A DETAIL ANALYSIS ON SET THEORY

SUBMITTED TO: DHENKANAL HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL

SUBMITTED BY : UDIT NARAYAN SAHOO
CHSE ROLL NO :
REGISTRATION NO:
COLLEGE ROLL NO: IC-22-030

SUBJECT: BUSINESS MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS

Submitted for evaluation of annual higher secondary examination commerce

Signature of student
Signature of internal examiner Signature of external examiner
 DHENKANAL HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL
DEPT. OF COMMERCE

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Udit Narayan Sahoo, of a student of +2 second year Commerce has
successfully finished the project of Business Mathematics and statistics under the guidance of
Dr. Sambit Kumar Sahu during the year 2023-2024 partial fulfillment of commerce project.

Examination conducted by CHSE, Odisha

Sign of subject teacher

 ACKNOWLEGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Dr.SAMBIT KUMAR SAHU
Who gave me an golden opportunity to do this project on Business Mathematics and
Statistics Who also helped me in completing this project. I came to know about so many new
things and am really thankful to them.
Secondly I would like to thanks my parents and friends who helped me a lot in finalizing this
project within the limited time frame.

Udit Narayan Sahoo

 ABSTRACT
A set is a collection of distinct objects, considered as an object in its own right. For example,
the numbers 2, 4, and 6 are distinct objects when considered separately, but when they are
considered collectively they form a single set of size three, written (2,4,6). Sets are one of the
most fundamental concepts in mathematics. Developed at the end of the 19 th century. Set
theory is the mathematical theory of well-determined collections, called sets, of objects that
are called members, or elements, of the set. Pure set theory deals exclusively with sets, so the
only sets under consideration are those whose members are also sets. In short “set is a group
of objects of certain homogeneous character”.
Objective:- 1) To study about methods of set to represent them.
2) To study about different types of set.
3) To study about various operation of set
In Conclusion Set Theory is a branch of mathematics where concepts such as Union,
Intersection, complementation are found and these concepts are also used in programming
techniques. A set is a well defined collection of objects and its members are enclosed within
curly brackets and separated by commas. The sets are applicable for the whole universe.
 CONTENT

Sr.no. Topic
1. Introduction to Set Theory
2. Meaning and Definition of Set
3. Characteristics of set
4. Methods of Presentation of a Set
5. Types of Set
6. Set operation
7. Conclusion
8. Reference
 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. Set theory describe the membership

of sets.
2. Set theory provides foundation for
mathematics.
3. It also play an important role in
computer science.
4. It determines the cardinality of a
given set.
5. It describe the relations between
sets regarding membership, equality
using proper notation.
6. Be able to draw and interpret Venn
diagrams of set relations, operation
and use Venn diagrams to solve
problems.
 INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY

Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor was a German mathematician. He created set
theory, which has become a fundamental pondence between the members of two sets,
defined infinite and well-ordered sets, and proved that the real numbers are more numerous
than natural numbers. Cantor’s work between 1874 and 1884 is the origin of set theory.
Before Cantor there were only finite and infinite sets. Cantor established that set theory is not
trivial, and it needed to be studied. Set theory has come to play the role of a foundational
theory in modern mathematics, in the sense that it interprets propositions about
mathematical objects.
MEANING AND DEFINITION
Set theory is the mathematical theory of well-determined collections, called sets, of objects
that are called members, or elements, of the set. Pure set theory deals exclusively with sets, so
the only sets under consideration are those whose members are also sets.
According to George Cantor, “A set is a gathering together into a whole of definite
distinct objects of our perception or of our thought- which are called elements of sets”.
In short it may be defined as “a group of objects of certain homogeneous character”.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SET
➢ It consists of certain elements called members of the set.
For example: a group of natural numbers up to 10
➢ It refers to a well defined object.
 For example: a group of +2 second year Commerce students of a College constitutes a
set, because it is a case of some elements i.e., students of well defined object i.e., the +2
2nd year Commerce students of a particular college.
➢ It is expressed either through a notation, or through a diagram.
The model used for the purpose, takes the form of a Venn diagram exhibited as under :
(a) A = {x|x € this or that}, A is a set of all x such that x belongs to a particular object.
(b)

Where, U represents universal set and A, a set of certain elements within the said
universe.
➢ It is capable of various operation and algebraic treatment.
➢ It is denoted by a capital letter, viz., A, B etc.
N= Set of natural numbers :{1,2,3…..}
I= Set of integrates : {0,+1,-1,+2,-2……}
I+= Set of positive integers : {1,2,3…..}
I-=Set of negative integers : {-1,-2,-3…..}
R= Set of real numbers : {x:x is a real number}
METHODS OF PRESENTATION OF A SET
There are two methods of presenting a set.

