Radar Lec6

CEE431 Radar Systems
Instructed By
Dr. Ahmed Azzam
Electronics and Communication Department
Theba Higher Institute of Engineering
1 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam
Tracking Radar
Introduction
A tracking-radar system measures the coordinates of a target and provides data

which may be used to determine the target path and to predict its future position.
All or only part of the available radar data (range, elevation angle, azimuth angle,
and Doppler frequency shift ) may be used in predicting future position; that is, a
radar might track in range, in angle, in Doppler, or with any combination.
It is also necessary to distinguish between a continuous tracking radar and a

track-while-scan (TWS) radar. The former supplies continuous tracking data on
a particular target, while the track-while-scan supplies sampled data on one or
more targets. In general, the continuous tracking radar and the TWS radar
employ different types of equipment.

Tracking Radar
Introduction
The antenna actuated by an error signal. The various methods for generating
the beam in the continuous tracking radar is positioned in angle by a
servomechanism error signal may be classified as simultaneous lobing or
monopulse, sequential lobing, and conical scan.
The tracking radar must first find its target before it can track. Some radars
operate in a search, or acquisition mode in order to find the target before
switching to a tracking mode. Although it is possible to use a single radar for
both the search and the tracking functions, it can be also use a separate radar
for searching and another one for tracking.

Tracking Radar
Introduction
Obviously, when the radar is used in its tracking mode, it has no knowledge for the
potential targets. Also, if the antenna pattern is a narrow pencil beam and if the
search volume is large, a relatively long time might be required to find the target.
Therefore many radar tracking systems employ a separate search radar, to
provide the information necessary to position the tracker on the target.
A search radar, when used for this purpose. it called an acquisition radar.
The acquisition radar designates targets to the tracking radar by providing the
coordinates where the targets are to be found. The tracking radar acquires a
target by performing a limited search in the area of the designated target
coordinates.
Tracking Radar
Introduction
Technically target acquisition may just

denote the process of a weapon system
to decide which object to lock on ( track)
to permit the effective employment of lethal
and non-lethal means.
AN-TPQ 47, the US Army's Target

Acquisition and Artillery Locating
Radar
Tracking Radar
MONOPULSE TRACKING
A monopulse tracker is defined as one in which information concerning the angular
location of a target is obtained by comparison of signals received in two or more
simultaneous beams.
The name monopulse due to a measurement of angle may be made on the basis of a single pulse.
By making an angle measurement based on the signals that appear simultaneously in more
than one antenna beam, the accuracy is improved compared to time-shared single-beam
tracking systems (such as conical scan or sequential lobing) which suffer degradation when
the echo signal amplitude changes with time.
Thus the accuracy of monopulse is not affected by amplitude fluctuations of the target echo.
It is the preferred tracking technique when accurate angle measurements are required.

Tracking Radar
MONOPULSE TRACKING
There are several methods by which a monopulse angle measurement can be made:
Amplitude-Comparison Monopulse
The most popular method which compares the amplitudes of the signals simultaneously
received in multiple squinted beams to determine the angle.
Two overlapping antenna patterns with their main beams pointed in slightly different
directions are used, as in Fig. 4.3a. The two beams in this figure are said to be squinted,
or offset.

Tracking Radar
MONOPULSE TRACKING
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 4.3 Monopulse antenna patterns and error signal. The left-hand sketches in (a) to (c) are in polar
coordinates; right-hand sketches are in rectangular coordinates. (a) Two squinted antenna beams;
(b) sum pattern of two squinted beams shown in (a); (c) difference pattern; (d) error signal as a function of the
angle from boresight.
Tracking Radar
MONOPULSE TRACKING
Monopulse radars split the beam into
parts and then send the two resulting
signals out of the antenna in slightly
different directions. When the reflected
signals are received they are amplified
separately and compared to each other,
indicating which direction has a stronger
return, and thus the general direction of
the target relative to the boresight.
Since this comparison is carried out
during one pulse, which is typically a
few microseconds, changes in target
position or heading will have no effect
on the comparison.

