 + ρ3 A3 V3

Energy

ṁ1 h1 = ṁ2 h2 + ṁ3 h3

25
Heat Exchangers (boilers, heat exchangers, condensers):

• used to exchange heat between two fluid

streams without mixing 1 fluid B
• common assumptions and idealizations
heat fluid A
– Ẇ = 0
4 3
– ∆KE = 0
– ∆P E = 0
2
– steady flow, steady state, uniform flow

• simplified mass and energy balances:

Mass

ṁ1 = ṁ2

ṁ3 = ṁ4

Energy

ṁ1 h1 + ṁ3 h3 = ṁ2 h2 + ṁ4 h4

26
Example: A Boiler

steam
out

G
L

in Q

H2O (l)

Given: Tin = 120 ◦ C, Pin = 10 M P a, Pout = 10 M P a, xout = 1, ṁ = 1 kg/s

Find: Q̇

Solution: Assume:

• steady state, steady flow process

• subcooled liquid is incompressible
• ∆P E ≈ 0, ∆KE ≈ 0, Ẇ = 0

From the 1st law,

 
V2 V2
Q̇ − Ẇ
 +ṁ
0
h+ + gz − h+ + gz =0
2 in 2 out

Therefore

Q̇ = ṁ(hout − hin)

From Table A-5, @ Tin = 120 ◦ C and Pin = 10 M P a

Tsat(Pin) = 311.06 ◦ C (therefore a subcooled liquid)

hin = hf (Tin) + vf (Tin)[P − Psat(Tin)]

= 503.71 kJ/kg + 0.001060 m3 /kg[10 − 0.19853] × 103 kP a

= 514.10 kJ/kg

27
From Table A-5 at Pout = 10 M P a and xout = 1 i.e. saturated steam

hout = 2724.7 kJ/kg

Q̇ = ṁ(hout − hin)

= 1 kg/s × (2724.7 − 514.10) kJ/kg = 2210.6 kW ⇐

28
Example: Air Compression

out

in Q
air

Given:

Tin = 280 K

Pin = 100 kP a

Tout = 400 K

Pout = 600 kP a

ṁ = 0.02 kg/s

q = −16 kJ/kg

∆P E = ∆KE = 0

Find: Ẇ

Solution: Assume:

• steady state, steady flow process

• air can be taken as an ideal gas T >> Tcr and P << Pcr

From the 1st law

 
V2 V2
Q̇ − Ẇ + ṁ h+ + gz − h+ + gz =0
2 in 2 out

29
 Ẇ = Q̇ + ṁ[(hin − hout) + ∆KE
0 +∆P E
0 ]

= ṁq + ṁ(hin − hout)

We know that

hin − hout = Cp (Tin − Tout)

where

1 1
Cp = Cp (Tav ) Tav = (Tin + Tout) = (280 K + 400 K) = 340 K
2 2

From Table A-2, using interpolation ⇒ Cp = 1.0074 kJ/(kg · K)

Therefore

Ẇ = 0.02 kg/s × ((−16 kJ/kg) + 0.02 kg/s × (1.0074 kJ/(kg · K)

×(280 − 400) K

= −2.738 kW

The −ve sign indicates that this compression process the work is done on the system.

30
Example: Steam Turbine

Q
in

out

Given:

ṁ = 1.5 kg/s

Q̇ = −8.5 kW rate of heat transfer from the turbine

Pinlet = 2 M P a Poutlet = 0.1 M P a

Tinlet = 350 ◦ C

Vinlet = 50 m/s Voutlet = 200 m/s

zinlet = 6 m zoutlet = 3 m

xoutlet = 1.0

Find: Ẇ , power output from the turbine

Solution: Assume:

• steady state, steady flow process

The first law gives

 
V2 V2
Q̇ − Ẇ + ṁ h+ + gz − h+ + gz =0
2 in 2 out

31
or
 
1
Q̇ − Ẇ + ṁ (hi − ho ) + (Vi2 − Vo2 ) + g(zi − zo ) = 0
2
The process representation is given as follows:

T(oC)

2 MPa

G
350 in 0.1 MPa
L+G
212.4
out
99.63 saturated vapor line
x = 1.0

3
0.1386 1.694 v(m /kg)