1. Roster Method or Eunmerative Method

2. Set builder or Descriptive Method
1.Roster method
Under this method a set is presented by enlisting distinctively all the elements of the
concerned object individually within two curly brackets. It is also called as tabular method,
Exhaustive method etc.
Examples:
(a) A set of vowels = {a,e,i,o,u}
(b) A set of English alphabet= {a,b,c,d,e…….}
(c) A set of fundamental digits= {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,}
2.Set Builders Method
Under this method a set is presented by citing the distinctive characteristic or property of
the elements belonging to a defined object within two braces of any form, preferably the curly
brackets. This method is also variously called as descriptive method, Property builder method,
Selector method etc.
Examples:
(a) A set of vowels: {x|x∈ vowel in English}
(b)A set of prime numbers : {x|x ∈ a prime number}
(c)A set of natural numbers within 100 : {x|x ∈ N^ 1 <x<99}
CARDINALITY OF A SET
By cardinality of a set we mean the number of elements contained in a set, not
withstanding the repetition of any of them. It is denoted by the denoting letters of a set
enclosed by two bars. The cardinality of set A will be denoted as |A| and that of B as |B| etc.
Example: If the set A = {1,2,3,4} then it’s cardinality would be |A|= 4

TYPES OF SET
1.Void Set:
A set which has no elements is called void set. It is denoted by ∅ and in roster Method it
denoted by only two curly brackets.
Example: A set of professor without any academic qualifications i.e. P= { }
2.Valid Set:
A set which contains at least one element is called valid set. It is denoted by a capital letter
other than the Greek letter ∅.
Example: (a)A set of natural numbers i.e. N = {1,2,3,4……}
(b)A set of judges of the supreme court of India i.e. J={ A,B,C,D….}
3.Finite Set:
A set which is either a void set or it’s elements can be listed or counted is called finite set or
a set which has definite number of elements is called finite set.
Example: (a) A set of vowels in English : V={a,e,i,o,u}
(b)A set of even natural numbers less than 100.
4.Infinite set:
A set whose elements can’t be listed or counted is called infinite set. It has no cardinal
number.
Example: (a) N={1,2,3…..}
(b)L={x∈R |0<x<I}
5.Singletone set:
A set consist of one element or single elements is called singletone set.
Example: (a)The set of the sun={The Sun}
(b)The set {5} is a singletone set.
6.Multitone set:
A set that contains more than one element is called multitone elements.
Example: (a) {0,1}
(b){a,b……,z}
7.Equal set:
If A & B are two sets then every element of A set is a member of B set & every element of
B set is a member of A set them A=B set.
Example: (a) A=B, where, A ={1,2,3} and B= {1,1,2,2,3,3}
(b)A=B, where, A={r,a,m,a,n,i,m,a,n,i} and B={r,a,m,a,n,i}
8.Equivalent set:
If A & B are to finite set are said to be equivalent if there cardinal number of a set, that is
the number of elements both one said to be equal.
Example:
(a}A={a,e,i,o,u} and B={1,8,27,64,125}
SUBSET :
If every element of set A is lies on set B then A is said to be subset of B. It denoted as A⊆B.
Example:
A= {1,2,3,4,} B={1,3,4}
So A⊆B
Characteristics:
➢ All equal sets are subsets of each other.
➢ All inequal sets can not be subsets of each other
➢ Some equivalent sets may be subsets of each other but not all. For example,
If A = {m,a,r,c,h} and B={c,h,a,r,m} then
A⊆B and B⊆A but if A={a,e,i,o,u} and B={1,2,3,4,5}then
A ⊄ B and B⊄A.
➢ Every set is trivially a subset of itself
➢ The number of subset in a finite set is obtained by C(n) = 2^n where n is the number of
elements of a set.
PROPER SUBSET
If A and B are 2 set and A⊆B but B≠A then A is proper set of B. It denoted as A⊂B.
Example: A={1,2,3,4} B={1,2,3}
So B⊂A
Characteristics:
➢ Of the two equal sets, there can not arise a proper subset
➢ Of the two equivalent sets there can be a proper subset if the equivalents are not
disjoints.
➢ The number of proper subsets in a finite set is obtained by n(⊂)=2^n-1
SUPERSET:
A set is said to be a superset of another set of that another is a subset of the set under
consideration. super set is denoted by ⊇.
PROPER SUPERSET:
A set is said to be a proper superset of another set, if that another set is the proper subset
of the set under consideration. The relation of a superset is given by ⊃.
FAMILY SET:
The family of a set is define as the all possible subset of the given set.
Example: x={x,y}
Family set= { ∅,(x),(y),(xy)}
POWER SET:
If A be a set then it’s power set is denoted by P(A) and the collection of all subset of a set.
Example: x=(x,y) , P(x)= {∅,(x),(y),(xy)}
|P(x)|=2^2= 4
UNIVERSAL SET:
A set which contain all the sets in its context is called universal set. It denotes by U or E.
Example: A ={1,2,3}, B={3,4,5}, C={5,6,7}
U={1,2,3,4,5,6,7}

