Meteorological Technology International Maio 2012

THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND HYDROLOGY TECHNOLOGIES AND SERVICES
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MAY 2012
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CONTENTS
6 EXCLUSIVE: SPACE WEATHER 36 RADAR VERSUS WIND TURBINES
MTI interviews the space weather prediction team at Goddard Regular meteorologist, Daryl O’Dowd, explains the impact
Space Flight Center and Mullard Space Science Laboratory energy wind turbines have on radar operations
14 AURORA ROCKET LAUNCH 42 CARIBSAT PROJECT

A rocket launch from Alaska will provide essential information The Caribbean program that recommends the valorization and
on predicting solar weather on radio waves protection of the region’s environmental core
18 PARACHUTE-BORNE 46 AIRPORT LIGHTNING WARNING

DROPSONDES Advanced lightning warning systems are invaluable for aviation
A major upgrade for one of the world’s premier tools for authorities, airports, and pilots worldwide
gathering weather data from hurricanes
50 LOOKING BACK AT BRUSSELS
26 DUAL POLARIZATION AND Some of the many highlights from Meteorological Technology
HYDROMETEORS World Expo 2011, in pictures
Since World War II, weather radars have used horizontal
scanning techniques – this is about to change 52 THE AUTO METAR SYSTEM
The experiences and challenges in automated visual
30 WORLDWIDE GCOS PROJECTS observations, using Amsterdam Airport Schipol as a case study
An update on the program to help implement a number of
renovation projects in developing areas 56 SOLAR, ATMOSPHERIC, AND
TERRESTRIAL RADIATION
32 INTERNATIONAL VOLCANO WATCH A technical explanation of the methods of measuring global
The ICAO has published Doc 9974, which offers guidance as solar irradiance using pyranometers
to what is a safe level of ash for aircraft
ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012 • 1

60 MODULAR REACTORS 80 AUTOMATIC WEATHER
A plan is afoot to eliminate anthropenic greenhouse gas OBSERVING SYSTEMS
emissions by 2050 using modular reactors Beyond runway capacity issues, weather conditions are a
major factor influencing air traffic capacity
66 FLASH RATE DETECTION
In-cloud and cloud-to-ground flashes provide essential data 84 ELECTRIC-FIELD METERS
when creating solutions for proxy radar analysis Lightning hazard-warning devices fall into two classes – but
which will prevent loss of property, injury, and death?
70 NEXT-GENERATION FORECASTING
The Turkish State Meteorological Service is offering software 88 WEATHER DATA MANAGEMENT
free-of-charge for up-and-coming meteorologists Icelandic case studies prove that data can be compiled in an
easy and simple way – no matter what the weather
74 WINDSHEAR MONITORING
SYSTEMS 90 SMALL ACOUSTIC WIND PROFILER
The importance of quality, on-time wind alerts for air traffic The measurement of windspeed, direction, thermal
control systems stratification, and turbulence parameters using a sodar system
78 HIGH-PERFORMANCE COMPUTING 92 READY FOR TAKE-OFF

The evolution of high-performance computing for numerical EUMETSAT prepares the severe weather observation satellite
weather prediction using model systems MSG-3 prior to its upcoming launch
CONTENTS
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The forecast
Welcome to Meteorological Technology International,

Editor
the only true review of climate, weather, oceanic Christopher Hounsfield
(chris.hounsfield@ukipme.com)
prediction, measurement, and analysis technologies
Deputy editor Bunny Richards
(bunny.richards@ukipme.com)
ess than two years after launching prime mover at A. P. Moller-Maersk. I was
L Meteorological Technology International
magazine, UKIP Media & Events
personally honored to be involved in the
organization of it.
Chief sub-editor Alex Bradley
Deputy chief sub-editor
Nick Shepherd
created one of the largest events in the world This issue features articles from some of
dedicated to the technologies used in the those who addressed the conference back in Proofreaders
weather prediction industry when it staged October 2011, including Steven Albersheim, Aubrey Jacobs-Tyson,
Meteorological Technology World Expo senior meteorologist at the Federal Frank Millard
2011 in Brussels last October. Aviation Administration, who discusses
Art director James Sutcliffe
With over 105 exhibitors and 1,550 the current developments in the provision
Design team Louise Adams,
visitors, it certainly lived up to expectations. of information for volcanic ash and space Andy Bass, Anna Davie, Andrew
Over 80% of exhibitors have already weather in support of air navigation (p34). Locke, Craig Marshall, Nicola
rebooked for 2012 and over 30 new We also have a paper from Tom Blees, Turner, Julie Welby, Ben White
companies have joined the event. president of The Science Council for Global
But don’t just take our word for it – Initiatives, who details plans to eliminate Head of production & logistics
Ian Donovan
The Association of Hydro-Meteorological anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions
Deputy production manager
Equipment Industry (HMEI) attended by 2050 (p60). Lewis Hopkins
the expo, where it conducted a survey of The headline news for this year’s expo Production team Carole Doran,
all exhibiting HMEI members to gauge is the addition of a dedicated CIMO group Cassie Inns, Robyn Skalsky
the standard of the show, with incredible tech conference. This is fantastic for the
results: three-quarters of respondents rated show – only the second ever Meteorological Publication & sales director
Barry Smith
our expo as the most important European Technology World Expo.
exhibition, and nearly 90% said they would Without any further ado, I give you Editorial director
definitely return. the most significant dates for your diary Anthony James
Described as having ‘the best this year: October 16-18, Brussels, Managing director
meteorological speaker line-up of the year’, Belgium; Meteorological Technology Graham Johnson
the conference boasted jam-packed sessions World Expo 2012. I look forward to CEO
Tony Robinson
and 30 speakers across three days, including seeing you all there.
keynote presentations from Josh Wurman,
president of the Center for Severe Weather Bunny Richards
Research, and Kim Henriksen, ECO-Voyage Deputy editor
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Space weather
by Christopher Hounsfield and Lori Keesey
BADLY
BEHAVING SUN
Improved forecasting to coincide
with peak in solar activity
Following the greatest solar flare activity for a decade, and with
eruptions set to increase, Meteorological Technology International
takes an exclusive look behind the scenes at NASA’s Goddard
Space Flight Center and meets the space weather prediction team

Space weather
As an increasingly intense geomagnetic storm rages in

the North, a NASA space physicist snapped this picture
while attending a scientific conference to study auroras
in Poker Flat, Alaska. Credit: NASA/James Spann

Space weather
“We can’t even tell in a week, let alone

a year or two, what the sun will do.
All we know is that it will become
more active”
rom March 8 through to March 10, forecasting’, a computer technique already power generation – all are susceptible to
F 2012 a series of eruptions on the
sun did more than spark pretty
used by meteorologists to track potential
paths and impacts of hurricanes and other
space weather.” Once it’s implemented,
Hesse says, “There will be nothing like it in
auroras around the poles. NASA-funded severe weather events. the world. No one has done ensemble
researchers say the solar storms dumped Instead of analyzing one set of forecasting for space weather.”
enough energy in Earth’s upper atmosphere solar-storm conditions, as is currently the The state-of-the-art capability, which
to power every residence in New York City case, Goddard forecasters will be able to Hesse’s group is implementing now and
for two years. simultaneously produce as many as 100 expects to complete within three years,
For the three-day period, the thermosphere computerized forecasts by calculating couldn’t come too soon, either.
absorbed 26 billion kilowatt hours of multiple possible conditions or, in the
energy. Infrared radiation from CO2 and NO parlance of heliophysicists, parameters. Just Sun growing restless
(the two most efficient coolants in the as important is the fact that they will be able Since the sun reached its solar minimum
thermosphere) re-radiated 95% of that total to do this quickly and use the information (the period when the number of sunspots is
back into space. to provide alerts of space weather storms lowest) in 2008, it has begun to awaken
After years of relative somnolence, the that could potentially be harmful to from its slumber. On August 4, 2011, the
sun is beginning to stir. By the time it’s fully astronauts and NASA spacecraft. sun unleashed a near X-class solar flare that
awake in about 20 months, the team at “Space weather alerts are available now, erupted near an Earth-facing sunspot.
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) but we want to make them better,” says Although flares don’t always produce
charged with researching and tracking solar Michael Hesse, chief of Goddard’s Space coronal mass ejections (CMEs) – the gigantic
activity will have at its disposal a greatly Weather Laboratory and the recently named bubbles of charged particles that can carry
enhanced forecasting capability. director of the Center’s Heliophysics Science 10 million tons of matter and accelerate to
Division. “Ensemble forecasting will provide several million miles per hour – as they
Goddard space lab a distribution of arrival times, which will erupt from the sun’s atmosphere and stream
Goddard’s Space Weather Laboratory improve the reliability of forecasts,” through interplanetary space, this one did.
recently received support under NASA’s continues Hesse. “This is important. Society The CME overtook two previous CMEs,
Space Technology Program/Game Changing is relying more than ever on space. all occurring within 48 hours, and
Program to implement ‘ensemble Communications, navigation, electrical- combined into a triple threat. Luckily for
Earth’s population, the CMEs produced only
a moderate geomagnetic storm when solar
particles streamed down the field lines
toward Earth’s poles and collided with
atoms of nitrogen and oxygen in the
atmosphere. Even so, it was the strongest
storm in many years.
Dr Antti Pulkkinen is the young co-lead
of operational space weather forecasting
activity at NASA GSFC Space Weather
Center. He says, “Space weather is an
umbrella that includes the physics,
observations, modeling, and mitigation of
space environment impacts on humans and
technological systems. The sun is the
ultimate driver of space weather but Earth’s
near-space dynamics, such as dynamics of
Chief space weather forecasters Yihua Zheng
Van Allen radiation belts, are also important
and Antti Pulkkinen are helping to implement a for the impacts.
computer technique – ensemble forecasting – “Space weather can impact our everyday
that will improve NASA’s ability to predict the lives in many different ways,” continues
path and impact of severe solar storms, which Pulkkinen. “For example, airline operations,
can disrupt power grids on Earth, knock out GPS, satellite operations, radio
satellites, and threaten the health and safety of
astronauts. Picture: NASA/Chris Gunn communications, and power grids can all be
impacted by solar activity. Also humans in

Space weather
SOLAR SHIELD PROJECT

Dr Antti Pulkkinen is also project leader environment hosted by the Community
of the Solar Shield system used to Coordinated Modeling Center (CCMC) at
address the power grid issues. The Solar Goddard Space Flight Center. Solar
Shield project helps protect electric Shield is a NASA Applied Sciences
power companies from the extremes of funded collaborative project between
space weather through improved NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, the
forecasting. Power grids rely on high- Catholic University of America, and
NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) voltage transformers that are vulnerable Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).
caught this huge solar filament in dramatic to surging electric currents ultimately The project has been a success story.
detail in extreme ultraviolet light of Helium. It caused by incoming solar material “Our team has been successful in using
was almost a million kilometers long blasted off the sun. the great (observational and modeling)
Solar Shield helps map out where and advances made in space physics in
how strongly such currents, called state-of-the-art space weather
space can be exposed to increased radiation geomagnetically induced currents (GICs), prediction schemes. Solar Shield is a
levels during strong solar eruptions. It is fair may impact Earth, thus giving power good example of such a new scheme,”
to say that as humankind becomes companies enough warning to protect explains Pulkkinen. “This is not to say
technologically more advanced, we also their systems. we have not encountered problems.
become more vulnerable to space weather. Pulkkinen explains, “Solar Shield Wrestling continuously with a variety of
“Accurate, long lead-time predictions are leverages the observations and problems is how scientific advances are
the key for intelligent mitigation actions. For modeling capacity at NASA GSFC to made. The problems encountered on a
example, 1-2 day lead-time predictions of predict space weather impact on power daily basis include theoretical physics,
power grid impacts enable operators to grids. The system provides both highly and observational, computational, and
adjust the system to withstand the worst tailored power-grid-specific large social (science is done by humans after
brunt of the ensuing storm. lead-time (one to two days) forecasts all) challenges.
Even after the latest onslaught, the and refined short lead-time (30- to
repercussions could be far worse in the 45-minute) forecasts. Once transitioned
future. As part of its 11-year cycle, the sun is into operational capacity the system
entering solar maximum, the period of enables power grid operators to carry
greatest activity. It is expected to peak in out refined mitigations actions.
2014. During this time, more powerful “The system uses a variety of NASA
CMEs, often associated with M- and X-class real-time observational data streams
flare events, become more numerous and and large-scale space physical models
can affect any planet or spacecraft in its to carry out the predictions of near-
path. In the past, solar storms have Earth conditions. These predictions are
disrupted power grids on Earth and then mapped into power grid node-
damaged instrumentation on satellites. They level forecasts.”
can also be harmful to astronauts if they are The project relies on large-scale
not warned to take protective cover. “No one models of the sun-Earth space
knows exactly what the sun will do,” says