Tracking Radar
MONOPULSE TRACKING
The essence of the amplitude-comparison monopulse method is in taking both the sum and
the difference of the two squinted antenna patterns, which are shown in Figs. 4.3b and 4.3c.
The sum pattern is employed on transmission, while both the sum and the difference patterns
are used on reception.
The sum signal also provides target detection and range measurement, as well as act as a
reference for determining the sign of the angle measurement.
The direction of the angle error is found by comparing the phase of the difference signal with
the phase of the sum signal
Signals received from the sum and difference patterns are amplified separately and combined
in a phase-sensitive detector to produce the angle-error signal.
Tracking Radar
MONOPULSE TRACKING
Fig. 4.4. shown A simple block diagram of the amplitude-comparison monopulse tracking
radar for a single angular coordinate.
Tracking Radar
MONOPULSE TRACKING
A simple block diagram of the amplitude-comparison monopulse tracking radar for a single
angular coordinate is shown in Fig. 4.4.The two adjacent antenna feeds are connected to the
two input arms of a hybrid junction, which is a four-port microwave device with two input
and two output ports.
When two signals (such as the signals from the two squinted beams) are inserted at the two
input ports, the sum and difference of the two are found at the two output ports.
It is important that the sum and difference channels have the same phase and amplitude
characteristics. For this reason, a single local oscillator (LO) is shared by the two channels.
The transmitter is connected to the sum port of the hybrid junction. A duplexer (TR) is
included in the sum channel for the protection of the sum-channel receiver.
Tracking Radar
MONOPULSE TRACKING
The outputs of the sum and difference channels are the inputs to the phase-sensitive
detector, which is a nonlinear device that compares two signals of the same frequency.
The output of a phase-sensitive detector is the angle-error signal.
Its magnitude is proportional to 1𝜃𝑇 - 𝜃0 1, where 𝜃𝑇 = target angle and 𝜃0 = boresight,

or crossover, angle.
The sign of the output of the phase-sensitive detector indicates the direction of the
angle error relative to the boresight. If the sum signal in the IF portion of the receiver
is A𝑆 cos 𝜔𝐼𝐹 𝑡 , the difference signal will be either +Ad cos 𝜔𝐼𝐹 𝑡 or -Ad cos 𝜔𝐼𝐹 𝑡 ,
depending on which side of boresight is the target.

Tracking Radar
MONOPULSE TRACKING
Monopulse in Two Angle Coordinates
A block diagram of a monopulse radar for extracting angle-error signals in both azimuth
and elevation is shown in Fig. 4.6.
The cluster of four feed horns generate four partially overlapping (squinted) beams. The
four feeds might be used to illuminate a parabolic reflector, Cassegrain reflector, or a
spacefed phased array antenna.
The arrangement of the four feeds is shown in the upper left-hand portion of the figure.
All four feeds are used to generate the sum pattern on transmission and reception. The
difference pattern in one plane is formed by taking the sum of two adjacent feeds and
subtracting them from the sum of the other two adjacent feeds.

Tracking Radar
MONOPULSE TRACKING
Fig. 4.6. shown Block diagram of two coordinate (azimuth and elevation) amplitude comparison monopulse
tracking radar. Diagram in the upper left corner represents the four-horn feed.
End of Lecture
Thank You
CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Tracking Radar
MONOPULSE TRACKING
Phase-Comparison Monopulse
In a phase-comparison monopulse, two antenna
beams are used to obtain an angle measurement in
one coordinate, just as in amplitude comparison
monopulse.
(a)
The two beams, however, look in the same direction
and cover the same region of space rather than be
squinted to look in two slightly different directions.
(b)
In order for the two beams to look in the same direction,
two antennas have to be used in the phase-comparison Fig. 4.9. Phase-comparison monopulse
in one angle coordinate.
monopulse
Tracking Radar
MONOPULSE TRACKING
The amplitudes of the signals are the same, but
their phases are different. This is just the opposite
of the amplitude- comparison monopulse.
Consider two antennas spaced a distance d apart,
as in Fig. 4.9b. If the signal arrives from a
direction 𝜃 with respect to the normal to the
baseline, the phase difference in the signals
Fig. 4.9b.
received in the two antennas is 2𝜋 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∆∅ =
λ
A measurement of the phase difference of the signals received in the two antennas can provide the angle
𝜽 to the target. The phase-comparison monopulse is sometimes known as an interferometer radar.

