Asnt MT

Published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
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Copyright © 2004 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. All rights reserved. ASNT is
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statements
do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do
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ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive
testing.
ISBN 1-57117-118-5
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Magnetic particle testing: classroom training book / written for ASNT by Gordon Smith.
p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-57117-118-5
1. Magnetic testing. I.American Society for Nondestructive Testing. II. Title.
TA417.3.S45 2004
620.1'1278--dc22
First printing October 2004
ii
Personnel Training Publications
2004020048
Acknowledgments
Dedicated to the memory of Ronald H. Selner.
A special thank you goes to the following technical reviewers who helped with this publication:
Gina Caudill, United States Coast Guard
Art Gallant, Elite Inspection Services
Vilma Holmgren, Magnaflux Division of Illinois Tool Works
Brian MacCracken, Pratt and Whitney
Joe Mackin, International Pipe Inspectors Association
William Mooz, Met-L-Chek Company
Robert Saunders, Ellwood City Forge
Thomas Schafer, ManTech International Corporation
Kermit Skeie -
Noel Tracy, Universal Technology Corporation
A special thank you goes to the following corporate reviewers who helped with this publication:
Joseph Brown, VSE Corporation, BAVDivision
Bruce Dewey, Maryland Q.C. Laboratories, Inc.
Jerry Fulin, Tennessee Gas Pipeline
Lawrence Goldberg, Sea Test Services
Jim Houf, The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
Scott Huddleston, Huddleston Technical Services
Stephen Lakata, Norfolk Southern Corporation
Don Locke, Karta Technologies, Inc.
Joseph E. Monroe, Eastern NDT

David R. Quattlebaum, Quattlebaum Consultants
Tim Randle, X-R-I Testing
Frank Sattler, Sattler Consultants, Inc.
Stephen Senne, Senne Technical Services
Ron VanArsdale, Inspection Training and Consulting
Albert M. Wenzig, Jr., Industrial Testing Laboratory Services, LLC
The Publications Review Committee includes:
Chair, Sam J. Volk, North Atlantic Energy Services Company
Sharon I. Vukelich, University of Dayton Research Institute
B. Boro Djordjevic, Johns Hopkins University
Ann E. Spence
Educational Materials Editor
Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book
iii
Foreword
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (ASNT) has prepared this series of Personnel
Training Publications to present the major areas in each nondestructive testing method. Each classroom
training book in the series is organized to follow the Recommended Training Course Outlines found in
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-IA. The Level I and Level II candidates should use this classroom
training book as a preparation tool for nondestructive testing certification. An ASNT NDT Level I or
Level II may be expected to know additional information based on industry or employer requirements.,
iv Personnel Training Publications
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments 111
Foreword iv
Table of Contents v
Level I Magnetic Particle Testing 1
Chapter 1 - Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing 3
Capabilities of Magnetic Particle Testing 3
Personnel Qualifications .4
Magnets and Magnetic Fields 5
Magnetic Fields 5
Lawof Magnetism 6
Materials Influenced by Magnetic Fields 6
Characteristics of Magnetic Fields 7
Chapter 2 - Effects of Discontinuities on Materials 9
SurfaceDiscontinuities 9
Scratches 10
SubsurfaceDiscontinuities 10
Chapter 3 - Magnetization 11
Circular Fields 11
Contact Plates 14
Prods 14
Discontinuity Detection IS
Longitudinal Field 15
Field Direction IS
Magnetization Methods 16
Test Materials 16
Wet Particles 16
Dry Particles 16
Multidirectional Magnetization 17
Retentivity and Coercive Force 17
Longitudinal Magnetization 17
Longitudinal Fields 17
Field Direction 18
Field Strength 18
Discontinuities Discovered by Longitudinal Fields 19
Chapter 4 - Principles of Demagnetization 21
Alternating Current Demagnetization 21
Direct Current Demagnetization 22
Efficiencyof Demagnetization 22
Chapter 5 - Equipment 25
Equipment Selection 25
Purpose of Test 25
Area Tested 25
Mobile Equipment 26
Particles Used 26
Stationary Testing Equipment 27
Chapter 6 - Discontinuities 29
Inherent Discontinuities 29
Processing Discontinuities 29
Inservice Discontinuities .30
Summary 30
Level II Magnetic Particle Testing 31
Chapter 7 - Principles 33
Theories .............................................•........ 33
Techniques 34
Magnetic Field Theory 34
Magnetic Domains 34
Magnetic Poles 35
Magnetic Fields 36
Magnetized Ring 36
Effect of Cracks in a Magnetized Ring 36
Bar Magnet 37
Effect of Cracks in a Magnetized Bar 37
Effect of Materials on Electromagnetic Fields 37
Units of Measure for Magnetic Flux 38
Magnetic Hysteresis 39
Magnetic Permeability .41
Chapter 8 - Flux Fields .43
Electric Current .43
Alternating Current .43
Direct Current 44
Half Wave Direct Current .45
Full Wave Direct Current .46
Three Phase Full Wave Direct Current .47
Chapter 9 - Magnetic Particles and Methods of Application ; . .49
Introduction 49
Current Level and Particle Application 50
Continuous Method 51
Wet Continuous Method 52
Residual Method 53
Field Direction .............................•.................. 56
Magnetic Field Measurements 56
vi
Circular Magnetization 58
Direct Contact 59
Central Conductor 59
Amperage Requirements 60
Sensitivity Level 61
Amperage 61
Testing Media 61
Direct Contact 62
Central Conductor 63
Coil Shot 64
Cable Wrap 64
Chapter 10 - Magnetization by Means of Electric Current 67
Circular Magnetization 67
Circular Magnetization of Solid Test Objects ; .. 68
Circular Magnetization with Prods 68
Circular Magnetization with Direct Contact 68
Circular Magnetization with Induced Current ; 69

Circular Magnetization of Hollow Test Objects 70
Longitudinal Magnetization 70
Coil Magnetization 71
Important Considerations in Coil Magnetization 71
Field Flow Magnetization 72
Yoke Magnetization 73
Combined Circular and Longitudinal Magnetization 73
Units of Measure and Terminology 73
Types of Magnetic Materials .74
Diamagnetic Materials 74
Paramagnetic Materials 74
Ferromagnetic Materials 74
Calculation of Magnetic Force Requirements ; 75
Prods ; 75
Yokes 75
Coil 75
Air Core Coil Longitudinal Magnetization 76
Fill Factor Coils 76
Interpretation of Indications 78
Relevant Indications 78
Nonrelevant Indications 78
False Indications ; 78
Chapter 11 - Demagnetization 79
Purpose 79
Principles of Operation for Demagnetization 79

Requirements to Demagnetize 80
Reasons to Demagnetize 80
Justification for Demagnetizing 81
Reasons Not to Demagnetize 81
Magnetic Particle TestingClassroom Training Book
vii
Demagnetization Methods ~.. 82
Heating Above Curie Point 82
Electromagnetic Demagnetization 82
Alternating Current Demagnetization 83
Direct Current Demagnetization 84
Yoke Demagnetization 85
Demagnetization Practices 85
Chapter 12 - Equipment 87
Stationary Equipment 87
Mechanized Equipment 87
Semiautomatic Equipment 87
Single Purpose Semiautomatic Equipment 87
Fully Automatic Equipment 87
Portable Equipment 88
YokeBreak or Lift Test 89
Weld Bead Crack Reference Standards 89
Reference Standards for Weld Cracking 90
Effect of Coating Thickness on Test Results 90
Concurrent Leakage 91
Wet Magnetic Particles for YokeMagnetization 91
Dry Powder Test Equipment 92
Powder Selection 92
Powder Applications 93
Applicators 93
Wet Visible Test Equipment 94
Particle Selection 94
Black Powder Concentrate 94
Red Powder Concentrate 94
Suspension Characteristics 95
Particles 95
Media 95
Wet Fluorescent Method 9E
Test Variables 9E
Surface Preparation 9~
Suspension Application 9~
Water Problems 95
Suspension Preparation 9~
Dry Powder Liquid Concentrate 10(
Paste Concentrate 10(
Water Baths 10(
Water Bath Safety 10:
Water Bath Concentration 10'
Fluorescent Background Check 10
Oil Based Media Contamination Check 10:

Settling Test ................................................10,
viii Personnel Training Publications
Fluorescent Test Materials 104
Maintenance 105
Surface Preparation 106
Test Variables 106
Ultraviolet Radiation 106
Generation of Ultraviolet Radiation 106
Ultraviolet Lamp Fixtures 107
Sources 107
Carbon Arc Systems 107
Low Pressure Fluorescent Bulbs 107
High Pressure Bulbs 108
Chapter 13 - Types of Discontinuities 109
Inherent Discontinuities 109
Cold Shut 110
Pipe 110
Hot Tears 111
Blowholes and Porosity 111
Nonmetallic Inclusions 111
Segregation 112
Primary Processing Discontinuities 113
Seams 113
Laminations 114
Stringers 114
Cupping 114
Cooling Cracks 115
Forged and Rolled Laps 115
Internal and External Bursts 115
Hydrogen Flakes 116
Welding Discontinuities 116
Cold Cracking 117
Hot Cracking 118
Lamellar Tearing 120
Lack of Fusion 120
Lack of Penetration 121
Porosity 122
Inclusions 122
Undercut 123
Overlap 124
Secondary Processing Discontinuities 124
Cracks 124
Heat Treating and Quench Cracks 125
Pickling Cracks 126
Machining Tears 126
Plating Cracks 127
Inservice Discontinuities 127
Fatigue Cracking 128
Fatigue Crack Structure 128

ix
Creep Cracking 129
Stress Corrosion Cracking 131
Hydrogen Cracking 132
Chapter 14 - Evaluation Techniques 135
Reference Standards 135
Empirical Rules for Using Reference Standards 135
System Evaluation 136
System Standardization 136
Parametric Evaluations 137
Technique Development 137
Reference Standards for System Evaluation 138
Standard Tool Steel Ring 138
Using the Ring Standard 139
Ring Standard Magnetic Fields 139
Limitations of the Ring Standard 139
Reference Standard Test Blocks 139
Split Prism Test Block 139
Magnetized Test Blocks 140
Prism Block Standards 140
Block Standard Measurements 141
Electronic Reference Standards 142
Hall Effect Meters .142
Eddy Current Devices 142
Conclusion 143
Chapter 15 - Quality Control 145
New Materials 145
In Use Materials 145
Material Contamination 146
Evaporation Losses 146
Heat Degradation 147
Process Degradation 147
Material Control Requirements 147
Use of the Settling Test 148
Ultraviolet Radiation and Facilities 148
Ultraviolet Radiation Intensity Requirements 149
Ambient Light Measurements 150
Variables 150
Line Voltage Variations 150
Service and Aging Variations 151
Ultraviolet Lamp Hazards 151
Proper Procedures 152
Variation in Technique 152
Selection of Current 153
Current Application Choices 153
Selection of Media 154
Selection of Technique 154
x Personnel Training Publications
Field Orientation 154
Head Shot 155

Central Conductor ; 155
Longitudinal Field 155
Sensitivity Requirements 155
Conclusion 156
Glossary 157
Bibliography and Figure Sources 164
Index 167
xi
Chapter 1
Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing
Magnetic particle testing can detect both production
discontinuities, such as seams, laps, grinding cracks and quenching
cracks, and inservice damage, such as fatigue and overload cracks.
Next to visual testing, it is one of the most cost effective methods of
nondestructive testing. Its major difficulty is that the test object must
be magnetizable. Magnetic particle technology depends on the
property of magnetism occurring in certain elements referred to as
ferromagnetic materials.
Magnetic particle testing is a relatively simple test method that
can be applied to finished articles, billets, hot rolled bars, castings
and forgings. It can also be used to confirm that the processing
operations, such as heat treatment, machining and grinding, did not
cause discontinuities. There are many differing modes of electrical
current that are used in magnetic particle testing.

Magnetic particle testing consists of magnetization of the test
object, followed by the application of the particles and interpretation
of the patterns formed by the particles as they are attracted by
magnetic leakage fields. These patterns of magnetic particles are
compared to codes or known standards to determine test object
acceptability.
The purpose of this classroom training book is to provide the
fundamental knowledge of magnetic particle testing required by
quality assurance and nondestructive testing personnel. This
knowledge will enable them to ascertain that the proper test
technique is used to ensure the quality of the finished product, to
interpret, evaluate and make a sound decision as to the results of the
test and to recognize those areas exhibiting doubtful test results that
require either retesting or assistance in interpretation and evaluation.
CAPABILITIES OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
Magnetic particle testing can reveal surface discontinuities,
including those too small or too tight to be seen with the unaided
eye. Magnetic particle indications form on an object's surface in the
area of a discontinuity and show the location and approximate size
of the discontinuity. Magnetic particle tests can also reveal
discontinuities that are slightly below the surface.
There are limits to this ability to locate subsurface
discontinuities. These are determined by the discontinuity's depth,
size, type and shape; the strength of the applied field; and the type of
3
current used. In some cases, special techniques or equipment can
improve the test's ability to detect subsurface discontinuities.
Magnetic particle testing cannot be used on nonmagnetic
materials, including glass, ceramics, plastics or such common metals
as aluminum, magnesium, copper and austenitic stainless steel
alloys. In addition, there are certain positional limitations: a
magnetic field is directional, and for best results must be oriented
perpendicular to the discontinuity. This generally requires two
complete magnetizing operations to detect discontinuities parallel
and perpendicular to the test object's axis. Objects with large cross
sections require a very high current to generate a magnetic field
adequate for magnetic particle tests. A final limitation is that a
demagnetization procedure is usually required following the
magnetic particle process.
Personnel Qualifications
Personnel performing nondestructive testing should, at a
minimum, be qualified in accordance with Recommended Practice
No. SNT-TC-IA. Only personnel qualified for Level I nondestructive
testing, and working under the direct supervision of a Level II or
Level III nondestructive testing technician (or personnel qualified to
Level II or Level III), may perform nondestructive tests. The
Level I, Level II or Level III magnetic particle testing technician
should be qualified through specific and practical examinations
based on the requirements of the applicable code. The technician
should have successfully demonstrated the ability to accurately

detect and evaluate discontinuities in accordance with the applicable
code. Qualified personnel are required by many jurisdictions, codes,
standards and specifications to be certified by an organized
corporate, national or international agency.
This text provides an overview of the magnetic particle testing
process and is introductory to the detailed treatments in subsequent
sections. Topics covered here include the following.
1. The fundamental theory of magnetism, magnetic flux and
types of magnetic fields.
2. Principles of electrically induced magnetism and magnetizing
current.
3. Testing media, equipment and processes.
4. Process controls.
5. The basic principles and methods of demagnetization.
6. Reporting of magnetic particle tests.
Such data can be helpful to managers, supervisors and personnel
outside of nondestructive testing who require general information on
the magnetic particle testing process. It may also be helpful for
introductory studies by individuals already using magnetic particle
testing, or those preparing for advanced training in the technique.
MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
The theory of magnetic fields indicates that an object is

magnetized when part or all of its atomic elements have their north
and south poles aligned. Earth's magnetic field is produced by the
rotation and movement of the planet's molten iron core. This
produces a magnetic field that is relatively stable in direction.
Because of this stable magnetic field, early explorers could reliably
use compasses built with lodestone, charged iron needles and other
naturally magnetic materials. The Earth itself can be considered a
bar magnet because of its two poles. Quite frequently, the magnetic
field surrounding the Earth strongly magnetizes large ferromagnetic
objects that lie aligned with the Earth's poles for periods of time.
The directions of the Earth's magnetic field may be changed by
major geologic events over many thousands of years. There are
many local magnetic anomalies having higher levels of magnetic
attraction near the Earth's surface. It is thought that these may be
caused by iron or nickel deposits.
Magnetic Fields
A magnetic field exists within and around a permanent magnet or
within and around a conductor carrying an electric current. The
magnetic field surrounding a permanent bar magnet has polarity, but
the magnetic field surrounding a conductor does not. Some types of
magnetic fields may be contained entirely within a ferromagnetic
object. A magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet is seen in
Figure 1.1.
The theory of magnetism and magnetic particle testing is based
on a material property that has its atomic domains oriented. This

material is called a magnet and will attract iron, nickel and cobalt, as
well as many alloys. Magnets may be permanent (retaining their
magnetism more or less permanently) or temporary (retaining their
magnetism only as long as a magnetizing force is being applied).
The ability of the magnet to attract or repel iron is not uniform over
its surface, but is concentrated at local areas called poles. Each
magnet has at least two opposite poles, much like the Earth's
magnetic poles; hence, the poles are respectively called the north
and south poles. The attraction and repulsion of poles are illustrated
in Figure 1.2.
Because magnetization of certain metals is possible, small
particles that are attracted to magnetic fields are applied to the
surface of the test object after or during induction of a magnetic
field, thereby allowing the detection of certain specific
discontinuities that are present in the material. Magnetic particle
testing is capable of revealing discontinuities (imperfections that
interfere with the usefulness of an article or exceeds acceptability
limits established by applicable specifications) economically; it is
one of the most widely used nondestructive test methods. However,
this test method is limited to disclosing only those discontinuities
Figure 1.1: Magnetic field surrounding a
bar magnet.
Figure 1.2: Magnetic attraction and

repulsion.
that are at, or very near, the surface and only in magnetizable
materials.
sl_ _IS
sl
Magnetic poles may be formed in ferromagnetic material by
several means, including contact with other magnetic materials,
passage of suitable electrical currents through the test object and
certain types of vibrations or even single impacts. All of these forces
act to align atomically small zones called domains in one direction.
This direction is arbitrarily termed north to south.
6 Personnel Training Publications
LAW OF MAGNETISM
When an external magnetic field is applied to ferromagnetic
materials, the magnetic domains align parallel to the applied fields.
These domains are very small, but larger than the atoms of the
material. It is the interchange action between atoms and the
alignment of the magnetic domains that are the cause of increased
flux density. As the magnetizing force increases, the aligned
domains increase in volumetric steps. This incremental increase is
detectable, and is often referred to as the barkhausen effect. When
all the domains in a material are aligned, the material is said to be
magnetically saturated.
Materials Influenced by Magnetic Fields
Some materials are attracted by magnets, whereas others are

repelled.
1. Paramagnetic: weakly attracted magnetic materials not
normally tested by magnetic particle testing.
2. Ferromagnetic: materials having high magnetic permeability,
such as nickel, iron, cobalt and many transuranic isotopes
like gadolinium.
3. Diamagnetic: materials that are weakly repelled by a
magnetic field. This kind of magnetism is often used to locate
buried and hidden conductors.
Repel
- ..
Attract
IN
sl
4. Nonferromagnetic: nonmagnetic materials. This classification
of materials includes materials that are not strongly attracted
or repelled to a magnetic field. This encompasses the majority
of metals and other nonmetallic materials, and is caused by
their low degree of magnetic permeability. Because of the
inability to react to a magnetic field, inspection using the
magnetic particle test method cannot be performed on these
materials and is such limited only to ferromagnetic materials.
Nonferromagnetic materials, if nonporous, may be inspected
using alternative test methods such as liquid penetrant testing.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

The magnetic field surrounding a permanent bar magnet has
polarity. As an example, the Earth itself can be considered a bar
magnet because of its two poles. Quite frequently, the magnetic field
surrounding the Earth strongly magnetizes large ferromagnetic
objects that lie aligned with the Earth's poles for periods of time.
Magnetic poles in a straight bar, horseshoe and broken magnet are
shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: Poles in a straight bar, horseshoe and broken
magnet.
Magnetic poles will lift or
draw a nail to the magnet.
Magnetic field is
entirely within,
thus no external
poles.
Magnetic poles of
leakage field will
attract magnetic
The bar magnet is useful for visualizing the concept of lines of
force describing a magnetic field. As illustrated in Figure 1.1, a bar
magnet is covered with a sheet of paper, and iron filings are
scattered over the paper. The iron filings arrange themselves in
characteristic patterns called lines offorce. These lines of force,
called magnetic flux, never cross. They seek the path of least
magnetic resistance, they are most densely packed at the poles of the
magnet, they flow from north to south poles outside the magnet, but
from south to north poles within the magnet and they do not enter or
leave at the center of the magnetic field.
particles.
If a bar magnet is bent, fusing the north and south poles, the
magnetic field would not escape the now circular form of the
magnet. The magnetic domains form a closed magnetic loop or
circuit, and the test object appears to be unmagnetized. The test
object may support magnetization in directions other than
circumferentially around the ring. The ring magnet may have a long
direction perpendicular to the direction of the enclosed circular
magnetic field and may be called a tube. This type of circular field
can be set up in platings or coatings of ferromagnetic materials
around a hollow or solid shaft of a nonmagnetic material. The shape
of the magnet does not necessarily dictate where the poles are
located. This is determined by a combination of the shape and the
direction of the applied field.
Chapter 2
Effects of Discontinuities on Materials
SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES
The magnetic field surrounding subsurface discontinuities drops

off very rapidly with distance below the surface. Magnetic particle
movement is critical to the collection of contrastingly colored or
fluorescent particles at a discontinuity site. Thus, it is desirable to
have fluctuating magnetic fields on the surface of the test object.
Certain metallurgical discontinuities produce much higher
collections of magnetic particles than other kinds of discontinuities
of the same size.
The important condition of surface cracks includes metal grain
to-grain tearing induced by surface tensile forces that produce the
highest amount of magnetic field disruption for a given size of
discontinuity. A leakage field at an air gap in a longitudinally
magnetized test object is shown in Figure 2.1. This disruption is
produced by the alignment of magnetic domains in the stretched
metal crack site. For this reason, cracks in the formation state are
highly detectable and normally produce sharp, well defined
indications. Open cracks that have been subject to large thermal,
chemical or mechanical forces may have had their magnetic field
disruption characteristics greatly or entirely reduced and may not be
detectable using magnetic particle testing.
For high detectability of forming surface cracks, magnetic
particle testing uses induced alternating field magnetization
techniques as the primary method to test ferromagnetic objects
inservice. Using wet alternating current fluorescent techniques will
generally produce the highest sensitivity obtainable with this
technology.
Figure 2.1: Leakage field at an air gap in a longitudinally
magnetized test object.
Leakage field ........--- Test object"
7~ "
.. ~
FIUXlines~
SCRATCHES
Scratches, unlike cracks, exhibit metal grain plastic tearing that
lowers the ability of this discontinuity to repeatably attract magnetic
particles in a uniform manner for a given scratch size. Very deep
scratches should be evaluated by their visual characteristics rather
than their relative magnetic particle indication sizing.
SUBSURFACE DISCONTINUITIES
A typical subsurface discontinuity is shown in Figure 22. The
size, orientation and composition of subsurface discontinuities affect
evaluation capabilities other than general locating of the
discontinuity. In general, the magnetic image is very broad and
fuzzy. Additionally, changes in test object thickness and holes from
the opposite side may be misleading. The use of alternate testing
technologies after demagnetization and retesting may be required to
confirm the magnetic particle indication.
Figure 2.2: Magnetic particles attracted by a leakage field from
a subsurface discontinuity.
Particle buildup at leakage field ~
1_F1UXl~es~
Chapter 3
Magnetization
CIRCULAR FIELDS
A circular magnetic field is induced into a test object either by
passing magnetizing current directly through the test object (direct
magnetization), or by passing current through a conductor
surrounded by the test object (indirect magnetization). In direct
magnetization, the magnetic field will be uniform throughout the
length of the test object if the test object is uniform in all respects.
Direct induction of a circular field is accomplished by passing a
short pulse of current through the test object, as shown in
Figure 3.1a. The test object is placed between two heads on a bench
unit. This is called a head shot.
Another direct method of inducing a circular field is by the use of
prods, shown in Figure 3.1b. Prod magnetization is used where the
size or location of the test object does not permit the use of a head
shot or central conductor. Current flow and field distribution are also
shown in Figure 3.l. The field between the prods is somewhat
distorted by the interaction of the two fields. Prod magnetization is
most effective when the prods are spaced 15 to 20 em (6 to 8 in.)
apart.
Figure 3.1: Circular magnetization by direct and indirect
current induction: (a) head shot; (b) prods; and (c) central
conductor.
(a) Circularfield
~\
(b)
/h.~J~
II""" ...-
~ ~/'i/\ "--5;(
Direct magnetization Fieldv~ Field
Direct magnetization
(c)
Thereis disagreementbetweencommonpracticeandelectricaltheory
regardingcurrentpolarity.Therefore,the currentpolarityis not shown.
11
With indirect induction of a circular field, the object to be
magnetized is placed so that a current carrying conductor induces a
magnetic field into the test object. This method is called the central
conductor method, and is illustrated in Figure 3.1c. The use of a
central conductor also eliminates the possibility of a test object
being burned by the flow of excess current or if poor contact is
made with the heads.
Circular magnetic fields induced directly by the passage of
alternating current can produce very high surface sensitivities caused
by the so-called skin effect, where the current is transmitted on the
surface of the test object.
When current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is

formed in and around the conductor. If the conductor has a uniform
shape (a copper rod), the density of the external field is uniform at
the same radial point along the length of the conductor. At any point
on the conductor, the magnetic field is strongest at the surface of the
conductor and decreases as the distance from the conductor
increases. Direction of the magnetic field (lines of force) is at a 90
degree angle to that of the current in the conductor.
The right hand rule, shown in Figure 3.2, is an easy method for
determining the direction of an electrically induced magnetic field.
Imagine grasping the conductor in the right hand with the thumb
pointing in the direction of current flow. The fingers will then point
in the direction of the lines of force.
Figure 3.2: Right hand rule.
v'
/G
Direction of the
magneticfield.
Note that the current flow in the conductor creates circular lines
of force (a circular magnetic field). The field is at right angles to the
conductor, as shown. Not shown is the fact that the field actually
surrounds the entire length of the conductor.
Passing current through the test object will form magnetic fields
that are influenced by this method of magnetization. Where current
flows through the test object, magnetization is said to be circular.
With no discontinuities in the test object, this type of magnetization

is difficult to detect. However, the use of alternating currents and
wet fluorescent particles makes this one of the most sensitive of the
applications of magnetic particle technology.
The alternating current is concentrated on the exterior surfaces of
the test object. Designing the magnetic particle test sequence to have
12
Direction
of current
the direct current or half wave direct current test completed before
the alternating current test will increase the probability of detection
of both surface and subsurface discontinuities. For alternating or
pulsed currents, there is a tendency for the current to flow near the
surface rather than penetrating deeply into the test object. As the
magnetization current frequency increases, the depth of penetration
decreases. This is called the skin effect.
If the alternating current level is greater than the direct current,
the test object can be effectively demagnetized by reducing the
alternating current to zero at the end of the observation stage of the
test cycle.
The magnetic field in long, solid and hollow cylinders peaks at
the outside diameter surface for both magnetic and nonmagnetic test
objects. From there, the magnetic field obeys the inverse square law
and decreases by the inverse square of the distance away from the
surface. Field distributions in and around solid and hollow magnetic

conductors are shown in Figures 3.3 and 3.4.
Irregularly shaped test objects may have their magnetization
currents tested using direct field indicators to determine optimum
testing conditions. The magnetic field density varies with the shape
of the test object. For test objects of regular but changing diameters,
different current levels may be required to produce an effective
magnetic field. Two or more levels of current are needed to test
objects shaped like these. Automotive crankshafts are examples
where multiple current levels are needed.
Figure 3.3: Field distribution in and
around a solid magnetic conductor
carrying alternating current.
~Peak flux density at
bar surface
Direct current flux
distribution inside solid bar
Alternating current flux
distribution inside solid bar
Steel bar
where:
R= radius
r = distance
B = field strength
Figure 3.4: Field distribution in and

around a hollow magnetic conductor
carrying alternating current.
~ Peak:flux density at
bar surface
Direct current flux
distribution inside hollow bar
Alternating current flux
distribution inside hollow bar
G-----Steel bar
O~~--~--~---L--~--~_'I
~ Distance from center of bar = r
where:
R= radius
r = distance
B = field strength
13
Tubular objects may be tested using a central conductor. An
alternate method is to wrap a coil through a long test object and
rotate the test object. Note that several setups may be required for an
effective test.
Test objects containing machined holes or slots may be tested in
many ways. Gears and other machined objects often have holes,
keyways or gear teeth that can effectively be tested by magnetic

particle means. Several set ups may be required that include
different current types, strengths and directions, as well as test object
rotations.
Deep holes and sharp gear teeth may be tested by using magnetic
particles suspended in a self curing rubber, a so-called magnetic
rubber. Here, the test object's residual field must be high or the
current must be applied during the total cure time of the rubber.
When the rubber is carefully peeled away, the magnetic pattern may
be observed frozen in the rubber. The use of fluorescent magnetic
particles enhances this method.
Contact Plates
Contact plates are copper plates that come in contact with the test
object or central conductor. They are primarily used in wet bath
techniques. Contact plates are found in specialized magnetic particle
equipment called wet horizontal bench machines, as shown in
Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5: Typical horizontal magnetic particle bench testing
units.
Prods
Prods are a specialized form of small contact plates, as shown in
Figure 3.6. They are often used to test welds. Prods are firmly
pressed against the surface to be magnetized. As current flows
through that surface, a circular magnetic field is set up around the
prods. Often, wet horizontal bench machines are equipped with
prods for irregular shaped test objects. Small alternating current

1000 to 2000 A portable magnetic particle machines are the most
common type of prod testing equipment.
frlgure 3.6: Use of prods.
Magnetic
field-~:--·
Magnetic
field-'~--
l -..J
Discontinuity Detection
Discontinuities commonly discovered by circular fields are
generally surface breaking irregularities, with cracks having the
highest probability of detection for all current modes. Near surface
cracks and cracks under coating and galvanization are commonly
detected if the coating is not too thick.
Longitudinal Field
Typically, longitudinal fields are induced in the test object by
coils. Multiple shapes can be easily accommodated. The magnetic
field is produced by current flow in a coil, which is a long,
nonmagnetic conductor wrapped around the test object. The
magnetic test field is greatest at the surface of each line of the coil.
Thus, the test object should be placed near the inside surface of the
wrapped coil. Coil techniques are easily adaptable to a variety of test

object shapes and sizes.
Field Direction
The field in a current carrying coil is the force needed to
successfully magnetize a test object within the coil. It may require
several wraps of the coil or solenoid to build up enough magnetic
flux density for testing.
Field direction produced by a magnetic yoke is between the legs
and is therefore referred to as a longitudinal field in relation to the
yoke. The yoke may be used to magnetize a test object
longitudinally or transversely by changing the orientation of the
legs. A yoke is a temporary horseshoe magnet made of soft, low
retentivity iron that is magnetized by a small coil wound around its
horizontal bar. When the energized yoke is placed on a test object,
the flux flowing from the yoke's north pole through the test object to
the yoke's south pole induces a local field in the test object.
However, the magnetic field produced by the yoke does not lie
entirely within the test object. An external field is present that is a
15
deterrent to locating subsurface discontinuities. If magnetic particles
are applied sparingly at the area between the poles, indications of
surface discontinuities can be detected.
Discontinuities commonly discovered by longitudinal fields
include transverse discontinuities. Transverse discontinuities are
discontinuities oriented perpendicular to the major axis of the test

object. Both alternating current and direct current techniques may be
used, depending on test object shape.
MAGNETIZATION METHODS
The following characteristics affect key test parameters, including
required magnetizing current, current on time, when to apply
particles and demagnetization requirements.
1. Alloy, shape and magnetic condition of test object.
2. Type of magnetizing current.
3. Direction of magnetic field.
4. Sequence of operations.
5. Value of flux density.
Wet Particles
TEST MATERIALS
Particle size distributions for both wet and dry tests.are important
considerations. For wet tests using true residual techniques, smaller
particles may accumulate faster producing an observable indication.
For wet tests, larger rounded particles may produce an observable
indication faster under continuous magnetization techniques. Colors
and backgrounds should be selected to provide optimum contrast
when viewed by the technician. Wet particles, including oil based
visiblelfluorescent and water based visible/fluorescent, fit various
testing requirements and environments.
Dry Particles
For dry tests, very fine particles that move slowly in the air may
produce better visible build up for vertical and overhead conditions

using yoke magnetization. Fordry magnetic particle testing, the use
of larger and heavier particles with a definite drop may produce
better build up for flat and horizontal prod and yoke techniques.
16
MULTIDIRECTIONAL MAGNETIZATION
Multidirectional magnetization uses several contact points and
relay switches to produce constantly varying magnetic fields.
Typical uses of multidirectional magnetization are large castings,
high volume small test objects with automatic detectors and critical
test objects such as aircraft landing gear.
Retentivity and Coercive Force
The retentivity of a particular magnetic material is its property to
retain, to a greater or lesser degree, a certain amount of magnetism
after the magnetic force is removed. Coercive force is defined as the
reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove the residual
magnetism to demagnetize a test object.
LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION
Longitudinal Fields
The field in and around a coil is shown in Figure 3.7.
Longitudinal fields are typically induced in the test object by current
flow in a coil. A coil is a long, nonmagnetic conductor wrapped
around the test object. The magnetic field is greatest at the surface of
each line of the coil. Thus, the test object should be placed near the
inner diameter of the wrapped coil.