Space weather
SOLAR WINDS
The unchanging visual brilliance of the moment we are approaching solar
Sun belies the reality that our local star is maximum (expected to occur in 2013)
dynamic and potentially dangerous for life which means that the number of ejections
on Earth. In March 2012, the effects of the is on the rise and so too are some
Sun on our technological infrastructure worrying consequences here on Earth.
were deemed to be so serious that it was Both CMEs and the solar wind can
added into the UK Government’s National inject charged particles onto the Earth’s
Risk Register – the public document of magnetic field lines, which, if accelerated Lucie Green is a space scientist based at
the National Risk Assessment. We are down into the Earth’s atmosphere, lead to the Mullard Space Science Laboratory,
living in an era of ‘space weather’ the beautiful aurora. UCL’s Department of Space and Climate
Physics in London, UK. She regularly
prediction where we are monitoring the The flipside is that these particles can appears as an expert on BBC television
near-Earth space environment to make also collide with and damage our
sure we protect ourselves from the satellites leading to satellite failure in the
harmful effects of the Sun’s emissions. worst-case scenario. They alter the power lines causing problems for national
The hot gases of the Sun’s atmosphere conditions in the Earth’s upper power grids. Most notably, in 1989 a
escape rapidly into space producing an atmosphere rendering some radio transformer in the Canadian national grid
outflow of magnetic field and charged communications impossible causing failed due to such currents and several
particles known as the solar wind. This communication blackouts. Even aircraft million people lost their electricity for over
wind constantly buffets the Earth’s that normally fly over the polar regions nine hours.
magnetic field, and is occasionally able to need to be re-routed at huge expense to Some news articles are predicting that
break through our leaky magnetic shield. avoid their delicate electronics from being the perfect solar storm will occur during
Spasmodic magnetic bubbles known as damaged and to protect the health of solar maximum resulting in a global
coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are also those on board. The moving particles and disaster through the simultaneous failure of
blasted into space as the Sun’s magnetic changing conditions in the Earth’s electricity networks all over the world and
field pulses in size and complexity. At the magnetic field also induce currents in our the loss of the satellites that modern
society relies on for communication,
navigation, banking and national security.
“If this event repeated itself today it Many aspects need to come together to
produce this ‘perfect solar storm’ but the
is likely that the damage caused scenario isn’t pure fiction. The reasoning is
would cost a trillion US dollars” based on studying previous events, in
particular a solar eruption that occurred in
1859 which disturbed the Earth’s magnetic
field so much that the auroras were seen
almost all the way down toward the
equator. If this event repeated itself today it
is likely that the worldwide damage caused
would cost a trillion US dollars.
Today people like myself use a network
of satellites to monitor the Sun’s every
move. I am heavily involved in using the
Japanese/UK/US Hinode satellite to
study coronal mass ejections so that we
understand how and why they happen,
and also which ones will cause the most
impact at the Earth. Exciting projects are
planned for the future too. The European
Solar Orbiter mission is due to launch in
2017 and is a daredevil mission to fly
close to the Sun. The origin and evolution
of the sun’s dynamic atmosphere and its
emissions of magnetic field and charged
particles which ultimately propagate out
to produce space weather will be studied
in great detail. Solar Orbiter will be
Long duration solar flare and coronal mass
our eyes in the inner Solar System and
ejection (CME), January 2012 we are looking forward to seeing the
Sun from close-up.

Space weather
Pulkkinen. “We can’t even tell in a week, let

alone a year or two, what the sun will do. All
we know is that it will become more active.”
TOOLS OF THE TRADE
Improving the forecast A NASA instrument that can directly mesosphere, energetics, and dynamics)
It appears we were lucky; the March storm measure the impact of solar events satellite. The upper atmosphere heated
wasn’t quite in line with Earth partly due on Earth’s upper atmosphere was up, and huge spikes occurred in
to the tilt of the axis at the time, as key in predicting the huge flare in infrared emissions from nitric oxide and
Pulkkinen explains: “The March events March 2012. carbon dioxide.
were special in that they provided the Its direct interaction with the upper TIMED was designed to operate for
strongest radiation storms we have had in atmosphere was measured by NASA’s two years but has operated flawlessly for
many years. The enhanced radiation levels SABER (sounding of the atmosphere more than 10 years. Another NASA
lead for example to reroutings of flights using broadband emission radiometry) review is planned in 2013 to determine if
that would ordinarily have used polar instrument orbiting on the TIMED SABER will continue operating for at
routes. However, despite the collection of (thermosphere, ionosphere, least three more years.
large eruptions we were lucky and did not
have a head-on collision with the bulk of
the material coming from the sun. The
eruptions had potential for much larger
impacts. We dodged the bullet.
“Our team carried out routine forecasting
for all major eruptions,” he continues. “We
did a very good job of predicting the
locations and timing of the impacts
throughout the solar system. Forecasting the
so-called magnetic polarity of the eruptions
at Earth remains a challenge. The polarity is
important for accurate estimation of the
near-Earth storm strength.”
Given the expected upsurge in activity,
Hesse, Pulkkinen, and Yihua Zheng, another
chief forecaster, were anxious to enhance
their forecasting acumen. They partnered
with the Space Radiation Analysis Group at
NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston,
which is responsible for ensuring that
astronauts’ exposure to deadly radiation A surge of infrared radiation from nitric oxide
remains below established safety levels, and molecules on March 8-10, 2012, signals the
biggest upper-atmospheric heating event in
won NASA funding to develop the seven years. Credit: NASA/SABER, TIMED
Integrated Advanced Alert/Warning Systems
for Solar Proton Events.
Weaknesses in current system

“Ensemble forecasting holds the key to an
enhanced alert system,” says Hesse. “We
agreed that this was the way to go.”
Currently, the laboratory is running one
CME model at a time, calculating one set of
parameters. The parameters are derived from
near real-time data gathered by NASA’s Solar
Dynamics Observatory, the Solar Terrestrial
Relations Observatory, and the Solar and
Heliospheric Observatory, among others. “But
since all of these are scientific research
missions, we have no guarantee of a
continuous real-time data stream,” says Zheng.
Space Weather Services at NASA’s Goddard Space

Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, is made up of
scientists who track solar disruptions and predict
their impact on Earth. The experts include (from left
to right) Hysook Lee, Antti Pulkkinen, M. Leila Mays,
and David Berrios. Picture: NASA/Chris Gunn

Space weather
envelope to have it done. When we do, we’ll be

the first in the world to have it.”
THE CARRINGTON When this forecasting technique is
verified and validated by NASA’s Space
EVENT Weather Laboratory, the capability will be
made available to NOAA’s Space Weather
At 11:18am on the cloudless morning Prediction Center, which is responsible for
of September 1, 1859, 33-year-old issuing national space weather alerts.
Richard Carrington, one of the UK’s NASA’s goal to understand and track space
foremost solar astronomers, was in his weather activity will enable a greatly
private observatory. As usual on every enhanced forecasting capability.
sunny day, his telescope was
projecting an 11in-wide image of the Looking past today
sun on a screen, and Carrington And as we head toward the solar peak of
skillfully drew the sunspots he saw. activity, how does Pulkkinen predict the
On this particular day, he was future of space weather prediction? “With
capturing the likeness of an enormous the current rate of progress made for
group of sunspots. Suddenly, before example in computational physics and
his eyes, two brilliant beads of blinding observational space physics we can expect
white light appeared over the Sunspots sketched by Richard Carrington in the near future major advances in our
sunspots, intensified rapidly, and on September 1, 1859 (Royal capacity to predict space weather.
became kidney-shaped. Realizing that Astronomical Society) “In many senses we have entered the era of
he was witnessing something large space numerical space weather forecasting.
unprecedented. Within just five Even more disconcerting, telegraph I see space weather forecasting moving more
minutes he watched the white spots systems worldwide went haywire. Spark and more toward the routine forecasting done
contract and disappear. discharges shocked telegraph operators in the lower atmospheric circles. “From a
Just before dawn the next day, skies and set the telegraph paper on fire. Even personal point of view,” concludes Pulkkinen,
all over Earth erupted in red, green, when telegraphers disconnected the “I hope to keep playing a role in building the
and purple auroras so brilliant that batteries powering the lines, aurora- next generation of space weather forecasts and
newspapers could be read as easily as induced electric currents in the wires still operational forecast services.” z
in daylight. Indeed, stunning auroras enabled messages to be transmitted.
pulsated even at near tropical latitudes What Carrington saw was a white- Christopher Hounsfield is the editor of Meteorological
over Cuba, the Bahamas, Jamaica, El light solar flare, a magnetic explosion Technology International and Aerospace Testing
Salvador, and Hawaii. on the sun. International. Lori Keesey is the technology writer for
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Furthermore, imperfections exist in the

data. These imperfections grow over time,
leading to forecasts that don’t agree with the
evolution of actual conditions. For NASA, the
US Air Force, and other organizations that use
Goddard’s forecasts to decide whether steps are
needed to protect space assets and astronauts,
uncertainty is as unwelcome as the storm itself.
Ensemble forecasting, however, overcomes
the weaknesses by allowing forecasters to tweak
the conditions. “Generating different
parameters is easy, just varying a little bit of all
parameters involved in characterizing a CME,
such as its speed, propagation direction, and
angular extent,” explains Zheng.
In essence, the multiple forecasts provide
information on the different ways the CME can
evolve over the next few hours. “We’ll be able to
characterize the uncertainties in our forecasts,
which is almost as important as the forecast
itself,” adds Pulkkinen. The team has already
installed new computer systems to run the
varying calculations and hopes to develop the
ability to generate more specialized forecasts.
“We recognize there is a huge gap in our March 30, 2010. The Earth would be a dot in
current capability,” Pulkkinen continues. “We comparison with this vast solar eruption.
certainly don’t want to miss the solar maximum Credit: NASA/SDO
with this capability. We’re really pushing the

ref. no.- 110724/BS_Layout 1 13.04.12 17:15 Seite 1
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Radio waves
by Ned Rozell
MISSION
ACCOMPLISHED
Aurora launch in Alaska will assist
prediction for GPS systems
Rockets propelled into the atmosphere will give essential data to better
understand the effects that space weather has on radio waves
n Saturday, February 18, at 20:41 In the 10 minutes, 25 seconds it took

O Alaska time, scientists launched a
NASA sounding rocket from Poker
for the rocket to arc to a high point 200
miles above Venetie to the payload’s
Flat Research Range into a brilliant aurora landing in northern Alaska, a complicated
display. The rocket mission, designed to array of antennas deployed, and the rocket
gather information on space weather both gathered and then transmitted
conditions that affect satellite information back to Poker Flat.
communications, was a great success. When the rocket separated into two
“It was a terrific aurora, the rocket parts, one part extended four wire
worked great, the instruments worked antennas, each about 18ft long, to measure
great, and the supporting radar worked the strong electric fields generated by the
wonderfully,” says Steve Powell of Cornell aurora. Twelve other antennas and sensors,
University, the principal investigator for each 1-3ft long, extended from the other
the launch. “We achieved all of our part of the payload to measure electrons
objectives. We’re ecstatic over the results and ions and how they interacted with the
and our graduate students can’t wait to Earth’s magnetic field.
sink their teeth into the data.” “We got a CD of data in our pockets the
After monitoring satellites earlier in same night,” Powell explains. Graduate
the day showed an abundance of charged students at Cornell University, the
particles coming from the sun and University of New Hampshire, Dartmouth
streaming toward Earth’s magnetic field, College, and the University of Oslo will
members of the rocket team, which use the data as part of their doctoral
included University of Alaska Fairbanks studies. Their goal is to better model
researchers and personnel from NASA’s Earth’s upper atmosphere and discover
Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia, were more about how space weather affects
prepared for a night of vigorous aurora. satellite communications we use every day.
With clear skies at Poker Flat and also “This will give us a better
at the villages of Fort Yukon and Venetie, understanding of space weather, and how
where they had narrow-field cameras it affects the way radio waves travel
aimed toward the sky, the scientists through the plasma,” Powell says. In this
opened their launch window at 20.00. period of high sun activity called the ‘solar
They watched the aurora dance directly maximum’, ionized gases from the sun will
overhead at Poker Flat, waited until the likely interfere with global positioning
aurora was perfect over Fort Yukon, system (GPS) transmissions, satellite
and then launched the two-stage rocket. internet, and other signals.
The 46ft rocket blasted-off from the “We’re becoming more dependent on
range, while the ‘all-sky’ camera in Fort these signals,” Powell notes. “With this
Yukon showed that the aurora conditions data, we can help designers of GPS and
were right. other receivers.”

Radio waves
“With this data, we can

help designers of GPS and
other receivers”
Photo of aurora in Fairbanks, Alaska by Jan Curtis

Radio waves
The 46ft NASA

UNIQUE FACILITY sounding rocket
launched from
Poker Flat Research
Poker Flat Research Range is the largest land-based sounding Range on February
rocket range in the world. The University of Alaska’s Fairbanks 18, 2012 is seen
Geophysical Institute operates the range under contract to here, well into its
NASA. More than 300 major scientific sounding rockets have second stage. Photo
by Craig Heinselman
launched from the facility since it was founded in 1969.
Ground operations
The mission relied heavily on ground-based
observations, using cameras positioned in
Fort Yukon, Venetie, and at the University of
Alaska Fairbanks Toolik Field Station. The
2012 launch season marked the first time
ground optics were based in Venetie. There,
cameras were situated almost directly
beneath the rocket as it reached its highest
point, an advantageous view for capturing
high-resolution images of the auroral display.
Researchers at Cornell University,
Dartmouth College, the University of New
Hampshire, Southwest Research Institute,
the University of Oslo, and the GI, will
analyze data collected by the rocket, the
National Science Foundation-sponsored
Incoherent Radar at Poker, and the
ground-based imagers. The collaboration is
aimed at improving models of Earth’s upper
atmosphere and understanding the impact
of space weather on satellite communication.
The aurora
The aurora occurs much higher than many
presume; its bottom edge is typically at
100km or 60 miles altitude. It extends over
a very large altitude range, and the altitude WHAT IS AURORA?
where the emission comes from depends on
the energy of the energetic electrons that Aurora is a luminous glow of the upper atmosphere, which is caused by energetic
make the aurora. The more energy, the particles that enter the atmosphere.
bigger the punch, and the deeper the On Earth, the energetic particles that make aurora come from the geospace
electron gets into the atmosphere. environment – the magnetosphere. These energetic particles are mostly electrons,
Very intense aurora from high energy but protons also make aurora. The electrons travel along magnetic field lines. The
electrons can be as low as 80km or 50 miles. Earth’s magnetic field looks like that of a dipole magnet where the field lines are
The top of the visible aurora peters out at coming out and going into the Earth near the poles. The auroral electrons are thus
about 200 to 300km or 120 to 200 miles, but guided to the high latitude atmosphere. As they penetrate into the upper
sometimes high-altitude aurora can be seen as atmosphere, the chance of colliding with an atom or molecule increases the
high as 600km or 350 miles. This is about the deeper they go. Once a collision takes place, the atom or molecule takes some of
altitude at which the space shuttle usually flies. the energy of the energetic particle and stores it as internal energy while the
The launch is the first and final one from electron goes on with a reduced speed.
Poker Flat Research Range this spring. There is always some aurora at some place on Earth. When the solar wind is
Technicians from the range are now searching calm, the aurora might only be at high latitudes and might be faint, but there is still
for the two rocket motors used to propel the aurora. In order to see aurora, however, the sky must be dark and clear, and
mission. A few days after its launch, Powell sunlight and clouds are the biggest obstacle to auroral observations. If you have a
was at Poker Flat marveling at how the launch camera on a satellite you can look down on the aurora, and you’ll find an oval-
went. “So many things have to come together shaped ring of brightness crowning Earth at all times. When the solar wind is
to have a mission success, and we had them all perturbed from a recent flare or other event on the sun, there might be a very
on that Saturday night.” z strong aurora. After the solar wind has transferred a lot of energy into the
magnetosphere, a sudden release of this built-up tension can cause an explosive
Ned Rozell is the Geophysical Institute’s science writer, auroral display. These large events are called substorms.
based in Fairbanks, Alaska