COMPLEMENTARY SET:
A set that represents all the elements of a universal set excluding the elements
represented by a set thereof called the complementary set of the said set.
Example: A={1,2,3} U={1,2,3,4,5}
A’= U-A = {1,2,3,4,5}-{1,2,3}
={4,5}

SET OPERATION
By set operation we mean mutual application or use of certain existing sets in a manner to
produce another new set as desired.
The most popular set operations that are usually performed in the set theory are :
1. Union of Set
2. Intersection of Set
3. Difference of two Sets
4. Disjoint Sets
5. Complement or Negation of a set
 1.Union of Sets:
The union of two sets A and B, written as A ∪ B, is the set of all the elements which
belongs either to A or to B or to both A and B.
A ∪ B={x | x∈A or x∈B or x∈A and B}

Example:
A={1,2,3,4}
B={2,3,4,5,6,7}
A ∪ B={1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
Properties:
➢ A ∪ B = B∪A
➢ (A∪B)∪C=A∪(B∪C)
➢ A∪A = A
➢ A∪(B∪C)=(A∪B) ∩ (A∪C)
➢ A∪ ∅ =A
2.Intersection of Sets:
If A and B are two sets then their intersection is denoted by A ∩ B, and it defines as the set
of all elements which are common to both A and B.

Example:
A={1,2,3,4,5}
B={1,2,3,6,7}.
A∩B={1,2,3}
Properties:
➢ A∩B=B∩A
➢ (A∩B)∩C=A ∩(B∩C)
➢ A∩(B∪C)=(A∩B) ∪ (A ∩C)
➢ A∩∅= ∅
➢ A∩A= A

3.Difference of Sets:
The difference of two set A and B is the set of elements which belongs to A but which
doesn’t belongs to B . We denote the difference as A-B or A \B.
A-B={x |x ∈ A and x∈B}

Example:
A={1,2,3,4,5}
B={3,5,7,9,1}
A-B={1,2,4}
Properties:
➢ A-BUC=(A-B) ∩ (A-C)
➢ A-(B∩C) = (A-B) U (A-C)
➢ A-(B-C)= A∩ B
➢ A∩B= ∅ then A-B=A and B-A= B
➢ A ∩(B-A)= ∅
➢ A ∩ (B-C)= A∩B)-(A∩C)
➢ (A-B) ∩ B= ∅
4.Disjoint Sets:
If two sets A and B have no elements in common it is said to be Disjoint set.
It is represented by, A ⊂B=∅

Example:
If A={1,2,3} B={4,5,6} then they are disjoint set as they have no elements in common.

5.Complement or Negation of a set:

The complement of a set A is the set of all the elements of the Universal set U which is not
belong to A i.e. it is the difference of the Universal set U from the set A.

It is represented by A’ ={x : x ∈ U but x∉A}

Example: U={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A={3,4,5}
A’={1,2,6,7,8,9,10}
6.Symmetric Difference:
The symmetric difference of two sets A and B, written as A ∆ B, is the set of all elements
which belongs to A-B, or B-A but not to A ∩ B i.e. (A-B)U(B-A) or (AUB)-(A∩B).It can be
represented by
A∆B={x:x∈ (A-B) and x ∈(B-A)}

Example: if A={1,2,3,4}. B={2,3,5,6}

Then. A∆B=(A-B) U (B-A)
=(1,4)U(5,6)
={1,4,5,6}
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In conclusion Set Theory is a branch of mathematics where

concepts such as Union, Intersection, complementation are
found and these concepts are also used in programming
techniques. A set is a well defined collection of objects and
its members are enclosed within curly braces and separated
by commas.
REFERENCE
BOOKS REFERRED :
Business Statistics and Mathematics
-by kalyani publisher
WEBSITES REFERRED :
1. https://www.wikipedia.org/
2. https://www.google.com/
3. https://www.quora.com/
4. https://www.myemath.com/