Tracking Radar
MONOPULSE TRACKING
In practice, the separation between the two

antennas d should be less than the antenna
diameter if good radiation patterns are to
be obtained on transmit and angle
ambiguities are to be avoided on receive.
Fig. 4.9b.
There has been little application of the phase-comparison monopulse as compared to

the more popular amplitude-comparison method.

Tracking Radar
SEQUENTIAL LOBING AND CONICAL SCAN
The monopulse tracker described in the previous section utilized multiple fixed beams to
obtain the angle measurement.
It is also possible to time share a single antenna beam to obtain the angle measurement in
a sequential manner, as was done in early tracking radars.
Time sharing a single antenna beam is simpler and uses less equipment than
simultaneous beams, but it is not as accurate.
The error signal obtained from a target not located on the switching axis (boresight) is
shown in Fig. 4.10c. The difference in amplitude between the voltages obtained in the two
switched positions is a measure of the angular displacement of the target from the switching
axis.
Tracking Radar
CONICAL SCAN AND SEQUENTIAL LOBING
Sequential lobing
One method of obtaining the direction and the magnitude of the angular error in
one coordinate is by alternately switching the antenna beam between two
positions (Fig. 4.10). This is called lobe switching, sequential switching, or
sequential lobing. Figure 4.l0a is a polar representation of the antenna beam
(minus the sidelobes) in the two switched positions.
A plot in rectangular coordinates is shown in Fig. 4.l0b, and the error signal
obtained from a target not on the switching axis (reference direction) is shown in
Fig. 4.l0c. The difference in amplitude between the voltages obtained in the two
switched positions is a measure of the angular displacement of the target from
the switching axis.

Tracking Radar
Sequential lobing
When the voltages in the two switched positions are equal, the target is on axis and.
its position may be determined from the axis direction.
Figure 4.10 Lobe-switching antenna patterns and error signal (one dimension). (a) Polar representation of
switched antenna patterns; (b) rectangular representation. (c) error signal
Tracking Radar
Sequential lobing
The sign of the difference determines the direction the antenna must be moved in
order to align the switching axis with the direction of the target.
Figure 4.10 Lobe-switching antenna patterns and error signal (one dimension). (a) Polar representation of
switched antenna patterns; (b) rectangular representation. (c) error signal
Tracking Radar
Sequential lobing
Two additional switching positions are needed to obtain the angular error in the
orthogonal coordinate.
Thus a two-dimensional sequentially lobing radar might consist of a cluster of four feed
horns illuminating a single antenna, arranged so that the right-left, up-down sectors are
covered by successive antenna positions.
Both transmission and reception are accomplished at each position. A cluster of five feeds
might also be employed, with the central feed used for transmission while the outer four
feeds are used for receiving.
High-power RF switches (duplexers) are not needed since only the receiving beams, and
not the transmitting beam, are stepped in this five-feed arrangement.

Tracking Radar
Sequential lobing
In a sequential lobing system, a pulse might be transmitted and received

when the beam is squinted to the right, again when the beam is squinted
up, when the beam is squinted to the left, and when the beam is squinted
down. Thus the beam might be switched right, up, left, down, right, and
so forth. After living with this type of scanning for a while, it must have
become obvious that the four horns and RF switches could be replaced
by a single feed that radiated a single beam squinted off axis. The
squinted feed could then be continuously rotated to obtain angle
measurements in two coordinates.
This is a conical scan radar.

Tracking Radar
conical scan
The basic concept of conical

scan, or con-scan, is shown in
Fig. 4.11. The angle between the
axis of rotation and the axis of
the antenna beam is the squint
angle. Consider a target located
at position A.
Figure 4.11 Conical Scan Tracking
Because of the rotation of the squinted beam and the target's offset (displaced) from the
rotation axis, the amplitude of the echo signal will be modulated at a frequency equal
to the beam rotation frequency (also called the conical-scan frequency).