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Parachute-borne dropsondes
by Terry Hock and Robert Henson
DROP IN THE OCEAN

get a major upgrade
A multi-agency partnership has brought new strength to one of the world’s premier
tools for gathering weather data from hurricanes and other hard-to-sample phenomena
NASA’s Global Hawk soars aloft from Edwards

Air Force Base, California
(NASA photo by Tony Landis)
adiosondes, the balloon-borne GPS dropsondes were developed in the innovative new delivery systems. The new
R instruments that gather data as they
rise through the atmosphere, are
1990s at the National Center for
Atmospheric Research (NCAR) in Boulder,
technology has been applied in three forms:
the updated AVAPS-II system, used
familiar tools in global meteorology. Colorado, building on the center’s decades worldwide by aircraft for atmospheric
However, much critical information about of experience in dropsonde development. research and operational meteorology,
the atmosphere surrounding hurricanes and For the GPS-based dropsonde, NCAR including onboard data system electronics
other storms is gathered on the way down collaborated with the German Aerospace and software as well as the dropsonde
rather than on the way up. This happens Agency (DLR) and the National Oceanic and itself; the NCAR driftsonde system, which
using parachute-borne instruments called Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to can deliver up to 54 dropsondes each from
dropsondes, which are released from an determine measurement requirements, and a constellation of stratospheric balloons as
aircraft or high-altitude long-duration flight testing was supported by NOAA. The they drift with the wind for weeks or
balloons to accurately measure profiles of NCAR-based system that emerged, AVAPS months; and the fully automatic dropsonde
the state of atmosphere from high altitudes (Airborne Vertical Atmospheric Profiling system for the Global Hawk (GH)
to the surface. System), is the only dropsonde-based system unmanned aircraft (UAS), a collaboration
As it descends, a dropsonde measures in the world capable of providing research- between NASA and NOAA that extends
wind, atmospheric pressure, temperature, quality, high-resolution, reliable aircraft dropsonde use to higher altitudes
and humidity. These measurements are atmospheric profiles in hard-to-reach and longer flight durations than ever
radioed back to the aircraft or balloon in locations around the globe and targeted achieved with aircraft.
real time, then relayed to the ground. The observations of high-impact weather “The ability to launch dropsondes
observations are quickly used in computer phenomena, such as hurricanes. from the Global Hawk UAS, which can
forecast models around the world, reach any point on the globe in a single
improving the accuracy of those models. In Latest delivery systems flight, will change the world in a
the case of tropical cyclones, dropsondes Over the past five years, an NCAR-led team significant way,” says NOAA physicist
provide speedy, reliable information on of engineers, scientists, and technicians has David Fahey. “The atmospheric science
storm intensity that is invaluable for models transformed GPS-based dropsonde and operations communities have an
and human forecasters. technology and expanded its use to cover almost insatiable appetite for deploying

This composite photo depicts the launch of a

driftsonde from Antarctica on October 14, 2010
(NCAR photo by Charlie Martin)
these sounding devices in a variety of This automated

airborne field experiments.” dropsonde deployment
system, developed for
A proven winner, a step further NOAA by the National
Even before the recent upgrades, GPS Center for Atmospheric
dropsondes and the AVAPS aircraft data Research, was
installed on NASA’s
system had become a cornerstone of global Global Hawk. The
meteorology. The two National Science dropsondes (cylinders
Foundation (NSF)/NCAR research aircraft stacked in columns at
based in Colorado frequently deploy AVAPS the center) are ejected
dropsondes for NSF-supported community from the aircraft
field experiments. AVAPS systems are used through the tube at the
bottom after remotely
for research on board aircraft operated by issued commands. The
NOAA and NASA, as well as research flight aircraft can
facilities in the UK, Germany, Japan, accommodate 88
Canada, Taiwan, and elsewhere. Since its dropsondes per
debut in 1997, the NCAR dropsonde system flight (NASA photo by
Tony Landis)
has been deployed in countless field
projects in support of tropical meteorology,
hurricane research, studies on various
atmospheric phenomena, numeric weather
prediction, and validation of other
airborne instrumentation. More than
60,000 dropsondes have been released in
these efforts.
Dropsondes are also essential for
operational hurricane forecasting.
Thousands are used every year by NOAA
hurricane hunters and the US Air Force
(USAF) C-130 hurricane reconnaissance
flights in order to help predict the track and
intensity of storms approaching the USA.
“The GPS dropsonde has become an integral redesign of the system was needed. consideration was the cost of the dropsonde,
part of NHC’s operations and an essential “Without the redesign, it would soon as many thousands are used each year.
part of the forecasters’ toolkit,” explains become impossible to manufacture According to NOAA, the first bulk purchase
James Franklin, chief of the hurricane dropsondes,” reveals NCAR project leader of AVAPS-II dropsondes more than paid for
specialist unit at NOAA’s National Terrence Hock. By sharing development the agency’s entire investment in the
Hurricane Center (NHC). According to costs through a partnership with NOAA and development partnership.
Franklin, GPS dropsondes provide the USAF, NCAR enhanced capabilities and The manufacture of the dropsondes
soundings through the troposphere (the implemented state-of-the-art technology in a and aircraft data system is licensed to
atmosphere’s lowest layer) that improve seamless transition that avoided potential Vaisala Inc, based in Helsinki, Finland,
track forecast models by an average of disruption to users. and Louisville, Colorado. As the
10-20% during the important watch/ AVAPS-II doubles the resolution of wind developer, and because of the need to
warning period within 48 hours of measurement over the original version, ensure high quality for all users,
hurricane landfall on the US coastline. enables more dropsondes to be deployed in NCAR provides engineering support
The AVAPS-II program was triggered by a denser curtain (eight rather than four for the manufacturing and assists in
the evolution of electronics used in the dropsondes falling through the air at once), all modifications and the more
dropsondes. By the mid-2000s, they had and provides simplified and expanded complex troubleshooting of the
evolved to the point where a complete software features. Another important manufacturing processes.

Shown above are the paths of driftsondes that

encircled Antarctica and deposited
dropsondes for the period November 2-5, 2010,
with each hourly location highlighted
(depiction by Charlie Martin, NCAR; Google
NCAR engineer Cynthia Bradley prepares to install Earth image, with copyright: Terrametrics
part of the dropsonde mechanism in the NASA
Global Hawk aircraft (NASA image)
Drifters that produce results Concordiasi, involved a constellation of 13 issues linked with the Antarctic region,”
Driftsondes expand the envelope of driftsondes launched from McMurdo says Florence Rabier, France’s scientific
dropsonde use well into the stratosphere Station in the winter of 2010/2011. The leader of Concordiasi.
and well above aircraft flight levels, enabling experiment’s goal was to better understand
missions that can extend for months. Like and predict Antarctic weather, including Longer flights, more sondes
the aircraft dropsonde system, the clouds and snowfall, and to gain a better Another recent expansion of capabilities is
driftsonde system provides a unique understanding of ozone depletion. the development of the Global Hawk (GH)
platform to reach inaccessible parts of the A major objective of Concordiasi was to automated dropsonde system. The
globe, especially over oceans and in remote validate remotely sensed temperature remotely operated GH can fly at altitudes
arctic and continental regions. The measurements from the Infrared up to 65,000ft for more than 30 hours at a
high-altitude balloons can remain aloft for Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI) time without a pilot on board, making it
months, and multiple driftsondes can be systems aboard MetOp, Europe’s first series an exceptionally capable platform for
deployed as a constellation to provide very of polar-orbiting satellites. The driftsondes targeted weather observations using
wide, cost-effective geographic coverage. gathered ample data in support of this goal. dropsondes. NOAA provided partial
Figure top of previous page shows the As the driftsonde balloons circled over funding and NASA supported the aircraft
driftsonde system concept in which a Antarctica in the polar stratosphere, they flight testing of the development.
stratospheric balloon carries the driftsonde
system with up to 50 miniature dropsondes. “Thousands are used every year
The balloon drifts with the wind and
dropsondes are released upon command. To by NOAA hurricane hunters and
maximize the system’s capacity, miniature
dropsondes were developed with less than the US Air Force”
half the weight and volume of the standard
aircraft-deployed dropsondes. deployed more than 650 dropsondes, each This dropsonde system operates fully
Although NSF was the primary of them released following a command hands-off, preparing each dropsonde for
supporter of driftsonde development, issued from scientists in France, while launch and safely ejecting it from the
NCAR worked with several partners with engineers at NCAR Colorado continuously aircraft through commands from NASA’s
expertise in heavy-lift ballooning to make monitored the engineering health of each ground control. The GH accommodates up
the project happen. These include Near driftsonde. The success of data collection to 88 dropsondes per flight, a remarkable
Space Corporation, which assisted with test was 98%, a noteworthy result for a system step-up considering that manned aircraft
flights, and NASA’s Columbia Scientific floating 59,000ft above the polar ice in thin dropsonde missions typically use fewer
Ballooning Facility. The main partner for -40°C/°F air. than 30 dropsondes.
driftsonde development was French space The resulting data set is unique – the The GH dropsonde system was fully
agency CNES (Centre National d’Etudes most comprehensive observations ever made exercised in early 2011 in its inaugural
Spatiales). The agency operated balloons for of the atmosphere over Antarctica and the three-mission science campaign, WISPAR
three major field deployments: one in surrounding ocean. “This wealth of (Winter Storms and Pacific Atmospheric
Africa, one in Hawaii, and one in information will be used in the years to Rivers). On one flight, the second WISPAR
Antarctica. The latter project, dubbed come to better understand key scientific mission released 70 dropsondes, the most
2 0 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012

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limited sampling opportunities in any given

hurricane season. The large capacity of the
GH-based dropsonde system will facilitate
the amount of data collection needed for
comprehensive study.
A wealth of partnerships
The dropsonde community of users is large,
with many stakeholders, but it is also a very
cohesive group. NCAR is regarded by many as
‘dropsonde central’ because of its central role in
dropsonde development and data quality
activities, and its prominent role in deployment,
data analysis, and commercialization.
Data from AVAPS dropsondes are used
by researchers at US universities and
agencies as well as scientists in many other
nations. Forecasters employ the instruments
both directly, such as in measuring the
central pressure of a tropical cyclone, and
indirectly, such as in assimilating their data
into numerical forecast models. Among the
many national centers with forecast models
that make use of dropsonde data are: US
National Weather Service; European Center
for Medium Range Weather Forecasting;
Environment Canada; Japanese
Meteorological Agency; German Weather
Service; Météo-France; and UK Met Office.
Research projects have also made
Above: During a 2011 test flight for the
extensive use of AVAPS dropsonde data.
Hurricane and Severe Storm Sentinel (HS3) These include: DOSTAR (Dropwindsonde
project over the Pacific Ocean, data from the Observations for Typhoon Surveillance near
dropsonde system aboard NASA’s Global Hawk the Taiwan Region); T-REX (Terrain-Induced
were used to construct a cross-section of the Rotor Experiment), California; RAINEX
atmosphere along the longitude of Hawaii from (Hurricane Rainband and Intensity Change
10°N to 50°N. The images above reveal the
structure of the winds, temperature, and
Experiment); T-PARC (The Observing
relative humidity as the aircraft crossed over a System Research and Predictability
‘river’ of high moisture in the atmosphere Experiment (THORPEX) Pacific Asian
and an associated frontal zone and jet stream Regional Campaign); and PREDICT
(NASA image) (PRE-Depression Investigation of Cloud
System in the Tropics).
Top left: The driftsonde system includes (from
top to bottom) a superpressure balloon, a Each year since 1997, stakeholders and
parachute, communications equipment, and a other interested parties have met at the
gondola that holds dozens of instrument-laden annual AVAPS Users Group meeting hosted
dropsondes (NCAR photo by Charlie Martin) by NCAR in Boulder, Colorado. This
meeting typically has about 40 attendees
Left: Each dropsonde includes a compact set of
weather sensors, with the resulting data
representing diverse groups around the
transmitted as the dropsonde falls to Earth world, including industry partners who
(photo by Randy Redman, US Air Force) manufacture dropsondes or related
hardware. The AVAPS Users Group meeting
covers both scientific and technical aspects
ever in a single flight for any type of from 2012 to 2014 through a project called of dropsondes, with a common emphasis
aircraft. This feat was equaled in the third Hurricane and Severe Storm Sentinel (HS3), on data quality, shared concerns, and
WISPAR mission. with several thousand drops planned over future needs. z
The WISPAR science team successively these missions. HS3 will address the role of
studied several phenomena: an atmospheric the Saharan Air Layer (SAL) in tropical storm Terry Hock, an electrical engineer, is deputy manager
river (a tongue of moisture extending from formation and intensification, the role of deep of the In-Situ Sensing Facility within NCAR’s Earth
the tropics to the US Pacific Northwest); a convection in the inner core region of storms, Systems Laboratory. He heads the NCAR group that
winter storm system covering a huge swath of and the evolution of storm structure and develops and improves dropsonde and other sounding
the eastern Pacific Ocean; and conditions in intensity as hurricanes evolve into technology. Robert Henson is a science writer at the
the Arctic atmosphere, with a flight into the mid-latitude storm systems. Addressing these University Corporation for Atmospheric Research,
polar vortex that reached 85°N. The powerful science questions requires sustained which manages NCAR under sponsorship of the
GH dropsonde system will see extensive use measurements over several years due to the National Science Foundation