Figure 3.7: Longitudinal magnetic field in and around a coil.
There is disagreement between common practice and electrical theory
regarding current polarity. Therefore, the current polarity is not shown.
Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 17
Field Direction
In a direct current coil, the magnetic field direction is from the
electron emitter or negative source to the positive or electron
collector, as shown in Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8: Field produced by using a central conductor.
Head
There is disagreement between common practice and electrical theory
regarding current polarity. Therefore, the current polarity is not shown.
Field Strength
The force to successfully magnetize a test object in a coil may
require several wraps of the coil to build up enough magnetic flux
density for proper testing.
A yoke may be used to magnetize a test object longitudinally. A
yoke is a temporary horseshoe magnet made of soft, low retentivity
iron that is magnetized by a small coil wound around its horizontal
bar. When the energized yoke is placed on a test object, the flux
flowing from the yoke's north pole through the test object to the
south pole induces a local longitudinal field in the test object.
However, the magnetic field produced by the yoke does not lie
entirely within the test object. An external field is present, which is a

deterrent to locating subsurface discontinuities. If magnetic particles
are applied sparingly at the area between the poles, indications of
surface discontinuities are produced.
18
Discontinuities Discovered by Longitudinal Fields
Longitudinal magnetism typically finds transverse discontinuities.
Both alternating and direct current techniques may be used,
depending on test object shape.
19
Chapter 4
Principles of Demagnetization
Ferrous materials usually retain some residual magnetism after
the magnetizing current is shut off. The strength of the residual field
depends on the permeability and retentivity of the material and the
strength and direction of the magnetizing force. Complete
demagnetization is difficult, if not impossible, to obtain. Thus, the
demagnetization process is limited to reducing the residual field to
an acceptable level. The basis for all demagnetization methods is the
subjecting of the magnetized test object to the influence of a
continuously reversing magnetic field that gradually reduces in
strength, causing a corresponding reversal and reduction of the field
in the test object.
Residual magnetism must be overcome by a slightly greater

magnetic force. Residual magnetism is the amount of magnetism
that a magnetic material retains after the magnetizing force is
removed. Longitudinal and circular residual fields may exist
simultaneously and may permit testing for discontinuities in several
directions during one test. Acceptable residual magnetism levels are
generally stated in the work instructions or procedures applicable to
the object being tested.
Reasons for requiring demagnetization are reduction in wear, or
welding arc problems during later operations.
ALTERNATING CURRENT DEMAGNETIZATION
The most convenient methodof demagnetization uses a specially
built demagnetization coil. When such a coil is energized by passing
the current through its windings, it induces a magnetic field in the
test object placed in the coil. Because current direction reverses
itself, the polarity of the induced magnetic field also reverses with
each reversal of the current. As the test object is withdrawn from the
coil, the magnetic field becomes weaker the further the test object is
withdrawn from the coil.
Demagnetization is accomplished only if the test object is
removed from the influence of the demagnetizing coil when the
current is flowing. If the current is stopped when the test object is
still in the influence of the magnetic field, the test object may still
retain some magnetism.
21
DIRECT CURRENT DEMAGNETIZATION

Because the magnetic field produced by alternating current does
not penetrate very deeply below the surface of the material, some
test objects may be difficult to demagnetize completely. This is
particularly true with large, heavy or unusually shaped test objects.
Direct current can be used to demagnetize if provisions are made for
controlling the amount of current and for reversing the direction of
the current. Direct current demagnetization is usually more complete
and effective than alternating current demagnetization. Some
magnetic particle testing equipment is provided with capability for
direct current demagnetization. Direct current demagnetization is
preferably done on individual test objects rather than on groups of
test objects.
To demagnetize with direct current, the test object is placed in a
coil connected to a source of direct current. The current is adjusted
to a value at least as great (but usually greater) than that initially
used to magnetize the test object. A magnetizing shot is given at this
initial value. The direction of the current is then reversed, the current
value reduced and a magnetizing shot is given at the new value. This
process of reversing and reducing the current is continued until the
lowest value is reached.
For best results in demagnetization, the diameter of the
demagnetization coil should be just large enough to accommodate
the test object. If demagnetization of a small test object is performed
in a large coil, the test object should be placed close to the inside
wall or corner of the coil, because the demagnetization force is

strongest closer to the coil.
Efficiency of Demagnetization
For practical purposes, it is always correct to use a field indicator
after performing demagnetization to determine that the residual field
strength has been reduced to a desired level. The field indicator,
shown in Figure 4.1, is a pocket sized device that measures the
strength of a field against a set of small, enclosed permanent
magnets that restricts the needle movement on a relative scale.
Whether to demagnetize a test object or not depends on a number
of factors. Demagnetization is usually required if the following
conditions apply.
1. A strong residual field might interfere with subsequent
operations, such as welding or machining. Strong fields can
flow the weld metal as it is deposited, or magnetic chips may
cling to the cutting tool and interfere with machining.
2. The test object is a moving part in an assembly and a deposit
of accumulated magnetized particles might cause wear.
3. Leakage fields might interfere with nearby instruments that
work on magnetic principles; for example, compasses or
indicators of various types.
22
Figure 4.1: Diagram of a typical magnetic field indicator.
..
I
IIiII
===~..k;'F=!==:' :3 I E=:=:'~t=LJ=== Sideview
. N is!
I. .
s l i IN
4. Residual fields might interfere with proper cleaning of the
test object.
S. The test object is to be magnetized at a lower magnetizing
force in a different direction than the original or previous test.
6. Demagnetization is specified by procedural standards.
Demagnetization is usually not required or necessary if the
following conditions apply.
1. If the test object is made of low carbon steel or iron where
retentivity is low.
2. If the test object is to be heat treated above its curie point
after the magnetic particle test.
3. If the test object is to be magnetized again in another
direction at the same or higher amperage.
Batch demagnetization is the demagnetization of many small test
objects simultaneously. Batch demagnetization of small test objects
may be accomplished using the following methods.
1. Thermally treating the test objects above its curie point.
2. Vibratory treatment, if applicable.
Chapter 5
Equipment
----------------------------------------
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
Magnetic particle testing equipment range from heavy, complex
automated handling systems weighing several tons to small,
lightweight portable units. The following are requirements to be
considered when selecting equipment for magnetic particle testing.
1. Wet or dry method.
2. Magnetization method (alternating current, direct current or
both; coil or induced; yoke; or permanent magnet).
3. Degree of automation.
4. Incorporated or separate demagnetization capability.
5. Amperage required.
6. Tank capacity for wet horizontal equipment.
7. Air and water supply requirements.
8. Line voltage requirements.
9. Accessories required.
10. Indication detection and recording.
11. Technician requirements.
12. Mobile or stationary equipment.
Purpose of Test
Objects are typically tested to a specification. The certified
Level III magnetic particle testing technician should be consulted
and an appropriate specification selected.
Area Tested
Instructions prepared or approved by a Level III technician will
define the area to be tested. Reporting should be done in accordance
with contract document or written instructions provided by the
Level III technician. Level I nondestructive testing personnel may
not accept or reject test objects. Under direction of Level II or
Level III personnel, Level I personnel may operate magnetic particle
test equipment.
25
MOBILE EQUIPMENT
A typical mobile magnetic particle testing system is shown in
Figure 5.1. Location and nature of test object, size and test methods
all are factors that determine whether or not the equipment will be
brought to the test object, the test object will be brought to the
equipment, the test will be done manually or the test will be
automated to handle many similar test objects.
Figure 5.1: Mobile magnetic particle test equipment.
value selector
Amperage
output light
Particles Used
In magnetic particle testing, the particles have the ability to be
strongly attracted to leakage fields. The particles may be in the form
of a dry powder, or they may be suspended in a liquid carrier.
Additionally, these particles have carriers, air, dry gases, water or
oils that are related to the probability of detection, the gage

repeatability and reliability value of the magnetic particle method
selected for particular types of test objects.
26
Personne~ Tra~ningPublications
Circuit breaker
selector
Ground output lug
Direct current
output lug
STATIONARY TESTING EQUIPMENT
A typical stationary horizontal wet magnetic particle testing unit
of intermediate size is shown in Figure 5.2. The unit has two contact
heads for either direct contact or central conductor circular
magnetization using a copper rod between the heads or a cable
connected to a contact block between the heads. Many such units
contain a coil used for longitudinal magnetization. The coil and one
contact head are movable on rails. The other contact head is fixed;
the contact plate on it, being air cylinder operated, provides a means
for clamping the test object. The unit has a self contained power
supply with all the necessary electrical controls.
Figure 5.2: Bench type magnetizing unit.
Magnetizing currents are usually three phase full wave direct
current or alternating current, depending on usage requirements. The
units are made in several sizes to accommodate different length test
objects and with various maximum output currents. A full length

tank with pump, agitation and circulating system for wet testing
media is located beneath the head and coil mounting rails. A hand
hose with nozzle is provided for applying the bath. On special units,
automatic bath application facilities are provided.
27
Chapter 6
Discontinuities
There are three general classes of discontinuities.
1. Inherent discontinuities, formed during the basic formation of
the test object.
2. Processing discontinuities, formed during operations like
machining or welding.
3. Inservice discontinuities, caused during use.
INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES
Inherent discontinuities are caused by the primary processing of
the test object. For ferromagnetic metals, this includes the initial
melting and refining processes and during solidification from the
molten state. These discontinuities are present before rolling, forging
and casting into the final shape. They will be found in the final
production object and are typically below the surface. These
discontinuities include the following.
1. Ingot pipe.
2. Ingot cracks.
3. Nonmetallic inclusions.
4. Blow holes.
Direct current and half wave direct current magnetization is
effective in detection of inherent discontinuities. Detailed
information on inherent discontinuities can be found in Chapter 13
on pages 109 to 113.
PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES
Additional processing of metals, such as forging, casting, rolling
and welding, can result in processing induced discontinuities that
include the following.
1. Seams.
2. Laminations.
3. Cupping.
4. Cooling cracks.
5. Forging flakes.
29
6. Forging bursts.
7. Forging laps.
8. Forging flash line tears.
9. Casting cold shuts.
10. Casting hot tears and shrinkages.
11. Weld lack of fusion and weld lack of penetration.
12. Weld heat affected zone cracks.
13. Weld crater cracks.
14. Machine grinding cracks.
15. Machine tears.

16. Plating, pickling and etching cracks.
17. Liquid metal embrittlement cracks.
18. Galvanization related weld cracks.
A combination of alternating current and half wave direct current
or indirect magnetization will prove useful in the detection of
processing discontinuities. Detailed information on processing
discontinuities can be found in Chapter 13 on pages 113 to 127.
INSERVICE DISCONTINUITIES
Inservice stresses result in cracking and corrosion discontinuities.
This can happen in a single cycle and is called single cycle fatigue
cracking. This type of cracking typically starts on or near the
surface. Alternately, an acceptable inherent internal discontinuity
may be locally overloaded and start a crack that propagates from the
interior of the test object to the exterior. These internal cracks may
propagate on a single or multiple overload cycle.
Multiple cycles of near overload conditions will lead to cracking
typically originating on the surface of objects inservice. These
cracks, if not from an inherent discontinuity, will originate on or
near the surface of the test object.
Corrosion and underbead weld cracking may generate surface
breaking stress cracks that are detectable with magnetic particle
testing techniques.
Alternating current magnetization (direct, induced or by yokes)
combined with an applicable magnetic particle is used for the
detection of inservice discontinuities. Detailed information on

inservice discontinuities can be found in Chapter 13 on pages 127 to
133.
SUMMARY
Magnetic particle testing is an enhanced form of visual testing
that is applicable to a select group of metals that are said to be
ferromagnetic. This magnetic technology enables the visual
detection of tiny surface discontinuities and even some subsurface
discontinuities. More information on discontinuities can be found in
Chapter 13.
30
Chapter 7
Principles
THEORIES
Magnetic particle testing is a nondestructive method of revealing
surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities in magnetizable
materials. It may be applied to raw materials such as billets, bars and
shapes; during processes such as forming, machining, welding, heat
treating and electroplating; and in testing for service related
discontinuities. Magnetic particle procedures cannot be used with
nonmagnetizable materials such as aluminum or copper.
Magnetic particle testing is based on the principle that magnetic
flux in a magnetized test object is locally distorted by the presence
of a discontinuity. This distortion causes some of the magnetic field
to exit and reenter the test object at the discontinuity. This

phenomenon is called magneticflux leakage. Flux leakage is capable
of attracting finely divided particles of magnetic materials that in
turn form an outline or indication of the discontinuity.
One of the objectives of magnetic particle testing is to detect
discontinuities as early as possible in the processing sequence, thus
avoiding the expenditure of effort on materials that will later be
rejected. Practically every process, from the original production of
metal from its ore to the last finishing operation, may introduce
discontinuities. Magnetic particle testing can reveal many of these,
preventing components with discontinuities from entering service.
Even though magnetic particle testing may be applied during and
between processing operations, a final test is usually performed to
ensure that all detrimental discontinuities have been detected.
The test itself consists of six basic operations.
1. Clean the test object.
2. Establish a suitable magnetic flux in the test object.
3. Apply magnetic particles in a dry powder or a liquid
suspension.
4. Examine the test object under suitable lighting conditions.
5. Interpret and evaluate the test indications.
6. Demagnetize, if necessary.
33
TECHNIQUES
Magnetic particle testing is a method of nondestructive testing
that uses very small magnetic particles to reveal discontinuities in

test objects capable of being magnetized. Magnetizable objects
include those test objects made of metals classed as ferromagnetic.
To find discontinuities in metals that are not ferromagnetic, such as
aluminum, copper and brass, other testing methods must be used.
This chapter includes a description of the various methods,
procedures and equipment used to magnetize test objects, the
electric currents and amperages used and the kinds of magnetic
particles available for either wet or dry application. Special
magnetization methods are also included.
The technique to use for a particular magnetic particle test
depends on the following factors.
1. The type of discontinuity being looked for in a test object.
2. The material, shape and size of the test object.
3. The magnetic particle testing equipment available.
This chapter also describes technique variations along with the
effect each has on the results that will be attained. The following
points must be considered and selected to achieve a particular test
result.
1. The type and amount of electric current to be used for
magnetization. If the discontinuities sought are at the. surface,
alternating current has several advantages. The rapid reversal
of the field imparts mobility to the particles, especially to the
dry powders. The dancing of the powder helps it move to the
area of leakage fields and to form stronger indications. This
effect is less pronounced in the wet method.

2. The direction of the resulting magnetic fields obtained using
these currents.
3. The kind of magnetic particles to be used.
4. How the testing media is to be applied.
MAGNETIC FIELD THEORY
Magnetic Domains
Some materials that can be magnetized possess atoms that are
classified as submicroscopic regions, called magnetic domains.
These domains have a positive and negative polarity at opposite
ends because of internal atomic alignment. If the material is not
considered to be magnetized, the domains are randomly aligned,
usually parallel to the crystalline axes of the material.
34
When the material is subjected to a magnetic field, the domains
align themselves parallel to the external magnetic field. The material
then acts as a magnet. Figure 7.1 illustrates the domain alignment in
nonmagnetized and magnetized material.
Figure 7.1: Alignment of magnetic domains: (a) in an unmagnetized material; (b) in a
magnetized material.
(a)
(b)
~eNeS-eN-eSB~BB-e
NS
-ee-eeeeee-eB
c.. __'
Magnetic Poles
A magnet has the property of attracting ferromagnetic materials.
The ability to attract or repel is not uniform over the surface of a
magnet, but is concentrated at localized areas called poles. In every
magnet, there are two or more poles with opposite polarities. These
poles are attracted to the Earth's magnetic poles and therefore are
called north and south poles.
Figure 1.1 in Chapter 1 can be duplicated by placing a sheet of
paper over a bar magnet and sprinkling iron filings on the paper. It
shows the magnetic field leaving and entering the ends or poles of
the magnet. This characteristic pattern illustrates the term lines of
force used to describe a magnetic flux field. There are a number of
important properties associated with lines of force.
1. They form continuous loops that are never broken.
2. They do not cross one another.
3. They are considered to have direction: leaving from the north
pole, traveling to the south pole.
4. Their density decreases with increasing distance from the
poles.
5. They seek the path of least magnetic resistance or reluctance
in completing their loop.
When a bar magnet is broken into two or more pieces, new
magnetic poles are formed. The opposing poles attract one another,
as shown in Figure 7.2.
If the center piece in Figure 7.2 is reversed so that similar poles
are adjacent, the lines of force repel one magnet from the other. If
one of the bars is small enough, the lines of force can cause it to
rotate so that unlike poles are again adjacent. This illustrates the
most basic rule of magnetism: unlike poles attract and like poles
repel.
35
Figure 7.2: Broken bar magnet illustrating the location of
newly formed magnetic poles.
N~r
Nt~s
Magnetic Fields
:nss ~N
The magnetic particle testing method uses magnetic fields to
reveal material discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. The
common horseshoe magnet attracts ferritic materials to its ends or
poles. Magnetic lines of flux flow from the south pole through the
magnet to the north pole.
Magnets only attract materials where the lines of flux leave or
enter the magnet. When magnetic material is placed across the poles
of a horseshoe magnet, the lines of flux flow from the north pole of
the magnet through the material to the south pole. Magnetic lines of
flux flow preferentially through magnetic material rather than
nonmagnetic material or air.
Magnetized Ring
If a horseshoe magnet is bent so that its poles are close together,
the poles still attract magnetic materials. Iron filings or other
magnetic materials cling to the poles and bridge the gap between
them. In the absence of a slot, the magnetic flux lines are enclosed
within the ring. No external poles exist, and magnetic particles
dusted over the ring are not attracted to the ring even though there
are magnetic flux lines flowing through it. Magnetized materials
attract externally only when poles exist. A ring magnetized in this
manner is said to contain a circular magnetic field that is wholly
within the object.
Small changes in the cross section of the ring or in the
permeability of its material may cause external flux and the
attraction of magnetic particles.
Effect of Cracks in a Magnetized Ring
A radial crack in a circularly magnetized object creates north and
south magnetic poles at the edges of the crack. This forces some of
the magnetic lines of force out of the metal path. These disrupted
lines of force are called magnetic flux leakage. Magnetic particles
are attracted to the poles created by such a crack, forming an
indication of the discontinuity in the metal test object.
36
Bar Magnet
When a horseshoe magnet is straightened, it becomes a bar
magnet with poles at each end, as shown in Figure 7.3a. Magnetic
flux lines flow through the bar from the south pole to the north pole,
but the flux density is not uniform along the bar. Magnetic particles
are attracted to any location where flux emerges and particularly to
the ends of the magnet where the concentration of external flux lines
is greatest. Since the magnetic flux within a bar magnet may run the
length of the bar, it is said to be longitudinally magnetized or to
contain a longitudinal field.
Effect of Cracks in a Magnetized Bar
A crack in a bar magnet, shown in Figure 7 .3b, distorts the
magnetic lines of force and creates poles on either side of the crack.
These poles attract magnetic particles to form an indication of the
crack. The strengths of poles formed at a crack depend on the
number of magnetic flux lines interrupted. A crack at a right angle to
the magnetic lines of force interrupts more flux lines and creates
stronger poles than a crack that is parallel to the flux lines. Test
indications of maximum size are formed when discontinuities are at
right angles to the magnetic lines of flux.
IFigure 7.3: Bar magnet illustrating longitudinal magnetization: (a) horseshoe magnet
I straightened into a bar magnet with north and south poles; and (b) bar magnet
I containing a machined slot and corresponding flux leakage field.
i
(a)
(b)
/.:....-,\i_)
IN -: ..., s I
,II
,,II
"'"" 1-4
,\ "
\ '1 t t
_ '.oJ
NS
~agnetic particles
Y::~
r---------~~~ ~--~--------~
___.....," S l:: :IN '---
N~S
EFFECT OF MATERIALS ON ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Magnetic properties are important because of their effect on the
behavior of materials under an external field or when the external
field is removed. The magnetic properties are often discussed using
the magnetic permeability of materials. This important quantity is
defined through the relation in Eq. 7.1.
Eq.7.1 Ii =pH
where B is flux density and H is magnetic field strength.

37
Permeability governs an important features of the magnetic field
and therefore affects any application that uses the magnetic field.
Flux density B is often the quantity of interest and has higher values
for high values of the permeability for a given source field
strength H.
The magnetic properties of materials are defined through the
interaction of external magnetic fields and moving chargesin the
atoms of the material. Static charges are not influenced by the
magnetic field since no magnetic forces are produced. Atomic scale
magnetic fields are produced inside the material through orbiting
electrons. These orbiting electrons produce an equivalent current
loop that has a magnetic moment.
Eq.7.2 iii =~l1ra2
where a2 is the area of the loop, I is the equivalent current and z is a
unit vector normal to the plane of current flow.
Many such atomic scale loops or magnetic moments exist and the
material volume contains a certain magnetic moment density. If N
magnetic moments per unit volume are present, and if these
moments are aligned in the same direction, a total magnetization is
generated. Equation 7.3 is used to determine magnetization M.
Eq. 7.3 Bin = M =Nm
The magnetic flux density of the material is then given by:
Eq. 7.4 Jj. = /I M
In r--
The terms H, m and M are vectors. This implies that a net
magnetic field or flux density can only exist if these vectors are
aligned in such a way that a total net vector M exists. If the
independent vectors m are randomly oriented, as is often the case,
the net magnetization is zero.
Additionally, the passage of magnetic fields through space exiting
a ferromagnetic material field will align domains to produce a
leakage field. This leakage field is capable of attracting very small
magnetizable particles of engineered properties, enabling the
detection of discontinuities that have accumulated clusters of these
particles.
Units of Measure for Magnetic Flux
A magnetic field is made up of flux lines within and surrounding
a magnetized object or a conductor carrying an electric current. The
term magnetic flux is used when referring to all of the lines of flux
in a given area. Flux per unit area is called magnetic flux density, the
number of lines of flux passing transversely through a unit area.
38
Magnetic Hysteresis
All ferromagnetic materials have certain magnetic properties that
are specific to that material. Most of these properties are described
by a magnetic hysteresis curve. The data for the hysteresis curve are
collected by placing a bar of ferromagnetic material in a coil and
applying an alternating current. By increasing the magnetizing field

strength H in small increments and measuring the flux density B at
each increment, the relationship between magnetic field strength and
flux density can be plotted.
The relationship between magnetic field strength and flux density
is not linear for ferromagnetic materials. A specific change in H may
produce a smaller or larger change in B, as shown in Figure 7.4, the
initial curve for an unmagnetized piece of steel. Starting at point 0
(zero magnetic field strength and zero magnetic flux) and increasing
H in small increments, the flux density in the material increases
quite rapidly at first, then gradually slows until point A is reached.
At point A, the material becomes magnetically saturated. Beyond the
saturation point, increases in magnetic field strength do not increase
the flux density in the material. In diagrams of full hysteresis loops,
the curve O,Ais often drawn as a dashed line because it occurs only
during the initial magnetization of an unmagnetized material. It is
referred to as the virgin curve of the material.
When the magnetic field strength is reduced to 0, the flux density
slowly decreases. It lags the field strength and does not reach O.The
amount of flux density remaining in the material (line O,B)is called
residual magnetism or remanence. The ability of ferromagnetic
materials to retain a certain amount of magnetism is called
retentivity.
Removal of residual magnetism requires the application of a
magnetic field strength in an opposite or negative direction. When
the magnetic field strength is first reversed and only a small amount
is applied, the flux density slowly decreases. As additional reverse
field strength is applied, the rate of reduction in flux density (B,C)
increases until it is almost a straight line where B equals zero.
The amount of magnetic field strength necessary to reduce the
flux density to 0 is called coercivejorce. Coercive force is a factor
in demagnetization, and is also very important in eddy current
testing of ferromagnetic materials.
As the reversed magnetic field strength is increased beyond
point C, the magnetic flux changes its polarity and initially increases
quite rapidly. It then gradually slows until point D is reached. This is
the reverse polarity saturation point, and additional magnetic field
strength will not produce an increase in flux density.
When the reversed magnetic field strength is reduced to 0, the
flux density again lags the magnetic field strength, leaving residual
magnetism in the material (0,E). The flux densities of the residual
magnetism from the straight and reversed polarities are equal (O,Bis
equal to line 0,E).
Figure 7.4: Hysteresis data for unmagnetized steel: (a) virgin curve of a hysteresis loop;
(b) hysteresis loop showing residual magnetism; (c) hysteresis loop showing coercive
force; (d) hysteresis loop showing reverse magnetism; (e) hysteresis loop showing reverse
residual magnetism; and (f) complete hysteresis loop.
(a)
,.
...-A
/
/ Saturation
Zero magnetic \
field strength I point
H---------------~~/---------------H+
B+
(b)
B+
Zero flux density
Residual magnetism
-,
B/
H-------------~~------------H+
BB-
(e)
(d)
B+ B+
H- H+ H-
/
00
Reverse
Coercive force
B-
magnetization
saturation point
(e)
B+
(f)
B+
H-
D -"'---
Reverse Bmagnetization
point
,.
Saturation
point
10
,
B-
,..
..-
Saturation
point
H+
HH+
Residual magnetism
40
D--::.--
Reverse residual
point
B-
H+
Removal of the reversed polarity residual magnetism requires
application of magnetic field strength in the original direction. Flux

density drops to 0 at point F with the application of coercive
force O,P. Increasing the field strength results in the magnetic
polarity changing back to its original direction on the hysteresis
diagram. This completes the hysteresis loop A,B,C,D,E,P (note that
the curve C,D,E,P is a mirror image of curve C,B,A,P).
Magnetic Permeability
One of the most important properties of magnetic materials is
permeability. Permeability can be described as the ease with which
materials can be magnetized. More specifically, permeability is the
ratio between the flux density and the magnetic field strength
(B divided by H). Figure 7.5a is the virgin curve of a high
permeability material, and Figure 7.5b is the virgin curve of a low
permeability material.
Figure 7.S: Magnetic permeability curves: (a) high permeability
virgin curve; and (b) low permeability virgin curve.
<.
(a)
(b)
.~
:::
cu
I
'0 --------~-----------
///l
Saturation
point
>.
...
.<;:::::
'"
:::
,/
C/J
cu
'0
::l
The reciprocal of permeability is reluctance, defined as the
resistance of a material to changes in magnetic field strength.
Magnetic properties and hysteresis loops vary widely between
materials and material conditions. They are affected by chemical
composition, microstructure and grain size. Figure 7.6a is a
hysteresis loop for hardened steel, and the loop is typical of a
material with low permeability, high reluctance, high retentivity and
high residual magnetism that requires high coercive force for

removal. Figure 7.6b is the hysteresis loop for annealed low carbon
'"
Saturation
_,
....
41
Figure 7.6: Positive field strength hysteresis loops: (a) hardened
steel hysteresis loops; and (b) annealed low carbon steel
hysteresis loop.
(a) (b)
Coercive
force
Residual
steel. It is typical of a material with high permeability, low
reluctance, low retentivity and low residual magnetism that requires
a low coercive force for removal. A high carbon alloy would be
harder to magnetize and demagnetize, thus would have low
reluctance and high retentivity.
Coercive
force
Chapter 8
Flux Fields
ELECTRIC CURRENT
In the very early days of magnetic particle testing, it was believed
that the most desirable current for magnetization was direct current
provided by storage batteries. As knowledge of the magnetic particle
process expanded and electrical circuitry continued to advance,
many types of magnetizing currents became available: alternating
current, half wave direct current and full wave direct current. The
terms half wave rectified direct current and full wave rectified direct
current are used for alternating current rectified to produce half
wave and full wave direct current. Three types of electric current are
used in magnetic particle testing.
1. Alternating current.
2. Full wave direct current.
3. Half wave direct current.
Alternating current is used for the detection of surface
discontinuities only, whereas full wave direct or half wave direct
currents are used for either surface or subsurface discontinuities.
Alternating Current
Alternating current is useful in many applications because it is
commercially available. Electrical circuitry to produce alternating
magnetizing current is simple and relatively inexpensive because it
only requires transforming commercial power into low voltage, high
amperage magnetizing current.
In the United States and some other countries, alternating current
alternates sixty times per second. Many other countries have
standardized fifty alternations per second. The alternations are called

cycles. One hertz equals one cycle per second, and 60 Hz is sixty
cycles per second. Figure 8.1 shows the waveform of alternating
current. In one cycle, the current flows from zero to a maximum
positive value and then drops back to zero. At zero, it reverses
direction and goes to a maximum negative peak and returns to zero.
The curve is symmetrical, with the positive and negative lobes being
mirror images.
The use of alternating current in magnetic particle testing is
recommended for the detection of surface discontinuities that
comprise the majority of service induced discontinuities. Fatigue and
43
Figure 8.1: Alternating current waveform.
Time-
stress corrosion cracks are examples of cracks usually open to the
surface.
The shallow penetration of alternating current fields into the test
object at the usual power line frequencies of 50 and 60 Hz precludes
the use of alternating current for the detection of subsurface
discontinuities. The shallow penetration is caused by skin effect.
Skin effect is the crowding of magnetic flux or electric current
outward and away from the test object center. The skin effect is the
reason alternating current is recommended when testing for service
induced surface discontinuities. However, the skin effect of
alternating current is less at lower frequencies, resulting in deeper
penetration of the lines of force. At twenty-five cycles, the

penetration is demonstrably deeper, and at frequencies of ten cycles
per second and less, the skin effect is almost nonexistent.
Alternating current has another advantage in that the magnetizing
effect, which is determined by the value of the peak current at the
top of the sine wave of the cycle, is 1.41 times that of the current
read on the meter.
Direct Current
Direct current, on the other hand, magnetizes the entire cross
section more or less uniformly in the case of longitudinal
magnetization, and with a straight line gradient of strength from a
maximum at the surface to zero at the center of the bar in the case of
direct contact (circular) magnetization. Magnetic fields produced by
direct current penetrate deeper into a test object than fields produced
by alternating current, making detection of subsurface
discontinuities possible.
In the presence of direct current fields, dry powder particles
behave as though they were immobile, tending to remain wherever
they happen to land on the surface of the test object. This contrasts
what happens with dry powder particles in the presence of
alternating current and half wave fields. In these fields, the particles
have mobility on a surface because of the pulsating character of the
fields. Particle mobility aids considerably the formation of particle
accumulations (indications) at discontinuities.
Pure direct current can be obtained from automotive type storage
batteries, but today this method is seldom used, except occasionally

44
in emergencies when a battery may be used to power a handheld
magnetizing device. The disadvantages of using batteries are their
weight when a number of them must be used to obtain high
amperage currents, the frequent charging and maintenance required
and their limited life and replacement cost.
Alternating currents used in magnetic particle testing are at low
voltages. Current amperages range from about 100 A up to about
20 000 A, depending on the test object to be magnetized and the
method of magnetizing. The higher amperages are obtained by using
stepdown transformers that reduce power line voltages, while at the
same time increasing current at about the same ratio. Exceptions are
the much lower amperages drawn by handheld devices that operate
from standard 120 V outlets. Alternating current and half wave
direct current for magnetizing test objects are obtained from single
phase systems or from one phase of three phase systems. Full wave
direct currents are usually obtained from three phase systems using
full three phase bridge rectifiers.
The primary method for obtaining direct current for magnetic
particle testing is through rectification of alternating current using
silicon rectifiers. A rectifier, or diode, is a device that allows electric
current to flow through it in only one direction. By proper
connection of rectifiers, the back and forth flow of alternating
current is converted to a current flow in only one direction. This is a

form of direct current. A rectifier circuit that converts both half
cycles of alternations (back and forth flow) of the alternating current
to one direction of current flow is called afull wave rectifier.
Single phase alternating current also can be rectified using a full
wave rectifier circuit to obtain direct current for magnetic particle
testing. Since three phase power is so readily available in industry,
direct current for magnetic particle testing units is usually obtained
using three phase full wave rectifiers.
Half Wave Direct Current
Half wave direct current provides the greatest sensitivity for
detecting discontinuities that lie below the surface, particularly when
using dry powder and the continuous method. The pulsations of the
half wave current vibrate the magnetic particles, thereby aiding their
migration across a surface to form indications at discontinuities. This
particle mobility, which is very pronounced when dry magnetic
powder is used, contrasts with the immobility of the powder when
pure direct current is used. There is some skin effect when half wave
current is used, caused by the pulsating magnetic fields produced by
this current. However, the effect on field penetration is small at the
usual power frequencies of 50 and 60 Hz.
Figure 8.2 shows the waveform for half wave direct current.
When single phase alternating current is passed through a simple
rectifier, the reversed flow of current is blocked or clipped. This
produces a series of current pulses that start at zero, reach a
maximum point, drop back to zero and then pause until the next
45
Figure 8.2: Half wave direct current waveform.
Alternating _
current input
Halfwave_
rectifier
An
positive cycle begins. The result is a varying current that flows only
in one direction.
Half wave direct current has penetrating power comparable to
single phase full wave direct current. Half wave current has a flux
density of zero at the center of a test object, and the density
increases until it reaches a maximum at the test surface. The pulsing
effect of the rectified wave produces maximum mobility for the
magnetic particles; dry method tests are enhanced by this effect.
Another distinct advantage of half wave direct current is the
simplicity of its electrical components. It can be easily combined
with portable and mobile alternating current equipment for weld,
construction and casting tests.
One of the disadvantages of half wave magnetization is the
problem in demagnetization: the current does not reverse so it
cannot be used for demagnetizing. Alternating current can be used to
remove some residual magnetism, but the skin effect of alternating
current and the deeper penetration of half wave direct current cause
incomplete demagnetization.
Full Wave Direct Current
It is possible for electrical circuitry to not only block (or rectify)
the negative flowing current, but to invert it so that the number of
positive pulses is doubled. Figure 8.3 shows the waveform of single
phase full wave rectified alternating current. The resulting current is
usually called single phase full wave direct current.
Single phase full wave direct current has essentially the same
penetrating ability as three phase full wave direct current. The
current fluctuation causes a skin effect that is not significant. It is
also possible to incorporate switching devices in the circuitry that
Figure 8.3: Single phase full wave direct current waveform.
Time ---
46
Half wave direct
current output
reverse the current flow. This permits built in reversing direct
current demagnetization. The initial cost of single phase full wave
direct current equipment is much less than that of three phase full
wave equipment because of its simpler components.
One disadvantage of single phase units is the input power
requirement. Single phase equipment requires 1.73 times more input
current than three phase units. This becomes very significant at

higher magnetizing currents where input values can exceed 600 A.
Three Phase Full Wave Direct Current
Commercial electric power can be provided as three phase
alternating current, with each phase providing part of the total
current. Figure 8.4 shows the waveform of three phase alternating
current. Three phase full wave magnetic particle equipment rectifies
all three alternating current phases and inverts the negative flow to a
positive direction, producing a nearly flat line direct current
magnetizing current. Figure 8.5 shows the waveform of three phase
full wave direct current.
Figure 8.4: Three phase
alternating current waveform.
!I~~
1/60 2/60
Seconds
Figure 8.5: Three phase full
wave direct current
waveform.
Three phase full wave direct current has all of the advantages of
single phase full wave direct current, plus some additional benefits.
The current draw on the power line is spread over three phases,
reducing the demand by nearly half. The demand on the line is also
balanced, with each leg providing a portion of the current (single
phase pulls all of the current from two legs, resulting in an
unbalanced line load). Many power companies charge a higher rate

to customers with unbalanced, high current requirements.
47
Chapter 9
Magnetic Particles and Methods of Application
INTRODUCTION
The particles used in magnetic particle testing are made of
ferromagnetic materials, usually combinations of iron and iron
oxides, having a high permeability and low retentivity. Particles
having high permeability are easily magnetized by and attracted to
the low level leakage fields at discontinuities. Low retentivity is
required to prevent the particles from being permanently
magnetized. Strongly retentive particles tend to cling together and to
any magnetic surface, resulting in reduced particle mobility and
increased background accumulation.
Particle sizes are very small, ranging from about 0.0005 to
0.015 em (0.0002 to 0.006 in.) in commonly used formulations.
Each magnetic particle formulation always contains a range of sizes
and shapes to produce optimum results for the intended use. The
smallest particles are more easily attracted to and held by the low
level leakage fields at very fine discontinuities; larger particles can
more easily bridge across coarse discontinuities where the leakage
fields are usually stronger. Elongated particles are included,
particularly in the case of dry powders, because these rod shaped
particles easily align themselves with leakage fields not sharply

defined, such as those that occur over subsurface discontinuities.
Globular shapes are included to aid the mobility and uniform
dispersion of particles on a surface.
Magnetic particles may be applied as a dry powder, or wet media,
using either water or a high flash point petroleum distillate as a
liquid media. Dry powders are available in various colors so the user
can select the color that contrasts best with the color of the surfaces
on which they are used.
Colors for use with ordinary visible light are red, gray, black or
yellow. Red and black colored particles are available for use in wet
baths with ordinary light, and yellow-green fluorescent particles for
use with ultraviolet radiation. Fluorescent particles are widely used
in wet baths because the bright fluorescent indications produced at
discontinuities are readily seen against the dark backgrounds that
exist in ultraviolet radiation testing areas.
Wetting agents and rust inhibitors must be used with water wet
baths. Sometimes a defoaming agent is needed. Usually the
magnetic particle concentrates include the correct amounts of
wetting agent and rust inhibitor for initial use. However, these
materials are available separately so that the concentration can be
49
maintained or adjusted to suit the particular conditions. If no rusting
can be tolerated, a higher concentration of rust inhibitor is used. If
the test objects have an oily film, more wetting agent is required so
that the test object's surfaces will be completely wetted and covered
with the bath. Breaking of the bath into rivulets as it is applied over
a test object is an indication of the need for test object cleaning.
Reference should be made to the manufacturer's recommendations
for the correct quantity of wetting agent. No additives other than the
magnetic particles themselves are necessary with petroleum distillate
baths.
The use of water wet baths should be carefully controlled to
prevent corrosion and provide wettability of ferromagnetic
components. This requires regular chemical analysis of corrosive
inhibitor and wetting agent concentration. Wet magnetic particles are
available in aerosol, mix and premix forms for field tests.
Magnetic particles in dry form may be applied by hand, using
rubber squeeze bulbs or plastic squeeze bottles equipped with
perforated caps similar to an ordinary salt shaker but with smaller
holes. The objective is to lay down a light cloud of powder on the
test object. This is usually accomplished by using a combination of
bulb squeezing and tossing of the powder toward the area being
tested.
Dry powder is also applied using handheld guns and compressed
air. One such device has the gun integrated with the powder
container and operates from an ordinary compressed air line. Using
a trigger, the technician controls the discharge of a powder cloud of
low velocity air for removing excess powder to better reveal
indications.
A more elaborate gun powder blower has a motor driven

compressor, with a powder container and air powder mixer. A
multichannel rubber hose connects to the gun. A work light is
contained in the gun tip to illuminate the testing area. A trigger on
the gun controls the discharge of the powder and air mixture and the
blow off air. More elaborate production systems have been built
using this same principle of operation. In these cases, the discharge
nozzles are mechanically controlled, as is the movement of test
objects through the machine. Spent powder is automatically
retrieved and reused.
Current Level and Particle Application
Two methods of processing are used in magnetic particle testing.
The method to use in a given case depends on the magnetic
retentivity of the test object being tested and the desired sensitivity
of the testing to be made. Highly retentive test objects may be tested
using the residual method. The continuous method must be used on
test objects having low retentivity. For a given magnetizing current
or applied magnetizing field, the continuous method offers the
greatest sensitivity for revealing discontinuities.
50
Wet method media may be applied to retentive test objects, which
have been magnetized using the induced current method, while the
test object is being magnetized or at any subsequent time. If applied
to low retentivity test objects while being magnetized, careful
control of the bath application is required to prevent washing away