Tracking Radar
conical scan
The amplitude of the modulation
depends on the angular distance
between the target direction and
the rotation axis. The location of
the target in two angle coordinates
determines the phase of the
conical-scan modulation relative to
the conical-scan beam rotation. Figure 4.11 Conical Scan Tracking
The conical-scan modulation is extracted from the echo signal and applied to a servo control
system that continually positions the antenna rotation axis in the direction of the target.
It does this by moving the antenna so that the target line of sight lies along the beam rotation
axis, as at position B in Fig. 4.11.
Tracking Radar
conical scan
Two servos are required, one for

azimuth and the other for elevation.
When the antenna is "on target,"
the conical-scan modulation is of
zero amplitude.
Figure 4.11 Conical Scan Tracking
A block diagram of the angle-tracking portion of a conical-scan tracking radar is shown in

Fig. 4.12. The antenna is mounted so that it can be mechanically positioned in both azimuth
and elevation by separate motors.

Tracking Radar
conical scan
Figure 4.12 Block diagram of conical scan tracking radar.

Tracking Radar
conical scan
Automatic Gain Control As with monopulse radar, AGC is employed in the conical
scan radar.
It has the purpose of maintaining constant angle-error sensitivity in spite of amplitude

fluctuations or changes of the echo signal due to changes in range.
Constant angle-error sensitivity is required to provide stable tracking.
AGC is also important for avoiding saturation by large signals which could cause the
loss of the scanning modulation and the accompanying error signal.

Tracking Radar
conical scan
Optimum Squint Angle The greater the squint angle,
in the conical-scan tracker the greater will be the slope
of the angle-error signal at boresight and the better
will be the accuracy of the angle measurement.
As the squint angle increases, however, the on-axis
gain of the sum pattern decreases. Thus there will be
an optimum value of the squint angle.
Figure 4.7 plots the slope of the error signal as a

function of the squint angle 𝜽𝒒 , assuming the shape
of the squinted beams can be modeled by a gaussian Fig. 4.7. Slope of the angle-error signal at
function and that mutual coupling between the feeds crossover for monopulse and conical-scan
can be ignored. tracking radars. 𝜃B = half-power beamwidth,
𝜃q = squint angle.
LIMITATIONS TO TRACKING ACCURACY
In this section several of the major effects that determine the accuracy of a tracking radar
will be discussed, including:
• Glint, or angle noise, which affects all tracking radars, especially at short range.
• Receiver noise, which also affects all radars, and mainly determines tracking accuracy at
long range.
• Amplitude fluctuations(Scintillation) of the target echo that bother conical-scan and

sequential lobing trackers, but not monopulse.
Other factors that influence the overall accuracy of a tracking radar include the mechanical
properties of the antenna and pedestal, the servo system, the method by which the pointing
of the antenna boresight is determined, the antenna beamwidth, atmospheric effects, and
multipath.
Angle glint or “glint noise”
refers to fluctuations in the measured angle of arrival of backscattered
electromagnetic waves transmitted from a radar device or a target.
Active sonar tracking systems are also subject to glint noise for the same physical
reason:
1- When a target consists of many point reflectors, the backscattered waves from
the individual elements interfere with one another to produce fluctuations in
the echo signal arriving at the receiver.
2- As the aspect angles of the individual elements change, the relative amplitudes
and phases of the scattered components also change, leading to a scintillation
in the amplitude of the return signal and glint noise components in the
measurement of angle.
3- These tracking errors are most pronounced at short and intermediate target
ranges: at long range the target appears to be a single point within the
resolution cell of the tracking system. Glint induced measurement errors can
result in a situation where the tracking point lies entirely outside the physical
confines of the target.
Receiver noise
The sensitivity of a radar receiver is determined by the unavoidable noise that

appears at its input.
At microwave radar frequencies, the noise that limits detectability is usually

generated by the receiver itself (i.e., by the random motion of electrons at the input
of the receiver) rather than by external noise that enters the receiver via the
antenna.
A radar engineer often employs a transistor amplifier as the first stage of the
receiver even though lower noise can be obtained with more sophisticated (and
more complex) devices.