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Radar transmission
by Michael Richardson
ON THE RADAR
The use of dual polarization to
measure hydrometeor content
Since World War II weather radars have used horizontal scanning techniques to identify
the location and intensity of hydrometeors in the atmosphere. But this is changing with
the current move toward using horizontal and vertical polarization
n conventional weather detection, across several categories. It will enable products can be derived. The Hydrometeor
I this much is universal: radars
operate by transmitting horizontally
meteorological organizations to determine
with greatly improved accuracy the type,
Classification Algorithm (HCA) graphically
defines individual hydrometeor types
polarized RF energy pulses, which are state, and amount of precipitation affecting within a radar return, enabling
reflected back by precipitation – raindrops, any portion of their area of responsibility, meteorologists to accurately distinguish
hailstones, sleet or snow – suspended in the resulting in improved forecasting for flash between heavy rain and hail, and
atmosphere. Using the properties of the floods, hail and winter weather events. determine whether an area is receiving
returned signal as a basis for calculation, Additionally, research has shown that rain, snow or an icy mix. The derived
conventional Doppler radar systems produce dual-polarization has promising Specific Differential Phase (KDP) product
two data products of great value: reflectivity implications in detecting tornadic debris represents the rate at which the phase
(Z) and velocity (V), which depict the ball signatures, a clear indication of a between the vertically and horizontally
patterns and intensity of precipitation and tornado on the ground. polarized signals changes. It is key in
wind, respectively. To date, dual-polarization radar mitigating inaccurate measurements due to
In dual-polarimetric applications, the research has yielded a new suite of base hail contamination and heavy rainfall.
radar transmits simultaneously in two data products, including: Differential Specific Differential Phase is also a good
polarizations, horizontal and vertical, Reflectivity (ZDR), which enables the radar indicator of the state of precipitation (e.g.,
enabling the radar’s signal processor to processor to discern the shape of liquid, dry or frozen), and a key component
make direct measurements of the size, hydrometeors (spherical, oblong, etc.); in further deriving the Quantitative
shape, and moisture content of Differential Phase (DP), which enables the Precipitation Estimation (QPE) product.
hydrometeors (frozen hydrometeors have radar processor to correct for attenuation; Although one-hour radar-based rainfall rate
less water content than rain). and Correlation Coefficient (CC), a estimations are currently available, derived
Because of the additional information comparison of hydrometeor orientation dual-polarimetric products such as QPE will
available to meteorologists, dual-polarization within a given volume. From these base allow for greatly increased accuracy in
technology is expected to provide benefits products, additional dual-polarimetric instantaneous rainfall rate.
A comparison image depicting NEXRAD Level III Reflectivity (left) and corresponding hydrometeor classification data (right), both from the same scan.
Hydrometeor classification enables instant identification of the various precipitation types that impacting a given area; here, very high reflectivity levels have been
revealed as hail, not merely heavy rain

Radar transmission
“The most immediately visible

modification to a radar is the addition
of an RF pallet behind the antenna”
This illustration depicts

the difference between
single and dual-
polarimetric radar
transmission
Implementing the configuration the effects of attenuation as the radar pedestal’s swing arms. The pallet contains a
Meteorology organizations have two options signal encounters particles in the waveguide splitter that divides the RF signal
when securing dual-polarimetric radar atmosphere, a high transmission strength emanating from the radar’s klystron or
sensors: implementing a new installation, or is desirable. magnetron transmitter into separate
upgrading legacy radar hardware with the With Baron dual-polarization upgrades, channels. As the newly separated pulses
new capability. From a budgetary the most immediately visible modification to travel through the remaining waveguide,
standpoint, maximizing current hardware is a radar is the addition of an RF pallet behind one channel is physically converted into a
always the preferred method, but it is the antenna, mounted to one of the vertical polarization before the signal is
important to note that due to increased
signal processing demand and other
requirements, not every radar currently in
use will be up to the task of handling
THE NEXRAD FACTOR
dual-polarization operations. The US government’s NEXRAD radar network will soon play host to dual
Peak transmitting power is an area of polarization, with 171 WSR-88D radar sensors scheduled to receive the retrofitted
serious consideration. To achieve upgrade. Baron Services, in partnership with L-3 STRATIS, has been contracted to
simultaneous horizontal and vertical develop and build the components of this upgrade for the National Weather Service,
transmission, a dual-polarization radar’s Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and Department of Defense. A map of
RF pulses are physically split between the ongoing NEXRAD dual-polarization upgrades throughout the USA is available and
two polarizations, effectively halving updated weekly. See www.baronservices.com/nexradstatus
output strength per channel. To prevent

Radar transmission
The RF pallet, affixed to a pedestal swing

arm, contains the dual-polarization
waveguide splitter
dispatched through the feed horn. With this

example, the opposite swing arm hosts an
antenna-mounted electronics module – a
climate-controlled box housing receiver
components, as well as low noise amplifiers
(LNAs) that convert the received
transmission into a signal the Doppler signal
processor can decipher. This configuration
also enables the radar to be more easily
calibrated by directly injecting a test signal
into an LNA without the attenuation or loss
associated with directional couplers. The
solid-state climate control system maintains
an interior module temperature of 20-30˚C
throughout the year to ensure reliability and
signal stability.
Inside the radar shelter on the ground,
additional modifications are made to the
radar equipment cabinet; for example, any
new transmitting equipment would be
installed during the upgrade. To support the
increased processing requirements, a
higher-specification Doppler processor will
typically be retrofitted to the legacy
hardware stack. The processor contains a
suite of components, including built-in test
equipment (BITE).
The BITE is a multi-purpose
modification. In addition to performing
This rear view shows the waveguide splitter
continuous system checks, it enables with adjoining waveguide (left) and the
authorized radar technicians to antenna-mounted electronics module (right)
remotely dial into the radar system. attached to a radar pedestal
Troubleshooting, calibration and other
system checks can then be performed
THE FUTURE OF DUAL

without waiting for the vendor to arrive on
site or taking the radar system offline. In
the case of Baron Services, an innovative
method that enables dual-polarization POLARIZATION
radar calibration without the presence of
rainfall has also been implemented. z The future of weather radar is in dual polarization, but as with any transition, there are
sure to be challenges. One of these is preparing the meteorology community for the
Michael Richardson is marketing communications influx of new data that will be available. Much as the introduction of Doppler
manager at Baron Services Inc, where he oversees technology in the 1990s led meteorologists to add the interpretation of velocity data to
development of support materials for the company’s their skill sets, today’s scientists will discover new ways to use dual polarization to
products and initiatives. He joined Baron Services in increase the accuracy of their forecasts, and the timeliness of the weather alerts they
1999 as staff writer after graduating from the issue.
University of North Alabama

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overseas opportunity
and looking forward
to establishing
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International assistance
by Richard K Thigpen
PROGRESS REPORT
An update on worldwide
GCOS projects
The Global Climate Observing System has accelerated its program to help implement a
number of renovation projects in developing areas around the world
Fianarantsoa – the old tower

on the left will be removed
oon, the Global Climate Observing observing network there has deteriorated This is not the first time the UKMO has
S System (GCOS) hosted by the World
Meteorological Organization
over the years and has been further
damaged by several typhoons. The
assisted the GCOS, having also carried out
renovations at Gan in the Maldives, and at
(WMO) will be 20 years old. For about half renovation will consist of replacements Yerevan, Armenia. The project is funded
of this time, the GCOS Cooperation with automated weather systems made by through the GCM by the Met Service of the
Mechanism (GCM) has focused on Campbell Scientific. Netherlands (KNMI).
implementing renovation projects in The project is managed for GCOS by the
developing areas of the world. These UK Met Office (UKMO), which has Continental support
activities were first reported in this extensive experience in such international Several upper air stations were supported
magazine in May of 2011 and the GCOS was projects. In this case, staff from the UKMO last year through the GCM. Switzerland
invited to address the MTI World have visited some of the stations to funded the supply of radiosondes and
Technology Expo 2011 in Brussels last year. determine requirements, and some staff balloons for the GCOS upper air network
There was extensive discussion at the Expo from Madagascar have visited the UKMO in (GUAN) stations at Dar es Salaam, Tanzania;
with many representatives of international Exeter for initial training. The Met Service of Vacoas, Mauritius; and Khartoum, Sudan.
companies about the progress of some of the Madagascar has built the 10m wind masts as A competitive international tender
major projects and about the procedures shown in the picture above – it’s not exactly procedure was used at the WMO, and
used by the GCM. a ‘tiltable’ mast, but meets the requirements. MeteoModem provided the winning offer.
One of the major renovation projects is The UKMO will participate in the initial MeteoModem’s technical staff went to each
the replacement of equipment at 11 installations and then the staff from of the stations for the installation and
stations in Madagascar. The surface Madagascar will install the remainder. training. The renovation of stations in

International assistance
Richard K. Thigpen, conference speaker at Meteorology Technology World Expo 2011
For details of the 2012 conference and exhibition go to: www.meteorologicaltechnologyworldexpo.com
“The project is managed for GCOS by

the UK Met Office, which has
extensive experience in such
international projects”
Angola has been delayed several times but is
back on track for equipment installations in
May and June. The GCOS has a contractor
located in Harare, Zimbabwe, who will
return to Luanda to assist in the initial
installations. Here, classic instruments will
be reinstalled at eight stations. The
equipment was supplied by Thies Clima,
again through WMO competitive
procurement procedures. The Met Service
of Angola had the 10m wind towers built,
and the Stephenson screens were obtained
from H&S Timbers of South Africa. This
project was funded by KNMI.
Recently, Japan provided funding for the
supply of radiosondes for the GUAN station
at Rarotonga, Cook Islands; and the
renovation of two automated weather
systems. Rarotonga is an important upper
air station in a region of very few
observations. Japan will also support
additional projects later this year.
KNMI has also funded the upgrade of First launch at Khartoum, Sudan (photo courtesy: MeteoModem)
the telecommunications network and
lightning protection in Zambia. Lightning
damaged important equipment and
replacement equipment needs to be
protected; Cimel was awarded the contract
to implement this project.
CONTRACT WORK
These are simply a few of the more recent Most of the renovation activities undertaken by the GCM so far have been in the
activities. In addition, a high-performance GUAN and GSN. These two networks are considered baseline and are needed in
wind system was installed at Mount order to effectively use data from other networks and sources. But attention is
Bjelasnica, Bosnia and Herzegovina, funded beginning to turn to other networks. Reference-quality upper air and surface
by Germany. Spain has contributed to the stations are being developed, and support to other networks such as solar
renovation of stations in Cuba and an radiation and sea surface temperature has been discussed.
electric generator for Conakry, Guinea. Several companies have asked how they could be considered for such potential
There are several additional potential projects in the future. They should simply register with the WMO procurement unit
projects in Africa that have simply not yet (LGuy@wmo.int or DRusinga@wmo.int) so that they may be invited to bid on future
been completely defined. z projects. The procurement unit maintains a file of potential suppliers.
Another method is to join the Association of Hydo-Meteorological Equipment
Richard K. Thigpen is a subcontractor to Riverside Industry (HMEI), which has an office at the WMO. (HMEI@wmo.int) Usually, the
Technology, and the work is funded by the US GCOS procurement unit will ask the HMEI for a list of any of its members who may have
Program Office. The GCOS is sponsored by the the potential to supply the needed material and services.
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission The more than 50 projects that the GCOS has implemented have made
of UNESCO; the United Nations Environment substantial improvements to these networks, and with the continued support of
Programme; the International Council for Science; and these generous donor countries, additional renovations will continue.
the World Meteorological Organization

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
by Steven Albersheim & Larry Burch
DOC 9974
AND MORE
International volcano watch in
support of flight safety
Recently, the International Civil Aviation Organization published Doc 9974, which offers
guidance as to what is a safe level of ash for aircraft wanting to fly into airspace
contaminated with volcanic debris. The document is the result of two years’ hard work
Redoubt Volcano as viewed toward the southeast on

the afternoon of April 4, 2009. Steam rises from the
crater, ash blankets the flanks, and a muddy lahar
engulfs the Drift River valley
Image courtesy of AVO/USGS; McGimsey, Game

Steven Albersheim, conference speaker at Meteorology Technology World Expo 2011
“Current aviation practice is to avoid

‘visible ash’, which is a part of the
SMS for the operator”
he eruption of the Icelandic volcano events, where ash or contaminants from
T Eyjafjallajökull on April 14, 2010
will long be remembered as the
the eruption can be a hazard to air
navigation. Work on this report took two
volcanic ash cloud event that changed the years and involved people from many
way the aviation community handles large backgrounds, including aeronautical
ash clouds. More than 100,000 flights were engineers, meteorologists, safety officers,
canceled, affecting 10 million passenger and volcanologists.
journeys worldwide. The financial impact The paper noted that volcanic risk
was estimated at US$1.7 billion to operators, mitigation requires interaction and
plus an unknown amount of losses in the cooperation between: air navigation service
global economy because the movement of providers (aeronautical information services
goods internationally was curtailed. and air traffic flow management units);
Since there were no metrics or meteorological service providers such as
established safe ash tolerances for aircraft, meteorological watch offices (MWOs) and
engines, and avionics, air traffic managers volcanic ash advisory centers (VAACs);
and flight planners were uncertain over volcano observatories; and aircraft and
what exactly were safe levels of ash for engine type certificate holders, supplemental
aircraft wanting to fly into the North type certificate holders, and parts
Atlantic and European airspace manufacturer approval holders. During the
contaminated with ash. In response to this, deliberations with the task force, it was
the International Civil Aviation concluded that the operator needs to have
Organization (ICAO) established the an adequate safety management system
framework to address the issues, and the (SMS) in place with the ability to ensure safe
results of the ICAO’s work will ultimately operations. Specific guidance on how to
revise the way the aviation industry operates develop this has been provided with Doc
with volcanic ash clouds. Doc 9974, Flight 9974. But in particular, it should be noted
Safety and Volcanic Ash – Risk Management of that, “Each operator should develop its own
Flight Operations With Known or Forecast list of procedures and hazards since these
Volcanic Ash Contamination, will address have to be relevant to the specific
these issues in the context of what is equipment, experience, and knowledge of
involved with a safety risk program. the operator, and to the routes to be flown.”
Safety risk The SMS concept