of indications after the magnetizing current has ceased.
On some test objects having very fine transverse discontinuities,
it may be necessary to apply the liquid media (bath) while the test
object is in a vertical or near vertical position. This allows the liquid
to flow downward by gravity and across the discontinuities assisting
in the formation of those indications that may be slow to develop.
Test objects having fine grinding cracks may require this technique.
In extreme cases, as much as 5 s may be needed to fully develop
slow forming indications. For test objects having extensive grinding
cracks, fatigue or heat treat cracks, 0.5 to 1 s is usually enough time
to form visible indications, particularly when the media is
fluorescent.
Test objects made of low retentivity steels must have wet method
media applied while they are being magnetized. Test objects that
have smooth machined surfaces will need extra care when handled
and tested to prevent washing away of indications by Equid retained
on the surface. On test objects having rougher surfaces, such as
those produced by sand blasting, indications are usually held by
mechanical bond so that washing away of indications is less of a
problem. However, the rough surface finish tends to accumulate
more particles, so bath concentrations must be carefully maintained.
CONTINUOUS METHOD
The advantage of greater sensitivity for the continuous method is
simple and basic. When the magnetizing force is applied to a
ferromagnetic test object, the field within the test object rises to a
maximum. This value or intensity is derived from the strength of the
magnetizing force and the material permeability of the test object.
When the magnetizing force is removed, the residual magnetism in
the test object is always less than the field present while the
magnetizing force was acting. The amount of difference depends on
the retentivity of the material. The continuous method, for a given
value of magnetizing current, is always more sensitive than the
residual as determined by the strength of field in the test object.
Techniques have been developed for the continuous method that
make it faster than the residual method. The indication is produced
at the time of magnetization, whereas the residual method requires
two steps: magnetization and application of particles, plus the added
time for indications to build up if the immersion method is used. The
continuous method is preferred unless special circumstances make
the residual method more desirable.
51
The continuous method can be used with the direct contact
method, the central conductor method or with a coil for longitudinal
magnetization. Test objects made of low retentivity materials, such
as low carbon steel, must be tested using the continuous method
because residual leakage fields at discontinuities in these materials
are too weak to produce good magnetic particle indications.
Timing of the wet media bath application and the magnetizing
current is very important when using the continuous method. A test

object should be flooded with wet media before the current is
applied. At the moment of, or just before, application of current, the
media stream is turned off or diverted from the test object before the
magnetic pulse ends. This allows the test object to be covered with a
mobile layer of fluid when current is applied. Indications can then
form at discontinuities. Turning off or diverting the bath stream
before the magnetizing field is terminated ensures that the force of
the bath stream will not interfere with the formation of indications.
Maintaining the magnetizing field for a short time after the bath
stream ceases allows time for magnetic particle indications to form,
taking advantage of additional magnetic particles being made
available by surface drainage. On weakly retentive test objects, extra
care is needed after magnetizing to minimize any washing away of
indications by the retained bath on a test object's surface.
It should be noted, however, that the continuous method requires
more attention and alertness on the part of the technician than does
the residual method. Careless handling of the bath current sequence
can interfere seriously with reliable results. Normally the duration of
the coil magnetizing shot will vary from about 0.5 to 1 or 2 s,
depending on the difficulty involved in showing the discontinuities
being sought. In some instances, when large forgings or steel
castings are to be tested using the continuous method with bath
application by hand hose, the magnetizing current may be' left on
from 5 to 10 s, during which time the test object may be repeatedly
swept with the bath spray. The magnetizing field is maintained for
1 to 2 s after the final spray has ceased or been diverted. This latter
technique also applies to circular magnetization when large test
objects are processed using contact or central conductors.
Wet Continuous Method
The continuous method implies that the magnetizing force is
acting while the magnetic particles are applied. When the current is
on, maximum flux density will be created in the test object for the
magnetizing force being used. In some cases, usually when
alternating current or half wave direct current is the magnetizing
current being used, the current is actually left on, sometimes for
minutes at a time, while the magnetic particles are applied. This is
more often needed in dry method applications than in the wet. To
leave the current on for long durations of time is not practical in
most instances, nor is it necessary. The heavy current required for
proper magnetization can cause overheating of test objects and
52
contact burning or damage to the equipment if allowed to flow for
any appreciable length of time.
In practice, the magnetizing current is normally on for 0.5 s at a
time. All that is required is that sufficient magnetic particles are in
the zone and free to move while the magnetizing current flows. The
bath ingredients are selected and formulated so that the particles can
and do move through the film of liquid on the surface of the test
object and form strong, readable indications. This is one reason why
the viscosity of the bath and bath concentration are so important,
since anything that tends to reduce the number of available particles
or to slow their movement tends to reduce the build up of
indications.
Many methods are used to apply wet bath magnetic particles. The
methods range from simple pouring of a bath onto a test object to
large industrial systems in which the bath is applied automatically
either by dumping or spraying. The most common method for
application is through the use of a handheld nozzle and recirculating
pump on stationary units. Occasionally, lever operated sprayers or
aerosol containers are used.
RESIDUAL METHOD
The residual method is a method of testing in which magnetic
particles are applied to test objects after the test objects have been
magnetized. The residual method is used only when test objects are
magnetized with direct current. This method of testing is used when
test objects have sufficient retentivity to form adequate magnetic
particle indications at discontinuities. This method is used with both
longitudinal and circular magnetization techniques, direct contact
and central conductor methods.
Residual testing requires the test objects to be retentive enough to
hold magnetic particle indications at discontinuities. Usually, the use
of the residual method is limited to the search for discontinuities that
are open to the surface, such as cracks. Detection of subsurface
discontinuities requires the stronger leakage fields at discontinuities

that exist while the test object is being magnetized, as when the
continuous method is used. Residual testing permits the magnetizing
of test objects at one time and the application of magnetic particle
media at a subsequent time. When the central conductor method is
used, testing of holes or bores is facilitated, since testing takes place
after removal of the central conductor.
Care must be taken in the handling of test objects that have been
magnetized, particularly test objects having smooth or machined
surfaces, to avoid their being rubbed together or against other
ferromagnetic test objects. Such rubbing may produce localized
magnetized areas on surfaces that will attract and hold magnetic
particles. Magnetic particle indications produced on these areas are
nonrelevant and are called magnetic writing. A technician may
notice that magnetic writing indications are not as sharp as those
produced at surface cracks and is cautioned against misconstruing
such indications as being caused by subsurface discontinuities.
Whether an indication is caused by magnetic writing or by a
subsurface discontinuity can be determined by demagnetizing and
reprocessing the test object. Demagnetizing will remove the
magnetic writing. If the indication returns after demagnetizing and
reprocessing, it is an indication of a discontinuity at or near the
surface.
Amperages used with the residual method need be only great
enough to magnetize the test object sufficiently to show the type of

discontinuity being sought. Some gross discontinuities may require
only weakly magnetized test objects, and others, being more difficult
to find, may require the maximum residual field obtainable. The
residual magnetic field retained in a test object is always less than
the magnetic field strength that produced it. A maximum residual
field strength results when the magnetization level within the test
object reaches magnetic saturation. The use of magnetizing currents
greater than those needed to produce the maximum saturation field
strength are of no value with the residual method.
Technician experience is very helpful for determining the
amperage required to test an object using the residual method. A
technician should first determine whether or not an object can be
tested using the residual method. Any object to be tested using this
method requires that the object be retentive enough so that magnetic
particle indications will be formed at discontinuities. A rough
determination of a test object retentivity can be made by
magnetizing the test object in a coil having field strength of about
10000 direct current ampere turns. If after magnetizing the test
object can lift and hold an ordinary paper clip, the test object is
retentive enough for residual testing. If the test object will not hold a
paper clip, the use of the residual method can be ruled out.
Magnetic particle testing media may be applied by stream, spray
or immersion of the test object in a tank. Extra care is required when
using the immersion method, particularly with test objects that have
smooth surfaces, to avoid removing any indications by the rapid

removal of a test object from.the bath. To ensure uniform magnetic
bath concentration, the bath must be continuously agitated. The bath
concentration must be maintained. within specified limits. Too weak
a particle concentration will produce weak indications, and in
borderline cases may cause fine discontinuities to go undetected.
Too heavy a concentration produces heavy background
accumulations that reduce color contrast.
Most magnetic particle indications produced using the residual
method appear quickly on a test object. Longer times are required
when discontinuities are extremely fine. Formation of the indications
can sometimes be speeded up by holding the test object in a position
that will allow residual bath drainage to flow across the suspected
areas.
54
After a magnetic particle test, the test object could still be
retentive enough to be tested residually, depending on the nature of
the discontinuities expected to be found. In this case, the technician
must resort to testing of the object(s) using the continuous method,
testing for indications at discontinuities, then removing these
indications and reapplying the media to see if residual indications
are produced. The amperage used to form the indications found
during the continuous method will give a technician some indication
of amperage to use for residual testing.
The application of magnetic particle media with residual testing

is simply a matter of covering the area to be tested. Care should be
taken in the case of wet media to ensure that test objects are
adequately flooded using low velocity streams or sprays. The test
objects should be positioned to take advantage of any particle flow
resulting from drainage on a test object's surface. Some test objects
may need a longer drain time than others because indications may be
slower in forming on smooth surfaces. In some cases, on beating
rollers for example, formation of fine indications may be enhanced
by immersing the magnetized test object in liquid media for a
considerable time. This gives the leakage fields time to attract and
hold the maximum number of particles resulting in an increase in
sensiti vity.
Dry powders are used to detect gross indications. Care must be
taken when applying dry magnetic powders to test objects that have
been magnetized to avoid getting too much powder on a test surface.
A combination of a light blowing and tossing action, either from a
handheld container or a pressurized powder blower, is needed.
Additional care is also required when removing any excess powder
from a surface so as not to hinder formation of indications or
remove indications already formed.
The use of dry powder with the residual method has several
disadvantages. It is more difficult to apply to interior surfaces of a
test object than is wet media, it is more difficult to completely cover
a test object in a short time and removal of powder from a test
object can be a problem, particularly when the test object has not
been demagnetized. A cylindrical test object would be held in a near
vertical position, allowing the drainage flow across circumferential
(transverse) cracks.
Although the residual method is not as widely used today as the
continuous method, it does have some advantages that make it
attractive in some circumstances. The residual method is capable of
close control, and of giving uniform results to a greater degree than
the continuous method. The fact that it is applicable only to test
objects having relatively high retentivity is why the method is not
used more extensively.
Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book S5
Field Direction
The proper orientation of the magnetic field in the test object in
relation to the direction of the discontinuity is a more important
factor than the value or amount of the magnetizing current. Field
direction for circular magnetization is shown in Figure 9.1. For best
results, the magnetic lines of force should be at right angles to the
discontinuity to be detected. If the magnetic lines of force are
parallel to the discontinuity, there will be little magnetic leakage at
the discontinuity and therefore, if any indication is formed it is
likely to be extremely small. Discontinuities located in the direction
of current flow have the lowest probability of detection.
Discontinuities perpendicular to current flow have the highest
probability of detection.
Figure 9.1: Field direction for circular magnetization.

Magnetic flux lines
Magnetic Field Measurements
The measurement of magnetic flux or field strength, either within
a test object or at the test surface, is extremely complicated. There
have been several attempts to develop practical methods or devices
for this purpose, but these methods or devices have all been limited
in success and contain serious limitations. They do serve a purpose
in technique development if their limitations are understood. A
procedure or technique typically will be developed for a particular
test object using rules of thumb and past experience. The actual test
object will then be subjected to the proposed procedure, and the
devices will be used to check the field strength at critical points as a
comparative reference.
A hall effect gauss meter is a versatile magnetic field indicating
instrument. It applies a current to a hall effect probe or sensor and
amplifies the output voltage that is proportional to the measured
magnetic flux density. There are several limitations that generally
prevent its use as a shop instrument. First, it is a laboratory
instrument and relatively fragile. It does not withstand normal use
required in a magnetic particle testing shop.
Another major limitation is that it measures only the flux passing
through the probe or sensor at right angles. Placing the probe on the
test object surface merely indicates the flux at that point and does
not measure the field in the test object surface. Some attempt has
been made to cut slots or drill holes in critical areas of sample test
56
objects and then insert the probe. This greatly improves the
sensitivity and is perhaps the best approach at this time.
Unfortunately, the availability of test objects in maintenance is
extremely limited, and practical application of the hall effect gauss
meter is confined to either the laboratory or new manufacturing
operations.
Another magnetic field and direction indicator is called a pie
gage, as shown in Figure 9.2. Pie gages are available in many
configurations. Any variation used must be qualified to a particular
procedure or standard. Qualification of the pie gage is the
responsibility of the Level III technician. The device is essentially a
disk of high permeability material divided into four or more sections
by two perpendicular cuts that simulate discontinuities. In practice,
the indicator is held firmly on a magnetized test object, causing
some of the magnetic field to pass through the disk. It should be
remembered that the indicator is more truly indicating the direction
of the magnetizing force through the indicator, rather than the field
strength, through the surface layers of the magnetized test object.
These form strings in a leakage field and bridge the area over the
discontinuity. Alternating current with dry powder is excellent for
surface cracks that are not exceedingly fine, but, as shown in the
comparisons, are of little value for discontinuities lying even slightly

below the surface.
A comparison of the effectiveness of the dry method and the wet
method for detecting discontinuities lying wholly below the surface,
using the same unhardened tool steel ring, shown in Figure 9.3,
indicates that the dry method is superior to the wet method for this
purpose at any value of direct current used.
Figure 9.3: Tool steel ring.
Figure 9.2: Pie gage.
1.9 to
Eight low carbon steel pie
\ sections furnace brazed
~ ~ together and copper plated.
0.8 cm
'Nonferrous trunions
max
_l_ [==1J[~~c~o~pp~e~r=Sh=i:::::m~=:::::L
0.3 COl I 0 ,: :,1 7ZJ
)\.9 em
X~
3X
~__l
5S
6 + C'j
----,--J1
57
l:"-
2.2 em
However, when the problem is to find very fine surface cracks,
there is no question as to the superiority of the wet method,
whatever form of magnetizing current is used. In some cases, direct
current is selected for use with the wet method to get the advantage
of better indications of discontinuities that lie just below the surface,
especially on bearing surfaces and aircraft test objects. The wet
method offers the advantage of easy complete coverage of the
surface of test objects of all sizes and shapes. Dry powder is often
used for very local tests that are comparatively large in size.
CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION
Circular magnetization is used for the detection of radial
discontinuities around edges of holes or openings in test objects. It is
also used for the detection of longitudinal discontinuities that lie in

the same direction as the current flows, either in a test object or in a
test object that a central conductor passes through.
A circular magnetic field is generated in a test object whenever
an electric current is passed through it or through an electrical
conductor that passes through the test object. The circular field
around the inside of the test object will be wholly contained within
the test object in the case of a concentric cylinder. No magnetic
poles will be produced on the test object. Poles will be produced if
the test object is not a concentric cylinder, is irregularly shaped, or if
the path of the current flow is not located on the test object's
geometric axis.
The magnetic poles, in these cases, are caused by a relatively
small portion of the magnetic flux that passes out of the test object
and into the air that surrounds the test object. The no-pole condition
in a concentric cylinder occurs both while the magnetizing current is
flowing and after current flow ceases. The test object is thus
residually magnetized, but since no magnetic poles exist, the test
object appears to be in an unmagnetized state. However, if the test
object is cut, such as when a keyway is made, some of the field will
pass out and over the cut producing opposite magnetic poles on each
side of the cut. Such poles can hold chips or metal that can interfere
with subsequent machining operations or damage bearing surfaces.
Care is needed in the case of circular magnetization which may not
be detectable, and appropriate means to assure demagnetization must
be taken.
Two techniques are used to obtain circular magnetization in test
objects: by passage of electric current through the test objects
themselves, called the direct contact method; or by passage of the
current through a conductor that in turn passes through the test
objects, called the central conductor method.
Direct Contact
Direct contact is generally made by placing test objects between
clamping heads. Lead face plates or copper braid pads must be used
to prevent arcing, overheating and splatter. Wetting of the contact
plates with the suspension media before current application helps to
prevent overheating. On large test objects, current contact is
sometimes made by clamping lug terminated cables to the test object
using nonmagnetic C clamps. Regardless of how the contact is
made, the test object should always make as good an electrical
contact as practical. This will minimize any heating or arcing at the
juncture. This means contact surfaces must be clean and free of paint
or similar coatings and have adequate pressure applied to achieve
good contact over a sufficient area of the test surface. Any excessive
heating at the contact points may bum the test object, affecting its
temper and finish.
Central Conductor
A test object can be circularly magnetized by passing electrical
current through a conductor positioned coaxially in a hole or
opening, as was shown in Figure 3.9 in Chapter 3. A magnetizing

field does exist outside a central conductor carrying current so the
walls surrounding a central conductor become magnetized, making
possible the detection of discontinuities that parallel the central
conductor. Central conductors are any high conductive material,
such as a copper bar or cable, placed in the center of the test object
to be magnetized. The central conductor method should be used if
longitudinal discontinuities on the inside of tubular or cylindrically
shaped test objects are to be detected.
Theoretically, the magnetic field is zero on the inside surface of
such test objects unless a central conductor is used. The direct
contact method may not produce reliable results.in this case,
particularly if the test object is a concentric tube or cylinder with
good current contact at each end. Either the central conductor or the
direct contact method can be used to detect discontinuities on the
outside surfaces of such test objects. Because the circular field
around a central conductor is at right angle to the axis of the
conductor, the central conductor method is useful for the detection
of discontinuities that lie in a direction parallel with the conductor.
The central conductor method is also very useful for detecting
discontinuities, usually cracks, which form radially out of holes in
castings. A test object having a hole or opening that is to be tested
for inside and outside discontinuities is usually positioned with the
conductor centered coaxially in the hole or opening. On very large
test objects having large openings, the central conductor may be
located close to the inside surface and several tests made around the
inside periphery of the opening. Placing the conductor close to the
inside surface reduces the current requirement because the strength
of the circular field decreases with distance away from the
conductor.
59
Amperage Requirements
A number of factors must be considered when determining what
current amperage to use for circular magnetization.
1. The type of equipment and capacity available.
2. The type of discontinuity and its expected ease or difficulty of
detection.
3. The test object's size, shape and cross sectional area through
which the current will flow.
4. The amount of heating that can be tolerated in the test object
at the current contact areas.
Another method is the use of a small, metal adhesive indicator.
The indicator is a silicon iron material and measures about
1.3 em (0.5 in.) long by 0.6 em (0.25 in.) wide by 0.03 em (0.01 in.)
thick. A 0.008 ern (0.003 in.) square slot is cut across the 0.6 em
(0.25 in.) dimension. In practice, the indicator is placed in a critical
area on the test object with the slotted side firmly against the test
object surface to ensure intimate contact. The testing process is
carried out and if an indication forms at the slot, it is assumed that
there is adequate field strength to reveal actual discontinuities in the

test object. The indicator has a length-to-diameter ratio that is
different from the test object; there may be considerable difference
between the permeability of the indicator and test object. The
indicator could develop a greater field strength than the test object
with the slot readily indicated but with insufficient field strength in
,the test object.
The use of an eddy current device in a prescribed manner can
effectively indicate the direction and relative level of magnetic field
intensity at the surface of a magnetized test object. To relate the
meter readings of flux density necessitates the development of a
separate calibration curve for each material with full consideration
given to all the physical and metallurgical properties of the test
object.
Since maximum material permeability, with its associated
saturation level, is an optimum characteristic in selecting a
magnetization level, it would appear from a practical aspect that an
eddy current device would serve well to determine this
characteristic. Tests have shown that when an eddy current probe
(insensitive to stray magnetic fields external to the test object) is
placed against the test object and the test object is magnetized with
increasing current, the indicating pointer will not significantly move
off its zero position until near maximum material saturation has been
achieved.
To test for discontinuities at a specific location on a test object
without using formulas or rules of thumb, it is only necessary to

place the probe on the test object in the area of suspected
discontinuities and increasethe current until the indicating pointer
deflects, signifying near maximum material saturation. At this time,
further processing may be initiated with reasonable assurance that
suspected discontinuities, if present, will be indicated. Unlike some
laboratory instruments used to measure magnetic field intensity,
eddy current devices are designed to withstand the comparative
rough handling that may be found in a magnetic particle testing
shop.
SENSITIVITY LEVEL
Any factor that affects the formation of indications at a
discontinuity affects the sensitivity of magnetic particle testing. Two
of the most important of these factors are the amperage of the
magnetizing current and the control of the magnetic particle testing
media.
Amperage
The formation of magnetic particle indications at discontinuities
depends on the strength of the leakage fields at the discontinuities.
Since the leakage fields are a part of the field generated by the
magnetizing current, greater magnetizing current will produce
greater leakage field strength. Thus, the sensitivity of a magnetic
particle test is directly related to the current amperage.
Too low amperage may produce leakage fields too weak to form
readily discemable indications. Too high an amperage creates a

heavy background accumulation of particles that may mask an
indication. In circular magnetization, too high amperage may bum
current contact points of a test object. Actual amperage requirements
should be calculated. Due to complex configurations, a shim or
penetrameter can be used for verification of calculations.
Testing Media
The sensitivity level is affected not only by the current amperage,
but also by the kind of magnetic particle testing media, its control
and its applications.
Wet method media, because of their smaller particle sizes, are the
most sensitive for the detection of surface discontinuities. Dry
powders are better for detecting deep subsurface discontinuities.
Fluorescent magnetic particle materials have a higher apparent
sensitivity than do those used with ordinary light, such as the blacks
and reds. The fluorescent indications are more easily and quickly
seen in the darkened areas associated with ultraviolet radiation tests.
Testing of objects made of materials only moderately retentive
requires careful control of the way the testing media is applied.
Usually, maximum sensitivity is obtained by applying the media
while a test object is being magnetized and ending it before the
magnetizing field is removed. This is also true in the case of
automatic wet method testing in which the main bath stream is shut
-..-----.---.--~-..-.. --------
off shortly before the magnetizing current is ended, to avoid washing

off indications already formed.
Particle concentration in the baths must be closely controlled if
maximum sensitivity is to be obtained. Sensitivity is lowered if
concentrations are too low because of the lack of sufficient magnetic
particles to be readily discernible. If too high, fine indications may
be masked by heavy background accumulations.
Contaminants, particularly in wet baths, can result in lowered
sensitivity. For example, lubricating oils and greases cause a blue
background fluorescence that reduces contrast, causing fluorescent
particle indications to be less visible.
Sensitivity of dry powders depends on the type of powder
selected, how carefully it is applied and its color. Most powders are
made for general use, and have a wide mix of particle sizes to favor
the detection of both fine surface and deep subsurface
discontinuities. A powder color is usually selected that will provide
the best color contrast with the color of the surface on which it is
being used. Care is needed in applying the powder. A light tossing
and air blowing action is needed to allow the particles to migrate to
and be held by the leakage fields at discontinuities. Excessive
application of powder can cause indications to be lost in background
accumulation.
The magnetizing force at any point on the outside surface of a
test object through which electric current is flowing will vary with
the current amperage. The greater the amperage, the greater will be
this magnetizing force. Inside the test object, just under the point on
the surface, the magnetic flux density will be the product of this
magnetizing force and the magnetic permeability of the test object at
that point. It is this magnetic flux density that determines the
leakage field strengths at discontinuities. Thus, current amperage is
directl y related to the strength of leakage fields at discontinuities,
and it is these leakage fields that capture and hold magnetic
particles. The more difficult the discontinuities are to detect, the
weaker the leakage fields for a given amperage, and greater
amperage will be required to form discernible magnetic particle
indications. The discontinuities referred to in this case are those that
parallel the direction of current flow.
Direct Contact
A problem arises when deciding what amperage to use for a
given test object, particularly when the test object has a complicated
shape. A rule of thumb suggesting 1000 A per inch of diameter is
useful when the test object is reasonably uniform and cylindrical in
shape. Except for some special alloys and cast irons, the use of
1000 A per inch of diameter will usually ensure more than enough
field strength to detect surface and near surface discontinuities. In
highly permeable material, lower amperage per inch of diameter will
produce adequate field strength within the test object.
62
Central Conductor
Amperage requirements using a central conductor will depend on

the test object's size and the diameter of the opening through which
the conductor is to be located. In the case of a centrally located
conductor, amperage requirements may range from 100 A per inch
of hole diameter to as much as 1000 A per inch, depending on test
object material and the nature of the suspected discontinuities. Keep
in mind that the magnetizing field strength around a central
conductor decreases with distance away from the conductor, with the
strongest flux field being present at the surface inside the central
conductor's hole.
Radial discontinuities at the ends of holes and openings can also
be detected using the central conductor method, since some portion
of the magnetic lines of force will intercept these discontinuities.
The central bar conductor should have an outside diameter as close
as possible to the inside diameter of the hole of the test object. Use
Eq. 9.1 to determine the number of times the test object must be
rotated in equal movements and remagnetized to ensure complete
testing has been obtained.
(Dp 7r)
Eq.9.1 S = ( )
4xO.9Dc
where Dp is the diameter of the test object (inner diameter for central
conductor, outer diameter for coil); D, is outer diameter for central
conductor, inner diameter for coil; and S is number of turns required
for complete overlapping coverage.
Atest object is said to have been longitudinally magnetized when

the field in it is about parallel with a major axis. A test object
magnetized in a coil, for example, will be longitudinally magnetized
in a direction parallel to the coil axis. A characteristic of a test object
that is magnetized longitudinally will be the appearance of opposite
magnetic poles, north and south, at the extreme ends of the test
object. The existence of the poles is a disadvantage when
magnetizing and testing because much of the leakage flux from the
pole ends is not parallel with the test object surface. This reduces the
magnitude of flux that is parallel, thereby weakening the leakage
fields at discontinuities on the end regions. The poles are an
advantage in demagnetizing because they make it easy to detect
magnetized test objects and to confirm removal of the residual fields
after demagnetizing procedures.
Longitudinal magnetization is used for the detection of
circumferential discontinuities that lie in a direction transverse to, or
at about right angles to, a test object's axis. Circumferential
discontinuities around a cylinder, for example, are detected by
magnetizing the cylinder longitudinally in a direction parallel with
its axis. A portion of the longitudinal field will cross the
discontinuities, creating leakage fields that can capture and hold
magnetic particles to form indications at the discontinuities.
63
Techniques for longitudinal magnetization are accomplished in a
number of ways; magnetization in a coil being the most widely used

method. Test objects can be magnetized longitudinally by placing
them between the pole pieces of a pair of electromagnets with the
fields of the two electromagnets being directed in the same direction
through the test object. Still another method is the magnetizing of
test objects between the feet of yoke or probe, either the
electromagnetic or permanent magnet type.
Coil Shot
The usual way to longitudinally magnetize a test object is by
placing the test object in a rigid coil on a stationary magnetic
particle testing unit. The test object may be laid on the bottom inside
of the coil where the field is strongest, or the test object may be
supported in the coil by the contact heads of the unit. Special
supports are provided on some testing units for long, heavy test
objects permitting rotation of objects for testing. Coils are usually
mounted on rails, permitting movement along a long test object for
multiple tests (multiple coil shots). Because the effective field
extends only 15 to 23 em (6 to 9 in.) on either side of a coil,
multiple tests are needed on long test objects.
Cable Wrap
Cable wrapping a coil around large or heavy test objects is a
common practice. Flexible, insulated copper cable is used. A cable
wrapped coil is connected to a magnetic particle mobile or portable
power pack or it can be connected to the contact heads of a
stationary test unit. The type of power source to be used will depend
on the kind of current and amperages needed to accomplish the

particular desired test, both magnetizing and demagnetizing.
Cable lengths used to connect cable wrapped coils must be kept
as short as possible to minimize cable resistance losses and aid in
obtaining higher current amperages. In the case of alternating
current, and to some extent half wave direct current, in addition to
cable resistance, there is the inductance of the coil circuit that further
reduces current output. Twisting or taping the coil cable leads
together aids in reducing the losses of the coil circuit.
Coil inductance is the ratio of the total flux (sources and
variations) and the current. The magnetic flux and current are
directly proportional to the coil opening's area for straight coils. The
henry (H) is the unit of inductance of a coil.
Coil inductance increases directly with the coil opening area, and
increases as the square of the turns in the coil. Keeping each of these
factors as small as possible, particularly when using alternating
current, ensures the maximum amperage obtainable from the power
supply. To keep coil areas low, cable coils should be wrapped
directly on a test object or on some insulating material only a little
larger than the test object. Multiple tests along a long test object,
using a coil of only a few turns is preferable to using a coil of many
64
turns over the length of the test object. The latter is occasionally
done in cases where performing multiple tests is not possible or
when a power pack having the required output voltage and current
capacity is available. Any cables and cable leads used with and for
cable wrapped coils must have good quality electrical connections.
Poor connections result in overheating and reduced coil amperage.
A number of factors must be considered when determining
current amperage for longitudinal magnetization of test objects.
] . The coil diameter and the number of turns.
2. The length-to-diameter ratio of the test object.
3. The size, shape and composition of the test object.
4. The position of the test object within the coil.
5. The kind of discontinuities being sought and their ease of
detection.
6. The magnetic coupling component, or the fill factor of the
coil to the test object.
The magnetizing field strength H in the center of the magnetizing
coil increases or decreases in direct proportion to the coil current
and its number of turns. Also, the field strength will decrease if the
coil radius is made larger, or will increase if the radius is made
smaller. The field is theoretically zero in the coil center and
increases to a maximum at the inside edge of the conductor(s). Thus,
a test object placed against the inside of a coil, for example lying in
the bottom of the coil (as was shown in Figure 3.8 of Chapter 3),
will experience greater magnetizing field strength than when it is
centered in the coil.
While being magnetized in a coil, a magnetic test object has
magnetic poles generated at its ends. Rules of thumb have been

developed experimentally that include the effects of a test object's
magnetic permeability, which is assumed to be about 500 or greater,
and the demagnetizing effects of the poles at the test object ends.
These rules of thumb use the length-to-diameter ratio of a test object
that for many regularly shaped test objects is easily determined from
test object dimensions or can be estimated in the case of irregularly
shaped test objects.
Chapter 10
Magnetization by Means of Electric Current
Electric currents are used to create or induce magnetic fields in
eJectrically conducting materials. Since it is possible to alter the
directions of magnetic fields by controlling the direction of the
electrical magnetizing current, the arrangement of current paths is
used to induce magnetic flux lines at right angles to expected
discontinuities in the ferromagnetic test object.
CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION
Electric current passing through a straight conductor (a wire or
bar, for example) creates a circumferential magnetic field around
that conductor, as shown in Figure lO.1a. The magnetic lines of
force are always at right angles to the direction of the current that
induces the magnetic field.
To determine the direction taken by magnetic lines of force
around a conductor, imagine that the conductor is grasped with the
right hand so that the thumb points in the direction of the electric
current. The fingers then point in the direction taken by the magnetic
field Iines surrounding the conductor. This is called the right hand
rule, as was shown in Figure 3.2 in Chapter 3.
The passage of current induces a magnetic field strength in the
conductor as well as in surrounding space. An object magnetized in
this manner is said to have a circular field or to be circularly
magnetized, as shown in Figure lO.1b.
Figure 10.1: Fields in circular magnetization: (a) circumferential magnetic field
surrounding a straight conductor carrying an electric current; (b) circular magnetization of
a test object through which a magnetizing electric current passes.
(a) (b)
Magnetic field
rf~f-
-L9 ~ ~
.J . .J vi: J
Magnetizing current Conductor
Magnetic field
There is disagreement between common practice and electrical theory regarding current polarity.
Therefore, the current polarity is not shown.
67
Circular Magnetization of Solid Test Objects
Circular magnetization can be induced into a test object by prod,
direct or indirect contact methods. It is also possible to generate a
circular field in localized areas of the test object using prods to pass
current through the area being tested.

Circular Magnetization with Prods
The prod electrodes (generally solid copper or braided copper
tips) are first pressed firmly against the test object. The magnetizing
current is passed through the prods and into the area of the object in
contact with the prods. This establishes a circular magnetic field in
the test object around and between each prod electrode.
The use of alternating current limits the prod technique to the
detection of surface discontinuities. Half wave rectified direct
current is more desirable here because its greater particle mobility
helps detect surface and near surface discontinuities with greater
particle mobility.
The prod technique is generally used with dry magnetic particle
materials because of increased particle mobility on rough surfaces
and better penetration. In the United States, wet magnetic particles
are not normally used with the prod technique because of electrical
and fire hazards. In Europe, wet particles are regularly used with
prods to achieve higher sensitivity. Care should be taken to maintain
clean prod tips, to minimize heating at the point of contact and to
prevent prod arc strikes and local heating of the test surface.
Aluminum or copper braided tip prods or pads (rather than solid
copper tips) are recommended because of the possibility of copper
penetration if arcing occurs. A remote control switch should be built
into the prod handles to permit control of the current after
positioning and before removing to minimize arcing.
Circular Magnetization with Direct Contact

To induce a circular magnetic field in a solid test object, current
may be passed through the object. This creates poles on both sides
of discontinuities that are parallel to the length of the test object.
These poles attract fine magnetic particles and form an indication of
the discontinuity. Figure 10.2 shows the direct contact method for
producing circular fields in a ring to indicate circumferential cracks.
To achieve a reliable test of the entire cylindrical surface, two
magnetizations are required.
This is done because the points of contact (where the current
enters and leaves the ring) are not adequately magnetized for
discontinuity indication. The ring must therefore be turned
90 degrees and then retested.
Circular Magnetization with Induced Current
Figure 10.3 shows a current flowing circumferentially around the
ring, which can be induced by making the ring a single tum, short
circuited secondary transformer. To accomplish this effect, a
standard magnetizing coil can be used.
The ring is placed inside the coil with its axis parallel to that of
the coil. When the coil is energized with alternating current, the
arrangement constitutes an air core transformer; the magnetizing coil
is the primary and the ring is the single tum secondary. The total
current induced in the ring is greatly increased by inserting a
laminated core of ferromagnetic material through the ring.
For materials with high magnetic retentivity, direct current can be

applied in the technique called quick break, and the objects may then
be tested by the residual method. Quick break is when a direct
current field is caused to collapse suddenly because of an abruptly
interrupted magnetizing current. The circular field generated by the
induced current leaves the test object with a strong residual
induction. A bearing race is a good example of the type of object
that can be tested advantageously by this method.
For test objects made of soft material with low retentivity, the
continuous method must be used and the collapsing direct current
field method is not applicable. By using alternating current (or half
wave direct current) in the magnetizing coil, the current may be left
on and an alternating current (or half wave direct current) of the
same frequency as the magnetizing current is induced in the ring.
This current should be allowed to flow long enough to produce
indications by the continuous method.
Figure 10.2: Direct contact method of
magnetizing ring shaped objects to locate
circumferential discontinuities.
Circular magnetic field
Discontinuities
c.__ ._. ---'
Figure 10.3: Induced current method of
magnetizing ring shaped objects to locate
circumferential discontinuities.
Magnetic field
Magnetizing coil
Laminated core
Ring shaped test object
Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom TrainingBook
Induced current path
Circumferential
discontinuity
69
Circular Magnetization of Hollow Test Objects
With hollow objects or tubes, the inside surfaces may be as
important for testing as the outside surfaces. Since a magnetic field
surrounds a current carrying conductor, it is possible to induce a
satisfactory magnetic field by sliding the test object onto an internal
conducting bar, as shown in Figure lOAa. Passing current through
the bar induces a circular magnetic field throughout the volume of
the test object.
When a conducting bar is not available, an electrical cable may
be passed through the test object and connected to receptacles in the
magnetic particle unit, as shown in Figure lOAb. For large diameter
cylinders, the cable can be brought back on the outside of the test
object, then threaded through again; each pass through increases the
effective field by a factor of two. For long finished tubes,
uninsulated conductors are not permitted because of arc bums.
Figure 10.4: Circular magnetization of cylindrical test objects using an internal current
carrying conductor: (a) internal bar conductor; and (b) internal cable conductor.
(a) (b)
There is disagreement between common practice and electrical theory regarding current polarity.
Therefore, the current polarity is not shown.
LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION
Electrical current can be used to create a longitudinal magnetic
field in magnetic materials. When electric current is passed through
a coil, a magnetic field is established lengthwise or longitudinally
within the coil.
The nature and direction of this field are the result of the field
around the conductor which forms the turns of the coil. Application
of the right hand rule to the conductor at any point in the coil shows
that the field within the coil is longitudinal. Longitudinal
magnetization methods used are coil magnetization, field flow
magnetization and yoke magnetization.
70
Flux lines
COIL MAGNETIZATION
When magnetic material is placed within a coil, most of the
magnetic lines of force created by the electric current concentrate
themselves in the test object and induce longitudinal magnetization.
With a transverse discontinuity in the test object, magnetic poles are
formed on both sides of the crack by leakage fields. These poles
attract magnetic particles to form an indication of the discontinuity.