Amplitude fluctuations(Scintillation)
Scintillation is a fluctuation in the amplitude of a target on a radar display. It is

closely related to target glint, or an apparent displacement of the target from
its mean position.
This effect can be caused by a shift of the effective reflection point on the target,
but has other causes as well. The fluctuations can be slow (scan-to-scan) or rapid
(pulse-to-pulse).
It appears especially at seaside level.
Scintillation and glint are actually two manifestations of the same phenomenon and
are most properly linked to one another in target modeling.

End of Lecture
Thank You

4.3 Compare the amplitude-comparison monopulse tracker and the conical scan tracker with respect to accuracy at long,
medium, and short ranges; complexity; the number of pulses usually used for an angle measurement; and the type of
application where each might be preferred.
4.4
(a) Why is the amplitude-comparison monopulse more likely to be preferred over the phase-comparison monopulse?
(b) Why is the conical scan tracker more likely to be preferred over the sequential lobing, or lobe switching, tracker?
4.11 This problem involves range glint.

(a) A dumbbell target at a long range from the radar has its two unresolved equal cross-section isotropic scatterers
located in line in the radial (range) direction and separated by 10m. What is the phase difference between the echoes
from these two scatterers when viewed by a radar at a frequency of 3 GHz? What is the range glint error in this
case?
(b) What change in aspect angle (such as might be caused by a rotation of the target about its center) will cause the two
echoes to be 180° out of phase, resulting is a severe glint error in range?
(c) What change in frequency is needed to decorrelate the echo when the target is oriented as in (b)?
(d) What must be the pulse width [in (a)] in order to resolve the two scatterers (so that glint may be avoided)?
4. 12 What two measures might be taken to reduce the effects of the glint error in both angle and range?
Dr. Ahmed Azzam

4.13 (a) Why does a tracking radar have poor accuracy at low elevation angles?
(b) Summarize the two methods that may be worth considering when it is necessary to avoid poor tracking of
targets at low altitudes.
4.17 (a) What is meant by beam splitting?

(b) Describe briefly how is it accomplished?
(c) What accuracy might it typically have?
4.19 (a) What is the chief advantage of automatic detection and tracking?
(b) What are its limitations?
Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Tracking Radar
MONOPULSE TRACKING
Fig. 4.6. shown Block diagram of two coordinate (azimuth and elevation) amplitude comparison monopulse
tracking radar. Diagram in the upper left corner represents the four-horn feed.
Tracking Radar
Introduction
A surveillance radar that provides target tracks is sometimes called a track-while-

scan radar. This terminology is also applied to radars that scan a limited angular
sector to provide tracking information at a high data rate on one or more targets
within its field of view.
Landing radars used for GCA (ground control of approach) and some missile control
radars are of this type.
When the term tracking radar is used after, it generally refers to the continuous
tracker.

Search radar
The Search radar is usually less precise and only distinguishes between targets that are hundreds of
yards or even miles apart. Radar resolution is usually divided into two categories viz. range resolution
and angular resolution (i.e. bearing resolution).
➨Distance coverage: Long, medium, short ranges (20 km to 2000 km)
➨High power density on the target: high peak power, long pulses, long pulse trains, high antenna gain
➨Low PRFs, large range bins
➨Search options: rapid search rate with narrow beams or slower search rate with wide beams
Tracking Radar
The Tracking radar continuously emits the EM waves in the air and detects the targetted object when it
comes in the path of the waves.
➨Accurate angle and range measurement required
➨Minimize time on target for rapid processing
➨Special tracking techniques: monopulse, conical scan, beam switching
Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Search (Surveillance or Acquisition), Tracking, and Navigation Radar
Search Radar. A search (also known as surveillance or acquisition) radar uses an

efficient scan pattern to cover an angular sector with a narrow pencil beam in order to
detect the presence of a suspected target.
Typical scan patterns include the helical, the Palmer, the spiral, the raster (or TV),
and the nodding patterns. In the helical pattern, the beam is continuously rotated in
azimuth while it is simultaneously raised or lowered in elevation.
The Palmer pattern consists of a rapid circular scan about the antenna axis,
combined with a linear movement of the axis of rotation, and is suited to a search
area which is larger in one dimension than the other.
The spiral scan covers an angular search volume with circular symmetry. Both the
Palmer and the spiral scans need to vary the scanning speed during the scan cycle
for all parts of the scan volume to receive the same energy.
Dr. Ahmed Azzam