The purpose of Doc 9974 is to lay out a The SMS process is not a new program to
framework of what needs to be considered aviation and over the years it has improved.
with regard to safety risk during volcanic The following discussion will reveal how the
Figure 1: Areas of
responsibility for the
nine VAACs
ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012 • 3 3

the information being provided by multiple

products. At the present time, there is
considerable debate among the experts
about the duplication of information
contained in the SIGMET and the volcanic
ash advisories.
Current aviation practice is to avoid
‘visible ash’, which is part of the SMS for the
operator. But how visible ash actually is
depends on many variables, such as cloud
cover, sunlight, and sun angles. The world’s
nine VAACs have been doing their best to
forecast visible ash clouds, but the practices
they use and tools available vary, and there
is also inconsistency as to what constitutes
‘visible ash’, as well as the extent of its threat
to aviation. This inconsistency impacts on
airline operators who are trying to
Figure 2: Volcanic ash product providers, their products and users
determine the flight path for their aircraft;
the ICAO recognized this problem and
established an ICAO volcanic ash task force.
The work undertaken by the task force
International Airways Volcano Watch and their area of responsibility. The MWOs was very challenging. Progress was made as
(IAVW) supports the SMS, and where the that the VAACs support are listed in the the international aviation community agreed
future lies for improvements. ICAO Doc 9766, Handbook on the on the following measures: a guidance
In 1987, the ICAO established the IAVW International Airways Volcano Watch document in the form of the recently
for the purpose of establishing nine VAACs Operational Procedures and Contact List. published ICAO Doc 9974 that addressed
that could provide global support to MWOs. While significant progress has been the inclusion of volcanic ash into the SMS;
MWOs issue inflight advisories, commonly made during the past 25 years with the recognition for the development of an
referred to as SIGMETs, and one of the establishment of the IAVW, the ICAO international concept of operations
SIGMET phenomena is volcanic ash cloud. quickly became aware that there were gaps (CONOPS) that defines the functional and
Volcanic ash SIGMETs describe the current in volcanic ash information services. Figures performance requirements for services and
location of the ash cloud, as well as 2 and 3 show the sources of volcanic ash which will support the ICAO’s global air
providing a six-hour forecast, and are used information products and the problems that traffic management plan; guidance on
by flight crews and dispatchers at airline have been identified with a special emphasis collaborative decisions and sharing of
operations centers. on ash concentration charts, volcanic ash information, plus a need to improve
The VAACs, with their access to advisories, SIGMETs and pilot reports, harmonization between VAACs to mitigate
numerical models and satellite imagery, are volcano observatory notices for aviation, and inconsistency of information; and finally the
able to detect, monitor, and forecast the volcanic activity reports. The greatest provision of support for the World
movement of the volcanic cloud. Figure 1 challenge that the ICAO recognized was the Organization of Volcano Observatories, in
shows the coverage of the VAACs worldwide need for harmonization and consistency of order to provide critical and timely
information on pre-eruption and eruption
information to the VAACs, and support for
appropriate research that will allow for
enhanced and improved transport modeling
that provides ash concentration levels.
Even with this progress, there are still
many issues and gaps that need to be
addressed. Foremost is the need to work
with engine manufacturers on the
establishment of guidance to determine an
acceptable level of ash tolerance for aircraft,
engines, and avionics.
While much progress has been made
in satellite remote-sensing of volcanic
clouds, as illustrated in figure 4, more
work is planned to improve this
capability and ensure that this
technology is available to all VAACs.
Ultimately, the results can be
incorporated into decision support tools
and be used to improve modeling and the
Figure 3: Differences and problems with volcanic ash information
provision of advisories for the volcanic
ash cloud.

IAVW to take a very complex problem and

Figure 4: Examples of
experimental volcanic
simplify the information so it can flow
ash products from NOAA through various communication channels
to the ultimate end-user – the flight crew
xxxxxxx – in order to support decisions concerning
airspace that is contaminated with a
volcanic cloud. Everyone needs a
seamless transfer of data and products
that are easily understood and not open
to misinterpretation.
To achieve this aim requires, or
necessitates, the need to support the
development of a CONOPS to clearly define
the functional and performance
requirements and the need to support
appropriate research to improve the quality
of modeling and the provision of products
that can be used effectively as part of a
SMS. Along with the development of a
CONOPS is the parallel work being done to
document ‘best practice’ among the
VAACs in a manner that mitigates the
ambiguities and inconsistency of the
Figure 5: Flow of
volcanic cloud information.
Volcanic Ash
information for an Safe skies
eruption The SMS concept is a proactive and formal
approach to ensure safe aviation operations
through the effective management of the
hazards that are a natural part of aviation
operations. The IAVW, which originally
included only the VAACs, now includes a
variety of stakeholders, from the original
equipment manufacturers, to the operators,
who have a strong interest to ensure the
information used in decision support tools
will mitigate the risks of operating in
airspace contaminated with ash.
To achieve that goal, the IAVW will
further promote the need to: develop a
CONOPS for volcanic cloud information and
share the service needs with the
international community; continue to
address the gaps in the sciences and
prioritize what is most needed; promote the
concept of collaborative decision process for
volcanic ash on a global scale to allow all
stakeholders to participate (e.g. VAACs,
MWOs, airline operations centers, volcano
observatories, and area control centers);
enhance the use of graphics for volcanic ash
products, especially for complex events
The satellite signature design, duration in the ash, thickness of when ash is being transported and dispersed
The issue of how to define ‘visible ash’ is the ash cloud, and composition of the in different directions at varying flight
perhaps one of the most challenging volcanic cloud (i.e. ash or sulphur dioxide). levels; evaluate how to define discernible ash
problems, as previously stated. As is shown As previously mentioned, experts recognize versus visible ash; harmonize global
in figure 4, the satellite imagery can detect that advances in technology allow for the transport models; and evaluate the use of
the presence of ash, but that satellite image detection of ash that may not necessarily be ensemble modeling, which includes
does not necessarily equate to what might visible in all conditions, thus the need to evaluating probabilistic forecasts of ash
be visible to pilots. Nor can it be decided define what is considered discernible ash concentrations and how it affects decisions
what exactly constitutes a hazard until that is of concern to the operators in to avoid or fly into ash clouds. z
tolerance levels for engines are defined, and support of SMS.
this has to take into consideration a If we look at figure 5, it illustrates the Steven Albersheim is from FAA and
multitude of considerations such as engine complexity of the challenge ahead for the Larry Burch is from AvMet Applications

Radar and wind turbines
by Daryl O’Dowd
THE NEW DAVID

AND GOLIATH
Radar versus wind
turbines; microwaves
versus spinning blades
MTI’s regular meteorologist, Daryl O’Dowd, explains
the huge impact alternative energy wind turbines have
on radar operations
he recent renaissance of wind blades, maximizing the wind turbine power
T energy – both onshore and offshore
– has not been without challenge.
output, but also continuously changes the
turbine radar cross-section (RCS). The RCS
Even after overcoming obstacles posed by of a wind turbine – depending on its
public resentment over the look of wind orientation relative to the radar – can be
turbines and alterations to the viewshed, a very large. Expressed as dBsm (decibel/
host of other issues still confronted square metres) a 1.5MW turbine can have
developers in their selection and RCS of 20 to 40dBsm – potentially 10 times
development of sites. In some cases, revised that of a large airliner such as a Boeing 747.
turbine placement, height, design, and even
paint scheme has helped minimize local Why blades are seen
technical impact, and contributions to The blades of most modern turbines, while
community infrastructure and tax base has composed mainly of dielectric
helped smooth out other difficulties. non-conducting material such as glass
However, one obstacle that hasn’t been reinforced plastic (fiberglass) that is
readily resolved with fresh paint or a new normally transparent to microwave
community baseball field is the negative impulses, also contain internal materials
impact wind turbines have on radar. that can reflect radar energy. To limit
lightning damage to the very smooth and
How radars work expensive blades, a metal lightning ground
Radar – for navigation, defense, or weather wire – minimum AWG #6 (4mm) – runs
purposes – works by discharging a through each blade, increasing the radar
microwave pulse in the direction of a signature. Furthermore, the growing weight
possible target and then measuring the time, and size of blades has increased the need for
strength, and usually the frequency of the stronger spar materials – such as plastic and
reflected return. If the pulse doesn’t carbon-fiber composites, wood laminates,
encounter an object – either man-made or and metals – that are all radar visible.
natural – or if the object is transparent to Together, the movement of both the
the radar or absorbs the pulse, then there is nacelle and the blades causes not only a
no radar return and the radar screen appears large and varying RCS, but also the distinct
empty (for that radar pixel). appearance of motion when the Doppler
Metal objects such as wind turbine shift of the radar return is measured. A wind
towers have a strong radar signature and turbine in the 2MW class with 44m-long
appear as fixed objects similar to blades rotating at 15rpm will have a tip
telecommunication towers. Wind turbines speed of nearly 70m/sec (135kts or
also have the characteristics of non-fixed 155mph), similar to that of an aircraft
objects. Not only do the blades rotate – maneuvering near an airport, or an
varying in speed as they move from F2-strength tornado.
stationary to optimum turn-rate – but the
wind turbine nacelle itself (the box-like Different radars, different issues
enclosure housing the generator and usually Not all types of radar have the same
the gearbox) actively pivots to point into the sensitivity to wind farms. The weather radar
wind. This optimizes the airflow across the spirals upward as it scans the horizon,

“In the UK, the Civil Aviation

Authority specifies a 30km (18.6-
mile) setback around aerodromes
with surveillance radar”
Line of wind turbines in Alberta. Tip speeds

can exceed 70m/sec and be indistinguishable
from light aircraft in flight.
Copyright Daryl O’Dowd

POSSIBILITIES?
Although mitigation solutions are numerous, implementation costs make few of them
particularly attractive to wind farm developers, who can be expected to bear much of
the financial burden. Possible solutions include:
• •
• •
• algorithms
• •
• •
• •
•
• •
•
Radar cross-
section (RCS) for
various moving
objects. Courtesy
of the US
Department of
Defense
making only the lowest sweeps likely to Wind farm confusion

have wind farm returns. And 3D defense A lone turbine is unlikely to confound any
radars are similar in that they sweep several radar – or radar operator – but an entire
levels simultaneously (stacked beam or wind farm, potentially covering an area of
phased array imaging) and again only the 50km² (19 square miles) or larger, poses a
lowest beam level may be contaminated by problem. In most wind farms, only a few
wind turbine reflections. turbines are pointed in exactly the same
The bigger problem lies with 2D direction at a given moment. Some may be
primary surveillance radar (PSR) used for off-axis and in the process of pivoting into
aviation airspace control. This type of radar the wind, while others may be reacting to
employs a single beam that is horizontally different airflows entirely. Some wind
narrow, typically less than 1°, but vertically turbines may be coming up to speed, while
wide, often exceeding 45º. As the radar others are spinning down or stationary for
turns, any object – at height or at the maintenance. As a consequence, the total
surface – will show up undifferentiated on radar profile of a wind farm is continuously
the 2D radar screen. – and unpredictably – changing.
Profile view of common 3D radar beam patterns – stacked beam (left)

and phased array (right). 2D radar uses a single beam for the same coverage and has no
target height discrimination