A magnetic field has been induced at right angles to the
discontinuity.
Test objects too large to fit in a fixed coil can be magnetized
longitudinally by making a coil from several turns of flexible cable.
The use of portable magnetizing equipment with cables and prods or
clamps broadens the use of magnetic particle testing. There is no
theoretical limit to the size of the object that can be tested in this
manner.
Important Considerations in Coil Magnetization
To induce an adequate longitudinal magnetic field with a coil, the
long dimension of the test object should be at least twice as great as
its short dimension, or end pieces should be added, and the long axis
of the test object should be parallel to the coil axis. This is especially
true in the case of irregularly shaped test objects, because the shape
of the object affects the direction of the induced flux.
When a wheel, smaller in diameter than a coil, is placed in the
coil, as shown in Figure 10.5, a field is induced in the white areas of
the test object in such a direction that radial discontinuities create
indications. However, radial cracks in the shaded areas of the test
object are parallel (or nearly parallel) to the induced magnetic field,
so that few or no indications are formed. Furthermore, magnetic
poles and attractive forces occur in these areas. To indicate radial
discontinuities in the shaded areas, it is necessary to rotate the test
object 90 degrees and remagnetize it, although this technique is not
recommended.
The detection of radial cracks in a test object of this shape is
more accurately and rapidly done using an internal conductor, as
shown in Figure 10.6. Better methods for finding circumferential
discontinuities in ring shaped test objects are shown in Figures 10.2
and 10.3. Ring shaped objects, discs or wheels are best checked for
circumferential cracks using the induced method of Figure 10.3. An
iron core, for example, is used with a coil surrounding it to produce
a toroidal field. This method has an advantage over the direct
contact method, shown in Figure 10.2, in that no danger of arcing or
burning exists, and the field is constant throughout the test object.
71
Figure 10.5: Coil magnetization of a
circular shape; radial discontinuities will be
indicated only in white areas (to reveal
radial discontinuities in the dark areas, the
test object must be rotated 90 degrees and
remagnetized); circular discontinuities will
be indicated in the shaded areas (to reveal
circular discontinuities in the white areas,
the test object must be rotated 90 degrees
and remagnetized).
Figure 10.6: Internal conductor method
used to produce circular magnetization:
(a) several ring shaped test objects

magnetized simultaneously; and (b) close
up of a ring with cracks in several
locations and orientations.
(a)
(b)
FIELD FLOW MAGNETIZATION
Another means of producing a longitudinal field in a test object is
the field flow method. Here, the field is produced by electromagnets
and passed through the test object. The field is almost wholly
contained within the test object.
Whereas there is theoretically no limit to the length of a test
object that can be magnetized this way, as a practical matter with an
alternating current source, power requirements limit the effective
length to about 1.3 m (4 ft). However, special techniques using
direct current have accomplished longitudinal magnetization in one
step for lengths over 3 m (10 ft).
The field flow method has some advantages over the current flow
(coil) method in some production applications.
1. Moving a magnetizing coil several times may be impractical
and time consuming.
2. Test objects with length-to-diameter ratios less than 3:1
require no special handling.
3. A consistent field wholly contained within a test object may
be required.

YOKE MAGNETIZATION
A longitudinal magnetic field can be induced in a test object or in
a limited area of a test object by using a handheld yoke. A yoke is a
Ushaped piece of soft magnetic material, either solid or laminated,
around which is wound a coil carrying the magnetizing current, as
shown in Figure lO.7a.
When a test object is placed across the opening of the Ushape
and the coil is energized, the test object completes the path of the
magnetic lines of force. This sets up a longitudinal field in the test
object between the ends of the yoke. Permanent magnetic yokes can
also be used to create a longitudinal magnetic field, as shown in
Figure lO.7b. Such yokes are often specified by their lifting power
or by the tangential field strength midway between the legs. The
tangential field strength is the field strength measured with a
magnetic penetrameter midway between the yoke legs.
Figure 10.7: Longitudinal lines of force induced by a yoke
magnet: (a) electrically energized yoke magnet; and
(b) permanent yoke magnet.
(a)
Coil
Flux field
(b)
Magnetic
particles
collectat crack
Combined Circular and Longitudinal Magnetization
Complete testing for discontinuities in different directions
requires that two or more magnetizations and tests be performed.
The test object should first be circularly magnetized and examined
for indications, then longitudinally magnetized and tested.
Demagnetization is the final step. It is critical to remember that
discontinuities are best detected when they are atright angles to the
magnetic lines of force.
Units of Measure and Terminology
One of the major sources for confusion when applying
electromagnetic field theory is the system of units used for
measurements. The centimeter gram second units, including the
electromagnetic system of units and the meter kilogram second
ampere units, are among the most familiar. However, other systems,
such as the absolute magnetic, the absolute electric and the
73
normalized system, are also used. What is more disturbing is that
mixed units are often used. For example, it is common for
practitioners to use SI units such as the ampere for electrical
quantities, and gaussian EMU units such as the gauss for magnetic
quantities. Only SI units are used throughout this section.
Another problem encountered in practice is the confusion
between magnetic field strength H, sometimes calledfield intensity,
and magnetic flux density B. The term magnetic field is often used
for H or B or both, depending on the situation. To avoid such
confusion, the quantity B is used consistently for the magnetic flux
density, whereas H is the magnetic field strength. Similarly, E is the
electric field intensity and D is the electric flux density.
TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
All materials are affected by magnetic fields. Matter is made up
of atoms with a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a field or
cloud of negatively charged electrons. The electron field is in
continual motion, spinning around the nucleus. When the material is
subjected to a magnetic field, the electron orbits are slightly
distorted. The amount of this distortion (or the corresponding change
in magnetic characteristics) when subjected to an external magnetic
field provides a means of classifying materials into three groups:
diamagnetic, paramagnetic or ferromagnetic.
Diamagnetic Materials
The term diamagnetic refers to a substance with magnetic
permeability slightly less than that of a vacuum. When placed in a
strong magnetic field, their induced magnetism is in a direction
opposite to that of iron. Diamagnetic materials include mercury,
gold, bismuth and zinc.
Paramagnetic Materials
Paramagnetic denotes a substance with permeability slightly
greater than that of air. When such materials are placed in a strong
magnetic field, there is a slight alignment of the electron spin in the
direction of the magnetic flux flow. This alignment exists only as

long as the paramagnetic material is in the external magnetic field.
Aluminum, platinum, copper and wood are paramagnetic materials.
Ferromagnetic Materials
Ferromagnetic materials have a permeability greater than that of
air. When placed in an external magnetic field, the magnetic
domains align parallel with the external field and remain aligned for
some period of time after removal from the field. This continued
alignment after removal from the external field is called retentivity.
It can be an important property in some magnetic particle testing
procedures.
74
CALCULATION OF MAGNETIC FORCE REQUIREMENTS
Prods
With prods, the circular magnetization strength is proportional to
the amperage used, but varies with prod spacing and the thickness of
the section being tested. It is recommended that a magnetizing
current of 90 to 110A for each 2.5 em (1 in.) of prod spacing should
be used for material under 2 em (0.75 in.) thick. A magnetizing
current of 100 to 125 A for each 2.5 em (l in.) of prod spacing is
recommended for material 2 em (0.75 in.) and over in thickness.
Prolonged energizing cycles may cause undesirable localized
overheating. Prod spacing less than 8 ern (3 in.) is usually not
practical because the particles tend to band around the prods,
making interpretation difficult. When the area of examination

exceeds a width of one quarter of the prod spacing, measured from a
centerline connecting the prod centers, the magnetic field intensity
should be verified at the edges of the area being examined.
Yokes
The field strength of a yoke (or a permanent magnet) can be
empirically determined by measuring its lifting power. If a hall
effect probe is used, it should be placed on the surface midway
between the poles.
Coil
Two rules of thumb have been developed for use in determining
coil amperages to use for longitudinal magnetization. One is for a
test object centered in a coil, and the other is for a test object located
against the inside surface of a coil. These rules of thumb apply
particularly to regular cylindrically shaped test objects, the diameters
of which do not exceed about one tenth that of the coil and the test
object length-to-diameter ratio does not exceed fifteen. Long test
objects having length-to-diameter ratios greater than fifteen will
require more than one test along their length. In these cases, the
most effective longitudinal field in a test object only extends about
23 em (9 in.) on each side of the coil. Amperages calculated using
the rule of thumb formulas will produce in cylindrically shaped steel
test objects a flux density of about 70000 lines/in.? (10 850 G),
which density is sufficient for detection of most surface and near
surface discontinuities.
A characteristic of longitudinal magnetization when using a coil

is the difficulty in producing good indications near the ends of the
test object. This difficulty is caused by the leakage field that
emanates from the magnetic poles generated at the test object ends.
The leakage field from these poles reduces the flux within the test
object, and because this leakage is at right angles to the surface, it
reduces particle mobility. This holds particles in the form of
background instead of permitting migration to form indications.
75
Testing at the ends of cylindrically shaped test objects is
improved when the residual method is used and the test objects are
magnetized using a very rapid decay of the coil field. The rapid
decay of the field generates a pulse of induced current that in turn
produces a strong surface residual field over most of the length of a
test object. Test objects must be moderately retentive for this type of
residual test, and their shape must be generally cylindrical and have
no long slots or cuts that would interrupt an induced current path
around the test object near its outer surface.
Air Core Coil Longitudinal Magnetization
Longitudinal test object magnetization is produced by passing a
current through a multi turn coil encircling the test object or section
of the test object to be examined. A magnetic field is produced
parallel to the axis of the coil.
The unit of measurement is ampere turns: the actual amperage
multiplied by the number of turns in the encircling coil or cable. The

effective field extends on either side of the coil a distance about
equal to the radius of the coil. Long test objects should be tested in
sections to ensure this length is not exceeded. There are four
empirical longitudinal magnetization formulas for using encircling
coils, the formula to be used depending on the fill factor.
The formulas are included for educational purposes only. They
are based on the use of three phase alternating current, rectified full
wave direct current or peak amperages. Their use should be limited
to simple shaped test objects. It would be quicker and more accurate
to use a tesla (gauss) meter, lay its probe on the test object and
measure the field rather than to calculate using the formulas.
Fill Factor Coils
In this case, the cross sectional area of the fixed encircling coil
greatly exceeds the cross sectional area of the test object (less than
10% coil inside diameter). For proper test object magnetization, such
test objects should be placed well within the coils and close to the
inside wall of the coil, as shown in Figure 10.8. With this low fill
factor, adequate field strength for eccentrically positioned test objects
with a length-to-diameter ratio between 3 and 15 is calculated from
the following equations. Equation 10.1 should be used for test objects
with low fill factor positioned close to the inside of a coil.
K 45000
Eq.10.1 NI =-- (±10%) or ampere turns =--
LID LID
where N is number of turns in the coil, I is coil current to be used,

K is 45 000 (empirically derived constant), L is test object length
and D is test object diameter.
Equation 10.2 should be used for test objects with low fill factor
positioned in the center of the coil.
_ KR +
Eq.10.2 NI - ( ) (_10%)
6L1 D -5
76
where N is the number of turns in the coil, I is the coil current to be
used, K is 43 000 (empirically derived constant), R is coil radius,
L is test object length and D is test object diameter.
Equation 10.3 should be used for intermediate fill factor coils
when the cross section of the coil is greater than twice and less than
ten times the cross section of the test object.
Eq.10.3 NI = (NIh! )(10 - Y) +(NIif )(Y ;2)
where NIh/is the value of NI calculated for high fill factor coils, Nlif
is the value of NI calculated for low fill factor coils and Y is the ratio
of the cross sectional area of the coil to the cross section of the test
object.
Equation lOA should be used for high fill factor coils, shown in
Figure 10.9. In this case, when fixed coils or cable wraps are used
and the cross sectional area of the coil is less than twice the cross
sectional area (including hollow portions) of the test object, the coil
has a high fill factor, as shown in Figure 10.10.

K
Eq.10.4 NI = ( (±1O%)
LI D)+2
where N is the number of turns in the coil or cable wrap, I is coil
current, K is 35 000 (empirically derived constant), L is test object
length, D is test object diameter and NI is ampere turns.
For length-to-diameter ratios less than 3, a pole piece
(ferromagnetic material about the same diameter as the test object)
should be used to effectively increase the length-to-diameter ratio, or
an alternative magnetization method should be used, such as induced
current. For length-to-diameter ratios greater than 15, a maximum
length-to-diameter value of 15 should be used for all formulas cited
above.
When calculating the length-to-diameter ratio for a hollow piece,
D shall be replaced with an effective diameter Deff calculated using
Eq.l0.5.
E 105 (At -Ah)Z
q. . Del! =2-'-------'--
where At is the total cross sectional area of the test object and Ah is
cross sectional area of the hollow portiones) of the test object. For a
cylindrical test object, this is equivalent to:
Eq.10.6 De!I =[(OD)2 -(IDfF
1
where OD is the outside diameter of the cylinder and ID is the inside
diameter of the cylinder.
These equations are included for educational purposes or
emergencies only. It is faster to buy a tesla (gauss) meter, lay the
probe on the test object and measure the field strength than
calculating with the equations.
77
Figure 10.8: Low fill factor
coil.
Test
object
Coil
Figure 10.9:Intermediate
fill factor coil.
Test
object
INTERPRETATION OF INDICATIONS
Figure 10.10: High fill
factor coil.
Test
object
All valid indications formed by magnetic particle testing are the
result of magnetic leakage fields. Indications may be relevant,
nonrelevant or false.
Relevant Indications
Relevant indications are produced by leakage fields that are the
result of discontinuities. Relevant indications require evaluation with
regard to the acceptance standards agreed on between the
manufacturer's test agency and the purchaser.
Nonrelevant Indications
Nonrelevant indications can occur singly or in patterns as a result
of leakage fields created by conditions that require no evaluation,
such as changes in section (like keyways and drilled holes), inherent
material properties (like the edge of a bimetallic weld) and magnetic
writing.
False Indications
False indications are not the result of magnetic forces. Examples
are particles held mechanically or by gravity in shallow depressions
or particles held by rust or scale on the surface.
Coil
Chapter 11
Demagnetization
---------------------------------------------
Most ferromagnetic materials subjected to magnetic particle
testing will require demagnetization. When performing magnetic
particle testing, it is essential to demagnetize. The technician should
understand the reasons for this step, as well as the problems
involved and the available means for solving them.

The Earth's magnetic field plays a part in the difficulty of
demagnetizing test objects. A long test object to be totally
demagnetized should be placed so that its principal axis, or longest
member, is in an east to west direction. A long test object.lying in a
north to south direction can never be demagnetized below the level
of the Earth's field. Rotating the test object on its eastto west axis
while demagnetizing often helps reduce the field in transverse
members that are not lying east and west. Vibration of the structure
during the demagnetization process is also helpful under these
circumstances. Complete removal of all magnetic fields is virtually
impossible. Understanding and applying proper measurement
techniques is critical to the proper outcome.
PURPOSE
Test objects fabricated from ferromagnetic material retain a
certain amount of residual magnetism, or remnantfield, after
application of a magnetizing force. This does not affect the
mechanical properties of the test object. However, it is necessary to
reduce the residual magnetism retained in a test object by
demagnetization.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION FOR DEMAGNETIZATION
Demagnetization may be accomplished in a number of different
ways. The method used depends on the electrical power and
equipment available, the degree of demagnetization required and the
skill of the technician. One of the more simple methods subjects the
magnetized test object to a magnetizing force that continually

reverses its direction. At the same time, this force is gradually
decreased in strength. As the decreasing magnetizing force is
applied, first in one direction and then the opposite direction, the
magnetization of the test object is decreased.
79
This decreasing magnetization is accomplished by smaller and
smaller hysteresis loops created by the application of decreasing
current. The smaller the hysteresis loop produced, the more
demagnetization that has been accomplished. All steels have a
certain amount of coercive force, making it extremely difficult, if
not totally impossible, to demagnetize them completely. In fact, it is
so difficult that for all practical purposes the only way to completely
demagnetize them is to heat the test object to its curie point or
above. Under normal conditions, a test object is considered to be
satisfactorily demagnetized if the magnetic field is lowered to
acceptable limits when checked with a field indicator. For example,
in the aircraft industry this level is typically 2 G or less.
REQUIREMENTS TO DEMAGNETIZE
Ferromagnetic component test objects used in navigation
equipment require demagnetization principally to prevent magnetic
flux from affecting the instrumentation. This is the primary reason,
and there are several additional reasons supporting demagnetization.
Other critical components like gears and bearings require
demagnetization to prevent build up of wear fragments leading to
early failure.
Demagnetization is required when the residual field in a test
object may interfere with subsequent machining operations by
causing chips to adhere to the surface of the test object or the tip of
a tool that may become magnetized from contact with the
magnetized test object. Such chips can interfere with smooth cutting
by the tool; adversely affecting both finish and tool life. Small wear
particles may be attracted to a magnetized test object, resulting in
reduced service life or catastrophic failure. Subsequent operations
may be affected, such as welding, electroplating and electron beam
welding.
Reasons to Demagnetize
Objects that have been magnetic particle tested retain some
magnetism. The amount of residual magnetism depends on the
material and its condition. Low carbon steel in the annealed
condition retains little or no magnetism, whereas hardened alloy
steels retain strong magnetic fields for long periods of time.
Reducing or removing residual magnetism is not a direct function
of the intensity of the retained magnetic field but is a direct function
of the coercive force of the material. The ease of demagnetization
depends on the magnetic properties or hysteresis curve of the
material.
80
Justification for Demagnetizing
There are several ways that an object can be magnetized: induced

magnetization from Earth fields, use of a magnetic chuck or plate
during machining, mechanically induced magnetization and
magnetic particle testing. Demagnetization is required for the
following reasons, despite the source of the magnetization.
1.
A magnetized object can affect the accuracy and function of
some instruments and meters.
Removal of the magnetic particle media following testing is
necessary because residual particles can cause problems
during subsequent operations, such as machining and surface
coating. Retained particles can also cause excessive wear on
moving components in assemblies. Demagnetization is
3.
4.
5.
6.
necessary because flux leakage can retain particles despite a
typical cleaning process.
Machining of magnetized objects is objectionable because
chips and shavings may adhere to the surface, disrupting the
surface finish and dulling the cutting tool.
Magnetized objects attract and retain metallic debris during
handling and cleaning before the application of surface
coatings. The entrapped metal particles create serious
imperfections in painted or plated surfaces.

Demagnetization is required when objects are to be electric
arc welded. A residual magnetic field can cause the arc to
deflect or wander. Arc deflection, called arc blow, is a
particular problem in automated welding systems that do not
compensate for a shift in arc.
Demagnetization may be required when remagnetizing in
another direction, if the second magnetizing field intensity is
less than the original. If the second magnetic field strength
does not equal or exceed the initial field strength, the initial
magnetic field remains dominant.
Reasons Not to Demagnetize
Although demagnetization is often required, is is not always
necessary. Demagnetization is not required when the test objects have
very low retentivity (such materials are demagnetized when the
magnetic field strength is removed). Sometimes,the residual magnetic
field is such that it does not affect the function of the test object nor its
service life; or the test object is magnetic particle tested a second time,
with equal or greater magnetic field strength in another direction.
Demagnetization is not necessary when test objects are subjected
to external magnetic fields, such as clamping with a magnetic chuck
during machining or hoisting with an electromagnetic crane. Finally,
there is no need for demagnetization if the test object is exposed to a
subsequent heating above the curie point, the temperature where
magnetic domains become random and the material becomes
unmagnetized.
DEMAGNETIZATION METHODS
Heating Above Curie Point
All ferromagnetic materials containing magnetic flux can be
demagnetized by heating to a specific temperature and allowing the
material to cool in the absence of an external magnetic flux. The
temperature at which the material changes from ferromagnetic to
paramagnetic is called the curie point. This temperature varies
widely depending on alloy composition. For example, the curie point
for nickel containing 1% silicon is 320°C (608 OF),whereas the
curie point for nickel containing 5% silicon is 45°C (113 OF).The
curie point for ferrous alloys ranges from about 650 to 870°C (1200
to 1600 OF).
The transition from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic at the curie
point reverses on cooling and the material becomes ferromagnetic in
an unmagnetized condition. Some X-ray diffraction studies show
that this transition is not a crystalline structure transformation, but a
rearrangement of magnetic domains. Demagnetization by heating
through the curie point is the most thorough demagnetization
possible but because of its expense it is not commonly used.
Electromagnetic Demagnetization
There are several techniques for demagnetizing an object using
electromagnetic energy. All of these techniques subject a magnetized
object to a magnetic force that is reversed in its direction and
gradually decreasing in intensity.

In Figure 11.1, the bottom curve illustrates the magnetic field
strength used to generate the flux intensity curve below. As the
current diminishes in value with each reversal, the hysteresis curve
traces an increasingly smaller path. The top curve illustrates the
decreasing residual flux intensity in the test object, indicated by the
shrinking hysteresis loops. The magnetizing current and flux
intensity curves are plotted against time. When the current reaches
zero, the residual magnetism approaches zero.
Successful demagnetization depends on several requirements.
First, the magnetic field strength at the start of the demagnetizing
cycle must be high enough to overcome the coercive force and to
reverse the direction of the residual field. This is typically
accomplished by demagnetizing at a slightly higher current than that
used in the magnetizing cycle.
The second requirement is that, in each successive cycle, the
reduction of magnetic field strength must be small enough that the
reverse magnetic field strength exceeds the coercive force and
reverses the flux direction from the previous reversal. This requires a
number of cycles, depending on the permeability of the material.
Ten to thirty reversals are often required.
82
; Figure 11.1: Demagnetization hysteresis loops with current and flux intensity curves.
B+
-1-1-
+ -:;-.
I•
II
H- -r==t==t=+===:;==f::i--- H+
B-
------------------------------------------------'
Alternating Current Demagnetization
A common method of demagnetizing small test objects is by
passing them through a coil carrying alternating current, as shown in
Figure 11.2. The test objects are moved into the coil while the
current is flowing for exposure to the maximum magnetic flux. The
test objects are then slowly and axially withdrawn some distance
from the coil. This procedure serves to reduce the magnetic field
strength because flux intensity decreases with distance from its
source. To ensure that the flux is reduced to a minimum level, the
trailing edges of the test objects should be withdrawn to a distance at
least twice the coil diameter.
Alternating current demagnetization can also be accomplished by
placing the test object in the coil and gradually reducing the current
to zero. Some coils and some magnetic particle system designs have
built in circuitry for current reduction. When decaying alternating
current is available on wet horizontal units, the current can be
applied directly to the test object through the headstock and tailstock
instead of passing the test object through the coil. This is more
Time_
FLUX CURVE
83
Figure 11.2: Alternating current coil demagnetizing unit with
rail assembly.
effective than the coil technique for long, circularly magnetized test
objects.
There are some limitations to alternating current
demagnetization. Most important is the fact that alternating current
concentrates the magnetic flux at the test object surface. Large test
objects are not effectively demagnetized by the alternating current
method because of its skin effect.
This lack of penetration also prohibits demagnetization of a
number of small test objects piled in a basket (the alternating current
skin effect demagnetizes only the outside surface of test objects on
the outer layer). Quantities of small test objects can be demagnetized
with alternating current techniques only by placing them in a well
separated single layer with their long dimensions parallel to the axis
of the coil.
Direct Current Demagnetization
The principle of demagnetizing with direct current is identical to
that of alternating current demagnetization. The magnetic field
strength or current must be sequentially reversed and gradually

reduced. One of the advantages of reversing direct current
demagnetization is the deep penetration that is possible.
Because reversing the direction of direct current is done through
electrical circuits, it is possible to control the rate of reversal. The
most commonly used reversal rate is two cycles per second or a
frequency of 2 Hz. This produces the optimum depth of penetration,
permitting the demagnetization of large test objects. Direct current
demagnetization often reduces the residual field to a value lower
than is possible with alternating current. In practice, the test object is
placed within the coil, or between the head and tailstock, where it
remains until the demagnetization cycle is complete.
Yoke Demagnetization
Yokes or prods are often used for demagnetization when
portability is required. Either alternating current or reversing direct
current can be used, depending on the available power supply.
Pulsating half wave direct current found in many self contained
power yokes cannot be used unless the unit also contains a current
reversing circuit. Demagnetization is accomplished by passing
objects through the poles of the yoke and withdrawing them while
the current is flowing.
Yokes can also be used to demagnetize local areas on large test
objects. The poles are placed on the surface to be demagnetized,
moved in a circular pattern and then slowly withdrawn while the
yoke is energized. When demagnetizing small areas on a large test

object, care must be exercised to avoid magnetizing adjacent areas.
The yoke magnetic flux for successful demagnetization must
exceed that of the test object's magnetic field. Several yokes may be
grouped to demagnetize larger volumes of the test object.
Demagnetization Practices
There are practical limits to the demagnetization process. These
limits are controlled by the equipment, the size and material of the
test object and the Earth's magnetic field. Generally, the practical
limit of demagnetization occurs at a point where a residual field
remains but at a level that does interfere or complicate the intended
function of the test object in service.
Longitudinal residual magnetic fields are usually measured with a
field meter. Some meters read relative units and are useful for
comparison purposes only; other meters read directly in tesla or
gauss. The greatest flux leakage in a longitudinally magnetized test
object is at the ends or comers of the test object. These are the best
places to check for the effectiveness of demagnetization. Note that
when the readings are in relative units, there may be differences
between the readings of different manufacturers' field meters.
The magnetic field of a circularly magnetized object is
completely contained within the object, and there are no flux
leakage points except at discontinuities. Therefore, field strength
meters cannot indicate residual magnetism of a circularly
magnetized object. A common practice is to perform longitudinal
magnetization as the last step in a two step operation, and then

demagnetize in a longitudinal direction. This procedure allows the
use of a field meter to check the effectiveness of demagnetization.
The Earth's magnetic field is in a north to south direction and can
cause problems when demagnetizing test objects with a high length
to-diameter ratio. When low residual fields are required, these
problems can be reduced by placing the demagnetizing unit's coil
axis in an east to west direction.
85
Chapter 12
Equipment
A variety of equipment is available for either circular or
longitudinal magnetization. The equipment ranges in size from
general purpose portable units small enough to be carried by hand to
large, custom built stationary units with separate power supplies.
STATIONARYEQUIPMENT
Mechanized Equipment
Mechanized equipment for magnetic particle testing gives extra
capability to the technician who has primary control over the
operation. The technician directs the flow of test objects, applies the
magnetic field, controls the application of media and reads the
indication patterns.
Semiautomatic Equipment
Semiautomated equipment delivers the test object to the
technician's station, applies the magnetic fields, allows the

technician to apply media and interpret the indication pattern. The
contact heads, coils and yoke stages are easily changeable to quickly
adapt to a wide range oftest objects. .
Single Purpose Semiautomatic Equipment
Single purpose semiautomatic equipment is designed to handle a
single type of test object, such as a crank shaft, connecting rod or
landing gear. The magnetization fixturing can be changed, but it is
typically set up for one type and size of test object. These test
objects may be cycled at high rates, but a technician will read each
magnetic particle indication pattern. Automatic sensors may be used
to sense the presence of indications and the effectiveness of
demagnetization. Indication patterns may be captured on video tape.
Fully Automatic Equipment
Fully automated equipment is designed to handle a single type of
test object with a limited sequence of magnetization at each station.
The magnetization fixturing can be changed, but it is typically set up
for one type and size of test object. These test objects may be cycled
at high rates. Filtered light, meters, cameras and lasers are used to
detect indication patterns. These automatic sensors are used to
._ .. ".,_ .._--_._..---,-------------------------------
87
evaluate the indications and the effectiveness of demagnetization.
Indication patterns may be captured on video tape.
PORTABLE EQUIPMENT
Versatile mobile testing units are available in several sizes

ranging from 2000 to 6000 A of alternating current, half wave direct
current and full wave direct current outputs. The units have remote
current output, on/off, magnetize and demagnetize controls that
permit operation at the site of testing. The units are supplied with
either rigid or cable wrapped coils for longitudinal magnetization
and demagnetization. Cables connected to a test object or passing
through a test object are used for circular magnetization or
demagnetization. Mobile units canbe easily moved to any test site
where suitable line input voltages and current capacity are available.
Both half wave direct current and alternating current outputs are
included in most portable units to increase their versatility. Half
wave direct current and dry magnetic powder make the best
combination for detecting subsurface discontinuities in welds,
particularly when used with the prod method of testing. Half wave
direct current is also useful for detecting subsurface discontinuities
when the wet method is used. The use of alternating current is
limited to detection of discontinuities that are open to the surface,
such as cracks, and for demagnetizing testobjects.
Small portable units that can be hand carried are shown in
Figure 12.1. These units have both alternating current and half wave
direct current outputs and must be used with portable or cable
wrapped coils to longitudinally magnetize. The units usually have a
remote on/off control. They can be used wherever alternating current
power source exists.
Figure 12.1: Portable magnetic particle testing equipment: (a) direct or alternating current
model with infinite current control; (b) lightweight pulse portable operating from outlet;
and (c) adjustable yoke, coil (for magnetizing or demagnetizing) and assorted accessories.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Alternating current and direct current yokes are specialized
electromagnets of special design that allow the testing of complex,
large and small test objects, and small batch sizes.
Yoke Break or Lift Test
There are reports of both successful and unsuccessful magnetic
particle tests of welds through paint. Such a wide variation in
reported feasibility is not entirely surprising. Thousands of different
paints exist and are applied in a wide range of thicknesses and in a
nearly infinite number of primer and top coat combinations. Each
paint or coating system has a characteristic magnetic permeability
that influences the degree to which magnetic flux may be introduced
to a ferromagnetic substrate.
A yoke break test was devised to help evaluate the effect of
coating type and thickness on the introduction of flux to a
ferromagnetic substrate. This simple test relies on the contention that
the flux strength produced in a ferromagnetic material may be gaged
by the amount of pull produced by the yoke on that material. The
test uses a dynamometer to pull an energized yoke from a bare test
plate. The plate is then coated with progressively increasing

thicknesses of paint. After the application of each paint layer, the
force required to pull (or break) the yoke from the plate is measured
along with the coating thickness. During this test, the poles of the
yoke are maintained at a constant spacing.
Such a test was performed using ASTM A-36 (1018) steel plates
as a substrate. Four separate coating types were evaluated, including
inorganic zinc, zinc chromate, enamel and phenolic epoxy. Yoke
break test data obtained for each coating are presented in
Figure 12.2, where pull is plotted against applied coating thickness.
Weld Bead Crack Reference Standards
In an attempt to quantify the thickness of the coating at which
sensitivity is diminished, four ASTMA-36 plates were prepared,
each containing a single shielded metal arc weld bead in which
copper ferrite dilution cracking had been induced. Copper ferrite
cracks are very fine and barely visible to the unaided eye. Each plate
was tested with yoke magnetization, and a record of the particle
indications was made for each direction of magnetization.
Each plate was then coated with inorganic zinc, zinc chromate,
enamel or phenolic epoxy. Coating thicknesses were measured and
recorded, and the plates were then retested with a yoke technique.
Particle indications were recorded, and the indications were
compared to those obtained during magnetic particle tests of the bare
metal. This process was repeated until each plate reached the point
at which coating thickness diminished the indication detectability.

Figure 12.2: Decrease in pull with increase in coating
thickness; yoke produces a pull of 8.7 kg (19.3 lb) on a bare
test plate; yoke center-to-center pole spacing maintained at
10.8 em (4.25 in.) during all tests.
----
CJ)
"Cl
Enamel
8.0 (18)
7.6 (17)
7.2 (16)
::l
0..
'-'
'3
</J
c,
ro
....
01)
6.8 (15)
6.3 (14)-
5.9 (13)
.3
5.4 (12)
:.g
5.0 (11)
4.5 (10)
Inorganic zinc
Zinc chromate
Phenolic epoxy
25 50 75 100 150 160 170 180
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Coating thickness
micrometer (milli-inch)
Reference Standards for Weld Cracking
To confirm that bead crack test data would be valid when applied
to actual welds, three additional plates were prepared to contain
multipass groove butt welds with multiple bead weld reinforcement,
or caps. Each weld cap was about 2.5 em (1 in.) wide. These welds
contained undercuts of varying severity, as well as copper ferrite
dilution cracks. Except for the cracking, the welds were typical of
those commonly encountered during industrial magnetic particle
tests.
An initial test was performed and records of particle indications
were made. Each plate was then coated with inorganic zinc, zinc
chromate or enamel. The paints were allowed to dry, coating
thicknesses were measured and recorded and each plate was retested
with yoke magnetization.
Records of the particle indications were made and test results
were compared to those obtained from the unpainted plates. Even
though each of the applied coating thicknesses was less than
0.002 em (0.008 in.), all of the test objects revealed a dramatic loss
of indication detectability.
Effect of Coating Thickness on Test Results
The introduction of magnetic flux to a ferromagnetic substrate
with an alternating current yoke is affected by interposing
thicknesses of paint. The extent of this effect may be significant,
depending on the type of paint and its thickness.
There is a surprisingly large difference in the data obtained from
single bead test welds and from multiple bead test welds, especially
as they relate to the coating thicknesses that permit yoke
magnetization. This difference may be the result of concurrent
leakage fields that existed in the multiple bead weld cap but not in
the single bead weld, as shown in Figure 12.3. This could have
produced decreased flux density in leakage fields at the crack sites,
and in tum could have reduced the ability to attract and hold
particles through the coatings.
Figure 12.3: Concurrent leakage fields produced in a multibead
weld cap as the result of abrupt cross sectional change at the

weld toes; redistribution of the magnetic flux caused by these
fields reduces the leakage field in an adjacent discontinuity.
Single
weldbead
Discontinuity
leakagefield
Concurrent
leakagefields
Concurrent Leakage
The concept of concurrent leakage was investigated further. A
single shielded metal arc weld bead containing copper ferrite
dilution cracking was deposited on a carbon steel plate. The bead
was tested with magnetic particle yoke techniques, and the
discontinuity indications were recorded.
An additional bead was then deposited on each side of the
original weld, and the new weld was retested. After seven beads had
been deposited (three on each side of the original weld bead), a
distinct decrease in indication detectability was observed.
This indicates that magnetic particle testing of painted welds is
dependent not only on coating type and thickness, but also on the
weld profile.
Wet Magnetic Particles for Yoke Magnetization
One of the important factors that determine the effectiveness and
reliability of wet method magnetic particle testing is the efficacy of
the magnetic particle suspension. The commonly required settling

test has some important limitations that become evident during field
tests using the wet method with an electromagnetic yoke. The
settling test is appropriate for a suspension that is mechanically
agitated in a large stationary magnetic particle system, but the test is
less appropriate for suspensions applied manually from pump spray
bottles or for suspensions purchased in sealed pressurized cans.
When spray bottles are used, the technician is responsible for mixing
Multiple
bead welds
91
the suspension properly and agitating it sufficiently during use.
Pressurized cans, on the other hand, are labeled to show the particle
concentration when filled, but this concentration level may not be
maintained from the first use to the last. Pressurized cans must be
thoroughly agitated before each use.
The time and amount of material required for settling tests to
monitor each container (and each technician's agitation technique)
make this method much slower and more expensive than testing
with dry magnetic powder techniques. For example, if testing
continues while waiting for the results of a settling test, then a
reading outside acceptable limits make it necessary to retest every
area tested since the last acceptable settling test. This is avoided by
stopping all tests while waiting for the results of a settling test.
Neither alternative is efficient enough for production applications.
DRY POWDER TEST EQUIPMENT
The dry powder method is primarily used for the testing of welds
and castings and where the detection of discontinuities lying wholly
below the surface is important. The particles used in the dry method
are provided in the form of a powder. They are available in red,
black, yellow, gray and other colors. The magnetic properties,
particle size and shape and coating method are similar in all colors,
making the particles equally efficient. The choice of powder is
determined primarily by which powder will provide the best contrast
and visibility on the test objects and the degree of sensitivity
desired.
Powder Selection
Selection of the color of particles to use is essentially a matter of
securing the best possible contrast with the background of the
surface of the test object. The differences in visibilities among the
black, gray, yellow and red particles are considerable on
backgrounds that may be dark or bright, and which may be viewed
in various kinds of light.
Outstanding properties of the dry powders are their more
favorable shape and higher permeability in comparison with the wet
particles. It is these two characteristics, more than any other, that are
responsible for the good performance of these dry powders within
their field of application. Available powders for the dry method

92
1. Gray powder: general purpose high contrast powder, by far
the most widely used of the dry powders. It is effective on
dark surfaces, whether black, gray or rust colored.
2. Black powder: specially designed for use on light colored
surfaces. This is the cleanest powder to use, as it is dust free.
It is also the most sensitive of the dry powders. Its higher
sensitivity is caused by the fact that it contains the highest
proportion of magnetic material of all the dry powders.
3. Red powder: dark reddish powder is used on light colored
surfaces, as is the black powder. However, since the black
powder on a silvery or polished surface is sometimes hard to
see, the red color may offer better contrast, particularly
under incandescent lighting where the red color stands out.
4. Yellow powder: pale yellow powder features fair sensitivity
and good contrast on dark colored surfaces.
Powder Applications
Rules for the application of dry powder will make the process of
testing easier and more effective. The dry particles are heavier and
individually have a much greater mass than the very fine particles of
the wet method. If they are applied to the surface of a test object
with any appreciable velocity, the fields at the discontinuities may
not be able to stop and retain them. This is especially true when
vertical or overhead surfaces are being tested.