The raster scan is produced by oscillating the antenna beam fast in azimuth and
slowly in elevation, while the nodding scan is produced by oscillating the antenna
fast in elevation and slowly in azimuth.
Both the raster and the nodding scans cover a rectangular area, but they can also
be used to obtain hemispherical coverage. Hemispherical coverage can also be
obtained by the helical pattern.
Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Tracking Radar. A tracking radar measures the coordinates of a target found by a
search radar and provides data that can be used to determine the target path and
predict its future position.
All or part of the available data (range, elevation and azimuth angle, Doppler
frequency shift, acceleration, and hyperacceleration) may be used in predicting
future target position.
Correspondingly, the radar may track in range, in angle, in Doppler velocity, in
acceleration, in hyperacceleration, or in any combination of those.
Tracking radars either supply continuous tracking data on a particular target

(continuous tracking radar) or supply sample data on one or more targets (track-
while-scan) radar.
The target parameters in a continuous tracking radar are tracked by a servocontrol

loop activated by an error signal generated at the radar receiver.
Dr. Ahmed Azzam

The information available from a tracking radar can either be displayed on a
cathode-ray-tube display for action by a human operator, or may be supplied to a
digital computer and automatically processed to determine the target path and
predict its probable future course.
The latter is usually called automatic detection and track mode or integrated
automatic detection and track mode when the outputs from more than one radars
are automatically combined.
Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Sequential Lobing Radar. The difference between the target angular position
and a reference direction, usually the antenna axis, is the angular error. The
tracking radar attempts to position its antenna to make the tracking error zero and
thus locate the target along the reference direction.
One method to obtain the direction and the magnitude of the angular error in one
coordinate is by alternately switching the antenna beam between two positions.
This is called lobe switching, sequential switching, or sequential lobing.
The difference in amplitude between the voltages in the two switched positions is
a measure of the angular displacement of the target from the switching axis.
The sign of the difference determines the direction that the antenna must be
moved in order to align the switching axis with the direction of the target. Two
additional positions are needed to obtain the angular error in the orthogonal
coordinate.
Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Thus, a two-dimensional sequentially lobing radar might consist of a cluster of four
feed horns illuminating a single antenna, arranged so that the right-left-up-down
sectors are covered by successive antenna positions. Both transmission and
reception are accomplished at each position.
Conical Scan Radar. Conical scan tracking radar uses continuous rotation of an
offset antenna beam rather than discontinuous stepping between four discrete
positions. The angle between the rotation and the antenna axes is called the squint
angle. The echo signal is modulated at the frequency of the beam rotation. The
phase of the modulation depends on the angle between the target and the rotation
axis and can be used to locate the target and continuously position the rotation
axis on it.
Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Monopulse Tracking Radar. The sequential-lobing and conical-scan tracking
radars require a train of echo pulses in order to extract the angular error signal.
This echo train must contain no amplitude-modulation components other than the
modulation produced by the scanning; otherwise the tracking accuracy will be
degraded.
On the other hand, pulse-to-pulse amplitude modulations have no effect on

tracking accuracy if the angular measurement is based on a single pulse rather
than on several.
If more than one antenna beam is used simultaneously, it is possible to extract

angular error information from a single pulse from the relative phase or the relative
amplitude of the echo signal received in each beam.
Tracking radars that derive angular error information from a single pulse are known
as simultaneous lobing or monopulse radars.
Dr. Ahmed Azzam
An example of a simultaneous lobing technique is the amplitude-comparison
monopulse, in which the echos received from two offset antenna beams are
combined so that both the sum and the difference signals are obtained
simultaneously.
The sum signal provides range information, while the difference signal provides
angular error information in one angular direction.
Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Track-While-Scan Radar. A search radar can obtain the track of a target by
marking the coordinates of the target from scan to scan. Such a radar is called
track-while-scan radar and either requires a human monitor to mark the target path
manually or uses a digital computer to perform automatic detection and tracking.
The automatic detection is achieved by quantization of the range into intervals equal
to the range resolution. At each range bin, the detector integrates the number of
pulses expected to be returned from a target as the antenna scans past and
compares them with a threshold to indicate the presence or absence of a target.
When a new detection is received, an attempt is first made to associate it with an