Further complicating the wind farm

NEXRAD (weather radar) for Ft Drum, New York
at 0.5° scanning elevation. Wind turbines are
radar picture are both intrafarm radar
within 18km and cause spurious multipath reflections and diffraction losses. Radar
ghost reflections that extend beyond the wind pulses can be temporarily captured within
farm perimeter. Courtesy of NOAA a wind farm, reflecting between towers and
blades, before returning to the antenna.
This short time delay gives the impression
that the echoes are further away, and
presents on the radar screen as downrange
ghost images.
Diffraction losses occur as radar energy
moves through a wind farm, curving around
structures before continuing onward. Radar
reflected from a distant target then makes a
second trip through the farm, experiencing
further diffraction losses that may
completely attenuate the signal.
Even with knowledge of the geographic
perimeter of the radar clutter – including
areas of downrange ghosting and
shadowing – air traffic control uncertainty,
weather false alarms, and security issues
are inevitable. An aircraft transiting over
the wind farm at any altitude may
disappear completely off the radar, its skin
return obscured in the much stronger wind
farm radar clutter. Similarly, automated
weather radar algorithms that identify a
tornado vortex signature can be seduced by
returns from wind turbine blades that
mimic the strong Doppler shear of severe
weather. Furthermore, a coastal or offshore
wind farm could conceal approaching
illegal or terrorist activity – both marine
and airborne – and pose asset and national
security concerns.
ATC solutions
Many air traffic control (ATC), national
defense, and civil weather services have
tackled the problem by simply establishing
no-build or consultation zones around radar
installations. One of the most restrictive is
in Canada, where an 80km (50-mile)
setback has been imposed around PSR
facilities operated by national air traffic
control provider Nav Canada. This setback
is waived without contest only where it can
be demonstrated that terrain masking
(intervening high ground) completely
shields the farm from radar view.
Other countries – with more experience
in radar issues – have less restrictive setback
controls. In the UK, the Civil Aviation
Authority specifies a 30km (18.6-mile)
setback around aerodromes with
surveillance radar, although numerous cases
where wind farms are much closer can be
found (Aberdeen 7km (4 miles), Newcastle
19km (12 miles), Cardiff 20km (12.4 miles),
Glasgow 23km (14 miles)). Other civilian
airports in Europe have comparable wind
turbine-radar proximity, including
Amsterdam’s Schiphol airport with turbines

within 10km. In the USA, an extreme case is

Wind turbines are
the ARSR-2 (air route surveillance radar) at within 18km and cause
Tyler, Minnesota, which is within 1km of a spurious multipath
wind turbine. In many if not all cases, wind ghost reflections that
farms are clearly evident on radar and extend beyond the
airport controllers must make special wind farm perimeter.
allowances to accommodate aircraft Picture: NOAA
operating in or near turbine interference.
These bespoke workarounds have been
the impetus for solutions at both ends of the
problem – at the radar and at the wind
turbine. In June 2011, air defense, air traffic
control, and weather agencies from Canada,
the UK, and the USA (including NORAD), as
well as commercial radar and turbine
manufacturers, met in Ottawa to examine
these issues and the solutions.
At the radar end, Raytheon Canada, C
Speed, Lockheed Martin, and other
non-governmental organizations
presented a broad suite of software and
hardware solutions for civilian aviation systems (10cm S-band), but in the future can
and military users. Software solutions be tuned to absorb different frequencies –
included concurrent beam processing, important as weather, aviation, and defense
clutter maps for each Doppler filter, radars operate at unique wavelengths.
improved constant false alarm rate Vestas isn’t releasing full details pending
processing and enhanced target tracking. patent completion, so it is unclear whether the
Hardware solutions included the use of absorption comes through a shallow paint layer
L-band (15-30cm) phased array radar to with a metal bead or carbon suspension – like
help see through wind farm clutter, the the paint on stealth aircraft – or whether the
use of X-band (2.5-3.75cm) in fill radar solution is entirely integrated within the blade
to view behind a wind farm, and construction, potentially a leading or trailing
temporary changes to radar pulse edge microwave trap (Salisbury screen) causing
repetition frequency and pulse length to destructive interference, or some uniquely
better isolate wind turbine returns. A tuned fiber used in the blade layup. No cost
fully operational wind farm mitigation estimate is available and the blades are still
system is expected to be in place at the undergoing field trials at a wind farm in
end of this year when Raytheon installs Norfolk, UK. In the end, perhaps the cheapest
radar upgrades at the Royal Netherlands and most expedient solution lies in simply
Air Force facility at Woensdrecht. providing radar operators with the option to
trip offline a wind farm if safety or security
Stealth blades conditions warrant.
At the wind turbine end, Danish If the blades aren’t turning, radar adaptive
manufacturer Vestas Wind Systems A/S has clutter suppression software will quickly filter
tentatively offered a wind turbine blade with out much of the wind farm signature, leaving
radar absorbing properties expected to FIGURE 7: Super-refraction and ducting can
only valid moving targets (weather, aviation,
reduce the RCS by 20dB. Working with the bend a radar beam below the normal refraction or military) behind. This is not completely
UK firm QinetiQ, Vestas indicates that these path, illuminating objects behind terrain or over without precedence; wind farms are routinely
stealth blades are aimed at 3GHz radar the horizon. Courtesy of NOAA shut down to accommodate bird and bat
migrations, and potential curtailment losses
now play a role in assessing future wind farm
ANOMALOUS commercial viability.
Wind turbines and wind farms are not
PROPAGATION decreasing in number and neither is air traffic
density, the incidence of severe weather, or
Even where wind farms have little or no radar signature due to terrain masking or are threats to national security. If anything, all
distant and lie below the curve of the earth, certain atmospheric conditions can are increasing providing impetus to find
cause radar detection. Called super-refraction – or in more extreme cases, ducting solutions to the very real risks posed by wind
– a rapid increase in temperature aloft (an inversion) or rapid decrease in water farms on radar systems. z
vapor content aloft (an evaporation duct over water) will sharply lower the
atmospheric refractive index and cause a radar beam to refract downward, following Daryl O’Dowd is a Canadian Meteorological and
(or dipping below) the curve of the earth. As a consequence, wind farms may still Oceanographic Society accredited wind energy, radar,
periodically show up on radar despite careful planning and concealment measures. and weather modification meteorologist. Email:
odowd@weatherdyne.com

Caribsat project
by Marc Morell & Jean-Raphaël Gros-Désormeaux
UNIQUE
MARTINIQUE
The Caribbean information system:
from satellite to decision makers
The INTERREG Caribbean IV program recommends the valorization and protection of
the region’s environmental core, through collaborative and sustainable management of
resources. It uses Martinique as the test case
he French territories of The ultimate objective processes by developing customized tools

T Saint-Martin, Saint-Barthélemy,
Guadeloupe, and Martinique, and
The Caribsat project, funded by the
European Commission, aims to conceive
for the assessment, management, and
physical planning of the target territories;
the member states of the Organization of and implement within the Lesser Antilles an train students and young experts; and
Eastern Caribbean States are part of a instrument to achieve sound environmental create a vehicle for collaboration between
geographic continuum that can easily be management and sustainable development public and private organizations and for
identified through its similar landscapes, based on an online geographic atlas supplied cooperation between the territories of the
climates, and natural resources and also by the acquisition and analysis of satellite Lesser Antilles archipelago, and exchange
through the environmental degradation the images, associated with a knowledge between the area of the Caribbean and the
states have to face, caused by human activity database and customized decision tools. European Union.
(pollution and deterioration of ecosystems More specifically, Caribsat is targeted Public institutions, NGOs, and private
and habitats), natural hazards, and climate toward the preservation of biodiversity in companies of Martinique, Guadeloupe,
change including sea level rise. land and sea, management of the risks French Guiana, and all other partner
Therefore the islands of the Lesser related to natural disasters, and mitigation countries of the Lesser Antilles are
Antilles are faced with an important of climate-change impacts. involved in environmental management,
developmental and environmental The project was launched within the preservation of natural land and sea
challenge, which could be easily framework of the INTERREG IV areas, and sustainable management of
summarized as a struggle for balance Caribbean Programme. The Caribsat natural resources.
Achievements and perspectives

“The global change currently observed The backbone of the project is the
generates an intensification of the implementation on an island scale, such as
the Lesser Antilles, of an environmental
coastal erosion phenomena” information system based on regional land
use and land cover mapping, digital
between preservation of biodiversity and Project is led by IRD, Institut de recherche elevation models, climatic, and all physical
entropic pressure induced by economic and pour le développement (UMR data available.
social growth, in order to achieve ESPACE-Dev, IRD Martinique Center) in This land use and land cover mapping
eco-development. deep collaboration with the French with associated databases is the first
To achieve their eco-development, the University of Antilles and Guiana. initiative toward a regional approach for
Caribbean islands must address numerous environment monitoring using remote
challenges: protection of mangroves and The strategy sensing data.
wetlands; sustainable mobilization use of The strategy of the Caribsat project is based It is obvious that the existing data on a
water resources; control of domestic, on implementation on the island of global scale, such as USGS MODIS Global
agricultural, and industrial pollutions; Martinique using a technical platform for Land Cover Mapping, Global land cover
control of land erosion and hyper interdisciplinary scientific research. This is Facility, GlobCover, etc, does not allow
sedimentation; management of risks in order to develop advanced concepts and proper regional analysis because the scale is
induced by natural disasters; and methodologies to process satellite images too large. On the other hand, data collected
adaptation of the Caribbean territories to and spatialized data and information. It at local scale (national land use/land cover
climate change. also aims to support policy-making map, vegetation map, agricultural map, etc)

Caribsat project
is not homogeneous and cannot be object-orientated approach for Multi-risks map of Caribbean - Léone &
compared from one island to another. discrimination between barren land and Deymier - CARIBSAT
Only the regional scale is appropriate for urban, and the detection of agricultural
comparison of the status of the environment land. In the end, seven classes of land use/
on one date or to monitor its evolution in land cover have been defined. following hurricane disturbance, both of
the relevant area. these processes being poorly understood in
The map made for each island from Webmapping system mangroves worldwide. For this purpose,
Trinidad and Tobago to the British Virgin The Caribsat webmapping displays the land three sequential maps of mangrove
Islands is based on the processing of SPOT 5 use and land cover maps associated with vegetation around the bay have been
images, 10m resolution, collected by the digital elevation models, climate rainfall implemented by means of satellite image
SEAS Spot-Image station managed by the variability, administrative areas, roads, and analyses (IKONOS 2006 and 2008, SPOT 5
IRD center in French Guiana. catchments limits. 2006 and 2010) and field measurements.
On these very highly fragmented islands, Work has been conducted within the This work in Martinique will lead to the
two methods have been tested: pixel-based Caribsat project to apply remote sensing on implementation of a mangrove observatory
analysis and object-orientated classification the assessment of hurricane impacts on on a regional scale, based on remote-sensing
using e-cognition software. The results show mangrove and early vegetation recovery. survey and vegetation monitoring.
that the pixel-based classification made by Hurricane Dean (2007) severely impacted
using ENVI software is easily reproducible mangrove forests along the Bay of Implementation of the SPI
on another image. However, comparison of Fort-de-France (Martinique, FWI). This Concerning the effects of climate changes
the confusion matrix between the two types event provided an opportunity to assess on water resources, it is proposed to
of classification shows better results with the mangrove resistance and early recovery implement the Standardized Precipitation

Caribsat project
Index (SPI) for monitoring drought in some

Map of flooding
of the Lesser Antilles islands. The SPI is a risks and ground
drought index based only on precipitation. movement risks for
It can be used to monitor conditions on a existing buildings
variety of timescales to produce drought
maps. The Interpolated WorldClim data
will be used to set up global gridded
climate layers with a spatial resolution of
1km 2. Collaboration will be established
with regional initiatives (Carib-HYCOS
project) and international centers such as
CIMH (Caribbean Institute for Meteorology
and Hydrology).
Inside this framework, a monitoring
network for littoral dynamics under the
guise of hurricane events has been
reinforced and established.
The global change currently observed Land management practices urban pressure. Other application areas
generates an intensification of the coastal Understanding urban sprawl processes is a will be chosen in the Caribbean region,
erosion phenomena and, probably, an key issue for more efficient land through the improvement of a regional
increase in frequency and intensity of management practices and better assessment cooperation process.
paroxysmal weather events and, of the vulnerability of the settlements. In The Caribbean basin is exposed to many
simultaneously, the rise of sea levels this context, an urban classification natural disasters. It concentrates many
and expected disappearance of coral methodology has been developed using the natural hazards (seismicity, volcanism,
reef barriers. island of Martinique as a case study. hurricanes, floods, tsunamis, landslides, etc)
These phenomena are exacerbated on It is applied to different timescales, and and important human and strategic stakes.
tropical coasts hosting large coastal leads to various scenarios of evolution. For these reasons it is an area of interest for
populations, and therefore render the This methodology, based on spatial assessing risk by integrating and mapping
coasts and their societies very vulnerable. analysis tools, aims at characterizing its many components: hazards,
Since 2003, a monitoring network of the urbanization through its various vulnerabilities, and socioeconomic stakes.
dynamics of sandy beaches has been in components, its restraining factors, and The Caribsat project team and the
operation in several tropical sites: the parameters that could encourage its research laboratory GRED (University of
Martinique, Guadeloupe, Saint-Martin and expansion. This modeling takes into Montpellier, France) have combined GIS
Saint-Barthélemy (French West Indies), account not only the elements involved in data and geo-indicators of naturals risks
Tahiti and Moorea (French Polynesia), urban structures and processes, but also in the Caribbean basin in order to offer a
Scattered Island and Mayotte the interactions between them. The tool for comparative diagnosis and
(Mozambique Channel). systemic model is a base for producing a preventive information on a regional scale,
The objective of this network is to multi-criteria analysis with cartographical which takes the form of a multinatural
observe, supervise, and characterize the outputs, in order to create an urban hazards GIS. This international
rates/rhythms and mechanisms of the classification: dense urban zones, geo-referenced database harmonizes
evolution, adaptation, and impact strength non-urban zones, diffuse built areas, etc. multiple sources of historical, scientific,
of various types of tropical beaches facing Various timescales are used during this and geographical information structured
the paroxysmal weather-marine events to analysis so that a diachronic vision of urban with the same digital format. GIS Caribsat
which they are subjected (cyclones, storms, evolution is realized, and potential source suggests many applications in the field of
surges, and strong swells), in order to spots are identified. In this way, Caribsat geographical risk studies, pedagogy
develop and implement appropriate defense proposes some prospective scenarios that (dynamic atlas online), prevention, and
strategies and/or adaptation. should show areas subjected to stronger decision support. It is useful to develop
several families of geo-risk and natural
disasters indicators: natural hazards
activity, human and socioeconomic
impacts, and levels of exposure.
Regional danger
The risk of tsunami threatens the whole
Caribbean coastline, particularly the Lesser
Antilles. Its origin can be seismic, volcanic,
or submarine landslides. In view of this high
threat, the only effective protection is a
preventive and organized evacuation of
coastal populations. This requires a
performing regional warning system and
Impact of sea rising in Guadeloupe - modeling of tsunami propagations to be
Picture : M. Morell designed, in order to prepare people to
evacuate and to draw up local and regional

Caribsat project
PARTNERS
The organizations involved in the project throughout the
region include:
•
Martinique, Guyane)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
at 10x10m resolution provided by the SEAS