The powder should reach the surface of test objects as a thin
cloud with practically zero velocity drifting to the surface so leakage
fields have only to hold it in place. For vertical and overhead
surfaces, the fields must overcome the pull of gravity that tends to
cause the particles to fall away. Since the dry particles have a wide
range of sizes, the finer particles will be held under these conditions
unless the leakage fields are extremely weak. On horizontal surfaces,
this problem is minimized.
The usual mistake is to apply too much powder. Once on the
horizontal surface of a test object, the powder has no mobility
(unless alternating current or half wave direct current is being used),
and a heavy application tends to obscure indications. If the test
object can be lifted and tapped, the excess powder will fall away and
indications will be more readily visible. The excess powder can also
be gently blown away with an air stream not strong enough to blow
off magnetically held particles forming an indication.
Applicators
Various devices have been used to make proper powder
application easy. The squeeze bottle is light and easy to use. With
some practice, by a combination of shaking as with a salt shaker and
a gentle squeeze on the bottle, powder can be ejected with minimum
velocity. Practicing with the bottle on a sheet of white paper will
train the technician to produce an even gentle overall coverage.
93
A powder gun or blower improves application, especially on
vertical and overhead surfaces. The powder gun throws a cloud of
powder at low velocity, much like a very thin paint spray. When held
about 0.3 m (l ft) from the test surface, a very light dusting of
powder permits easy observation of indications. On horizontal
surfaces, excess powder is blown away with a gentle air stream from
the blower.
Typically, there are two push button valves on a blower gun
control: the flow of powder or clean air. Less powder is used with
the gun, which helps to ensure better testing. A more elaborate gun
powder blower has amotor driven compressor integral with a
powder container and an air powder mixer. A multichannel rubber
hose connects to the gun. A work light is contained in the gun tip to
illuminate the test area. A trigger on the gun controls the discharge
of the powder and air mixture and the blow off air.
WET VISIBLE TEST EQUIPMENT
Wet method magnetic particles are similar to each other once
they are dispersed in the suspending liquid. In the past, the most
common form of the wet visible material concentrate was a paste.
Today, however, the pastes have been almost exclusively
reformulated and produced as dry powderconcentrates. These
powders incorporate the needed materials for dispersion, wetting,
rust inhibiting, etc.
The powders are much easier to use, as they need merely to be
measured out and added directly to the agitated bath. The agitation
system of the modern magnetic particle units will pick up the
powder and quickly disperse it in the bath in the process of
circulation and agitation.
Particle Selection
The need to meet a variety of conditions for successful magnetic
particle testing has resulted in the development of different materials
to obtain this result. The most commonly used materials are listed
with the special characteristics of each.
Black Powder Concentrate
Black powder concentrate is available as an oil or water
suspendible dry powder. It is especially suited for finding fine cracks
on polished surfaces, such as bearings or crankshafts. It is the most
sensitive of the nonfluorescent wet method powders for such
applications, though indications may be hard to see.
Red Powder Concentrate
Red powder concentrate is available as a reddish brown oil or
water suspendible powder. It is fully the equivalent of the black
powder for all applications except the very fine cracks in polished
94
surfaces. The red color gives improved contrast and visibility in
situations where the black on silver contrast of the black powder is
poor. This color tends to be more visible than black under
incandescent light.
Suspension Characteristics
Particles may be suspended either in water or in a petroleum
distillate. Water is initially cheaper, but additions are typically made
before water becomes a suitable medium for suspending wet
magnetic particles. Wetting agents, antifoaming materials, corrosion
inhibitors, suspending and dispersing agents are all necessary and
must be carefully controlled. To ensure proper control of the water
conditioners, water should not be used as a suspending liquid unless
water chemistry services are available.
Particles
Dry material concentrates used for water suspension must contain
all the extra ingredients necessary to make the finished suspension.
Cost of the concentrates is comparable for water or oil suspension.
The need to incorporate all the special ingredients for water or oil
suspension into the concentrate necessitates two separate and distinct
products. Water suspendible concentrates cannot be used in oil. The
various additives are insoluble in oil and will not disperse the
particles in an oil bath. The additions made to the concentrates
intended for oil suspension are not soluble in water. However, with
suitable water conditioners, some of the oil suspendible concentrates
can be used in water.
The outstanding characteristic of wet visible method particles is
their extremely small size. These very fine particles do not act as
individuals but agglomerate into groups. Two colors of particles are
available: red and black. Dry concentrates are formulated to include
other bath constituents, with the fine magnetic particles already

bonded together in optimum sizes.
Media
The bath liquid or media may be either a light petroleum
distillate of specific properties or water. Water baths require
conditioners to maintain proper dispersion of the particles and to
permit the particles freedom of action in forming indications on the
surfaces of test objects. These conditioners are usually incorporated
in the powders. Oil was a natural first choice as a bath liquid
because most machine objects that are tested tend to have an oily
film on their surface. Gross amounts of oil or grease should be
removed, but any film remaining is readily wetted and dissolved by
the light oil of the bath. The oil should have very definite properties
to be suitable for bath purposes. It should be a well refined, light
petroleum distillate of low viscosity, odorless and transparent in
ultraviolet radiation with a low sulfur content, a high flash point and
a fairly high, narrow boiling range.
95
Of these properties, viscosity is probably the most important
from a functional standpoint. High viscosity sufficiently retards the
movement of particles under the influence of leakage fields to have
a definite effect in reducing the build up, and therefore the visibility
of an indication of a small discontinuity. Heavy oil from the surface
of test objects tends to build up in the bath and increase its viscosity.
This is the main reason for precleaning test objects to remove oil
and grease.
Much lighter distillates would have a much lower viscosity than
those usually used, but they would have other properties undesirable
in a magnetic particle bath. Lighter distillates would have an initial
boiling point lower than that specified, and therefore a lower flash
point, making them a greater fire hazard; Also, evaporation losses
from the tank would be greater with lighter oil. Breathing unpleasant
fumes from a light distillate leads to technician discomfort. Odor of
distillate is associated with color and sulfur content, which is the
reason for specifying that these properties be within limits. The
approved, highly refined oils are nearly odorless and meet the color
and sulfur specifications.
WET FLUORESCENT METHOD
When exposed to near ultraviolet radiation, fluorescent dye
coated magnetic particles glow with their own light, having a highly
visible yellow-green, red or other color. Indications produced are
easily seen, and the fluorescent particles give much stronger
indications of very small discontinuities than do the ordinary
nonfluorescent magnetic particles. Tests are faster and more reliable
than with the nonfluorescent particles.
The differences between the wet visible method and the wet
fluorescent method are comparatively minor regarding suspension
characteristics, maintenance and application, as well as the test
variables and demagnetization techniques.
Test Variables
Four basic test variables must be considered that affect the results
obtained in wet fluorescent tests. These variables will change
depending on the discontinuities sought and the material in which
the discontinuities are located.
1. Bath strength.
2. Type of current to be used.
3. Current/suspension application.
4. Lighting conditions.
The strength of the bath is the major factor in determining the
quality of the indication obtained. Too heavy a concentration of
particles gives confusing background and excessive adherence of
particles at external poles, interfering with clear indications of very
fine discontinuities, so that there is danger of the indications being
missed or hidden.
The magnetic particles are considerably heavier than the media in
which they are suspended. When the agitation system is shut off, the
particles rapidly settle out. It is important that all particles be in
suspension before conducting any tests or concentration tests. When
the agitation system has been off for several hours, the agitation
system should be turned on for at least 0.5 h before conducting a
test. This agitation time varies with the down time because of
compacting of the particles from their own weight. If the machine
has been off for 0.5 to 1 h, a 10 min agitation is usually adequate. If
the unit has been off for a week or more, 0.5 h of agitation plus
supplemental stirring may be necessary.
Concentrate should be added when the particle concentration is
low. Evaporation should be watched, and volume maintained when
the level drops appreciably. This loss of liquid is sometimes called
drag out. Loss of liquid may be either by drag out or by evaporation,
and corrective measures are different for these two types of loss. To
compensate for evaporation loss, only additional oil or water is
required. To compensate for the drag out loss, the addition of bath
liquid and particles is required.
It is difficult to know what the cause of volume loss actually is in
any given case. For a unit in constant use, it can be assumed that
more than 50% of the loss is caused by drag out. For a unit used
only occasionally, loss by evaporation is likely to be the major cause.
Actually, with constant use, the accumulation of dirt, scraps and lint
requires the dumping of the tank and development of a new bath
before loss of liquid becomes serious. Magnetic particle content is of
most critical importance and should be carefully monitored.
Dirt accumulation in the bath can usually be determined, as it
shows up in the settling rate for magnetic particles. When the
settling test is run, the heavy particles settle out first. Dirt and lint
are lighter and settle more slowly. They are seen as a second layer
on top of the particles. For particle determination, this layer of dirt
must be carefully excluded from the total volume. When the layer of
dirt reaches about 30% of the volume of the particle layer, formation
of proper indications will be impeded, and the bath should be

dumped and a new one made. This may occur as often as once a
week when a unit is in constant use. The layer of dirt and the media
immediately above it should not fluoresce. If oil is used as a
suspension, it must be considered a petroleum product and
disposition of the bath must conform to all applicable regulations.
Surface Preparation
In general, the same requirements apply for the wet method as for
the dry method. Dirt, rust, loose scale and oil or grease should be
removed. The oil bath will dissolve oil or grease, but this builds up
the viscosity of the bath and shortens its useful life. With a water
bath, oil on the surface of the test object makes wetting more
difficult, although the conditioners in the bath are usually sufficient
to take care of a slight amount of oil.
Excessive oil on test object surfaces contaminates the water bath.
Paint and plated coatings over 0.013 em (0.005 in.) thick should be
stripped. Tests have shown that nonmagnetic coatings of any kind in
excess of 0.013 cm (0.005 in.) in thickness seriously interfere with
the formation of magnetic particle indications of small
discontinuities.
Suspension Application
Many methods are used to apply magnetic particles in media
carriers. These range from a simple hand pouring of a bath onto a
test object to large industrial systems in which the bath is applied
automatically, either by immersion or flooding, then recirculated and

reused. Occasionally, small; handheld lever operated sprayers are
used.
Prepared bath is widely available in pressurized aerosol cans for
spraying. Such cans, usually containing oil based baths, are very
convenient to use for spot checking, or small area tests in the field.
They are often furnished in kits, including a permanent magnet or
electromagnet yoke, which makes a portable package for small field
testing jobs or for maintenance testing around the shop.
Various sizes of ordinary pressurized paint spray tanks equipped
with special guns are used, particularly with water baths. Aerosol
containers should be checked for residual magnetism before being
used to perform a test and if necessary demagnetized to less than
two increments on the magnetic field indicator. This is necessary to
preclude the magnetic particles from agglomerating and prohibit
them from being expelled from the container. One method practiced,
mostly on small test objects, is where the test objects are magnetized
one at a time then placed in a tray and immersed in a tank
containing an agitated bath of magnetic particles. The test objects
must be placed in the tray so they do not touch one another, or else
nonrelevant indications may be produced at the points of contact.
Haphazard loading into a basket for immersion application should
not be permitted.
Bath strength and immersion time both have an effect on the size
of the indications produced. If the leakage field at a shallow crack is
weak, prolonged immersion permits more particles to come into the

influence of the field and makes the indication more prominent and
visible.
Water Problems
Ordinary potable tap water is suitable for use, and hardness is not
a problem because the mineral content of the water does not
interfere with the conditioning chemicals necessary to prepare the
bath.
Wetting agents, rust inhibitors and other water conditioners must
be used with water baths. Usually, the magnetic particle concentrates
include the correct amounts of wetting agent and rust inhibitor for
initial use. However, these materials are available separately so the
concentration can be maintained or adjusted to suit the particular
conditions. If no rusting can be tolerated, a higher concentration of
rust inhibitor may be used. If the test objects have an oily film, more
wetting agents are required so the test object surfaces will be
completely wetted and covered with the bath. The observance of the
bath breaking into rivulets as it is applied over a test object is an
indication of a need for additional wetting agent ortest object
cleaning.
The use of water bath suspension is not recommended for field
testing operations unless facilities exist to test the serviceability of
the wetting agents, dispersing agents, rust inhibitors, antifoam agents
and other additives that are required in the water suspension. Wet
baths should be carefully controlled to prevent corrosion and provide

wettability of testing components. This requires regular chemical
analysis of corrosive inhibitor and wetting agent concentration.
Suspension Preparation
When a new unit is being installed, or after dumping a dirty bath
from a unit in use, the agitation system must be tested to ensure it is
clean and not clogged by dried particles or accumulated dirt. Fill the
tank with oil or water as required, and operate the agitation system
to ensure it is functioning properly. Magnetic particles are then
added to obtain a suspension concentration within the following
ranges: visible particle concentration range, 1.2 to 2.4 mL/100 mL;
fluorescent particle concentration range, 0.1 to 0.4 mLllOO mL.
Before adding the magnetic particles to the media, they should be
demagnetized to eliminate any agglomerations that might have
developed during storage because of magnetization.
The fluorescent dye separation check should be performed on all
new batches or different manufacturers' magnetic particle materials
before use. The following procedures will require the use of a
100 mL capacity constant speed mixer.
1. Place one heaping tablespoon of the fluorescent magnetic
particle material in the blender vessel.
2. Add about 100 mL bulk media to the vessel.
3. Operate the blender at high speed for up to 10 min. Do not
overheat the particles.
4. Pour 100 mL of mixture into a test centrifuge tube.
5. Place centrifuge tube in stand.

6. Place a magnet at the bottom of the centrifuge tube. This is to
drag the fine magnetic particles out of the bath media and
into the bottom of the tube.
7. Let mixture stand for 0.5 h with magnet in place.
8. After standing 0.5 h, illuminate the tube with a ultraviolet
radiation in a darkened area.
9. Only the particle layer should fluoresce.
10. Fluorescence in the liquid indicates that the dye is separating
from the magnetic particles.
11. Do not use these magnetic particle materials for mixing test
baths.
12. If no fluorescence is visible in the media, proceed with its
use according to the manufacturer's instructions.
DRY POWDER LIQUID CONCENTRATE
Measure out the required amount of powdered concentrate and
pour it directly into the bath liquid in the tank. The agitation system
should be running and the concentrate poured in at the pump intake,
so that it will be quickly drawn into the pump and dispersed. The
new bath strength should be checked with a settling test.
Paste Concentrate
The procedure is similar to that followed in the case of the dry
powder concentrates, except that the paste must be weighed instead
of measured. It is transferred to a mixing cup or bowl, bath liquid is
added little at a time and mixed until a smooth, thin slurry has been
produced. This slurry is then poured into the tank at the point where
the agitation system will pick it up and disperse it. After agitating
for 10 min, the strength should be checked by the settling test, as in
the case of the dry powder concentrate. As it is used for testing, the
bath will undergo changes during use. Some of these changes
1. Drag out of magnetic particles, by mechanical and magnetic
adherence to test objects, tending to reduce particle
concentration in the bath.
2. Drag out of liquid caused by the film that adheres to the
surface of test objects.
Water Baths
Water baths without auxiliary heating can be used only in shop
areas where the temperature is above freezing. Use of antifreeze
liquids is not feasible because the quantities needed raise the
viscosity of the bath above the maximum allowable. Use of
detergents to ensure the wetting of oily surfaces causes foaming of
the bath. Circulation systems must be designed to avoid air
100
entrapment or other conditions that produce foam. Antifoaming
agents are used to minimize this tendency, but are not 100%
effective.
Water Bath Safety
Since water is a conductor of electricity, units in which it is to be

used are designed to isolate all high voltage circuits in such a way to
avoid all possibility of a technician receiving a shock. The
equipment should be thoroughly and positively grounded using
ground fault interrupter circuitry. Electrolysis of test objects or entire
units can occur if proper provision is not made to avoid this. Units
designed for use with water as a suspension are, however, safe for
the technician and minimize the corrosion on the test objects if the
proper chemistry is maintained during use.
Water Bath Concentration
It is recommended that the range for any selected concentration
be ±O.OSmLllOO mL for fluorescent particles, and ±O.S mLllOO mL
for visible particles. Thus, a laboratory may select 0.3 mLllOO mL
for optimum fluorescent particle concentration, or 2.4 mL/lOO mL
for optimum visible particle concentration. This concentration would
then be maintained within ±O.oS or ±O.S mL respectively.
It is important that the proportion of magnetic particles in the
bath be maintained uniform after a satisfactory concentration is
obtained. If the concentration varies, the strength of the indications
will also vary, and interpretation of an indication may be erroneous.
Fine indications may be missed entirely with a weak bath.
The important consideration in bath strength is the proportion of
active ingredients available. Since the proportion of particles varies,
the amount of these materials required to produce the necessary
concentration of magnetic particles in the bath will also vary. To
determine the actual amount of particles in the bath, a measured

sample of the bath is filtered, the particles filtered from the various
soluble compounding materials and the separated particles then dried
and weighed. This is, however, a laboratory test and not readily used
by the technician at the unit. Since the bath strength must be checked
at specific intervals, a quick and easy test method is required.
Fluorescent Background Check
The initial fluorescent background check (not required for visible
magnetic particle testing method) is accomplished on media used in
the fluorescent magnetic particle testing method, as follows.
101
1. Obtain a clean glass tube of sufficient length to reach from
the middle of the bulk media container to at least 15 em
(6 in.) above the container opening when it is in the vertical
position.
2. Insert the tube slowly into the bulk media.
3. Place thumb over protruding end of the glass tube and remove
the tube from the container.
4. Illuminate media in the glass tube with ultraviolet radiation in
a darkened area.
5. If media does not fluoresce, proceed with its use.
Fluorescence in the media indicates that it is unsuitable for
fluorescent magnetic particle testing method.
Oil Based Media Contamination Check
The petroleum based bulk media check is used to prevent

unsatisfactory bulk magnetic particle media from being introduced
into the magnetic particle testing system. This test should be
performed on bulk media before formulating the test bath. The initial
contamination check for petroleum products is as follows.
1. Loosen cap, cover, seal or plug on the bulk media container.
2. Leave the container undisturbed for at least 1 h to allow
contents to settle.
3. Remove the cap, cover, seal or plug from the media container.
4. Use a clean glass tube of sufficient length to reach from the
bottom of the bulk media container to at least 15 em (6 in.)
above the container opening when the tube is held in the
vertical position.
5. Place a thumb over one end of the glass tube. Insert the other
end of the glass tube slowly in a vertical position into the
bulk media. Ensure that the tube is all the way to the bottom
of the container.
6. Release thumb pressure on the upper end of the glass tube for
5 to 10 s, then replace the thumb over the end of glass tube.
Remove the glass tube slowly from the bulk media,
maintaining its vertical position.
7. Before removing thumb pressure on the end of the glass tube,
observe the level of contamination in the glass tube. Water
and other contaminants should be evident in the lower portion
of the glass tube, if present.
8. If contaminants are evident in the bottom of the container,

siphon off the good media to within 5 em (2 in.) of the
contamination level.
102
Settling Test
A settling test is easily and quickly performed at the magnetic
particle testing unit. It is not as accurate as the laboratory test, but is
reasonable, quantitative and reproducible for the same type and
brand of magnetic particles. It can be easily standardized with the
material in use, and is quite satisfactory as a daily guide for the
technician.
A settling centrifuge test device is shown in Figure 12.4. The
bath strength for oil bath suspensions should be checked daily before
use and after every 8 h of continuous operation. Water suspensions
should be checked for bath strength and wettability daily before use
and after every 4 h of operations. More frequent checks may be
required, depending on test object surface area and texture.
Figure 12.4: Diagram of a typical centrifuge tube used for
magnetic particle settling tests.
The following procedure should be used in performing the
settling or concentration test. Equipment required is a 100 mL pear
shaped, graduated centrifuge tube and stand.
1. Thoroughly agitate the suspension to ensure particle
distribution.
2. Run suspension through the hand hose and nozzle for at least
60 s. This ensures the suspension in the hose is fresh and
agitated.
3. Fill the 100 mL centrifuge tube with agitated suspension
using the hand hose.
4. Demagnetize the suspension in the tube to reduce clumping.
5. Place the centrifuge tube in its stand and allow it to settle on a
vibration free surface for 0.5 h.
6. Illuminate the suspension in the centrifuge tube with
ultraviolet radiation in a darkened area.
Only the particle layer should fluoresce. Fluorescence in the
liquid indicates bath breakdown, fluorescent pigmentation being
stripped from the magnetic particles or fine magnetic particles
103
remaining suspended in media. If this condition exists, place the
centrifuge tube in its stand with a horseshoe magnet, isolated from
the magnetic stand, in contact with the centrifuge tube, and let set on
a vibration free surface for 0.5 h. Illuminate the suspension in the
centrifuge tube with ultraviolet radiation in a darkened area. If the
suspension's fluorescence is reduced or eliminated, the cause of the
fluorescence is fine magnetic particles remaining suspended in the
media. If the level of fluorescence remains at the same level, the
fluorescent pigmentation is being stripped from the magnetic
particles. If it is determined that the cause of the suspension's
fluorescence is stripping off the pigmentation, the suspension should

be replaced, especially if it is serious enough to interfere with the
results of the system effectiveness check using the tool steel ring. If
it is determined that the cause of the excessive suspension
fluorescence is fine magnetic particles remaining suspended in the
media and they are of a volume to interfere with the results of the
system effectiveness, check using a tool steel ring. An effort may be
made to remove fine particles from the holding tank's magnetic
particle bath.
Fine particles can be removed from the holding tank's magnetic
particle bath with the use of magnets. The bath in the magnetic
particle machine's holding tank should be allowed to rest (not
agitated) for 0.5 h. Place the magnets in the bath, ensuring not to
place them so deep that they will attract the particles that have
settled out of suspension. The length of time or number of times that
the magnets will have to be cleaned of particles and resubmerged is
dependent on the seriousness of the problem. The bath should be
able to pass the system effectiveness check, after the removal of as
many suspended particles as possible, or be replaced.
FLUORESCENT TEST MATERIALS
There is no difference between the fluorescent and
nonfluorescent materials as far as the liquids and bath requirements
are concerned. Petroleum distillates must meet the same
specifications as the dry particle media with one additional
requirement. The media itself must not fluoresce strongly and
without any other color than the usual bluish white of most
petroleum products. Most of the commercial distillates approved for
the regular wet method are also satisfactory for use with fluorescent
particles. The reason for limiting the fluorescence of the bath itself is
because fluorescence of the film of oil on a test object would
produce a confusing overall background.
The particles for this method are magnetically the same as the
visible type, but they must carry the fluorescent dye and the binding
material that holds the dye and particle together. This coating of the
particles would tend to make them less effective in producing
indications were it not for the fact that to be easily visible, a
fluorescent particle indication requires only a small fraction of the
particles needed for the nonfluorescent type. Thus, the overall effect
is a large practical and effective increase in sensitivity.
Fluorescent particles are supplied primarily as a dry concentrate
incorporating all the ingredients necessary for dispersion. It is
important that the bond between the fluorescent dye and the
magnetic particle is able to resist the vigorous agitation it receives in
the pump circulation. If the dye separates from the magnetic particle,
the dye tends to cling to the surfaces of the test object independent
of any magnetic attraction, causing a meaningless and confusing
background. At the same time, the magnetic particles that are held
magnetically at indications have lost some or all of their fluorescing
ability, reducing their visibility that results in a net loss in sensitivity.
Maintenance
The maintenance rules are identical to those used for the wet
visible nonfluorescent particles. There are, however, three additional
sources of deterioration in a bath of fluorescent particles that must
be monitored.
The first is the separation of the fluorescent pigment from the
magnetic particles. Such separation causes a falling off of
fluorescent brightness of indications, and an increase in the overall
fluorescence of the background. When this occurs to a noticeable
degree, the bath should be changed. This condition is difficult to
detect in the settling test, but can be observed by directing
ultraviolet radiation at the settling tube after the normal settliIlg
period. Noticeable fluorescence of the solution with a reduced'
fluorescence of the particles signifies separation. Observation by the
technician in the way the bath performs is another method of
detecting separation.
A second source of deterioration of the bath of fluorescent
particles, which does not occur in the case of visible particles, is the
accumulation of magnetic dust or dirt in the bath. When there is a
considerable amount of finely divided magnetic material in the dust
carried by the air, this material will accumulate in the bath along
with other dust and dirt. In a bath of wet visible nonfluorescent
particles, this does no specific harm until the accumulation of total
dirt is excessive. In the case of fluorescent particles, it tends to
decrease the brightness of the indication. The fine magnetic material
is attracted to indications along with the fluorescent particles, and it

takes very little of such nonfluorescent material to reduce
significantly the fluorescent light emitted by the indication.
A third source of deterioration of the fluorescent particle bath is
the accumulation of fluorescent oils and greases from the surfaces of
tested objects. In time, this accumulation builds up the fluorescence
of the liquid in the bath to a point at which it interferes with the
viewing of fluorescent particle indications.
lOS
Surface Preparation
One precaution in the preparation of the surface of test objects
before testing must be given special attention. This is the removal of
surface oil and grease. Most petroleum distillates, lubricating oils
and greases fluoresce with various degrees of brightness. Such
materials must be kept out of the testing bath because of the increase
in background fluorescence that they produce. Application of the
suspension using fluorescent magnetic particles is identical with the
procedure described in detail for the wet visible method, except for
the examination for indications.
Test Variables
The quantity of fluorescent particles used to make up a suitable
bath is very much smaller than for the wet visible nonfluorescent
type. It is actually less than one tenth as much because fewer
particles are required to form readable indications. Concentrations
on the order of those required for the visible type particles would
result in excessive background fluorescence from the particles in the
bath surface film, making fine indications difficult to see.
The volume of particles that settles out in the test for bath
strength is larger for the fluorescent particles in proportion to the
quantity of concentrate used, as compared to the nonfluorescent
particles. This is because the fluorescent dye and binder reduce the
density of the particles so that they do not settle so rapidly, nor so
compactly, in the standard settling time of 1 h.
The amount of settled out material is not uniformly proportionate
to the amount of concentrate added, for the reason that composition
of the several concentrates varies to include necessary, conditioning
materials and the specific gravity of the several suspensions also
varies, partly as the result of these additives. These factors affect the
settling rate and the degree of compactness of the settled material in
the time allowed for the settling test.
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION
Generation of Ultraviolet Radiation
In a typical mercury vapor arc discharge bulb, the high pressure
component is a quartz tube containing mercury and a small amount
of neon gas. When the lamp is first turned on, the mercury is
condensed as a liquid, and an arc between the electrodes cannot be
generated. This is the purpose of the neon. A small amount of
current, limited by the resistor, causes a discharge from the starting
electrode through the neon. This glow is sufficient to vaporize the
mercury, which then allows the arc to pass between the main
electrodes. This starting procedure requires from 5 to 15 min to fully
vaporize the mercury and produce full output of ultraviolet radiation.
Ultraviolet lamps should be energized for 15 min before the test is
performed. The ultraviolet lamp should produce a minimum light
intensity of 1000 W/cm2 at a 38 em (15 in.) distance from the test
object to the surface of the filter.
Ultraviolet Lamp Fixtures
An ultraviolet radiation mercury arc bulb requires a housing,
filter, regulating ballast or transformer and connecting cables or
wires. The housing, which may be metal or plastic, serves several
functions.
1. Hold and protect the bulb.
2. Hold and support the filter.
3. Prevent leakage of unwanted visible light and ultraviolet
radiation.
4. Permit directing the beam on the surface to be tested.
5. Provide a means for handling the bulb.
The filter is a special cobalt glass that filters short wavelength
ultraviolet radiation and long wavelength visible light. This
conditions the emitted ultraviolet radiation to the wavelength
causing maximum fluorescence of the magnetic particle dye.
Filters can be a smooth or fluted surface. The fluted surface
provides a slightly larger focused spot than a smooth surface filter. A
current regulating ballast or transformer is required for proper

functioning of the bulb.
Sources
There are three common sources used to generate ultraviolet
radiation: carbon arc systems, low pressure fluorescent bulbs and
high pressure arc bulbs.
Carbon Arc Systems
Electric current arcing between two carbon electrodes generates a
high quantity of electromagnetic radiation. The radiation spans
wavelengths from about 10 to 700 nm. This covers the entire
ultraviolet radiation and visible light ranges and a portion of the
infrared range. There are a number of disadvantages associated with
carbon arc systems. They require a high electrical power supply and
are very bulky because of the need for electrode drive mechanisms.
The principal use of carbon arc systems is in ultraviolet
spectrophotometers, rather than for fluorescent magnetic particle
testing.
Low Pressure Fluorescent Bulbs
Low pressure fluorescent bulbs are similar to standard fluorescent
tubes. However, instead of an inert gas, the tube contains metallic
mercury. When an electric current is applied, the mercury vaporizes
and emits ultraviolet radiation with a wavelength of about 254 nm.
This wavelength is not useful for fluorescent testing. Therefore, the
107
inside of the tube is coated with a phosphor that is activated by the

hard ultraviolet radiation and emits ultraviolet radiation and visible
light in the wavelength range of 320 to 440 nm.
The amount of useful ultraviolet radiation at 350 nm is relatively
small. However, there is a large amount of both harmful short
wavelength ultraviolet radiation, below 320 nm and visible light
about 400 nm, which is emitted through the phosphor. Some of these
undesirable wavelengths are often removed by making the tube from
cobalt glass. While this reduces the unwanted radiation, it also
reduces the already low amount of useful 350 nm ultraviolet
radiation. In addition, fluorescent ultraviolet radiation bulbs, because
of their configuration, cannot be easily focused and their intensity
per unit area is below that of other types of bulbs. Until recently,
these bulbs were not used for fluorescent magnetic particle tests.
High Pressure Bulbs
High pressure arc bulbs are the most common source for
ultraviolet radiation. They are preferred for fluorescent magnetic
.particle tests because they have an acceptable output at a reasonable
distance from the bulb and under conditions of less than complete
darkness. They can be focused to increase their intensity on a
localized area. There is a wide range of sizes from a 2 W pencil, to a
400 W floodlight. The smaller sizes should not be used for magnetic
particle tests. The most frequently used size is the 100 W bulb.
108
Chapter 13
Types of Discontinuities
Discontinuities are imperfections in a test object that interfere
with the usefulness of test object or exceed acceptability limits
established by applicable specifications. Such changes inherently
affect the physical properties of the test object and may in turn have
an effect on the test object's ability to fulfill its intended service life.
Not all discontinuities are defects. The definition of defect changes
with the type of component, its construction, its materials and the
specifications or codes in force. It should be well understood that a
harmless discontinuity in one object may be a critical flaw in
another kind of object.
Detection of discontinuities is a process that is largely dependent
on the discontinuity's physical characteristics. In the case of cracks,
a critical parameter is the ratio of surface opening to crack depth.
However, crack depth and width are not the only factors affecting
detectability; length and orientation to the surface are also important.
To better detect and interpret magnetic particle discontinuity
indications, it is necessary to know the basic material characteristics
of the test object. Furthermore, it is also important to consider how
the material is produced, what manufacturing processes are used to
form the finished product and what discontinuities are typically
initiated by the processing operations.
During the various stages of material processing, certain
discontinuities can be expected. Typically, a discontinuity is
categorized by the stage of manufacturing or use in which it initiates:

inherent, primary processing, secondary processing and service related
discontinuities. The text that follows is a description of discontinuities
that may originate from the processing operations in each of the four
categories. The listing is provided only for educational purposes and
may not apply to all magnetic particle test objects.
INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES
When ferromagnetic materials are produced, molten metal
solidifies into ingot form, potentially producing discontinuities
known as inherent discontinuities. Many of these are removed by
cropping, but a number of them can remain in the ingot. Such
discontinuities can then be rolled, forged and sectioned along with
the material in its subsequent processing operations. Table 13.1
briefly describes common inherent discontinuities that may occur in
109
Table 13.1: Inherent discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
Discontinuity Location
Cause
Cold shut
surface or subsurface
meeting of two streams of liquid metal that do not fuse together
Pipe
subsurface
absence of molten metal during the final solidification process
Hot tears
surface
restraint from the core of mold during the cooling process
Porosity surface or subsurface
entrapped gases during solidification of metal
Inclusions surface or subsurface
contaminants introduced during the casting process
Segregation surface or subsurface
localized differences in material composition
Cold Shut
A cold shut is initiated during the metal casting process. It occurs
because of imperfect fusion between two streams of metal that have
converged. Cold shuts may also be attributed to surging, sluggish
molten metal, an interruption in pouring or any factor that prevents
fusion where two molten surfaces meet.
This discontinuity produces magnetic particle indications similar
to those of cracks or seams with smooth or rounded edges similar to
those of Figure 13.1.
Pipe
During solidification of molten metal, a progressive reduction in
volume occurs. In the case of a casting, there eventually can be
insufficient molten metal for completely filling the top of the mold.
As a result, a shrinkage cavity forms, usually in the shape of an
inverted cone or cylinder, as shown in Figure 13.2.
If this shrinkage cavity is not completely removed before rolling
or forging into final shape, it becomes elongated and appears as

voids, called pipe, in the finished product. Pipe can also result from
extrusion, caused by the oxidized surface of a billet flowing inward
toward the center of a bar at the back end. The presence of pipe is
Figure 13.1: Magnetic
particle indication of a cold
shut in a casting.
110
Figure 13.2: Longitudinal section of two types of ingots
showing typical pipe and porosity.
Pipe
Porosity
Bar rolled from ingot above Bar rolled from ingot above
usually characterized as a small, round cavity located in the center of
an end surface.
Hot Tears
At the elevated temperatures associated with solidification, cast
materials are susceptible to hot tears. Segregation of low melting
point impurities results in localized loss of ductility and strength.
Lacking these, the cooling metal can tear and crack in the mold
because of restraint from the mold. In addition, uneven cooling in
thin sections or corners that adjoin heavier masses of metal can
result in higher metal surface stresses that in turn produce hot tears.
Hot tears appear on the surface as a ragged line of variable width
and numerous branches. Sometimes the cracks are not detectable

until after machining because the tearing can be subsurface.
Blowholes and Porosity
Gas porosity or blowholes are rounded cavities (flattened,
elongated or spherical) caused by the accumulation of gas bubbles in
molten metal as it solidifies. A small percentage of these bubbles
rise through the molten metal and escape. However, most are
trapped at or near the surface of the ingot when solidification is
complete, as shown in Figure 13.2. During rolling or forging of the
ingot, some of these gas pockets are fused shut.
The remaining pockets may appear as seams in the rolled
product. Deep blowholes that are not rolled shut may appear as
laminations after becoming elongated in the rolling operation.
Nonmetallic Inclusions
Inclusions in ferrous alloys are usually oxides, sulfides or
silicates introduced in the original ingot. During the melting
operation, the use of dirty remelt, crucibles or rods, or poor linings
may introduce nonmetallic inclusions into the molten metal. Other
contributing factors are poor pouring practice and inadequate gating
design that can produce turbulence within the mold.
Nonmetallic inclusions can become stress risers because of their
shape, discontinuous nature andincompatibility with the
surrounding material. It is often the presence of these inclusions that
lowers the ability of a metal to withstand high impact, static or
fatigue stresses. Moreover, the effect of inclusions depends on their
size and shape, their resistance to deformation, their orientation

relative to applied stress and the tensile strength of the material.
Many inclusions can be of a more complex intermediate
composition than their host materials, and each grade and type of
metal has its own characteristic inclusions.
Typically, inclusions are mechanically worked (from rolling or
forming), causing them to deform plastically into elongated shapes
and to appear in longitudinal sections as stringers or streaks. In
transverse cross sections, the inclusion's shape is more globular or
flat, as seen in Figures 13.3 to 13.6.
Figure 13.3: Inclusions
present in wrought product
were elongated through the
rolling process and discovered
at a weld upset that joined
two rails together; magnetic
particle indications shown in
the web adjacent to the weld.
Figure 13.5: Microstructure of
transverse (perpendicular to
rolling direction) section
through rail sample, away
from weld.
Segregation
Figure 13.4: Cross section

through rail sample, showing
magnetic particle indications
at center.
Figure 13.6: Microstructure of
longitudinal section through
rail sample; inclusion runs the
length of the test object.
Segregation is localized differences in a material's chemical
composition. During solidification of molten metal, certain elements
may concentrate in limited areas, resulting in an uneven distribution
of some of the alloying elements of the steel. Equalization of the
compositional differences can be achieved by hot working (forging
or rolling). However, segregation is sometimes carried into the
wrought product.
When not detected, segregation can affect corrosion resistance,
forging and welding characteristics, mechanical properties, fracture
toughness and fatigue resistance. Furthermore, quench cracks,
hardness variations and other discontinuities are likely to result
during heat treating of materials that exhibit segregation of alloying
elements.
PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES
Discontinuities that originate during hot or cold forming are
called primary processing discontinuities. The processing of a
wrought product by rolling, forging, casting or drawing may

introduce specific discontinuities into the product and inherent
discontinuities that were at one time undetectable or insign.ificant
may propagate and become detrimental. Table 13.2 briefly describes
common primary processing discontinuities that may occur in
iTable 13.2: Primary processing discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
Cause
Seams
Laminations
Stringers
Cupping
COOlingcracks
~aps
Bursts
Hydrogen flakes
surface
subsurface
subsurface
subsurface
surface
surface
subsurface
Seams
elongation of unfused surface discontinuities in rolled products
elongation and compression of inherent discontinuities
elongation and compression of inherent discontinuities
internal stresses during cold drawing
uneven cooling of cold drawn products
material folded over and compressed
forming processes at excessive temperatures
an abundance of hydrogen during the forming process
As an ingot is processed, inherent surface discontinuities such as
gas pockets, blowholes and cracks are rolled and drawn
longitudinally. When these discontinuities exist, an underfill of
material occurs during the rolling operation. Seams may also be
initiated in the semifinishing and finishing mills because of faulty,
poorly lubricated or oversized dies.
As a result of multiple passes during rolling operations,
underfilled areas are rolled together to form a seam, as shown in
Figure 13.7. The surfaces are typically oxidized and may be
intermittently welded together to form very tight, usually straight
cracks that vary in depth from the surface, as shown in Figures 13.8
and 13.9.
113
Figure 13.7: Formation of a seam: (a) underfill results when
there is not enough metal to fill the rolls; and (b) a seam in the
finished bar occurs when underfill is squeezed tight on a
subsequent rolling pass.
(a) (b)
'-...... Underfill
Figure 13.8: Wet fluorescent
magnetic particle indication
of a seam in a steel billet.
Laminations
'Seam
Figure 13.9: Seams in bars,
from left: as-received
condition, sandblasted
surface, pickled surface and
wet fluorescent magnetic
indication.
Laminations are separations that are typically aligned parallel to
the worked surface of a material. They may be the result of
blowholes, internal fissures, pipe, inclusions, seams or segregations
that are elongated and flattened during the rolling process. They are
subsurface, generally flat and extremely thin. Laminations can be
detected by magnetic particle testing at an end or at a transverse
cross section taken through the rolled plate.
Stringers
Stringers are predominantly found in bar stock. They originate by
the flattening and lengthening of nonmetallic inclusions during the

rolling operation. Stringers are typically subsurface, sernicontinuous
straight lines parallel to the length of the bar stock.
Cupping
Typically occurring during the extrusion operation or as a result
of severe cold drawing, cupping is a series of internal ruptures
(chevrons) in bar or wire, as shown in Figure 13.10. Because the
interior of a metal cannot flow as rapidly as the surface, internal
stresses build, causing transverse subsurface cupping cracks.
Cooling Cracks
After the rolling operation of cold drawn bars, cooling cracks
may develop because of internal stresses caused by uneven cooling
of the material. Such cracks are typically longitudinal and usually
vary in depth and length. Although often confused with seams,
cooling cracks do not exhibit surface oxidation.
Forged and Rolled Laps
Forging laps are the result of metal being folded over, forming an
area that is squeezed tight but not welded together, as shown in
Figures 13.11 and 13.12. They are caused by faulty dies, oversized
blanks or improper handling of the metal in the die. Forging laps are
usually open to the surface and are either parallel or at a small angle
to the surface.
Rolled laps are a condition similar to a seam. Excessive material
is squeezed out during a rolling pass, causing a sharp overfill or fin.
When rotated for the following pass, the material is rolled back into
the bar. Because of its heavily oxidized surface, the overfill cannot
be welded together by the rolling operation. Rolling laps are usually
straight or slightly curved from the longitudinal axis and are either
parallel or at a small angle to the test object surface, as shown in
Figure 13.13.
Internal and External Bursts
Internal bursts are found in bars and forgings and result from
excessive hot working temperatures. Discontinuities that exist before
forming (porosity, pipe, inclusions or segregation) are pulled apart
because of the high tensile stresses developed during the forming
operation.
Rolled and forged metals may also develop internal bursts when
there is insufficient equipment capacity for working the metal
throughout its cross section, as shown in Figure 13.14.
Figure 13.10: Cross section
showing severe cupping in
a 3 ..'1 em (1.4 in.) bar.
Figure 13.12: Micrograph
of a forging lap with
included oxide in the lap.
Figure 13.11: Wet
fluorescentmagnetic particle
indication of a forging lap in
a connecting rod.