From Table A-6 for superheated steam at Pi = 2 M P a and Ti = 350 ◦ C we get

hi = 3137.0 kJ/kg

From Table A-5 for saturated steam at Pi = 0.1 M P a and x = 1.0 we get
T0 = 99.63 ◦ C

h0 = 2675.5 kJ/kg

Substituting these values back into the energy balance gives

(−8.5 kJ/s) − Ẇ + (1.5 kg/s)[(3137.0 − 2675.5) kJ/kg +

1
(502 − 2002 ) m2 /s2 × 10−3 + 9.8 m/s2 (6 − 3) m × 10−3 ] = 0
2    
kJ/kg kJ/kg

or

Ẇ = 1.5(461.5 − 18.75 + 0.0294) − 8.5 = 655.7 kJ/s = +0.656 M W ⇐

• Ẇshaf t is positive therefore work is done by the turbine
−8.5
• Q̇/[ṁ · (hi − ho )] = = −0.013 ⇒ this is negligible
(664.2)
• for Q̇ = 0 the turbine is considered adiabatic

32
Control Volume Analysis for Electrical Devices
We recall from the 1st law for a control volume

dEcv
= Q̇ − Ẇ + ṁin(e + P v)in − ṁout(e + P v)out
dt

We can consider the following analogy

Let

N = number of charged particles

q+ = +ve charge on each particle
N q+ = total charge
mq = mass of each charged particle
N mq = total mass of the “charge gas”
Ṅ mq = flow rate of the “charge gas”
 = electrical potential
 
 
 
 
 
 V2 (Ṅ q + ) 
ṁ(e + P v) = (Ṅ mq ) 
u + Pv + + gz + 

 2  (Ṅ mq ) 
   
 
 negligible electrical potential
per unit mass

 
(Ṅ q + )
ṁ(e + P v) = (Ṅ mq )  
(|dotN mq )

= Ṅ q +  = I

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where I = current ≡ Ṅ q + = −Ṅ e

The first law takes the form

dEcv
= Q̇ − Ẇ + (Ṅ q + )in − (Ṅ q + )out
dt

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Example: Steady charge flow through a resistance element

C.V. Q=?

+ +
Nq Nq
resistor resistor
( Nq e )out
+
( Nq e )in
+

i + - i
e + e- W=0

e in > e out

Given: I, + , − , ∆ = + − −

Find: Q̇ =?

Solution: Assume S.S.S.F. process and only electric PE is important.

From conservation of charge

(Ṅ q + )in = (Ṅ q + )out = Ṅ q +

From conservation of energy

dEcv
= 0 = −Q̇ + (Ṅ q + )in − (Ṅ q + )out
dt

Therefore

Q̇ = Ṅ q + (+ = − ) (J/s = W )

Q̇ = I(+ − − ) = I ∆ (amps × volts)

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Example: An electric motor

Given: Ṅ q + = I, in > out, Q̇

Find: Ẇshaf t =?, efficiency, η =?

Solution: Assume S.S.S.F. process and only electric PE is important.

From conservation of charge

(Ṅ q + )in = (Ṅ q + )out = Ṅ q + = I

From conservation of energy

(Ṅ q + )in − (Ṅ q + )out + (−Q̇) − Ẇshaf t = 0

Therefore

Ẇshaf t = I∆ − Q̇ (J/s = W )

The efficiency of the motor is

benefit Ẇshaf t Q̇
η= = =1−
cost I∆ I∆

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Transient Processes
• examples of transient processes include filling, discharging, startup, shut down

• common assumptions and idealizations:

– depends on the problem

– uniform state, uniform flow often but not necessarily

• general mass and energy balances:

Mass

dm  
= ṁin − ṁout
dt
 
∆m = min − mout

Energy

dE    
= ṁinθin + Q̇in + Ẇin − ṁoutθout + Q̇out + Ẇout
dt
d V2 V2
ṁθ = h+ + gz dm = h+ + gz ρVdA
dt m 2 A 2

V2 V2
E = me = u+ + gz dm = u+ + gz ρdV
m 2 V 2

This is usually taken out of rate form

 2 V2  2 V2
Qin − Wout + h+ + gz dm − h+ + gz dm
in 1 2 out 1 2

V2
=∆ m u+ + gz
2

Steady conditions at the inlet

 V2  V2
Qin − Wout + m h+ + gz dm − m h+ + gz dm
in 2 out 2

V2
=∆ m u+ + gz
2

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