Guyane satellite reception antenna have been
used for land use mapping over the entire
Lesser Antilles, with a specific focus on the
small islands. A set of ad-hoc indicators and
statistical texture indicators have been
developed and combined with GIS modeling
based on the Global Island Database (GID,
UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre)
to prioritize further field surveys and
conservation actions on a regional scale.
Strategic plans for island biodiversity issues on
regional and global scales is emphasized by the
Global Island Partnership (GLISPA, CBD),
Tropical storm in the “Canal des Saintes” -
Guadeloupe - Picture : M. Morell which tends to give priority to the ecosystem
approach to conservation. Such a task requires
efficient tools and methods such as remote
emergency plans. which gives the shortest path between sensing and GIS modeling to survey large areas.
The first models of tsunami propagation coastal and refuge areas. In conclusion, the achievements of the
give travel times of a few minutes to The first results enable mapping of the Caribsat project are focused on the use of
Martinique for the closest seismic sources. theoretical time to secure the exposed remote sensing technologies applied to the
To maximize an evacuation plan, the population, and also a comparison of these automatic detection of changes impacting
Caribsat team assesses the number of results with the arrival time of a local agriculture production, forest cover, mangroves,
exposed people, possible evacuation routes, tsunami. Further improvements of the littoral zones, beaches, coral reefs, etc.
and safe areas, and set the time to evacuate model are scheduled to make it effective in a The data and tools provide the basis for
all people at risk. But there could still be crisis management context. monitoring the environment of the Lesser
crucial missing information for the One of the Caribsat project actions focuses Islands in the wider perspective of the
emergency plans of the French Antilles on a scientific asset for potential biodiversity implementation of an Environmental
(Martinique and Guadeloupe). estimates on a regional scale. Based on the Observatory of Caribbean islands in
A GIS-based macro-simulation of survey of the small islands in the range connection with other ongoing initiatives
evacuation for the whole of Martinique has 0.5-10km² within the Lesser Antilles, this and projects in the area. z
been developed. It is based on the creation amounts to about 200 islands for a total area of
of databases on the human stakes, the 184km². These are good candidates for the Marc Morell is project coordinator and Jean-Raphaël
constitution of connected networks of roads, ‘Lazarus effect’ for species that have been Gros-Désormeaux is deputy coordinator of the
the location of potential refuge areas, and eradicated from the mainland. There are many Institut de recherche pour le développement (UMR
the setting of evacuation speed by foot examples of this throughout the world, such as ESPACE-Dev, IRD Martinique center). For more
according to the slope. Evacuation routes are the Bermuda Petrel (Pterodroma cahow) information please visit: www.caribsat.com or
calculated using Dijkstra’s algorithm (1959), rediscovered on a tiny rock. The SPOT 5 images email: marc.morell@ird.fr

Lightning warning systems
by Nicholas Demetriades
STRIKE ACTION
Advanced lightning
warning systems are
now available worldwide
Built on the success of the USA’s National Lightning
Detection Network, the Global Lightning Dataset provides
high-quality lightning warnings across the world –
invaluable for aviation authorities, airports, and pilots
n lightning-prone regions of the processed and then communicated to users,
I world, airlines, airport authorities,
and owners of small airports need
with more than 95% of all CG lightning
flashes detected and a median CG stroke
to ensure the safety of their ground crew location accuracy of 250m or better.
employees while maximizing their
operational efficiency. Thunderstorms Worldwide protection
produce dangerous cloud-to-ground (CG) Airports outside the USA can have the same
lightning that can kill or injure a person protection with the Global Lightning Dataset
through one direct or indirect strike, with GLD360. GLD360 was built on the success
baggage and cargo handlers, refueling of the NLDN and, when combined with the
personnel, and catering service personnel company’s lightning warning software,
most at risk. When lightning threatens, provides uniform, high-quality lightning
high-risk activities like baggage handling warnings around the globe. It additionally
and refueling have to be suspended until the provides civil aviation authorities and pilots
threat has passed. Being able to accurately with the information they need to avoid
detect thunderstorms and issue timely turbulence caused by strong thunderstorm
lightning warnings helps to improve airport updrafts and improves the detection of
safety and increase the time that airports explosive volcanic ash clouds.
can be fully operational. The sensors detect lightning up to
9,000km from their location due to their
Saving lives sensitivity and breakthroughs in sensor
According to lightning safety expert Ron software algorithms developed by Stanford
Holle, approximately 24,000 lightning University. Each GLD360 sensor provides
casualties occur worldwide each year. both direction and time-of-arrival
Although accurate airport-related statistics information. Scientific studies have shown
are virtually non-existent, there have been at that lightning networks using a combination
least 92 reported injuries and one death
between 1991 and 2011. To address these
safety concerns, Vaisala created a range of
airport lightning warning systems (LWS),
which combine lightning data with decision
support software that alerts staff when
dangerous CG lightning is imminent.
Airports in the Continental USA have
been benefiting from the protection
provided by the National Lightning
Detection Network (NLDN) for more than
25 years. Used with advanced lightning
warning software and comprised of more Cloud lightning flash detected in the Dallas-Fort Map of VHF total lightning mapping in red
than 100 remote, ground-based sensing Worth area of Texas, USA. The blue dots show and VLF/LF cloud pulses in black in north
stations located across the country, the VHF cloud lightning mapping and the red dots Texas for a 15-minute period. Note the large
system detects the electromagnetic signals show VLF/LF cloud lightning detection. The area of anvil lightning reaching northward
given off when lightning strikes the Earth’s total length of this cloud flash as shown by VHF from the center of the storm on the south
surface. Information on the location, time, cloud lightning mapping is 50km side of the map
polarity, and amplitude of each strike is

“VHF cloud lightning mapping can

anticipate the arrival of local cloud-to-
ground strokes by tens of minutes”

TWX300 image showing more than two million lightning events reported by TWX300 map showing a lightning warning for Charlotte Douglas Airport, North
GLD360 across the globe on June 23, 2011. Colors show age of lightning Carolina, on September 27, 2011. Lightning color-coded by time, with white shades
events on June 23rd in four-hour intervals with shades of blue representing representing data from 22:30 UTC September 27th to 00:00 September 28th and light
data from 00:00-04:00 UTC and shades of white representing data from blue shades representing data from 21:00 to 22:30 September 27th. The red circle
20:00 UTC June 23rd to 00:00 UTC June 24th shows a warning issued when lightning was observed within 16km of the airport
of direction and time-of-arrival sensor Improving cloud lightning detection A small number of thunderstorms (10% to
information provide significant detection More than a decade of lightning research 30%) develop above the airport being
efficiency and redundancy improvements conducted at universities, meteorological protected. Cloud lightning typically precedes
over lightning networks using time-of- organizations, and Vaisala, has shown that CG lightning in about 70% of all
arrival sensor information alone. anywhere with cloud lightning overhead is thunderstorms, and the time difference
Long-range severe weather detection at risk for CG lightning. between the first cloud stroke and the first CG
has traditionally been limited by data The research found that very high stroke is usually just a few minutes.
gaps, leading to situations where people frequency (VHF) cloud lightning mapping This is a much shorter lead time than for a
have late or no warnings. GLD360 is the information would further improve CG moving thunderstorm approaching an airport,
only severe weather data set that has no lightning warnings at airports. The latest where VHF cloud lightning mapping can
data gaps and provides uniform, global VHF/LF (low frequency) precision network anticipate the arrival of local CG strokes by
coverage. Data delivered includes CG sensor is the TLS200, which focuses on tens of minutes. When a thunderstorm
stroke and cloud lightning information providing this high-performance cloud and develops directly over a fixed asset, the cloud
– and it can be delivered to the customer CG lightning detection. flash detection efficiency of 90% or above
in real time. VHF cloud lightning mapping is the only maximizes lead time during thunderstorm
way to truly identify all areas at risk for CG growth. In contrast, traditional VLF/LF/HF
Consistent standard checks lightning because it shows the actual spatial cloud lightning detection networks detect
The company continuously evaluates how extent – or branching – of cloud lightning approximately 50% of all cloud lightning
well GLD360 performs as an airport LWS within thunderstorm cores, as well as anvils flashes, and therefore miss cloud flashes that
against the NLDN in the Continental USA. (typically seen ahead of an approaching could maximize lead time before the first CG
The results are consistently close to the high thunderstorm), and stratiform rain regions strokes in overhead developing storms.
quality standard set by the NLDN, meaning (typically seen behind a thunderstorm that
accurate, real-time airport lightning has just moved overhead). Cloud lightning Reduced monitoring area
warnings can now be issued for any airport detected at very low frequency (VLF), LF, and The improved CG warning provided by
anywhere in the world, improving safety for high frequency (HF) are typically within the TLS200 has improved safety for airport
airport ground-crew personnel. same area as most CG lightning strokes – for ground personnel, beyond using NLDN or
To ensure GLD360 provides the high example, in thunderstorm cores – and GLD360 alone. In addition, since VHF cloud
level of network performance necessary to therefore provide little to no additional lightning mapping information will arrive at
enable accurate airport lightning warnings, improvements to lightning warnings issued an airport before CG lightning information,
validation studies have been performed in using traditional CG lightning detection. the customer can accurately reduce the radius
North America and Europe, and are now As a thunderstorm approaches, 70% to of the warning monitoring area around the
ongoing in South America. The results of 90% of the time, VHF cloud lightning airport. This reduced monitoring area
these studies show that GLD360 has a CG mapping provides tens of minutes of lead time provides improved operational efficiency
flash detection efficiency of 70% or greater before the first CG strokes reach the airport. In through lower false alarm rates.
and a median CG stroke location accuracy of an informal study of 29 thunderstorms at These significant advances in lightning
2-5km in all three regions. Tucson International Airport between 2007 detection will help airports to provide more
To make a full airport LWS, GLD360 and 2008, cloud lightning events provided accurate warnings and improve their situational
data is paired with Vaisala’s thunderstorm approximately 20 minutes (mean 25; median awareness. Most important of all, improved
warning system software – TWX300. 19) of lead time before the first CG lightning ground crew safety and airport operational
TWX300 displays a real-time GLD360 affected the airport. Comparatively, the same efficiency is now possible worldwide. z
datastream and supports customers in study showed that VLF/LF cloud lightning
configuring and issuing CG lightning data from the NLDN gave no lead time (mean Nicholas Demetriades is offering portfolio manager
warnings for improved decision making. two minutes late; median zero minutes). within the airports market segment at Vaisala

Because a Flash
of Lightning Can
Change Everything
Vaisala Global Lightning Dataset GLD360 is the

highest performing worldwide lightning dataset
in existence today.
Receive lightning data today - no need to own

equipment and no maintenance concerns
You choose the area covered – local or global
70% detection efficiency and < 5km location
accuracy
To learn more about Vaisala GLD360, see www.vaisala.com/gld360
www.vaisala.com Tel. +358 9 89491 sales@vaisala.com

Expo highlights
POSTCARD
FROM
BRUSSELS
Casting an eye back at some of
the best bits from MTWE 2011
MTI has put together a selection of pictures to sum up some of the
highlights from the Meteorological Technology World Expo 2011
Above: Tom Blees, president of The

Science Council for Global Initiatives
More than 1,550 visitors attended the Meteorological Technology World Expo in 2011 to connect with companies
worldwide. It will be held again in Brussels in October 2012
More than 80% of exhibitors have already rebooked

stands for MTWE 2012

Expo highlights
The show’s, more than 100, exhibitors shared with global visitors, experts and
buyers the most up-to-date weather predication technologies
There were 30 worldwide speakers during the free-to-attend

conference, producing an eager response from the audiences
PUT THESE DATES

IN YOUR 2012 DIARY!
he
ves October 16-18, 2012
BRUSSELS BELGIUM

Auto Metar system
by Dr Wiel Wauben & Jan Sondij, MBA
SENSING CHANGE
The challenges involved in airports’
automated visual observations
Accurate observations can improve capacity at airports during periods of bad weather,
as the Netherlands’ Amsterdam Airport Schiphol has discovered
he Royal Netherlands
T Meteorological Institute (KNMI)
operates the Auto Metar system at
regional airports. Fully automated weather
observations are performed, and are
supervised by a meteorologist in the central
weather room at KNMI’s headquarters at De
Bilt. The Auto Metar system uses specialized
observation techniques and technology to
ensure high-quality automated observation.
The system reduces costs because local
met offices and local observing staff at
airports are no longer required. The Auto
Metar system also makes it possible to get
meteorological information from military
airbases that are closed and unmanned at
weekends and from offshore production
platforms in the North Sea so that a denser,
both temporal and spatial, network of
aeronautical meteorological observations is
available to users.
Airport overview
KNMI’s meteorological infrastructure is
used to generate automated aeronautical
reports at all controlled airports in the
Netherlands, with the exception of Schiphol.
There, professional meteorological observers
are currently employed by KNMI to carry
out observations, and they have had a
positive effect on capacity at the airport.
KNMI’s automated reports include the
Metar, as well as the local routines and
special reports that are used for landing and
take-off operations.
Meteorological sensors
Amsterdam Airport Schiphol has six CAT
runways for instrument precision approach
and landing operations. Generally the
runways can be used from both sides, Overview of the runways at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol with locations of the meteorological sensors. The
although only certain runway combinations runways available for landing and take-off and the four fog stations around Schiphol are indicated
are available for simultaneous use.
The use of runways is determined by Air
Traffic Control the Netherlands (ATC/LVNL) runway maintenance, and noise abatement runway-specific information, such as wind
and is based on factors such as procedures. Runway usage data is and visibility data, in the local met reports.
meteorological conditions, periodical automatically sent to KNMI so it can include The meteorological instrumentation of an

Auto Metar system
Dr Wiel Wauben, conference speaker at Meteorology Technology World Expo 2011
“KNMI has a spare pool of sensors

so that, in the event of failure, they
can easily be replaced”
Overview of meteorological data arriving at the Schiphol Centre and Schiphol Illustration of the Auto Metar system at Rotterdam The Hague Airport
East and the server and client systems connected to the network. The data showing the interaction between the aviation meteorologist at De Bilt and
and systems on Schiphol Centre are shown in red, Schiphol East in black, the the air traffic controller at the airport. The effect of a failure of the data
MISPOES back-up in green, and the test data flow in blue communication network and back-up procedures are also indicated
airport is based on the requirements given two runways. The other meteorological
by the International Civil Aviation parameters (temperature, humidity,
Organization (ICAO). The observations pressure) at Schiphol are observed on the
generally need to be representative of the measurement field near 27 touchdown
aerodrome, but factors such as wind and (runway), and the back-up sensors are
visibility in the local met reports need to be located near 18R touchdown, whereas the
representative of conditions along the determination of the cloud base height is
runway. A runway for CAT III operations facilitated by four ceilometers located at the
requires visibility sensors near the corners of the aerodrome. It is important to
touchdown zone, the mid-position, and the note that Schiphol also has four ‘fog stations’
end of the runway. at about 10-20km distance from the airport
To meet these requirements, a CAT III that are equipped with a full sensor set,
runway is generally equipped with three including global radiation. The equipment at
visibility sensors and sometimes even more a regional airport with a single CAT I
due to the overall length of the runway or runway that can be approached from both
when a displaced threshold is used. Wind is sides consists of a single ceilometer and
generally observed near the touchdown zone Amsterdam Airport Schiphol (photograph
measures wind, visibility, temperature,
of each runway, but sometimes a wind courtesy KNMI service) humidity, and pressure near both
sensor is situated in such a way that it serves touchdown zones of the runway.