i,
Figure 13.13: Formation of a lap: (a) an
overfill produces excess metal squeezed
out of the rolls causing a fin; (b) a lap
results when the projection is folded over
and forced back into the bar's surface
during a subsequent pass.
(a)
(b)
Fin
"-
Lap
Figure 13.14: Cross section of a bar
showing a forging burst near the
centerline; arrow indicates the direction of
working.
External bursts typically occur when the forming section is too
severe or where sections are thin. External bursts may also be
formed when the capabilities of the equipment are not great enough:
the outer layers of the metal are deformed more than the internal
metal and the resulting stress causes an external burst. Forming
during improper temperatures may also cause external bursts.
Hydrogen Flakes
Flakes are formed while cooling after the forging or rolling
operations. They are internal fissures attributed to stresses produced

by localized metallurgical transformations and decreased solubility
of hydrogen (hydrogen embrittlement) resulting from excessively
rapid cooling.
Hydrogen is available in abundance during all manufacturing
operations. When permitted, hydrogen dissipates freely at
temperatures above 200°C (390 OF),so that the solubility of
hydrogen in material proportionally increases with increasing time
and temperature. Hydrogen flakes are usually found deep in heavy
steel forgings, are extremely thin and are aligned parallel with the
grain.
Welding Discontinuities
The following discontinuities are related primarily to the fusion
welding process, although a few may also apply to resistance and
solid state processes. This compilation covers only those
discontinuities that typically lend themselves to detection by
magnetic particle testing. Table 13.3 briefly describes common
primary processing discontinuities that may occur in welds.
Table 13.3: Primary processing discontinuities in welds.
Cause
Location
Discontinuity
Cold cracking
Hot cracking
Solidification
Liquidation
Lamellar tearing
Lack of fusion
Lack of penetration surface or subsurface
Porosity surface or subsurface
Inclusions
Slag
Tungsten
Oxide
surface or subsurface atomic hydrogen, hardenable material and high residual stress
surface
subsurface
subsurface
subsurface
surface
surface
Undercut
Overlap surface
low melting point constituents opening up during solidification
segregation of material in the liquid state during solidification
delamination of base material during solidification and cooling
failure of the filler metal to coalesce with the base metal
inadequate penetration of the weld joint root by the weld metal

entrapped constituents in molten weld metal during solidification
improper cleaning of a previous weld pass
molten weld pool contact with filler metal and tungsten electrode
mixing oxides on the base metal surface into the weld pool
oversized weld pool
insufficient amperage or travel speed
Acceptance or rejection of a weldment is determined by the
requirements of the designer and the applicable code.
Cold Cracking
Cold cracking is also known as underbead or delayed cracking.
It is a form of hydrogen induced cracking that appears in the heat
affected zone or weld metal of low alloy and hardenable carbon
steels. Cracking of this type may occur immediately on cooling or
after a period of hours or even days. The principal factors
contributing to cold cracking are the presence of atomic hydrogen, a
hard martensitic microstructure in the heat affected zone and high
residual tensile stresses resulting from restraint.
Sources of atomic hydrogen include moisture in the electrode
covering, shielding gas or base metal surface (including hydrated
rust), as well as contamination of the filler or base metal by a
hydrocarbon (oil or grease). Dissociation of water vapor or a
hydrocarbon in the welding arc results in the rapid diffusion of
atomic hydrogen into the molten weld pool and subsequently into
the base metal's heat affected zone. If the zone's cooling rate is high
enough and the steel is hardenable enough (a function of carbon and

alloy content), a martensitic microstructure may form and the
hydrogen atoms may then collect at internal discontinuities. Residual
stresses caused by weld shrinkage, or externally applied tensile
stresses, result in hydrogen induced cracks initiating at the hydrogen
rich discontinuities.
Cold cracks produce sharply defined, heavy magnetic particle
indications if they are open to the test object surface, as in the case
of underbead cracks that extend to the weld toe, as shown in
Figure 13.l5. Weld metal cracks may be oriented in any direction
and are often associated with nonmetallic inclusions, as shown in
Figure 13.l6. Subsurface indications may be harder to detect.
117
Figure 13.15: Cross section of a weld joint
exhibiting hydrogen induced cold cracking
in the heat affected zone (underbead): this
crack is detectable by magnetic particle
testing because it extends to the outside
surface.
exhibiting hydrogen induced weld metal
cold cracking; this crack is oriented
longitudinally, but weld material cracks
may be oriented in other directions
depending on joint restraint.

0.5 cm (0.2 in)
Hot Cracking
Hot cracking is a term applied to several varieties of weld metal
and heat affected zone cracking, all of which occur at elevated
temperatures. The following types are two of the most common hot
cracks.
Solidification cracking occurs near the solidification temperature
of the weld metal and is caused by the presence of low melting point
constituents, typically iron sulfides, that segregate to the weld metal
dendrite surfaces during the liquid-to-solid transformation process.
The shrinkage stresses induced by cooling cause cracks to open
between the dendrite surfaces, as shown in Figure 13.17.
One common form of solidification cracking is called centerline
hot cracking, because it follows the longitudinal centerline of the
deposited weld bead, as shown in Figure 13.18. During weld
deposition, solidification of the progressing weld pool occurs from
the outside in, beginning at both toes and meeting at the center. The
low melting point impurities are pushed ahead of these two joining
solidification fronts where they are concentrated at the centerline
and open up as a longitudinal hot crack under transverse
solidification shrinkage stresses. The likelihood of this occurrence is
increased by high travel speed, high depth-to-width ratio of the weld
bead and a small weld bead, particularly in the root pass.
Another frequently observed type of solidification cracking is
called crater cracking, which occurs in the crater formed at the

termination of a weld pass, as shown in Figure 13.19. Crater cracks
118
exhibiting solidification cracking; the weld
on the right side contains an inter dendritic
crack associated with a slag inclusion
which acted as a nucleation site.
Figure 13.18: Section through a weld joint
exhibiting centerline solidification
cracking, a form of hot cracking.
Figure 13.19: Location and typical
appearance of crater cracks.
Crater cracks
are typically star shaped on the surface, and are the result of three
dimensional shrinkage stresses brought about by crater
solidification. Sudden termination of the welding arc, rather than
pausing at the end of a weld pass to fill in the crater, is a common
contributor to crater cracking.
Liquation cracking, or hot tearing, occurs in the heat affected
zone of a weld when the temperature in that region results in the
liquation of low melting point constituents (inclusions or segregated
alloying elements). These form a liquid grain boundary film that is
unable to support the shrinkage stresses of the welding process.
Such cracks are often microscopic in size, but may link up under
applied stresses to form a continuous surface or subsurface crack.
In general, hot cracking is associated with steels having high
sulfur content, and the effect is accentuated as carbon content
increases. The detectability of hot cracks by magnetic particle
methods is similar to that of cold cracks and depends on their
proximity to the surface.
119Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book
Lamellar Tearing
A lamellar tear is a base metal crack that occurs in plates and
shapes of rolled steel exhibiting a high nonmetallic inclusion
content. These inclusions are rolled flat in the steel plate
manufacturing process, severely reducing strength and ductility in
the through-thickness direction. When the shrinkage stresses induced
by weld solidification are imposed in that direction on the base
metal plate, separation of the base metal at the flattened inclusions
might occur, as may shearing between those lamellar planes,
resulting in a terraced fracture.
Lamellar tearing is readily detectable by magnetic particle
techniques and is most often seen in base metal on the edge of a
steel plate or structural shape, adjacent to a deposited weld bead, as
shown in Figure 13.21.
Figure 13.21: Weld joint designs in steel plate that are prone to lamellar tearing; typical
locations of tears are shown.
Lack of Fusion
Lack of fusion occurs when some portion of the weld filler metal
fails to coalesce with the adjacent base metal or the weld metal from
a previous pass. In welding processes that use no filler metal, lack of
fusion refers to incomplete coalescence between the two base metal
components being joined.
This condition is caused when the base metal surface fails to
reach melting temperature after application of the weld metal. This
typically occurs when welding a large component that can transfer
heat rapidly because of its thermal mass, particularly when it is at a
relatively low temperature before welding, thereby absorbing the
heat applied to its surface by the welding process. Lack of fusion is
often seen at the beginning of the first weld pass, where the base
metal is at its lowest temperature during weld deposition. This is
commonly called a cold start.
One welding process that is particularly susceptible to this
discontinuity is gas metal arc welding in the short-circuiting arc
mode, because of its inherently low heat input. Another frequent
cause of lack of fusion is attempting to weld on top of a previously
deposited weld pass that has been inadequately cleaned of slag or
welding on a dirty base metal surface, so that the heat of the arc is
unable to reach the underlying metal.
120
Lack of fusion mayor may not occur near the outside surface of
the weld joint. The closer it is to the surface, the sharper the
magnetic particle indication. Lack of fusion is usually oriented

parallel to the direction of welding and the test indication often
appears at or near the toe of the weld.
Lack of fusion in autogenous welds (without filler metal) may be
the result of large inclusions in the base metal or impurities that
become trapped between the faying surfaces of the joint before
welding. Susceptible processes are those that produce a relatively
shallow melted zone at the faying surfaces and then expel most of
that zone by a subsequent upsetting force (high frequency resistance
welding, projection welding, flash welding, friction welding). Other
causes of lack of fusion in autogenous welds include inadequate
heating and insufficient upsetting force. Figures 13.22 and 13.23
show a typical discontinuity of this type.
Lack of Penetration
Lack of penetration is sometimes confused with lack of fusion.
Lack of penetration is inadequate (less than specified) penetration of
the weld joint root by the weld metal, as shown in Figure 13.24. The
condition can result from a number of incorrect parameters, most of
them related to welding technique. These include low amperage, use
of an oversized electrode, excessive travel speed, improper electrode
angle, improper arc manipulation and inadequate preweld cleaning.
Often, the joint design does not facilitate good penetration
because of too large a root face, too narrow a root opening or too
Figure 13.22: Magnetic particle indication
of lack of fusion in a high frequency
resistance welded tube.

Figure 13.23:Metallographic cross section
of the tube shown in Figure 13.22,
showing the depth of lack of fusion from
the outside surface inward.
exhibiting lack of penetration.
121
small a bevel angle. Many procedures for double groove welds
specify backgouging of the first pass on the first side before
deposition of the first pass on the second side. If this is neglected or
performed inadequately during the joining operation, lack of
penetration will likely occur.
The magnetic particle indication produced by lack of penetration
has an appearance similar to a subsurface longitudinal crack and
usually follows the centerline of the weld.
Porosity
Porosity is composed of cavities or pores that form when some
constituent within the molten weld metal vaporizes and forms a
small pocket of gas that is entrapped when the weld metal solidifies.
The pores can take a variety of shapes and sizes although they are
usually spherical. One type of elongated pore is often called an
elongated porosity, as shown in Figure 13.25. The distribution of
porosity within the weld metal may be clustered (usually results
from improper initiation or termination of the welding arc) or linear

(indicates gas evolution by welding over a contaminant confined to a
linear junction such as a corner or crevice). .
In general, porosity is often the result of dirt, rust or moisture on
the base or filler metal surface before welding and can be prevented
by maintaining cleanliness and dryness. Other contributing factors
include base metal composition (such as high sulfur content), high
solidification rate and improper welding technique (such as
excessive arc length).
A magnetic particle indication of subsurface porosity is typically
weak and not clearly defined. All but the smallest surface pores
should be visible to the unaided eye.
Inclusions
Many weld processes use flux shielding, including shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW), submerged arc welding (SAW) and flux cored
arc welding (FCAW). Welds produced by these methods are
particularly susceptible to discontinuities known as slag inclusions.
Slag can be entrapped in the weld metal during solidification if it is
unable to float out while the pool is still liquid. The factors that
promote slag entrapment include high solidification rate, high weld
pool viscosity, use of an oversized electrode and improper joint
geometry.
Slag allowed to remain on the surface of a deposited weld bead is
rarely completely dissolved by subsequent passes. Therefore, it is
essential to remove all slag from each pass. Joint designs that exhibit
a high depth-to-width ratio and weld beads with an excessively

convex profile are promoters of slag entrapment, as shown in
Figure 13.26. A magnetic particle indication produced by a slag
inclusion is weak and poorly defined and high magnetizing field
strength is required for detection.
Figure 13.25: Longitudinal section
through weld metal containing elongated
porosity.
containing slag inclusions; note that the
high depth-to-width ratio of the weld on
the left side contributed to slag
entrapment.
Tungsten inclusions are found in the weld metal deposited by the
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process and are usually the result
of allowing the molten weld pool or the filler metal to come in
contact with the tip of the tungsten electrode. This type of inclusion
is virtually undetectable by magnetic particle methods.
Oxide inclusions are particles of high melting point oxides
present on the base metal surface. During welding, these oxides are
then mixed into the weld pool. The magnetic particle indications
produced by oxide inclusions of significant size and quantity are
similar to those produced by subsurface porosity. Small and isolated
oxides are extremely difficult to detect by magnetic particle
methods.
Undercut
Undercut occurs at the toe of a weld when the base metal
thickness is reduced. Essentially, a narrow crevice is formed in the
base metal, paralleling the weld toe and immediately adjacent to it,
as shown in Figure 13.27a. Undercut lessens joint strength in the
static sense by reducing the base metal section thickness. It also
creates a stress concentration that reduces the impact, fatigue and
low temperature properties of the joint. Undercut is caused by an
oversized molten weld pool, which is in turn related to excessive
amperage, travel speed and electrode diameter.
A magnetic particle indication produced by undercut appears less
pronounced than that produced by lack of fusion. Undercut is easily
detected by visual examination.
123
Overlap
Overlap is the protrusion of weld metal over the weld toe,
producing a form of lack of fusion that creates a sharp mechanical
notch or stress concentration, as shown in Figure I3.27b. Some
codes refer to this discontinuity as cold lap. The condition is caused
by insufficient amperage or travel speed.
Overlap produces a magnetic particle indication at the weld toe
similar to that produced by lack of fusion. It is often detectable by
visual examination.
Figure 13.27: Diagram of weld discontinuities: (a) undercut (at

arrow); and (b) overlap (at arrow).
(a)
(b)
SECONDARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES
Discontinuities that originate from grinding, heat treating,
machining, plating and related finishing operations are categorized
as secondary processing discontinuities. Such discontinuities may be
the most costly because all previous processing costs are lost when
the component is diverted from service. Table 13.4 briefly describes
the most common secondary processing discontinuities.
Cracks
Grinding cracks can be attributed to the use of glazed wheels,
inadequate coolant, excessive feed rate or attempting to remove too
much material in one pass. Grinding cracks develop where there is
localized overheating of the base material. They are typically at right
angles to the grinding direction and are very shallow. Often,
Table 13.4: Secondary processing discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
Cause
Grinding cracks
surface localized overheating of the material caused by improper grinding
Heat treating cracks
subsurface uneven heating or cooling
Quench cracks
surface sudden cooling from elevated temperatures

Pickling cracks surface
residual stresses being relieved
Machine tears surface improper machining practices
Plating cracks surface residual stresses being relieved
124
grinding cracks are forked and sharp at the root, as shown in
Figure 13.28.
Figure 13.28: Wet fluorescent magnetic particle indication of
grinding cracks in diesel engine connecting pin.
When located in high stress areas, such cracks may result in
fatigue failures. Materials that have been hardened or heat treated
can be more susceptible to grinding cracks because high residual
stresses are retained during the quenching operation.
Heat Treating and Quench Cracks
To obtain a specific hardness and microstructure, materials are
customarily heat treated. During this operation, the metal is heated
and cooled under controlled conditions. However, in some cases,
this process produces stresses that exceed the material's tensile
strength and cause it to crack, as shown in Figure 13.29. Similarly,
when a test object is heated to a very high temperature then rapidly
cooled (in air, oil or water), quench cracks may develop.
During the transformation from austenite (a face centered cubic
structure) to ferrite (body centered cubic) and martensite (body
centered tetragonal) on cooling, a volumetric expansion occurs.

When a test object is quenched following heat treating, the initial
transformation occurs at the test object's surface. Immediately after
the quenching process begins, a layer of body centered tetragonal or
body centered cubic material is formed at the surface. When the
interior cools and transforms, volumetric expansion takes place but
the interior expansion is restrained by the solidified layer. If the
solid layer does not expand enough or if the internal expansion is
great enough, cracking through the outer layer results.
A tempering process normally follows the quenching operation.
Because of this exposure to a high temperature, the surface of
quench cracks become oxidized. Identifying oxidation is one method
of determining If a crack was caused by quenching.
125
Quench cracks serve as stress concentration sites for fatigue
crack initiation and propagation. This may also serve as the initiation
sites for overload failures. Some quenching operations are so severe
that test objects break up during the process.
The amount of volumetric expansion is governed primarily by the
chemistry of the metal, particularly carbon. As the carbon content
increases, so does the amount of expansion.
The severity of the quench can be lessened by using a lower
carbon content material or by quenching in a less harsh media, such
as oil or an elevated temperature bath.
Heat treating and quench cracks usually emanate from locations

of thin cross section, corners, fillets, notches or material thickness
changes because these areas cool quicker and therefore transform
first. Restricted movement of the material also influences the
location of cracks during the heat treating or quenching operations.
Heat treating or quench cracks are typically forked, surface
indications that are randomly placed in any direction on the test
object.
Pickling Cracks
A pickling operation is used to remove unwanted scale for the
purpose of a more thorough test of the base material. It can also be
used to prepare the surface for finishing operations, such as plating.
Pickling cracks are predominately found in materials that have high
residual stresses (hardened or cold worked metals) and in materials
with voids or similar discontinuities.
During pickling, hydrogen is generated at the surface of the
material. The diffusion of hydrogen into the metal causes a
breakdown of the molecular structure and a subsequent propagation
of cracks. When high internal stresses are present with preexisting
cracks or other discontinuities, hydrogen accelerates propagation of
the crack to relieve the stresses in the material.
Machining Tears
A dull machining tool shears metal off in a manner that produces
rough, torn surfaces. As a result, the surface is work hardened to a
degree that depends largely on the depth of cut, the type and shape
of the tool and the material properties, as shown in Figure 13.30.

Heavy cuts and residual tool marks from rough machining act as
stress risers and can contribute to premature failure in a component.
Stress risers may also occur at a change in section, such as in small
fillet radii between two shaft sections of different diameters or the
poor blending of fillets with shaft surfaces. Although difficult to
detect, machining tears must be thoroughly and meticulously
located.
particle indications of quench
cracks.
Plating Cracks
particle indications of cracks
resulting from cold working
during machining.
Plating is used for decoration, corrosion protection, wear
resistance and to correct undersized dimensions for a wide variety of
steel components. However, specific plating materials produce
residual stresses that can be either tensile or compressive. Plating
materials that develop residual tensile stresses (chromium, copper
and nickel) can reduce the fatigue strength of a component.
Plating cracks may develop when there is penetration of either
hydrogen or hot plating material into the base metal. This action
produces crack propagation or initiation. Materials high in hardness

or residual stresses are more susceptible to damage from hydrogen
absorption during plating or pickling operations. Furthermore, cracks
that initiate exclusively in the plating material may act as stress
risers and cause cracking in the base material.
INSERVICE DISCONTINUITIES
The life expectancy of a component is dependent on its service
environment (both mechanical and chemical), the quality of its
maintenance and the appropriateness of its design. It is essential for
testing personnel to know the service conditions of a component to
accurately perform a magnetic particle test. Although inservice
discontinuities appear similar, the mechanisms that cause them are
quite different in each case. Table 13.5 briefly describes common
inservice discontinuities found in ferromagnetic materials.
127
Table 13.5: Inservice discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
Cause
Fatigue surface cyclically applied stress below the ultimate tensile strength
Creep surface or subsurface material subjected to high temperatures and stress
Stress cracking surface
combined effects of a static tensile load and corrosiveenvironment
Hydrogen cracking surface or subsurface combined effects of applied tensile or residual stress and
Fatigue Cracking
hydrogen enriched environment

Fatigue is a fracture mechanism induced by a cyclically applied
stress that is lower in magnitude than the ultimate tensile strength of
the material, but high enough to initiate a crack or to propagate a
preexisting crack.
Fatigue cracks can develop from stress risers such as machining
or tooling marks, nonmetallic inclusions present at or near the
material surface, pores, holes or notches, keyways and may even
develop on a smooth surface, as shown in Figures 13.31 and 13.32.
As a fatigue crack begins to propagate, the stress intensity at the
tip of the crack starts to increase. With every incremental growth
period of the crack, there is a proportional, incremental increase in
the stress intensity. This process continues until the stress intensity K
reaches the critical value K1C where failure occurs.
This K1C factor, also known as thefracture toughness, is unique
for each material. The variance in fracture toughness partially
explains the behavior of fatigue cracks: why there is such a range of
fatigue crack sizes; why some cracks may only propagate a small
amount; and why others propagate through nearly all the material
before final fracture.
Fatigue Crack Structure
From an external surface, a fatigue crack resembles any other
crack, but internally a fatigue crack has certain unique
characteristics. Macroscopically, features called beach marks or
clamshell marks can be found. These distinct markings are the result
of variations in cyclic loading, either in frequency, environment or

stress. Such marks are actually small ridges that develop on the
fracture surface and they indicate the position of the advancing crack
at a given time. The geometry and orientation of beach marks can
help establish the location of the crack origin and the direction of
propagation, as shown in Figure 13.33.
Microscopically, the fatigue fracture mechanism is characterized
by features known as striations. Each striation represents one
applied stress cycle. The distance between striations can be equated
to the crack growth rate.
Striations and beach marks are not always observed on the
fracture surface. Many times, loading is such that striations formed
Figure 13.31: Helicopter rotor component:
(a) no discontinuities revealed by visual
examination; and (b) fatigue cracks
revealed by wet fluorescent magnetic
particle tests.
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.32: Magnetic particle indications
of fatigue cracks in a gear.
Figure 13.33: Photograph of a fracture
surface typical of fatigue; note initiation
area in the upper left comer.
during the tensile or positive stress cycle are obliterated during

compressive or negative stress. Striations appear more often in softer
materials, such as aluminum or low carbon steel.
Fatigue cracks normally originate on the surface but can begin
below the surface at discontinuities if the applied and residual
stresses exceed the subsurface fatigue strength of the material. When
this occurs, a circular pattern of beach marks may form around the
origin, producing a bull's-eye appearance.
The probability of fatigue cracking can be dramatically reduced if
the designer is aware of the material's fatigue properties and designs
the component accordingly. Proper care in machining is necessary to
ensure that no unanticipated stress risers are introduced. Additional
fatigue resistance can be gained by stress-relieving a component or
by shot peening to introduce a compressive stress on the test object's
surface.
Creep Cracking
At temperatures greater than half the melting point and at stresses
below the yield strength of the material, deformation can occur by
the action of grains gradually separating over an extended period of
time. This can eventually lead to cracking and finally to failure. This
deformation or failure mechanism is called creep.
129
Figure 13.34 shows a schematic representation of creep or
deformation with a constant load. The curve can be broken down
into four regions. The first is the material's initial response to

loading. This is usually elastic in nature and is applied very quickly,
accounting for the vertical portion of the curve. The next portion of
the curve is where the material's rate of straining or creep is
decreasing with time. This is called primary or transient creep.
Figure 13.34: Typical curve showing the three stages of creep:
(a) constant load test; and (b) constant stress test.
I-CII r III
(a)
Primarycreep
Tertiarycreep
£0
Secondarycreep
~-
=--..J ~~ = Minimumcreeprate
Time
Fracture
__ - (b)
The third portion is called secondary or steady state creep. This
period accounts for the majority of a component's life and the rate of
creep is nearly constant. During this stage, small voids begin to form
and grow at the triple points of the grain boundaries. Because the
void formation is nearly constant, the creep rate can be predicted
and the remaining service life of the component can be estimated,
based on the steady state creep.

Once the material moves into the region of tertiary creep, the
useful life of the material is over. In the tertiary stage, the creep
voids have become so large that they begin to link, forming a crack
network that quickly leads to failure.
Creep can be detected and controlled. Periodic tests, particularly
those involving field metallography and circumferential
measurement can be used to monitor the creep process, as shown in
Figures 13.35 and 13.36. By slightly decreasing operating
temperature or stress, a substantial decrease in the creep rate yields
greater service life. Figure 13.37 shows the effect that various
temperatures have on creep.
It is generally recognized that the most direct way to improve the
creep properties of a metal is by adding alloying elements. Carbide
forming elements, such as molybdenum, tungsten and, to a lesser
degree, chromium and vanadium, effectively enhance the creep
resistance of steels.
Figure 13.35:
Photomicrograph of fracture
and creep in various stages in
heat affected zone near fusion
zone interface.
Figure 13.36:
Photomicrograph of linked
creep voids in weld zone.

Figure 13.37: Curve showing the effect of temperature on creep
over time.
620°C 605 °C
(l150 OF) (1l20 OF)
580°C
(1080 OF)
Time
565°C
(1050 OF)
Nickel additions are beneficial if sufficient quantity is added to
produce an austenitic structure that is more resistant to creep.
Austenitic stainless steels (particularly 18Cr-8Ni types) have much
better creep properties than carbon steels.
Aside from alloying additions, heat treatment has an effect on
creep properties. Heat treatment generally controls grain size and it
has been found that a coarser grain at elevated temperatures has
higher creep strength than a finer grain.
Since materials can be subjected to such a variety of loads and
temperatures for a particular application, the type of heat treatment
should be based on the degree of stability that it imparts to the
component initially and throughout its service life.
Stress Corrosion Cracking
540 °C
(1010 OF)
Stress corrosion cracking is a fracture mechanism that results

from the combined effects of a static tensile load and a corrosive
environment. The stress involved can either be from actual applied
loads or from residual stresses.
520°C
(970 OF)
131
The corrosive environment varies from material to material.
Some common examples of materials and their corrosive
environments include: aluminum and austenitic stainless steels
exposed to saltwater; copper and its alloys exposed to ammonia
(NH3); and mild steel exposed to sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
The stress intensity versus time dependence for a typical stress
corrosion cracking situation is shown in Figure 13.38. The basic
stress-time curve can be expressed in terms of the initial level of Kb
which is based on the tensile load and a known crack length. The
threshold value of stress intensity is designated K/scc. Crack growth
does not occur if the stress intensity is below this value. If the initial
stress intensity is above K1SCC' a crack propagates. The higher the
initial K[ or the closer the value gets to the critical stress intensity
factor K1C' the shorter the life of the component.
The initiation site of a stress corrosion crack may be a preexisting
discontinuity or it may be a small pit acting as a stress riser and
produced by corrosive attack on the surface, as shown in
Figure 13.39. Once a crack is formed, the corrosive environment

penetrates the surface of the material. The tip of an advancing crack
has a small radius and the attendant stress concentration is great.
This stress at the crack tip ruptures the normally protective corrosion
film and aids in the corrosion process, as shown in Figure 13.40.
In addition to this, the formation of corrosion products by local
attack in confined areas produces high stress levels in materials if
the corrosion products occupy a larger volume than the metal from
which they are formed. This wedging action of corrosion products in
cracks has been measured to produce stresses over 34 MPa (5 ksi)
which aid in the propagation of the crack.
Stress corrosion cracking produces brittle failure, either
intergranular or transgranular, depending on the type of alloy or the
corrosive environment. In most cases, while fine cracks penetrate
into a the cross section of a component, the surface shows little
evidence of corrosion.
To keep the stress intensity to a minimum, care must be taken to
avoid stress concentrations, such as tooling marks, notches, arc
strikes and large inclusions near the surface.
Hydrogen Cracking
Hydrogen cracking or hydrogen embrittlement is a fracture
mechanism that results from the corrosive environment produced by
a hydrogen media and usually occurs in conjunction with an applied
tensile stress or residual stress. Hydrogen is introduced into a
material by processes such as electroplating, pickling, welding in a
moist atmosphere or the melting process itself. Hydrogen may also

come from corrosion or the presence of hydrogen sulfides, hydrogen
gas, water, methane or ammonia.
If no crack or stress riser is present on a material surface,
hydrogen can diffuse into the metal and often initiates cracks at
subsurface sites, where triaxial stress conditions are at maximum
132
Figure 13.38: Stress intensity
versus time dependence for a
typical stress corrosion
cracking situation.
10
100
Time
(minutes)
Figure 13.39: Stresscorrosion
cracking found in a stainless
tube (dye penetrant was used
to illustrate the random crack
orientation and branching);
note that similar cracking
could exist in ferromagnetic
alloys.
Figure 13.40:
Photomicrograph showing a
typical stress corrosion crack;
note small pit produced by
corrosive attack acting as a
stress riser.
levels. In low strength alloys, this condition can lead to what is
known as hydrogen blistering.
If a crack is already present, it is quite common to see hydrogen
induced cracking initiated at the tips of preexisting cracks.
In many instances, hydrogen is already present internally in a
metal before it is placed into service. Hydrogen is readily absorbed
into molten metal during the initial solidification of the material and
during welding processes. The solubility of hydrogen is quite high at
elevated temperatures and in some cases, metals can become
supersaturated with hydrogen during cooling.
Hydrogen cracking follows grain boundaries and rarely shows
any signs of branching. When such cracking results from blistering
or from a static load, it always originates below the component's
surface. Hydrogen cracking from other causes can begin below the
test object's surface or at a stress riser.
-------------------------------------_--_
133Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book
Chapter 14
Evaluation Techniques
REFERENCE STANDARDS
Nondestructive tests are typically designed to reveal the presence

of discontinuities or to measure specific properties in a structure or
material. The discontinuity may be an anomaly in a homogeneous
material or a change in one of the material's properties (thickness,
hardness or density, for example).
Before testing, some form of artificial discontinuity or reference
standard is commonly used to verify the operation of a magnetic
particle testing system. This verification is performed for two
reasons.
1. Provide a sensitivity check of the testing procedure.
2. Establish a known correlation between the response of the
test system, the magnitude of the material property or the
severity of a discontinuity.
Magnetic particle testing uses magnetic fields to test
ferromagnetic materials. Discontinuities in the material cause
disturbances in the magnetic field, and this in tum produces a
leakage flux. It is this leakage flux that permits the formation of
particle indications. Both the direction and intensity of the magnetic
field are critical in determining the sensitivity of the test procedure.
Both of these factors are in tum affected by the nature of the
material, the test object geometry and the way in which the magnetic
field is induced.
All of these parameters are interrelated to determine the direction
and intensity of the magnetic field in a particular location in a test
object. The mathematics of these interrelationships does not lend
itself to straight forward solutions, even for relatively simple

geometries.
Empirical Rules for Using Reference Standards
Perhaps more than any other nondestructive technique, magnetic
particle testing has based its procedures on empirical data (rules of
thumb) developed by trial and error in the early days of the method.
These rules have persisted in various standards and specifications.
The reliance on empirical data occurred because of the enormous
complexity of magnetic fields and their interactions with
ferromagnetic components. Unfortunately,rules of thumb have
sometimes been used exclusively for determining the adequacy of
135
certain test setups. As with most empirical data, the rules developed
for magnetic particle testing should be used with caution and with an
understanding of their limits. Caution dictates that regular system
monitoring be used to verify acceptable test sensitivity. Most
existing formulas ensure over magnetization in some test objects.
It is easy to demonstrate the connection between misused rules of
magnetization and inaccurate testing. Figure 14.1 shows where a
null field is produced at the fork in a simple test object
configuration. Failure to use some form of field strength indicator to
verify the presence of a valid magnetic flux could lead to inadequate
testing of this critical area. Measurements with the means described
here have shown a variation from 0.3 to 8.5 mT (3 to 85 G) within
the same test object because of its geometric differences.
Figure 14.1: Magnetic particle testing problem area in a simple

test object geometry.
SYSTEM EVALUATION
Unlike other nondestructive testing methods, magnetic particle
testing systems give little evidence of malfunction. The absence of a
test indication could mean that either tests were properly performed
on samples without discontinuities or the testing system was not
working and therefore not locating existing discontinuities.
As a result, some form of reference standard is needed to
determine proper system performance and adequate sensitivity. Such
a system evaluation tool should check for contamination of the
magnetic particle bath, material visibility (loss of fluorescence on
fluorescent oxides), particle concentration (for wet methods),
adequate particle mobility and the ability to generate an appropriate
magnetic field. Test objects with known discontinuities can also be
used to check system performance.
System Standardization
When multiple variables can affect the outcome of a test, a, means
should be used to normalize or standardize the test. This ensures that
consistent, repeatable results are achieved, independent of the
machine, the technician or the time of the test.
136
The most direct way to achieve consistent results is to regularly
use a reference standard to compare system sensitivity to
preestablished tolerances. If the desired sensitivity is not achieved,