existing track. When the detection is declared independent of existing tracks, the
radar attempts to make a smooth estimate of the target’s present position and
velocity, as well as a predicted position and velocity.
One method to achieve this is by using either the so-called а-в tracker or a Kalman
filter that utilizes a dynamic model for the trajectory of a maneuvering target and the
disturbance or uncertainty of the trajectory.
Dr. Ahmed Azzam
Navigation Radar. Navigation radar is used to provide the necessary data for
piloting an aircraft from one position to another without any need for navigation
information transmitted to the aircraft from a ground station.
A self-contained aircraft navigation system utilizes a continuous-wave Doppler radar

to measure the drift angle and true speed of the aircraft relative to the Earth. The
drift angle is the angle between the centerline (heading) of the aircraft and the
horizontal direction (ground track).
A navigation radar requires at least three non-coplanar beams to measure the vector
velocity, that is, the speed and its direction, of the aircraft.
Such a radar measures the vector velocity relative to the frame of reference of the
antenna assembly. This vector velocity can be converted to a horizontal reference
on the ground by determining the direction of the vertical and the aircraft heading by
some auxiliary means.
Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Usually, the radar uses four beams initially symmetrically disposed about the aircraft
axis, with two facing forward and two facing rearward. If the aircraft vector velocity is
not in the direction of the aircraft heading, the two forward-facing beams will not read
the same Doppler frequency.
This Doppler difference can be fed in a servomechanism that will align the axes of the
antennas with the ground track of the aircraft.
The angular displacement of the antennas from the aircraft heading is the drift angle,
and the magnitude of the Doppler frequency is a measure of the speed along the
ground track.
The use of the two rearward beams is similar, but improves the accuracy
considerably by reducing the errors caused by vertical motion of the aircraft and
pitching movements of the antennas.
Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Thank You
Dr. Ahmed Azzam

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CEE431 Radar Systems

A tracking-radar system measures the coordinates of a target and provides data

It is also necessary to distinguish between a continuous tracking radar and a

2 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

3 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Technically target acquisition may just

AN-TPQ 47, the US Army's Target

6 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

7 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

(a) (b) (c) (d)

8 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Its magnitude is proportional to 1𝜃𝑇 - 𝜃0 1, where 𝜃𝑇 = target angle and 𝜃0 = boresight,

12 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

13 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

16 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

In practice, the separation between the two

There has been little application of the phase-comparison monopulse as compared to

17 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

19 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

22 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

In a sequential lobing system, a pulse might be transmitted and received

23 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

The basic concept of conical

24 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Two servos are required, one for

Figure 4.11 Conical Scan Tracking

A block diagram of the angle-tracking portion of a conical-scan tracking radar is shown in

26 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Figure 4.12 Block diagram of conical scan tracking radar.

It has the purpose of maintaining constant angle-error sensitivity in spite of amplitude

Constant angle-error sensitivity is required to provide stable tracking.

28 of 30 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Figure 4.7 plots the slope of the error signal as a

• Amplitude fluctuations(Scintillation) of the target echo that bother conical-scan and

The sensitivity of a radar receiver is determined by the unavoidable noise that

At microwave radar frequencies, the noise that limits detectability is usually

10 of 10 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Scintillation is a fluctuation in the amplitude of a target on a radar display. It is

It appears especially at seaside level.

10 of 10 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

10 of 10 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

4.11 This problem involves range glint.

Dr. Ahmed Azzam

4.17 (a) What is meant by beam splitting?

Dr. Ahmed Azzam

A surveillance radar that provides target tracks is sometimes called a track-while-

5 of 10 CEE 431 LEC. 6 Tracking Radar Dr. Ahmed Azzam

➨Distance coverage: Long, medium, short ranges (20 km to 2000 km)

➨Low PRFs, large range bins

Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Search Radar. A search (also known as surveillance or acquisition) radar uses an

Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Tracking radars either supply continuous tracking data on a particular target

The target parameters in a continuous tracking radar are tracked by a servocontrol

Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Dr. Ahmed Azzam

Dr. Ahmed Azzam