testing should be stopped to allow required system adjustments.
Parametric Evaluations
At times, it is useful to examine a system's sensitivity to changes
in one or more variables. For example, to evaluate the effectiveness
of magnetic particle testing on chromium plated components, it
would be appropriate to investigate the following factors.
1. The effect of various plating thicknesses.
2. The sensitivity of the test to changes in current levels or field
strength.
3. The effect of changes in the particle type or bath
concentration.
Reference standards are used to study these changing parameters.
Indications of the known discontinuities help determine the effect of
the individual parameters on test sensitivity. The results of such
studies are used to generate or modify testing procedures for the
material and geometry of interest.
Technique Development
In the past, it was COmmonfor some technicians to rely solely on
empirical rules for establishing magnetic particle testing procedures.
This practice frequently leads to over magnetization, poor coverage,
inappropriate selection of test geometries or some combination of all
three disadvantages.
The selection of an appropriate test technique may be the single
most important factor in the success of a magnetic particle test. The
use of reference standards and artificial indications can significantly

improve system performance, and may also reduce the cost of
testing by eliminating unnecessary configurations or scrappage
caused by excessive current. The use of reference standards during
technique development can quickly verify the completeness of
coverage, the direction of magnetizing fields and the level of field
strengths.
In many cases, common rules of thumb produce field strengths in
excess of those needed for detecting discontinuities. Excessive field
strength might appear to provide a margin of safety for unknown
effects of test object material and geometry. However, in many
cases, this excess produces a significant field component normal to
the test object surface. This in tum reduces particle mobility,
increases particle background and actually reduces, rather than
enhances, the sensitivity of the test. Reference standards are often
used to regulate field strength to avoid excess flux while achieving
accurate indications. Two kinds of artificial discontinuities are used
for magnetic particle test systems.
137
1. Those designed to indicate the adequacy of the field in an
unknown test object.
2. Those designed to measure the effectiveness of the testing
system independent of the test object.
Reference Standards for System Evaluation
Reference standards may be used to evaluate the functionality or

performance of a magnetic particle testing system. On a periodic
basis, reference standards are used as test objects to monitor the
system for changes in magnetic field production, particle
concentration, visibility or contamination. It is helpful to have
graduated discontinuities so that a numerical indicator of the system
performance can be recorded and monitored.
STANDARD TOOL STEEL RING
The tool steel ring is a commonly used and universally
recognized reference standard for magnetic particle testing systems,
as shown in Figure 14.2. It essentially indicates only particle
efficacy. It appears in virtually all United States codes and
specifications as the means for checking magnetic particle
performance.
The ring was first used in 1941. Since that time, its use has
expanded for both wet and dry methods, to the point that the ring is
widely used for measuring systemperformance. It is important,
however, to recognize the ring's limits. For example, a current density
level less than 20% of that usually applied is all that is needed to
indicate a surface discontinuity depth, as shown in Table 14.1.
Figure 14.2: Tool steel ring.
)'1.9 em
4)(
_A
\_ _l
5S
61
17
C"'!
C'"l
r-:
.-<
Table 14.1: Comparative dimensions for a
tool steel ring standard.
Distance from Edge
Diameter
to Center of Hole
Hole
centimeter
centimeter
Number
(inch)
(inch)
O.1S
(0.07) O.1S
(0.07)
O.1S (0.07)
0.36 (0.14)
O.1S (0.07)
0.53 (0.21)
O.1S (0.07) 0.71
(0.2S)
O.1S (0.07) 0.S9
(0.35
O.1S (0.07)
1.07 (0.42)
0.18 (0.07) 1.24
(0.49)
8
O.IS (0.07)
1.42 (0.56)
O.1S (0.07) 1.6
(0.63)
10
0.18 (0.07)
1.78 (0.70)
11
O.IS (0.07) 1.96 (0.77)
12.
O.1S (0.07)
2.14 (0.84)
Using the Ring Standard
The ring standard is used by passing a specified direct current
through a conductor that in turn passes through the ring's center. The
magnetic particle testing procedure (or system) is evaluated based on
the number of holes detected at various current levels. The number
of holes that should be detected at a particular current level is
provided by written specifications.
Standard test objects like the ring have proven to be a valuable
aid in controlling magnetic particle test system parameters.
However, in addition to magnetizing current level, other factors
influence test results, including the properties of the particles,
technician skill, magnetization level, direction of the magnetic fields

produced and particle concentration. An evaluation of all the
contributing factors requires the development of mathematical
models to describe their effect on the formation of test indications.
Ring Standard Magnetic Fields
All magnetic leakage fields are a superposition of dipolar fields.
This dipole character is usually evident when the field from the
discontinuity is measured. The field arising from a long cylindrical
discontinuity in a linear isotropic medium can be exactly calculated
and has a pure dipolar character.
Limitations of the Ring Standard
A 1986 study revealed a lack of uniformity among ring standards
used around the United States. When tested in a prescribed manner,
the rings were found to produce indications anywhere from four to
eleven holes, while indicating no difference in hardness or
spectrographic analysis. The data appear to cluster around two
sensitivities, one at five to six holes (40% of the rings) and the other
at nine to ten holes (46% of the rings).
A ring that showed five holes at a given current density produced
nine holes in a repeat of the sensitivity test after annealing.
Standardization efforts have been implemented to help control this
problem.
REFERENCE STANDARD TEST BLOCKS
Split Prism Test Block
The prism block, shown in Figure 14.3, is another reference
standard containing an artificial discontinuity. Truncated half prisms

are built with one face at an angle and when two such components
are bolted together, an artificial crack is formed. The sloped surface
of the block can be positioned at variable distances from the
conductor.
When current is passed through the conductor, the leakage field
from the crack gradually weakens along the prism face. Specified
139
amperage is applied through the conductor and the length of the
magnetic particle indication is used to measure the test sensitivity.
Magnetized Test Blocks
Another version of the block standard consists of two ground
steel blocks forming an artificial crack at their contact surfaces, as
shown in Figure 14.4, similar to the discontinuity formation in the
split prism test block. On one of the face ends, a small permanent
magnet is fixed below a brass cover, causing magnetic flux leakage
from the artificial discontinuity. This leakage field decreases with
greater distance from the magnet, so that longer discontinuity
indications reveal higher test sensitivity.
This same task can be fulfilled by another block standard using a
slightly different test principle. A residually magnetized block is
manufactured to contain a network of many different crack widths
on its surface. A typical standard of this type is 5 em (2 in.) in
diameter and 1 em (0.4 in.) thick. Very fine cracks are situated
between bigger discontinuities across the block standard's face. As

an example of this standard's use, the loss of indications for the fine
cracks (or their appearance as points rather than lines) indicates that
the magnetic particle bath is no longer usable.
Figure 14.3: Prism sensitivity indicator.
s),), ·1 --,:/ --::j
?,/t d ?_/ 01
LSo;~ L}/'
~I
Prism Block Standards
Figure 14.4: Block standard containing a
permanent magnet.
A prism block standard consists of a steel block with an artificial
linear discontinuity and a calibrated scale. The zero end of the scale
is adjacent to a permanent magnet. The strength of the leakage field
across the crack is inversely proportional to the distance from the
magnet. The better the quality of the suspension, the lower the
magnetic field strength required for it to produce an indication.
Therefore, the length of an indication measured from the scale is
directly proportional to suspension sensitivity.
To make a measurement, the block is held with the artificial
discontinuity on top, tilted enough to allow excess suspension to run
off. Suspension is applied, and the length of the indication is read
from the scale under ultraviolet radiation. After making the reading,
the indication can be removed by wiping the block with a lint free
cloth. Magnetic particles remaining in the discontinuity can be
removed with a soft bristle brush.
To develop a working procedure for using a block standard,
freshly prepared suspensions were evaluated by the settling test and
the block standard. These tests gave a range of acceptable values for
periodic field checks of suspensions applied from a pump bottle. It
is practical to repeat these tests frequently because the block
standard field checks are almost instantaneous and use only a small
amount of suspension.
For pressurized spray cans, the prism block standard may also be
used to verify concentration levels as the can is used or to check
variations between different cans of particles.
Block Standard Measurements
It is important to understand what the block standard test does
and does not do. It evaluates the magnetic particle suspension as an
independent variable. It gives no information about the functioning
of the yoke (or any other magnetizing apparatus that might be used
for the test) or about the effectiveness of any specific test setup for
detecting discontinuities. Its use can replace some settling tests, but
not any required test of field strength, field direction or equipment
function for overall test sensitivity.
A block standard test does not provide a traceable calibration
procedure because there are slight variations between blocks. For
example, a test of the same suspension with several different blocks
might give a range of readings from 1.8 to 2 em (0.7 to 0.8 in.). This
variation is not critical to a technician using a single block.
However, it must be considered in any applications where different
blocks are used.
There is no predetermined minimum reading for a good
suspension. Appropriate suspension concentrations must be
determined for a specific application (with reference standards), and
these concentrations may then be verified with the block standard.
Tests made by preparing suspensions of low, medium and high
sensitivity magnetic powders according to their manufacturers'
recommendations gave block readings from 0.6 to 2.8 em (0.25 to
1.1 in.).
One example of the significance of the numerical readings was
obtained by testing a natural crack visible to the unaided eye at one
end and tapered to a sharp edge at the other. Two particle materials
and three suspension concentrations of each material were
compared, as shown in Table 14.2.
When the suspension concentration is repeatedly increased, a
point is reached where block standard readings no longer increase
proportionally and background fluorescence does increase. Although
the block does give a qualitative indication of background
fluorescence, this is better judged on the actual test surface. It
Table 14.2: Comparative discontinuity indications on a block
standard.
Particle
Block Standard
Length of Indication
Material
Reading
centimeter (inch)
2.3 (0.9)
A 12
2.8 (1.1)
A 15
(1.2)
B 15
(1.2)
B 17
3.3
(1.3)
21
3.3
(1.3)
appears that an optimum combination of high sensitivity and low
background is typically reached at concentrations well below the

maximum allowable settling volume reading.
ELECTRONIC REFERENCE STANDARDS
Hall Effect Meters
Hall effect meters are commonly used to measure the strength of
the magnetizing force tangential to the surface of a test object.
Though often called a gauss meter, the device does not actually
measure the magnetic flux B within the component. Rather, it
measures the magnetic field strength H adjacent to the test object.
The hall effect meter is a relatively effective indicator, and is in
widespread use for establishing magnetic particle testing procedures.
They effectively measure residual fields and indicate the direction of
the remanence.
Various specifications call for the use of different tesla (gauss) or
ampere per meter (oersted) values in particular applications. In air,
the nonmetric gauss and oersted units are numerically equal in
value. Required values commonly range from 1.6 kA· m-I (200e)
to 4.8 kA· m-I (60 Oe) when the residual method is used. A residual
field less than 240 A . m-I (3 Oe) usually does not attract
conventional magnetic particles.
Eddy Current Devices
The ability of a material to store electromagnetic energy in the
form of eddy currents is a function of both the conductivity and
permeability of the material. Because the permeability of a
ferromagnetic material changes as the material is magnetized (from
a relatively low initial permeability through a higher maximum

value), the eddy current coil impedance also changes.
Several eddy current procedures have been developed to detect
this change in permeability and thereby indicate the degree of
142
magnetization. Because of poor repeatability, few of these
procedures are widely used. The repeatability problem stems from
the large number of variables that can affect eddy current response
in a ferromagnetic material.
A magnetization level indicator has been developed to detect
imbalance in the permeability along the lines of flux compared with
the permeability transverse to the lines of flux as the material
approaches magnetic saturation.
CONCLUSION
Magnetic particle testing historically relied on empirical
guidelines for the development of test procedures. This practice led
to widely varying discontinuity detection capabilities. Various codes
and specifications have perpetuated the problem by citing rules of
thumb for establishing procedures.
Several forms of reference standards are available for verifying
procedures and for evaluating the performance of a magnetic particle
testing system (as a whole or by components). Reference standards
for this purpose are usually made of high permeability materials
containing controlled graduations of artificial discontinuities.
Reference standards are also available for evaluating the

effectiveness of a magnetic particle test for a particular test object.
These devices include a variety of shim configurations containing
known discontinuities.
The use of a block standard with a permanent magnet and a
scaled artificial discontinuity is a simple and practical way to
monitor two of the three important characteristics (sensitivity and
repeatability) of wet magnetic particle suspensions used in the field
with yokes.
The third important characteristic, background fluorescence
(signal-to-noise ratio) is a function of the test surface as well as the
suspension. The block standard can be used to find the concentration
above which sensitivity shows little or no increase and background
fluorescence is expected to increase.
The use of the block standard with understanding of its functions
and limitations can greatly improve the effectiveness and control of
wet magnetic particle tests performed in the field with yoke
magnetization.
Electronic reference standards, such as hall effect meters and
eddy current devices, can also be used to evaluate the adequacy of a
test procedure. Widespread use of reference standards and test
discontinuities is needed to improve the consistency of magnetic
particle tests and to increase the detection reliability of the method.
143
Chapter 15
Quality Control
This chapter provides basic operating and advanced level
information on the procedures necessary to ensure a high quality
performance for the magnetic particle testing system. Magnetic
particle testing is not a fail safe process. The presence of indications
confirms the existence of discontinuities in the test object. However,
the absence of indications does not guarantee the absence of
discontinuities.
Discontinuities can be present and not be indicated for a number
of reasons. The two main reasons for discrepancies in testing results
are: substandard materials either as received or through service
degradation; and process deviations either in equipment, procedures
or condition. Materials and process deficiencies may not be readily
evident during the examination of a processed test object. It is
necessary to periodically test the materials and to test the equipment
and process to be sure they are functioning.
New Materials
Magnetic particle materials are subjected to extensive testing
during their formulation to ensure their proper composition.
However, materials that do not perform satisfactorily can be
received.
Many times the discrepancies in performance are not detected
until a number of test objects have been processed. Considerable
effort must then be expended to locate and retest the suspect objects.
Unsatisfactory materials can result from a number of causes. The

magnetic particle and vehicle suppliers may inadvertently omit an
ingredient or a process. They may substitute an ingredient that is not
compatible with testing requirements. The substitution of ingredients
may occur anytime during the magnetic particle manufacture or
vehicle refinement. Experience has shown that all newly received
magnetic particle bath materials must be tested to verify
performance characteristics.
In Use Materials
Some testing processes use the magnetic particle materials one
time. The materials are usually applied by spraying or dusting, and
only enough material to properly function is applied. The materials
are stored in closed containers until they are used. These processes
minimize the possibility of material contamination or degradation
during use. More often, however, the materials are used in open
tanks, where the surplus materials are allowed to drain from the test
145
object back into the tank. This method provides numerous
opportunities for contamination and deterioration, and such materials
must be checked periodically to ensure they are functioning
properly.
MATERIAL CONTAMINATION
Material contamination is a primary source of degrading
magnetic particle bath performance. There are a number of
contaminating materials, and their effect on performance depends on
the type of material. Some of the common contaminants frequently

encountered include the following.
1. Water is a common contaminant of petroleum based baths. It
can occur because of condensation, humidity or carried in on
test objects from a previous operation.
2. Organic coatings, such as paint, lubricants, oils, greases and
sealants, are another source of contamination. If not removed
from test objects during precleaning, these materials can be
introduced into a magnetic particle bath and react with or
dilute it so that it loses some or all of its ability to function.
3. Organic solvents, such as degreaser fluid, cleaning solvent,
gasoline and antifreeze solution, are common types of
contaminants. These materials mix with the test bath or float
on top of it reducing the bath's effectiveness.
4. Dirt, soil and other insoluble solids are carried into the
magnetic particle bath as a result of improper precleaning.
5. Acid and alkaline solutions are a serious contaminant of
fluorescent magnetic particle baths. Acids react with the
magnetic particle bath to destroy the fluorescence of the dye
stuffs, even when present in fairly small quantities. Acid and
alkaline solutions result from residues of previous plating,
paint stripping and cleaning processes that have not been
removed. These contaminants could also have an adverse
reaction with the physical properties of all test objects.
Evaporation Losses
Magnetic particle bath vehicle materials used in open tanks are

continuously undergoing evaporation. The rate of evaporation is
increased with warmer temperatures and large tank surfaces.
Evaporation losses take place very gradually so performance change
may become significant over time.
146
Heat Degradation
Fluorescent dyes are sensitive to elevated temperatures.
Temperatures of over 60°C (140 OF)may destroy it completely.
High temperatures in magnetic particle testing materials usually
occur when materials are improperly stored. A dark colored
container stored in direct sunlight can reach temperatures above
60 °C (140 OF).
Process Degradation
In addition to materials degradation during use, the equipment
and process can deteriorate. Ultraviolet radiation bulbs age and
become dirty, reducing their output and critical procedures may be
performed incorrectly. During service, periodic material and process
tests should be accomplished to ensure satisfactory performance.
MATERIAL CONTROL REQUIREMENTS
Material tests apply to newly received materials and in use
material. They are designed to ensure unsatisfactory materials do not
enter the magnetic particle testing system and that established
system materials are performing satisfactorily. All new material tests
should be performed before materials are put into use.

1. Perform petroleum based bulk media contamination and
background fluorescence check. .
2. Perform fluorescent dye separation check.
3. Commercial prepared and new technician prepared bath
check.
3.1. Perform an initial concentration check.
3.2. Perform a background fluorescence check.
3.3. Perform a contamination check.
3.4. Perform magnetic material performance check.
4. Perform dry powder materials performance check.
S. Perform aerosol magnetic particle performance check.
Before new material replacement in a magnetic particle testing
unit, the equipment must be cleaned thoroughly according to the
equipment maintenance manual. The technician should reject all
materials not meeting minimal requirements.
147
USE OF THE SETTLING TEST
The settling test is intended to evaluate the bath's characteristics
based on the assumption that they are directly related to the
concentration of magnetic particles in the suspension. The
availability of magnetic materials with different particle size
distributions (to produce suspensions of low, medium or high
efficacy) is another reason for adopting alternative means of
evaluating the suspension. Tests to measure the overall sensitivity of

a testing procedure are not specified for yoke techniques. Reference
standards can help evaluate the end product of several independent
variables and how they work in the overall test system, but they do
not specifically address the quality of the magnetic particle
suspension. One way to evaluate the quality of a suspension is to use
a block standard.
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION AND FACILITIES
Ultraviolet is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength
ranging between X-rays and visible light. The ultraviolet range is
usually divided into three bands.
1. Short wavelength (4 to 10 nm) or hard ultraviolet which is
used in germicidal or sterilizing lamps.
2. Medium wavelength (10 to 320 nm) which is mainly used in
suntan lamps and soft ultraviolet.
3. Long wavelength (320 to 400 nm) has the smallest band
width of the ultraviolet range and is just below visible
wavelength light.
The chart shown in Figure 15.1 of the electromagnetic spectrum
shows the relatively small band of ultraviolet radiation used in
fluorescent magnetic particles (320 to 400 nm). The eye is not very
responsive to ultraviolet radiation, especially if visible light is
present. However, with reduced visible light, the eye's pupil dilates
and the sensitivity of the eye increases for ultraviolet radiation
containing the longer wavelengths. Note that violet colors may be
visible.
When fluorescent materials are energized by ultraviolet radiation,
they emit visible light. The quality of color of the emitted light
depends on the material. Each type emits a specific wavelength
ranging from violet (400 nm) to red (700 nm). One of the factors in
selecting a dye for use in fluorescent magnetic particles is the color
emitted. The most frequently used dyes emit a yellow-green in the
wavelength band of 510 to 550 nm. This color is chosen because the
eye has its highest response to wavelengths in this range.
148
Figure 15.1: Electromagnetic spectrum showing the narrow range of ultraviolet radiation
used for fluorescent magnetic particle testing.
X-rays
(10 pm to
Visible light
(400 to 700 nm)
10 nm)
Ultraviolet
(4 to
400 nm)
Microwave
(l mm to 1m)
Infrared
(700 nm to 1 mm)
UHF VHF
I
I I II
Radio waves
(10 to 100 000 m)
10 100 10 100
10 100
10 100
10 100
Micrometers
10 100
Meters
KilometersMillimetersPicometers Nanometers
Radiation used for fluorescent
magnetic particle tests
(320 to 400 nm)
WAVELENGTH
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION INTENSITY REQUIREMENTS
Testing of an object for fluorescent magnetic particle indications
should always be done under the lowest possible level of ambient
light. This increases the contrast between the light emitted from the
indication and the background, hence the sensitivity of the test. At
the same time, the ultraviolet radiation intensity must be as high as

possible because the luminance of the indication is directly
proportional to the quantity of ultraviolet radiation exciting it.
The adequacy of an ultraviolet radiation source for fluorescent
magnetic particle testing is determined by measuring the intensity of
the ultraviolet radiation at a distance of 38 em (15 in.) from the front
or outside surface of the ultraviolet radiation source filter. This
intensity should be at least 1000 W/cm2, and sources providing less
than this intensity should not be used. The actual intensity needed at
the surface of the test object will vary depending on the ambient
light conditions and size of the suspected indication. Values of
3000 W/cm? can be achieved with acceptable ultraviolet radiation
sources by moving the source closer than 38 em (15 in.) to the test
object, yet leaving sufficient space to observe the specific area of
interest.
Test booths of a stationary fluorescent magnetic particle system
should not exceed 20 lx (2 ftc) per square foot of ambient light. At
this level, the intensity of ultraviolet radiation striking the test object
surface should not be less than 800 W/cm2. As the ambient light
level is increased, the intensity of ultraviolet radiation must also be
149
increased. When performing portable fluorescent magnetic particle
tests, a dark colored canvas or photographers black cloth should be
used to darken the area of interest to the lowest possible ambient
light levels during the test. Ultraviolet radiation and ambient light
measurements should be taken before any testing begins.
Ambient Light Measurements
The measurement of visible light is accomplished by using
selenium cell photometers. The selenium cell is photosensitive and
responds to electromagnetic energy with wavelengths of about
380 to 450 nm. This range extends into the longer wavelength
ultraviolet radiation and shorter wavelength visible ranges. Precise
measurement is possible with filters that exclude ultraviolet and
infrared radiation. Filters are not normally used since the variation is
within acceptable limits. The units of measurement are footcandles,
or in SI lumens, where one footcandle equals one lumen. Another
term often used is lux, which equals one lumen per square meter.'
The commonly used conversion factor is 10 lux equals 1 lumen or
footcandle.
Ultraviolet is electromagnetic radiation and must be measured in
units of irradiance, hence the watts per square meter or microwatts
per square centimeter where 1 W/m2 equals 100 IlW/cm2. The
ultraviolet spectrum is divided into three bands.
There are two types of instruments available; however, separate
instruments are intended for each of the ultraviolet ranges. Care
must be exercised to ensure the instrument is designed for the
ultraviolet radiation or 350 nm band.
VARIABLES
Ultraviolet lamps are manufactured for other purposes than
nondestructive testing. The primary users do not require a specific

output or consistency between bulbs. Consequently, new bulbs can
vary by as much as 50% in their initial output. This means that with
two new bulbs, one may have an intensity that is double that of the
other without either having defects. New ultraviolet bulbs should be
tested for output before being used.
Line Voltage Variations
Ultraviolet radiation intensity varies almost linearly with line
voltage. A common misconception is that an ultraviolet lamp ballast
or transformer will regulate line variations. This is not true, as
shown when comparing ultraviolet radiation output with line voltage
variation. Below about 90 V, the lamps will not sustain the mercury
arc and the lamp will extinguish. It will not restart until it has
cooled. Ultraviolet lamps should be connected to suitable power
sources. If none are available and line voltage fluctuates, a constant
potential transformer should be used.
150
Service and Aging Variations
During use, dust and dirt will collect on both the bulb face and
filter. Even small amounts will reduce the intensity and if allowed to
build up, can result in a tenfold decrease. The bulb face and filter
should be kept clean.
The output of ultraviolet lamps will also vary because of changes
in operating characteristics. As the bulb ages, the intensity will
gradually decrease. Operating hours will decrease output, but of

greater significance is the number of bulb starts. A single start can
equate to 2 or 3 h of continuous use on operation life. Ultraviolet
lamps that will be used periodically during the day should be
allowed to remain on until its last use of the day. This practice will
extend the useful bulb life.
Ultraviolet Lamp Hazards
High pressure ultraviolet lamps that have high operating
temperatures should not be used when flammable vapors may be
present. A safety review performed by a qualified technician should
be completed before the first object is tested, and at regular intervals
to ensure safety.
Ultraviolet lamp housings and filters are extremely hot during
operation. Care must be exercised to prevent touching or contacting
the surfaces with any exposed part of the body. Severe bums may
result. The temperature of an operating ultraviolet lamp may reach
as high as 121°C (250 OF) or more during operation. This is above
the ignition or flashpoint of fuel vapors, which burst into flame if
they contact the bulb at this temperature. The bulb temperature also
heats the external surfaces of the lamp housing of some lamps. The
temperature is not high enough to be visually apparent, but is high
enough to cause severe bums with even momentary contact of
exposed body surfaces.
Ultraviolet radiation in certain wavelengths may be extremely
dangerous to unprotected skin and eyes. The ultraviolet radiation
testing environment should be evaluated for safety by a qualified

technician. Typically, high pressure ultraviolet radiation sources are
rated as high in health hazard potential, whereas fluorescent
phosphor sources are typically rated as mild health hazards. Care
must always be exercised when using an ultraviolet radiation source,
and only appropriate sources may be used by magnetic particle
testing technicians. Ultraviolet radiation exposure levels - both time
and intensity - should be monitored.
151
PROPER PROCEDURES
There are a number of variations in procedure that may affect the
outcome of magnetic particle tests. Written procedures elaborate on
the standard variables and place them in their proper perspective.
When written procedures are not available, an awareness of the
variety and types of discontinuities that are sought, the types of
materials being tested and the need to ensure adequate sensitivity
and maximum reliability is essential. To make the proper selection
among these variables, the technician must know what they are and
how each affects the end result.
Variation in Technique
The variations that must be evaluated for the proper development
of a technique used in magnetic particle testing include the
following.
1. Type and value of current.
2. Type of particles and method of application.

3. Sequence of steps.
4. Direction of field.
5. Sensitivity level.
6. Equipment.
The technician must know the background or history of the test
object. This provides information on the potential discontinuities that
may be present. The technician should consider the following
characteristics when trying to develop a technique.
1. Are the potential discontinuities open to the surface or below
the surface?
2. Are they fine and sharp, or are they wide open?
3. Are they shallow or are they deep?
4. What is their physical size and shape?
5. Are they longitudinal or transverse to the axis of the test
object?
6. What is their location and direction with respect to the
stresses to which the test object will be subjected while in
service?
7. What is the service for which the test object is intended; is it
critical as an aircraft engine or landing gear part, or would its
failure involve no drastic consequences, as for example,
breakage of a tool?
8. What is the size and shape of the test object in which the
discontinuities occur?
9. What are the magnetic characteristics of the test object in

which they occur?
10. What equipment is available to perform the testing?
Selection of Current
Selection of the type of magnetizing current is a basic choice that
must be made before the details of the test technique can be
developed. Possible current types as include the following.
1. Straight direct current.
2. Single phase alternating current.
3. Three phase alternating current.
4. Half wave rectified alternating current.
5. Full wave rectified alternating current.
6. Three phase full wave rectified alternating current.
7. Three phase multivector magnetization units.
It should be noted that equipment using straight direct current or
three phase alternating current is not generally available.
The choice of current is dictated by the need to locate surface or
subsurface discontinuities. If the discontinuity is open to the surface,
either alternating current or direct current may be used with the
choice determined by other considerations. Straight alternating
current produces a skin effect that limits its use to the detection of
discontinuities open to the surface or only a few thousandths of an
inch below. If the discontinuity lies below the surface, a rectified
alternating current source is required. For the testing of finished test
objects, such as machined or ground surfaces, a rectified alternating

current form of direct current is frequently used so that fine
nonmetallic stringers lying just under the surface will be detected
before they initiate fatigue failure.
Current Application Choices
The amount of current to use for optimum results is a major
factor in determining the sensitivity level. The types and minimum
dimensions of the discontinuities to be located are the primary
considerations in determining current level. Insufficient current will
not produce indications at discontinuities. Too high a current will
mask indications with a background, called banding. For any given
test object with a discontinuity, there is a minimum flux level
necessary to produce an indication. As flux produced by current is
increased, the indication will improve.
A point is reached where the flux or current starts to produce
background, at which time the indication becomes obscure. When
current is not specified, general practice is to initially apply the
current at a high level. If background is experienced, demagnetize,
lower the current and reapply. This is repeated until the
objectionable background disappears. If on the initial shot,
background does not appear, increase the current and reapply. When
background appears during this process, demagnetize and reduce the
current to the preceding value. The following paragraphs provide
guidance on establishing a high level of flux for the initial current
setting.

153
Selection of Media
The selection of media is primarily a choice between the dry and
the wet method, and secondarily among the various colors that are
available, including fluorescent particles. Dry powder is superior for
locating subsurface discontinuities because of its high permeability,
mobility and shape and size of the particles. The wet method is
superior in locating very fine surface cracks, regardless of the form
of current used. The wet method offers the advantage of complete
coverage of all surfaces regardless of size or shape.
Selection of the color of particles to use is essentially a matter of
securing the best possible contrast with the background of the
surface of the test object. The differences in visibility among the
black, gray, red and yellow particles are considerable when viewed
in various kinds of light. Black stands out against most light colored
surfaces, gray against dark colored surfaces like those of castings.
Red is more visible against silvery and polished surfaces, especially
if the light by which the test is made is from incandescent lamps.
Yellow offers good contrast when viewed against dark backgrounds.
In the case of the wet method, the ultimate in visibility and contrast
is obtained by the use of fluorescent particles.
Selection of Technique
The choice between the residual method versus the continuous
method is a relatively simple one. In the residual method, test
objects are magnetized and the magnetic particle suspension applied

later. This method can be used only on test objects having sufficient
retentivity. The permanent field retained must be sufficiently strong
to produce leakage fields at discontinuities, which in turn will
produce visible indications. In general, the residual method is
reliable only for the detection of surface discontinuities.
Either the dry or the wet method for particle application can be
used. With the wet method, the magnetized test objects may be
immersed in an agitated bath of suspended magnetic particles, or
they may be flooded with bath by a curtain spray. The residual
method, either wet or dry, has many attractive features and finds
many applications, even though the continuous method has the
inherent advantage of greater sensitivity.
Using the continuous method, the test object is covered with
magnetic particles while the magnetizing force is still acting and the
sensitivity to fine discontinuities is increased. The continuous
method is always more sensitive than the residual.
Field Orientation
The selection of field orientation is determined by the shape and
orientation of the discontinuity in relation to the shape and principal
axes of the test object. The rule of thumb requires circular
magnetization in some sections of the test object, and longitudinal
magnetization in others.
154
If the principal direction of discontinuities is unknown, or if

discontinuities can occur in more than one direction, both circular
and longitudinal magnetization must be used to indicate all possible
discontinuities.
Head Shot
In establishing a circular field with a head shot, use 1000 A of
current per inch of diameter as an initial guide. Caution must be
exercised in applying current to small contact areas on test objects.
Small contact areas can easily over heat, ruining the test object. As a
guide, 0.6 ern- (0.25 in-') of contact area is required to conduct
1000 A without excessive heat.
Central Conductor
In establishing a circular field with a central conductor, use
1000A of current per inch of wall thickness on any test object
having a wall thickness of 1.3 em (0.5 in.) or greater. On test objects
having a wall thickness less than 1.3 em (0.5 in.), use 500 A of
current regardless of the wall thickness. These current values are
also a guide and should be combined with common sense and past
experience. The central conductor must be of adequate size to
produce sufficient flux in the test object. As a guide, the air gap
between the conductor and the test object should not exceed 2.5 em
(l in.). Larger diameters will require multiple shots with the
conductor placed near the test object wall. The portion of the test
object's circumference that will be magnetized is closest to the
conductor and about three times the conductor diameter.
Longitudinal Field
Field strength of a longitudinal field established by a coil shot or
cable wrap is dependent on ampere turns. The requirement for the
proper amount of current is determined from the length-to-diameter
ratio formula. Knowing the length-to-diameter ratio and the number
of turns in the coil or cable wrap, it is possible to determine the
required amperage. Reduce the length-to-diameter ratio to a number,
divide 45 000 by this number and the answer will be the number of
ampere turns. The number of ampere turns obtained should then be
divided by the number of turns in the coil or cable wrap to give the
correct amperage. Remember that ampere turns are the product of
current in amperes times the number of turns in the coil or cable
wrap.
Sensitivity Requirements
Although sensitivity is closely related to current selection, it is
also affected by type of current, character of the magnetic particles,
operating techniques and field orientation. In performing testing of
aircraft test objects or equipment without prior procedures, the
following selections tend to offer optimum results.
Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book ISS
156
1. Alternating current source for fine surface discontinuities.
2. Wet fluorescent suspension for maximum visibility and
contrast.
3. Apply in a continuous method for maximum sensitivity and
increased particle mobility.

CONCLUSION
Nondestructive testing students completing this classroom
training book will have taken an important step, from unaided visual
testing to that of a nondestructive testing method that is capable of
illuminating discontinuities invisible to the unaided eye.
Additionally, the practices in this classroom training book for
control and qualification of applied magnetic particle technology are
much like those used in ultrasonics, radiography, thermography and
other nondestructive testing methods.
Students need only add technical knowledge in other
nondestructive testing technologies to this basic understanding of
process qualifications and controls. The results are the uniform and
repeatable tests that are a hallmark of an individual certified as a
Level II in magnetic particle testing.
Glossary
Air gap: When a magnetic circuit contains a small gap, which the
magnetic flux must cross; the space is referred to as an air gap.
Cracks produce small air gaps on the surface of a test object.
Alternating current: Electric current periodically reversing in
polarity or direction of flow.
Ampere: The unit of electrical current. One ampere is the current
that flows through a conductor having a resistance of one ohm at
a potential of one volt.
Ampere turns: The product of the number of turns in a coil and the
number of amperes flowing through it. A measure of the
magnetizing or demagnetizing strength of the coil.
Bath: The suspension of iron oxide particles in a liquid vehicle
(light oil or water).
Black light: See Ultraviolet radiation.
Carbon steel: Steel which does not contain significant amounts of
alloying elements other than carbon and manganese.
Carrier fluid: The fluid in which fluorescent and nonfluorescent
magnetic particles are suspended to facilitate their application in
the wet method. Also referred to as media.
Central conductor: An electrical conductor that is passed through
the opening in a ring or tube, or any hole in a test object, for the
purpose of creating a circular field in the ring or tube, or around
the hole.
Circular field: See Field, circular magnetic.
Circular magnetization: A method of inducing a magnetic field in
a test object so that the magnetic lines of force take the form of
concentric rings about the axis of the current. This is
accomplished by passing the current directly through the test
object or through a conductor that passes into or through a hole in
the test object. The circular method is applicable for the detection
of discontinuities with axes about parallel to the axis of the
current through the test object.
Coercive force: The reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove
residual magnetism in demagnetizing a test object.

Coil shot: A pulse of magnetizing current passed through a coil
surrounding a test object for the purpose of longitudinal
magnetization.
Contact head: The electrode, fixed to the magnetic particle testing
unit, through which the magnetizing current is drawn.
157
Contact plates: Replaceable metal plates, usually of copper braid,
placed on contact heads to give good electrical contact, thereby
preventing damage to the test object.
Continuous method: A testing method in which ample amounts of
magnetic particles are applied, or are present on the test object,
during the time the magnetizing current is applied.
Core: That part of the magnetic circuit which is within the electrical
winding.
Curie point: The temperature at which ferromagnetic materials can
no longer be magnetized by outside forces, and at which they lose
their residual magnetism: about 649 to 871°C (1200 to 1600 OF)
for many metals.
Current flow method: A method of circular magnetization by
passing a current through a test object via prods or contact heads.
The current may be alternating, half wave rectified, full wave
rectified or direct.
Current induction method: A method of magnetization in which a
circulating current is induced in a ring shaped component by a
fluctuating magnetic field.

Demagnetization: The reduction in the degree of residual
magnetism in ferromagnetic materials to an acceptable level.
Diffuse indications: Indications that are not clearly defined as, for
example, indications of subsurface discontinuities.
Direct current: An electric current which flows steadily in one
direction.
Discontinuity: An imperfection that interferes with the usefulness of
a test object or exceeds acceptability limits established by
applicable specifications. A fault in any material or object that is
detrimental to its serviceability. Note that all cracks, seams and
laps are not necessarily discontinuities, as they may not affect the
usefulness of the object in which they exist.
Distorted field: The direction of a magnetic field in a symmetrical
object will be substantially uniform if produced by a uniformly
applied magnetizing force. But if the test object being magnetized
is irregular in shape, the field is distorted and does not follow a
straight path or have a uniform distribution.
Dry method: Magnetic particle testing in which the particles used
are in the dry powder form.
Dry powder: Finely divided ferromagnetic particles suitably
selected and prepared for magnetic particle testing by the dry
method.
Electromagnet: A magnet created by inserting a suitable metal core
within, or near, a magnetizing field formed by passing electric
current through a coil of insulated wire.

158
Etching: The process of exposing subsurface conditions of metal
test objects by removal of the outside surface through the use of
chemical agents. Because of the action of the chemicals in eating
away the surface, various surface or subsurface conditions are
exposed or exaggerated and made visible to the eye. For example,
forging flow lines and discontinuities.
Ferromagnetic: A term applied to materials that can be magnetized
and strongly attracted by a magnetic field.
Field, bipolar longitudinal: Magnetic field within a test object that
creates two poles.
Field, circular magnetic: The magnetic field in and surrounding
any electrical conductor or test object resulting from a current
being passed through the conductor or test object or from contact
pads or prods.
Field, magnetic leakage: The magnetic field that leaves or enters
the surface of a test object at a magnetic pole.
Field, longitudinal magnetic: A magnetic field wherein the flux
lines traverse the component in a direction essentially parallel
with the axis of the magnetizing coil or to a line connecting the
two poles of the magnetizing yoke.
Field, magnetic: The condition of space within and surrounding a
magnetized test object, or a conductor carrying current,
characterized by the presence of a magnetic force.

Field, residual magnetic: The field that remains in magnetizable
material after the magnetizing force has been removed.
Field, resultant magnetic: A magnetic field that is the result of two
magnetic forces impressed on the same area of a magnetizable
object at the same time, sometimes called a vector field.
Field, vector: See Field, resultant magnetic.
Flash magnetization: Magnetization by a current flow of very brief
duration.
Fluorescence: The emission of visible light by a substance as the
result of, and only during, the absorption of ultraviolet radiation.
Fluorescent magnetic particle testing: The magnetic particle
testing process using a finely divided fluorescent ferromagnetic
testing medium that fluoresces when activated by ultraviolet
radiation of 320 to 400 nm.
Flux density: This is the flux-per-unit area through an element that
cuts the unit area at rightangles to the direction of the flux. Flux
density is usually designated by the letter B, and its unit is the
gauss.
Flux leakage: Magnetic lines of force that leave and enter a test
object at poles on the surface.
Flux lines: Imaginary magnetic lines used as a means of explaining
the behavior of magnetic fields. Their conception is based on the
pattern of lines produced when iron filings are sprinkled over a
piece of paper laid over a permanent magnet. Also called lines of
force, the unit is a single line of force called the maxwell

designated by the Greek letter phi (cI».
-----~------------------------------------
159
Flux penetration, magnetic: The depth to which a magnetic flux is
present in a test object.
Furring: Build up, or bristling, of magnetic particles caused by
excessive magnetization of the test object under examination
resulting in a furry appearance. Also referred to asfur or grass.
Gauss: The unit of flux density. Numerically, one gauss is one line
of flux per square centimeter of area, and is designated by the
letter B.
Heads: The clamping contacts on a stationary magnetizing unit.
Head shot: A short pulse of magnetizing current passed through a
test object or a central conductor while clamped between the head
contacts of a stationary magnetizing unit for the purpose of
circularly magnetizing the test object.
Henry (H): The unit of inductance of a coil.
Horseshoe magnet: A bar magnet, bent into the shape of a
horseshoe so that the two poles are adjacent. Usually the term
applies to a permanent magnet.
Hysteresis: (a) The lagging of the magnetic effect when the
magnetic force acting on a ferromagnetic body is changed.
(b) The phenomenon exhibited by a magnetic system wherein its
state is influenced by its previous magnetic history.

Hysteresis loop: A curve showing the flux density B plotted as a
function of magnetizing force H. As the magnetizing force is
increased to the saturation point in the positive, negative and
positive directions sequentially, the curve forms a characteristic
S shaped loop. Intercepts of the loop with the Band H axes and
the points of maximum and minimum magnetizing force define
important magnetic characteristics of the material.
Indication: Any magnetically held magnetic particle pattern on the
surface of a test object.
Inductance: The magnetism produced in a ferromagnetic body by
some outside magnetizing force. The magnetism is not the result
of passing current through the test object.
Interpretation: The determining of the cause and significance of
indications of discontinuities from the standpoint of whether they
are detrimental discontinuities or false or nonrelevant indications.
Leakage field: The magnetic field forced out into the air by the
distortion of the field within a test object.
Lines of force: See Flux lines.
Longitudinal field: See Field, longitudinal magnetic.
Longitudinal magnetization: The process of inducing a magnetic
field into the test object such that the magnetic lines of force
extending through the test object are about parallel to the axis of
the magnetizing coil or to a line connecting the two poles when
yokes (electromagnets) are used.
Magnet, permanent: A highly retentive metal that has been strongly

magnetized; for example, the alloy alnico.
Magnetic field: See Field, magnetic.
Magnetic field meter: An instrument designed to detect andlor
measure the flux density and polarity of magnetic fields.
Magnetic field strength: The measured intensity of a magnetic
field at a point always external to the magnet or conductor;
usually expressed in oersteds.
Magnetic material: Some materials are attracted by a magnet,
whereas others are repelled. From the definition of magnetism, it
follows that magnetic materials are those that are attracted by
magnetism. These materials are known as paramagnetic
materials, whereas materials that repel are known as diamagnetic
materials. The subdivision of paramagnetic, called ferromagnetic ,
is a main concern as only ferromagnetic materials can be strongly
magnetized.
Magnetic particle testing: A nondestructive testing method for
locating discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. It uses flux
leakage that forms magnetic poles to attract finely divided
magnetic particles that mark the discontinuity.
Magnetic particle testing indications: The accumulation of
ferromagnetic particles that may be either true indications of
discontinuities, or may be false or nonrelevant indications.
Magnetic saturation: In a specific material, the degree of
magnetization where an increase in H produces no further

increase in magnetization.
Magnetic writing: A form of nonrelevant indications caused when
the surface of a magnetized object comes in contact with another
piece of ferromagnetic material that is magnetized to a different
value.
Magnetizing current: The flow of either alternating, rectified
alternating or direct current used to induce magnetism into the
test object.
Magnetizing force: This is the total force tending to set up a
magnetic flux by a magnetizing current. It is usually designated
by the letter H, and its unit is the oersted.
Media: See Carrier fluid.
Nonrelevant indication: A magnetic particle indication caused by a
leakage magnetic field which is not caused by an actual
discontinuity in the magnetized material, but by some other
condition which does not affect the usefulness of the test object
(such as a change of section).
Oersted: A unit of field strength that produces magnetic induction,
and is designated by the letter H.
Paramagnetic: Materials that are slightly attracted by a magnetic
field. Examples are chromium, manganese and aluminum.
Paste: Finely divided ferromagnetic particles in paste form used in
preparing wet suspensions.
Permeability: (a) The ease with which a material can become
magnetized. (b) The ratio between field strength produced and the
magnetizing force (BIH).(c) The ratio of flux density produced to
magnetizing force.
161
Pole: The area on a magnetized test object from which the magnetic
field is leaving or returning to the test object.
Prods: Handheld electrodes attached to cables used to transmit the
magnetizing current from the source to the test object.
Rectified alternating current: Alternating current that has been
converted into direct current.
Reluctance: The opposition of a magnetic material to the
establishment of magnetic flux. The reluctance of the material
determines the magnitude of the flux produced by a given
magnetic force. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an
electric circuit.
Residual field: See Field, residual magnetic.
Residual magnetism: The amount of magnetism that a magnetic
material retains after the magnetizing force is removed, also
called residual field.
Residual method: A procedure in which the indicating material is
applied after the magnetizing force has been discontinued.
Resultant field: See Field, resultant magnetic.
Retentivity: The ability of a material to retain a portion of the
magnetic force induced in it after the magnetizing force has been
removed.
Saturation: The point in the magnetization of a magnetizable test
object at which an increase in the magnetizing force produces no
increase in the magnetic field within the test object.
Sensitivity: The capacity or degree of responsiveness to magnetic
particle testing.
Solenoid (Coil): An electric conductor formed into a coil; often
wrapped around a central core of highly permeable material.
Subsurface discontinuity: Any discontinuity that does not open
onto the surface of the test object in which it exists,
Suspension: The correct term applied to the liquid bath in which is
suspended the ferromagnetic particles used in the wet magnetic
particle testing method.
Swinging field magnetization: Magnetic fields induced in two
different directions alternately and quickly to more accurately
detect discontinuities oriented in different directions in a test
object.
Testing: The process of examining and checking materials and
objects for possible discontinuities or for deviation from
established standards.
Toroidal field: An induced magnetic field occurring in a ring test
object when current is induced.
Ultraviolet radiation: Near ultraviolet radiation (UV-A) with
wavelengths in the range of 320 to 400 nm. Near ultraviolet
sources used for nondestructive testing ~1avea predominant
wavelength of 365 nm.

Ultraviolet radiation filter: A filter that transmits near ultraviolet
radiation (UV-A) while suppressing the transmission of visible
light and harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Vector field: See Field, resultant magnetic.
Vibratory demagnetization: The removal of magnetization by .
impulse energies that distribute the orientation of magnetic
domains in the test object.
Wet method: The testing method used ferromagnetic particles
suspended in a liquid (oil or water) as a media.
Yoke: A U or C shaped piece of highly permeable magnetic
material, either solid or laminated, sometimes with adjustable
pole pieces, around which is wound a coil carrying the
magnetizing current.
Yoke magnetization: A longitudinal magnetic field induced in a
test object, or in an area of a test object, by means of an external
electromagnet shaped like a yoke.
163
Bibliography and Figure Sources
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. ASNT Level II Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing Method. Columbus, Ohio:
American Society for Nondestructive Testing (2003).
2. ASNT Level III Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing Method. Columbus, Ohio:
American Society for Nondestructive Testing (2001).
3. Betz, Carl E. Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing. Glenview, Illinois: Magnaflux
Division of Illinois Tool Works (1997).
4. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Vol. 6, Magnetic Particle Testing.
Columbus, Ohio: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (1989).
5. Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second edition: Magnetic Particle
Testing. Fort Worth, Texas: Convair Division of General Dynamics Corporation (1977).
FIGURE SOURCES
The following credits indicate the sources of illustrations in this book. All figures reprinted with
permission.
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Vol. 6, Magnetic
Particle Testing.
Figure 1.2 to 1.3: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second
edition: Magnetic Particle Testing.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 to 2.2: Reprinted from ASNT Level III Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing
Method, second edition.
~:.'.
164
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1, 3.2: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second
FIgure 3.3,3.4,3.6,3.8: Reprinted from ASNT Level III Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing
Method, second edition.

Figure 3.5,3.7: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Vol. 6,
Magnetic Particle Testing.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 to 5.2: Courtesy of Magnaflux, Division of Illinois Tool Works, Glenview, Illinois.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 to 7.6: Reprinted from Nondestructive TestingHandbook, second edition: Vol. 6,
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 to 8.2: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1, 10.3 to 10.7: Reprinted from Nondestructive TestingHandbook, second edition:
Vol. 6, Magnetic Particle Testing.
Figure 10.2: Reprinted from ASNT Level III Study Guide: Magnetic Particle TestingMethod,
second edition.
Chapter 11
Figure 1l.1: Reprinted from Nondestructive TestingHandbook, second edition: Vol. 6, Magnetic
Particle Testing.
Figure 11.2:Courtesy of Magnaflux, Division of Illinois Tool Works, Glenview, Illinois.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 to 12.4: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Vol. 6,
165
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1: Reprinted from Nondestructive TestingHandbook, second edition: Vol. 6, Magnetic
Particle Testing.
166
acid solutions, source of material contamination, 146
aerosol magnetic particles, 50
material control requirements, 147
air core coil longitudinal magnetization, 76
aircraft landing gear, multidirectional magnetization, 17
alkaline solutions, source of material contamination, 146

alternating current demagnetization, 21,83-84
alternating current magnetization, 43-44
circular magnetic fields, 12-14
effective for inservice discontinuity detection, 30
effective for processing discontinuity detection, 30
effective for surface discontinuity detection, 9
and equipment selection, 25
for increased sensitivity, 156
longitudinal,19
portable equipment, 88
and selection of current type for magnetization, 153
aluminum
magnetic particle testing can't be used for, 4
paramagnetic material, 74
ambient light, 150
antifoaming agents, 49, 95, 99
in water baths for dry powder concentrate, 101
antifreeze solutions
source of material contamination, 146
for water baths for dry powder concentrate, 100
artificial discontinuities, 135, 137-138, 143
automatic sensors, 87
automation
bath application facilities, 27

stationary equipment, 87-88
automotive crankshafts, multiple current levels needed, 13
background fluorescence check, 101-102, 147
background fluorescence reference standards, 143
banding, 153
barkhausen effect, 6
Index
bar magnets, 37
magnetic field surrounding, 6
poles, 7
batch demagnetization, 24
beach marks, fatigue cracks, 128
bearings
circular magnetization with induced current, 69
demagnetization, 80
billets
magnetic particle testing applicable to, 3
seams in, 114
bismuth, diamagnetic material, 74
black powder, 49, 154
for dry method, 92, 93
for wet method, 94
blow holes, 29,111
blowholes, laminations from, 114

c
cables
quality control, 155
cable wrap, 64-65
carbon arc ultraviolet radiation sources, 107
casting
inherent discontinuities present before, 29
processing discontinuities caused by, 29-30, 113
casting cold shuts, 30
casting hot tears, 30
castings
continuous method for testing, 51
multidirectional magnetization, 17
casting shrinkage, 30
centerline hot cracking, 118, 119
central conductor method, 11, 12, 14, 18,58,59
continuous method with, 51
residual method with, 53
sensitivity, 63-64
ceramics, magnetic particle testing can't be used for, 4
167
certification, 4
circular magnetic fields, 8,11-14,58
circular magnetization, 11-14,58-61,67-70
field direction for, 56
with longitudinal magnetization, 73
when principal direction of discontinuities is not
known, 155
when to use, 154
circumferential magnetic fields, 67
clamshell marks, 128
cleaning
of new magnetic testing equipment, 147
residual magnetism interferes with, 23
cleaning solvents, source of material contamination, 146
coatings
thickness effect on test results, 90-91
yoke break test (lift test), 89-90
cobalt, ferromagnetic material, 6
codes, 4
comparison of indications to, 3
coercive force, 39, 80
hysteresis data for unmagnetized steel, 40
and retentivity, 17
coil inductance, 64
coils, 71-72
for alternating current demagnetization, 21
for direct current demagnetization, 22
equipment selection, 25
longitudinal magnetization, 15, 17-19
magnetic field strength, 15
magnetic force requirements, 75-77
semiautomatic equipment, 87
sensitivity, 64
typical system, 27
cold cracking, 117table, 117-118
cold lap, 124
cold shut, 110, 110table
cold start, 120
color selection, 49,154
and eye's wavelength response, 148
concurrent leakage, 91
168
contact plates, 14
continuous magnetization, 16
continuous method, 50-53
when to use, 154
contrast, wet method maximizes, 156
cooling cracks, 29, 113table, 115
copper
paramagnetic material, 74
copper ferrite cracks, 89, 91
corrosion
from inservice discontinuities, 30
stress corrosion cracking, 131-132, 133
corrosion inhibitors, 95, 99
cracks, See also discontinuities; specific kinds of cracks
detectability, 109
detection using circular magnetic fields, 15
effect on materials, 9-10
from inservice discontinuities, 30
crater cracking, 118-119
creep, 128, 129-131
cropping, 109
cupping, 29, 113table, 114
curie point, heating above, 23, 82
defects, 109. See also discontinuities

degreaser fluid, source of material contamination, 146
delayed cracking, 117
demagnetization
alternating current, 21
basic principles, 21-23
direct current, 22-23
methods, 82-85
reasons for, 22-23, 80-81
reasons not to, 81
to reduce background, 153
diamagnetic materials, 6, 74
direct contact method
circular magnetization, 57,58,68
sensitivity, 62
direct current demagnetization, 22-23, 84
direct current magnetization, 11,44-47
effective for inherent discontinuity detection, 29
longitudinal, 19
and selection of current type for magnetization, 153
collection on ultraviolet bulb surface, 151
removal from surfaces, 98

111 wet baths, 97
;contll1uities. See also cracks; inherent discontinuities;
reference stanelards; subsurface discontinuities;
surface discontinuities
artificial for reference standards, 135, 137c138, 143
brief summary of, 29-30
and defects, 109
magnetic field from, 5-6
magnetic particle testing applicability, 3-6
opumum particle size and shape for various types df,49
reasons for not detecting those present, 145
types of, 109-133
.persing agents, 95, 99
19 our. 97
iwing. processing discontinuities caused by, 113
method,26
applicators, 93-94
direct current magnetization with, 44
equipment, 92-94
magnetic particles for, 49-50
magnetization, 16

media selection, 154
powder selection, 92-93
sensitivity, 62
when to use, 154
powder liquid concentrate, 94,100-104
it. collection on ultraviolet bulb surface, 151
rths magnetic field, 5, 35
characteristics of.7
.ly current devices, 142-143
ctromagnetic spectrum, 149
ctronic reference standards, 142-143
Ingated porosity, 122, 123
nne! coatings, yoke break test (lift test), 89-90
.iipmcnr
cleaning of new, 147
dry powder, 92-94
dry powder liquid concentrate, 100-104
fluorescent test materials, 104-lO6
mobile, 26, 88
portable, 26, 88-92
selection, 25-27
stationary, 27,87-88
ultraviolet, lO6-lO8
wet fluorescent, 96-lO0
wet visible, 94-96
etching cracks, processing discontinuities, 30
evaluation
electronic reference standards, 142-143
reference standards, 135-136
reference standard test blocks, 139-142
standard tool steel ring, 138-139
system evaluation, 136-138
system standardization, 136-138
external bursts, 115-116
false indications, 78
fatigue
detectability by magnetic particle testing, 3
effect of segregation on, 112
fatigue cracking, 128table, 128-129
ferromagnetic materials, 3, 6, 34, 74
inherent discontinuities, 29, llOtable
secondary processing discontinuities, 124, 128table
surface discontinuities, 9
field flow magnetization, 72
fluorescent background check, lOl-102, 147
fluorescent dye separation check, 147
fluorescent particles, 49,104-106

effect of ultraviolet radiation, 148
heat degradation, 147
use with magnetic rubber, 14
wavelength used, 149
flux cored arc welding (FCAW), 122
flux leakage. See magnetic flux leakage
forging
inherent discontinuities present before, 29, lO9-112
processing discontinuities caused by, 29-30,113-116
forging bursts, 30, 113table, 115-116
forging flakes, 29, 113table, 116
forging flash line tears, 30
forging laps, 29, 113table, 115, 116
forgings, magnetic particle testing applicable to, 3
fracture, 130
- ----- ....------------------------------~------
fracture toughness, 128
effect of segregation on, 112
full wave direct current, 46
full wave rectified alternating current, 43,153
full wave rectifier, 45
gadolinium, ferromagnetic material, 6
galvanization related weld cracks, 30

gasoline, source of material contamination, 146
gas porosity, 111
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), 123
gauss meters, 56, 142
gears
circular magnetization application, 14
demagnetization, 80
fatigue cracks, 129
glass, magnetic particle testing can't be used for, 4
gold, diamagnetic material, 74
gray powder, 49,154
grease
background fluorescence from, 62
nonferromagnetic material, 7
grinding cracks
secondary processing discontinuities in
ferromagnetic materials, I24table, 124-125
half wave direct current magnetization, 45-46
effective for inherent discontinuity detection, 29
effective for processing discontinuity detection, 30

half wave rectified alternating current, 43,153
hall effect meters, 56, 142, 143
head shot magnetization, 11
heat degradation, of magnetic testing materials, 147
heat treating cracks, 124table, 125-126
heat treatment
demagnetization usually not required if heated above
curie point, 23, 82
effect on creep properties, 131
high pressure arc bulbs, 108
holes, 14
170
hollow test objects
Circularmagnetization, 70
cylinders, 13-14
horizontal unit heads, 14
horseshoe magnet, 37
poles, 7
hot cracking, 117table, 118-119
hot rolled bars, magnetic particle testing applicable to, 3
hot tears, 110table, 111
welds, 119
humidity, source of material contamination, 146
hydrogen blistering, 133
hydrogen cracking, 128table, 132-133
hydrogen embrittlement, 132-133
hydrogen flakes, 29, l13table, 116
inclusions. See also nonmetallic inclusions
laminations from, 114
nonmetallic, 29, 110table, 111-112, 114
in welds, 122-123
indication detection, 25
indication interpretation, 3,78
indication recording, 25, 87
indirect magnetization, 11
infrared filters, 150
infrared radiation, 149
ingot cracks, 29
ingot pipe, 29
inherent discontinuities
brief description, 29
detailed description of types, 109-113, 11Otable
inorganic zinc coatings, yoke break test (lift test), 89-90
inservice discontinuities
brief description, 29
detailed description of types, 127-133, 128table

internal bursts, 115-116
interpretation, 3,78
Iron
demagnetization usually not required if retentivity
low, 23
ferromagnetic material, 6
lack of fusion (welds), 30, 117table, 120-121
lack of penetration (welds), 30, 117table, 121-122
lamellar tearing, 117table, 120
laminations, 29, 113table, 114
laps
cold lap, 124
processing discontinuities, 113table, 115, 116
Levell magnetic particle testing, 3-30
Levell magnetic particle testing technician, 4
can't accept or reject test objects, 25
Level II magnetic particle testing. See magnetic particle
testing
Level II magnetic particle testing technician, 4
can accept or reject test objects, 25
Level III magnetic particle testing technician, 4

defines area to be tested, 25
qualifies of pie gage, 57
lift test, 89-90
lines of force, 7
liquation cracking, Il7table, 118-119
liquid metal embrittlement cracks, 30
longitudinal magnetic fields, 15, 17-19
longitudinal magnetization, 17-19,70
with circular magnetization, 73
when principal direction of discontinuities is not
known, ISS
when to use, 154
long wavelength ultraviolet radiation, 148
iow carbon steel
continuous method for, 51, 53
demagnetization usually not required, 23
low fill factor coils, 76-77
low pressure fluorescent bulbs, 107-108
lubricants

machine grinding cracks, 30
machine tears, 30
machining
demagnetization prior to, 22
processing discontinuities, 29
processing discontinuities formed in, 20
machining tears, 124table , 126
magnesium, magnetic particle testing can't be used for, 4
magnetic attraction, 6
magnetic domains, 6, 34-35
in broken magnet, 7-8
magnetic field indicators, 56-58
need to confirm valid magnetic flux, 136
use in demagnetization, 22, 23
magnetic field intensity, 74
magnetic fields, 5-6, 36
characteristics of, 7-8
circular, 8, 11-14,58
effect of materials on, 37-38
longitudinal, 15, 17-19
measurement, 56-58
orientation, 154-155
orientedperpendicularto discontinuityfor best results,4
subsurface discontinuities, 10
surface discontinuities, 9
magnetic field strength, 15, 18-19,74
magnetic flux, 7
confirming valid with magnetic field indicator, 136
magnetic flux density, 38-39, 74
magnetic flux fields, 43-46
magnetic flux leakage, 33, 36, 37
reference standards, 135
magnetic hysteresis, 39-41
demagnetization, 83
magnetic moment, 38
magnetic particle formulations, 49
magnetic particles, 49-50. See also dry method;
fluorescent particles; wet method
selection, 26
magnetic particle testing. See also demagnetization;
discontinuities; dry method; magnetization; wet
method
basic principles of, 3-8
capabilities, 3-4
certification levels: Level I, Level II, Level III, 4
continuous method, 50-53,154
current selection, 153
effective for discontinuities, 5-6
electronic reference standards, 142-143
equipment, 25-27, 87-108

evaluation techniques, 135-143
field orientation, 154-155
flux fields, 43-46
Level I, 3-30
personnel qualification, 4
principles, 33-42
quality control, 145-156
reference standards, 135-136
171
reference standard test blocks, 139-142, 143, 148
residual method, 53-58, 69, 154
sensitivity, 61-65
sensitivity requirements, 155-156
technique development, 137-138
techniques, 34
technique selection, 154
variations to evaluate, 152
magnetic permeability, 6, 38,41-42
coatings, 89
magnetic poles, 5-6, 35-36

magnetic repulsion, 6
magnetic rubber, 14
magnetic saturation, 6
magnetic writing, 53-54, 78
magnetism, 6-7
magnetization. See also alternating current magnetization;
circular magnetization; direct current
magnetization; longitudinal magnetization
basic principles, 11-19
current selection, 153
electric current, 43-47, 67-78
field flow, 72
law of magnetism, 6-7
methods, 16-18
multidirectional,16-18
role in magnetic particle testing, 3
in wet continuous method, 52
magnetization level indicator, 143
magnetized ring, 36
magnetized test blocks, 140
magnets, 5-6
material contamination, 146-147
checking for in system evaluation, 136

mechanized equipment, 87
medium wavelength ultraviolet radiation, 148
mercury, diamagnetic material, 74
microwave radiation, 149
mobile testing equipment, 26, 88
multibead weld caps, 91
multidirectional magnetization, 17
nickel
effect on creep of steel, 131
ferromagnetic material, 6
nonferromagnetic materials, 7
nonmetallic inclusions, 29, 11Otable, 111-112, 114
nonrelevant indications, 78
north pole, of magnet, 5-6, 35
north to south direction, magnetic domains, 6
oil based media. See petroleum distillate baths
oils

organic coatings, source of material contamination, 146
organic solvents, source of material contamination, 146
overlap, 124, 177table
overload cracks
inservice discontinuities, 30
oxides, inclusions in welds, 123
paint
lift test, 89-90
thickness effect on test results, 90-91
paramagnetic materials, 6, 74
parametric evaluations, 137
particle shape, 49
particle size, 49
paste concentrate, 100
permanent magnets, 5
block standard containing, 140, 143
permanent magnet testing equipment, 25
personnel qualifications, 4
petroleum distillate baths, 49, 95-96
contamination check, 102

no additives necessary, 50
phenolic epoxy coatings, yoke break test (lift test), 89-90
pickling cracks, 30, 124table, 126
pie gage, 57
pipe, 110table, 110-111
plastics, magnetic particle testing can't be used for, 4
plating cracks, 30, 124table, 127
platinum, paramagnetic material, 74
poles, of magnets, 5-6, 35-36
porosity, 110, 1l0table, III
welds, 1I7table, 122, 123
portable testing equipment, 26
ultraviolet radiation intensity requirements, 150
powder applicators, 50, 93-94
powder gun/blower, 50, 94
precleaning, material contamination from improper, 146
primary creep, I 30
primary processing discontinuities, 113table, 113-124,
117lable
prism block standards, 139-141
processing discontinuities
brief description, 29-30
detailed description of primary, 113table, 113-124,
117table
detailed description of secondary, 124table, 124-127
dctectability by magnetic particle testing, 3
prod demagnetization, 85
prod magnetization, 11, 14-15
circular, 68
magnetic force requirements, 75
qualifications, of personnel for magnetic particle testing, 4
quality control
evaporation losses, 147
of magnetic particle testing materials and methods,
145-156
material contamination, 146-147
new magnetic testing materials, 145
proper procedures, 152-156
settling test application, 148
in use magnetic testing materials, 145-146
ultraviolet radiation intensity requirements, 149-150
quenching cracks
delectability by magnetic particle testing, 3
ferromagnetic materials, 124table, 124,125-126,

127
from segregation, 112-113
quick break, 69
radio waves, 149
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-IA, 4
red powder, 49, 154
for wet method, 94-95
reference standards
electronic, 142-143
empirical rules for using, 135-136
and quality control, 148
for system evaluation, 138
weld bead cracks, 89-90
reference standard test blocks, 139-142, 143, 148
relevant indications, 78
reluctance, 41
remanence, 39
remnant field, 79
repeatability, 143
residual magnetism, 21, 39, 79
hysteresis data for unmagnetized steel, 40
magnetic field indicator, 23, 24
residual magnetization, 21
residual method, 53-58
circular magnetization with induced current, 69
when to use, 154
retentivity, 17, 39
reverse magnetization point, 40
reverse magnetization saturation point, 40
reverse residual point, 40
right hand rule, circular magnetic fields, 12,67
ring magnets, 7-8, 36
ring standard, 138-139
rolled laps, 115, 116
rolling
inherent discontinuities present before, 29,109-112
processing discontinuities caused by, 29-30,113-116
rules of thumb, 135-136
rust
false indications from, 78
rust inhibitors, 49, 50
saturation point, 40
scale
false indications from, 78

scratches, 10
173
sealants, source of material contamination, 146
seams
processing discontinuities, 29, 113table, 113-114
secondary creep, 130
secondary processing discontinuities, 124table, 124-127
segregation, 110table, 111
sensitivity, 61-65
reference standards, 135
sensitivity requirements, 155-156
service induced discontinuities. See inservice discontinuities
settling test
procedure, 103-104
quality control application, 148
for yoke magnetization with wet particles, 91-92
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), 122
short wavelength ultraviolet radiation, 108, 148
single fatigue cycle cracking, 30
single phase alternating current, 153

single phase full wave direct current, 46-47
single purpose semiautomatic equipment, 87
skin effect, 12, 13,44,84
and selection of current, 153
slag inclusions, 117table, 122
slots, circular magnetization application, 14
soil, source of material contamination, 146
solidification cracking, 117table, 118-119
solvents, source of material contamination, 146
south pole, of magnet, 5-6, 35
specifications, 4
split prism block standards, 139-140
spray bottles, 91-92
squeeze bottle, 50, 93-94
squeeze bulbs, 50
stainless steel, effect of nickel addition on creep, 131
standards, 4
comparison of indications to, 3
demagnetization required, 23
stationary testing equipment, 27,87-88
ultraviolet radiation intensity requirements, 149
steady state creep, 130
steel
coercive force, 80
continuous method for low carbon, 51, 53
effect of nickel addition on creep, 131
hot cracking, 119
hysteresis data for unmagnetized, 40
seams in billet, 114
yoke break test (lift test), 89-90
steel magnetized test blocks, 140-141
straight direct current, 153
stress corrosion cracking, 131-132, 133
stress cracking
ferromagnetic materials, 128table, 131-132, 133
from underbead weld cracking, 30
striations, fatigue cracks, 128-129
stringers, 113table, 114, 153
submerged arc welding (SAW), 122
subsurface discontinuities
dry method superior for, 57
effect on materials, 10
half wave direct current magnetization for, 45
inherent discontinuities, 29
magnetic particle testing difficult to apply, 3-4, 6
optimum particle size and shape for, 49
surface discontinuities
alternating current source for, 43, 156
effect on materials, 9
limitation of magnetic particle testing to, 3-4, 6
optimum particle size and shape for, 49
residual method limited to, 53
surface preparation, 98
suspending agents, 95
tempering, 125
temporary magnets, 5
tertiary creep, 130
test blocks, 140-141, 148
three phase alternating current, 27, 153
three phase direct current, 27
three phase full wave direct current, 47
three phase full wave rectified alternating current, 153
three phase multivector magnetization units, 153
tool steel ring, 138-139
transient creep, 130
demagnetizationusually not requiredfor low carbon,23 transuranic isotopes, ferromagnetic materials, 6
174
trim-verse discontinuities, 15, 19
lube. :'mg magnets, 8
IUnrSlei1oxide inclusions, 117table, 123
ultraviolet filters, J07, 150, 151
ultra. iolet lamp fixtures, 107
uitravioler radiation
1acilities for, 148-149
generation, 106-107
hazards, 15I
intensity requirements, 149-150
ihrav iolet radiation bulbs, 107-108
hazards, 151
j ntensity requirements, 149-150
<ervicc and aging variations, lSI
ulrruxiolet radiation sources, 107-108
underbead cracking, 117
underbead weld cracking, 30
unncrcut. J 17table. 123
\ ide. tape. 87
Virgincurve, 39
\ is.b.Iiry
checking for in system evaluation, 136

wet method for maximum visibility and contrast, 156
visible light, 149
interferes with ultraviolet light visibility, 148
measurement of ambient, 150
from ultraviolet radiation sources, 108
water. source of material contamination, 146
water baths, 49-50,95
for dry powder liquid concentrate, 100-101
and equipment selection, 25, 26
problems with, 99
safety, 101
weld bead crack reference standards, 89-90
weld cold cracking, 117table. 117-118
weld crater cracks. 30
weld heat affected zone cracks, 30, 117table
weIII hot cracking, 117table, 118-119
weld inclusions, 117table, 122-123
welding
demagnetization prior to, 22
,,--~ --- ------- ----
processing discontinuities caused by, 20, 29-30,
116-124,117table
weld lack of fusion, 30, 117table, 120-121
weld lack of penetration, 30, 117table, 121-122
weld lamellar tearing, 117table, 120

weld overlap, 124, 177table
weld porosity, 117table, 122
welds, yoke break test (lift test), 89-90
weld undercut, 117table, 123
wet fluorescent method, 96-100
wet horizontal bench machines, 14
wet method
continuous method, 51-53
equipment for fluorescent, 96-100
equipment for visible light, 94-96
magnetic particles for, 49-50
magnetization, 16
for maximum contrast, 156
for maximum visibility and contrast, 156
mobile equipment, 26
particles for yoke magnetization, 91-92
powder selection, 94-96
sensitivity, 61-62
stationary equipment, 26
surface preparation, 98
when to use, 154
wetting agents, 49, 50, 95, 99
wood, paramagnetic material, 74
written procedures, 152
X-rays, 149
yellow-green fluorescent particles, 49
yellow powder, 49,154
yoke break test, 89-90
yoke demagnetization, 85
yokes, 73
block standards for control of wet field tests, 143
magnetic field strength, 15, 16, 18
magnetic force requirements, 75
175
portable equipment, 88, 89-90
wet magnetic particles for, 91-92
zero flux density, 40
zero magnetic field strength, 40

zinc, diamagnetic material, 74
zinc chromate coatings, yoke break test (lift test), 89-90
176

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Published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

1711 Arlingate Lane

not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT.

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Magnetic testing. I.American Society for Nondestructive Testing. II. Title.

First printing October 2004

Dedicated to the memory of Ronald H. Selner.

Gina Caudill, United States Coast Guard

Art Gallant, Elite Inspection Services

Vilma Holmgren, Magnaflux Division of Illinois Tool Works

Brian MacCracken, Pratt and Whitney

Joe Mackin, International Pipe Inspectors Association

William Mooz, Met-L-Chek Company

Robert Saunders, Ellwood City Forge

Thomas Schafer, ManTech International Corporation

Noel Tracy, Universal Technology Corporation

Joseph Brown, VSE Corporation, BAVDivision

Bruce Dewey, Maryland Q.C. Laboratories, Inc.

Jerry Fulin, Tennessee Gas Pipeline

Lawrence Goldberg, Sea Test Services

Jim Houf, The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

Scott Huddleston, Huddleston Technical Services

Stephen Lakata, Norfolk Southern Corporation

Don Locke, Karta Technologies, Inc.

Joseph E. Monroe, Eastern NDT

Tim Randle, X-R-I Testing

Frank Sattler, Sattler Consultants, Inc.

Stephen Senne, Senne Technical Services

Ron VanArsdale, Inspection Training and Consulting

Albert M. Wenzig, Jr., Industrial Testing Laboratory Services, LLC

The Publications Review Committee includes:

Chair, Sam J. Volk, North Atlantic Energy Services Company

Sharon I. Vukelich, University of Dayton Research Institute

B. Boro Djordjevic, Johns Hopkins University

Educational Materials Editor

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

iv Personnel Training Publications

Level I Magnetic Particle Testing 1

Chapter 1 - Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing 3

Capabilities of Magnetic Particle Testing 3

Magnets and Magnetic Fields 5

Materials Influenced by Magnetic Fields 6

Characteristics of Magnetic Fields 7

Chapter 2 - Effects of Discontinuities on Materials 9

Retentivity and Coercive Force 17

Discontinuities Discovered by Longitudinal Fields 19

Chapter 4 - Principles of Demagnetization 21

Alternating Current Demagnetization 21

Direct Current Demagnetization 22

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

Stationary Testing Equipment 27

Inservice Discontinuities .30

Magnetic Field Theory 34

Effect of Cracks in a Magnetized Ring 36

Effect of Cracks in a Magnetized Bar 37

Effect of Materials on Electromagnetic Fields 37

Units of Measure for Magnetic Flux 38

Magnetic Permeability .41

Chapter 8 - Flux Fields .43