Auto Metar system
Back-up sensors
At civil airports in the Netherlands, sensors
for temperature, humidity, pressure, and
wind are backed up. The back-up sensor is
automatically taken into account in the
processing of the airport’s server system.
Wind can be backed up by a sensor nearby,
for example at the opposite end of the
runway, but only when the sheltering factors
at both sites are similar. A back-up wind
sensor is available for all runways except one
at Schiphol airport. The wind at the
touchdown zone of runway 24 is influenced
by buildings in the vicinity so that wind
sensors at other locations cannot serve as a
back-up. Similarly the visibility sensor near
touchdown cannot be backed up by another
sensor that is not located in the touchdown
zone. The introduction of back-up sensors is
determined in close cooperation with ATC.
The costs for the additional back-up
sensors for visibility, which are directly
charged to the aviation community, did not
outweigh the benefits. An important issue to
consider when dealing with system
redundancy is that the overall system should Visibility sensor with present weather capability along the runway at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol
be taken into account including the (photograph KNMI service)
data-receiving systems of the users. It makes
no sense to design a meteorological
infrastructure that is incompatible with the
user systems or that does not adequately
address the crucial points of failure of the
overall production chain.
The meteorological sensors are high
quality and readily available, and KNMI
has a spare pool of sensors so that they can
easily be replaced in the event of a failure.
If, for instance, the visibility sensor fails at
touchdown, making the runway
temporarily unavailable for instrument
precision approach and landing operations,
then the runways at regional airports can
still be used for ‘visual flight rules’, or
the runway can be approached from the
other side using a visibility sensor at a
different physical location and with other
associated infrastructure.
Visibility sensor with present weather capability at Schiphol airport (photograph KNMI)
Meteorological infrastructure
The sensors in the field are connected using
fixed copper lines or fiber optics to a nearby Meteorological server systems are available completely missing. In such a case, the
relay station (KVS) of ATC. A KVS generally at both locations. information from the back-up sensors is
serves about one half of a runway and It is important to note that the serial available through another relay station.
forwards the multiplexed sensor information output of the runway information system
to the meteorological server system. (RIS) at Schiphol East is made available at Local autonomy
At Schiphol, the sensor information is both locations and the same applies for the Since the servers are located at the airport
duplicated by a splitter before it is provided sensor data of the four fog stations, which itself, the processing and dissemination of
to the redundant fiber optic infrastructure of enter Schiphol East through modem meteorological data to local users runs
ATC, the so-called ‘Aorta’, which is also used connections over leased lines. A modem autonomously and continues uninterrupted
by ATC for transmitting information. The connection over a leased line is also used to when the network connection to the central
sensor information on the Aorta is extracted connect the SODAR to Schiphol Centre. facilities of KNMI in De Bilt is lost. In such a
both at Schiphol Centre (the KNMI Therefore, at both Schiphol and at regional situation, airport users still get the automated
observation location) and at Schiphol East airports, the worst possible failure is that the local routine and special reports (Auto Actual
(the technical facility of ATC/LVNL). sensor information coming from a KVS is and Auto Special) and have access to the

Auto Metar system
BACK-UP SERVER
SYSTEMS
The meteorological server systems, the from the hot server and forwards the
so-called airport data and most recent data, either upon request
communication module (ADCM), at or automatically, to the users. All
Schiphol are redundant and have all server systems have identical
kinds of safety features built in, hardware and software. The
including watchdog; automated configuration determines whether the
recovery after failed restart; automated server acts as a Schiphol server, a
or manual fallback to a previous version regional airport, or a military airbase.
of an application and/or configuration The server configuration is scalable
after a failed upload to a new version. and can range from a single server
Furthermore, the redundant systems are for a small airbase with ADCM and
placed at different locations to prevent MIS functionality combined, to the
service interruption caused by localized setup at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol
problems, and they use different with separate ADCM and MIS servers,
network components. both duplicated.
In order to ensure good service from At Schiphol, there is even a third
the airport server, the dissemination of server system (MISPOES) with a different
data to clients is handled by a operation system, an application with
separate server, which, again, is a only basic functionality and implemented
redundant system, with one server at by another manufacturer using different
Schiphol Centre and one at Schiphol software tools that can provide the most
Wind mast along the runway at Schiphol airport East. This meteorological information essential data in the event that the
(photograph KNMI service) server (MIS) gets a copy of the data redundant ADCM/MIS fails.
processed wind and runway visual range the ‘Trend’, a landing forecast with a validity of communication between the aviation
information. However, no lightning and two hours, to the meteorological reports that meteorologist and the ATC controller allows
cloud detection information is available in the are issued at least every half hour. The specific questions to be asked relating to
automated aeronautical reports during a meteorologist can also add, if required, the visibility to the ATCO in order to verify the
disruption of the network connection to De state of the runway to the Auto Metar report, local situation.
Bilt. This missing information is indicated in and can issue other reports manually (wind The meteorological infrastructure at
the meteorological reports. Note that there shear report, wind shear forecast, and airports in the Netherlands is designed to meet
are back-up network connections between low-level temperature inversion) as part of the user requirements and is capable of producing
the airports and De Bilt. Auto Actual and Auto Special reports. automated aeronautical reports, either without
any human intervention, using remote
Meteorological procedures Infrastructure assessments supervision and complementation, or by using
Client systems of, for example, observers at Internal and external assessments of the a local observer (Schiphol only).
Schiphol or meteorologists and maintenance technical infrastructure, the overall system These airport systems and procedures have
staff at the main premises of KNMI in De Bilt, performance, the procedures, and the impact proven their flexibility and reliability in
can be located anywhere on the network and on safety and capacity have been carried out, practice. However, the services provided to
connect to any airport server system. The and these assessments produced useful aeronautical users are constantly being
technical status of the sensors, server systems, information that has been used to optimize or improved as part of the service level
and network components is monitored by improve services. agreements. The overall performance of the
maintenance staff and an operator. An important aspect in the acceptance of system and the services provided to
A continuous verification of the validity of these automated aeronautical observations was aeronautical users are continuously monitored
the meteorological information is performed the contact between the meteorologist and and discussed at stakeholder consultations.
by the aviation meteorologist, who has access local staff at the airport or ATC. Each morning This includes evaluations of the handling of
to 12-second meteorological data. This a briefing is held, during which the expected malfunctions and complaints, as well as the
validation is facilitated by video camera images meteorological situation for the next 24 hours implementation of new or improved services.
at the airport; by information from other is discussed. Improvements are required at sensor level (for
meteorological stations; by satellite and Furthermore, ATC and KNMI agreed that example, spatial representativeness of cloud
weather model information; by considering the aviation meteorologist should have a observations, visibility reductions due to flying
the general meteorological conditions; or by pro-active role in the case of significant insects, or video camera images), on the
contacting local staff at the airport or ATC. deviations from the expected meteorological content of the local MET reports, as well as on
The aviation meteorologist can only overrule situations; for specific events; in the case of back-up measures and procedures. z
the sensor derived information in the reasonable doubt concerning the
automated aeronautical reports orally, or force meteorological information provided; or when Dr Wiel M. F. Wauben is a senior scientist in R&D
the sensors to fault so that the sensor data is there is a malfunction in the observation Information and Observation Technology, and Jan Sondij is a
disabled. In this situation, the back-up will be infrastructure. This was facilitated by senior advisor aviation meteorology and contract manager,
used if applicable. The meteorologist also adds introducing video cameras at the airport. The both at the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute

Pyranometers
by Clive Lee
FATHER AND SUN

Measuring global solar irradiance
Solar, atmospheric, and terrestrial radiation drives almost every dynamic process on
Earth’s surface and above. Recently, it has become widely used as an energy source
for the production of electrical power
he energy emitted by the sun is from the sun. This is due to the axial tilt area. The amount of energy per unit area is
T 3.72 x 1,020MW, which equates to a
radiative power of 63MW per square
and the distribution of land and sea on
Earth’s surface.
thus reduced as the sun moves lower in
the sky. The ratio of radiation intensity to
meter of its surface. At the mean distance Figure 1 shows the dates for the winter angle of incidence may be described as a
between Earth and the sun of approximately and summer solstices (the shortest and ‘cosine function’.
150 million kilometers (1 Astronomical Unit), longest day in the Northern Hemisphere).
the irradiance reaching the outside of Earth’s These do not correspond to perihelion and Solar radiation
atmosphere, normally to the sun’s beams, is aphelion because Earth’s axis of rotation is The amount and type of radiation falling on
known as the ‘solar constant’. The 1982 value tilted by 23.5º, which is the latitude of the the surface also depends upon the changing
currently used by the World Meteorological Tropics of Cancer (north) and Capricorn characteristics of the atmosphere, which has
Organization (WMO) is 1,367W/m2. (south). Between the solstices are the spring a considerable influence on the intensity and
However, the value obtained by NASA from and autumn equinoxes. spectrum of solar radiation reaching the
extra-terrestrial measurements in 2008 is The sun provides more than 99.98% of ground. When passing through the
1360.8 ± 0.5W/m2. all energy to Earth’s surface; the rest is from atmosphere, extra-terrestrial solar radiation
Actually, it is not constant. Earth’s internal geothermal sources. The sun is reduced by scattering and absorption
elliptical orbit reaches the point nearest to appears to us to be distant and small (it caused by air molecules, aerosol particles,
the sun (perihelion – 147,500,000km) subtends an angle of 32 minutes of arc). water droplets, and ice crystals in clouds.
around January 4. Six months later, around Therefore the beam of radiation arriving at The spectrum of solar radiation received on
July 4, it reaches the farthest distance from Earth’s surface is almost parallel. The angle top of a mountain in a remote region can
the sun (aphelion – 152,600,000km). This of incidence of the solar radiation is differ markedly from the spectrum received
means that the direct solar radiation changing continually as Earth is circling in an industrial or urban area near sea level.
reaching Earth’s atmosphere is 6.6% more around the sun and also spinning around Figure 2 illustrates this effect.
intense in January than it is in July. Also, its own axis. The solar radiation reaches its highest
this changes by up to 0.1%, depending on When the sun is directly overhead, its intensity when the sun is directly overhead
the sun-spot activity cycle of between 9 and beam of energy is concentrated upon the at a ‘solar zenith angle’ of 0°, and the
12 years. smallest possible area of Earth’s surface. thickness of the atmosphere is at its
Surprisingly, the average temperature of However, when the sun is lower in the sky, minimum. The lower the sun’s position in
Earth is about 2.3°C higher at aphelion than its beam strikes a horizontal surface the sky, the more atmosphere the radiation
at perihelion, even though it is further away obliquely, and is spread out over a larger must pass through, and so more radiation is
Figure 1: Earth’s orbit around the sun Figure 2: Spectral shift in irradiance with sky conditions

Pyranometers
“The lower the sun’s position in

the sky, the more atmosphere the
radiation must pass through”
Figure 3: Atmospheric depth Figure 4: Components of irradiance on a clear day
scattered and absorbed. Less radiation

reaches Earth’s surface and the spectrum of Figure 5: Components
the radiation also changes. of irradiance on a
When the sun is directly overhead, the cloudy day
atmospheric depth/thickness is at a
minimum, and is defined as having a
relative air mass of 1.0 for that location. As
the sun moves down toward the horizon,
the air mass increases. At the horizon (solar
zenith angle 90°) the atmospheric depth
(thickness) is approximately 11 times larger
than at the shortest path (see Figure 3).
The radiation significant for processes on
earth extends from 280nm (10 -9m) to
3,000nm; and from 3µm (10 -6m) to 50µm in
the bands shown in Table 1. The maximum
intensity of the solar spectrum occurs at
500nm, toward the blue end of the visible.
Infrared radiation is split into near infrared surface. This is a combination of the direct In certain partially cloudy sky
(NIR) and far infrared (FIR). FIR is not irradiance from the sun (E), corrected for conditions, it is possible for the global solar
emitted from the sun, it comes from the sky, the angle of incidence (θ), and the diffuse irradiance to temporarily exceed the
atmosphere and clouds that absorb irradiance (Edi) from the sky and extraterrestrial solar constant of 1,360.8W/
short-wave radiation, heat-up and re-emit atmosphere – according the equation m 2, but 1,500W/m 2 is the practical
radiation in the far infrared as heat, and Egi = Ecosθ + Edi. All these parameters maximum under natural sunlight.
from Earth’s surface. are measured in units of W/m 2.
Figures 4 and 5 show the difference How do we measure it?
What is global irradiance? between a clear sky day and a day with Pyranometers are defined by ISO 9060:1990
Global horizontal irradiance (GHI) is the clouds coming over at mid-morning. In (solar energy – specification and
total short-wave radiation from the both cases, ‘atmospheric radiation’, is the classification of instruments for measuring
hemisphere above a horizontal plane FIR component. hemispherical solar and direct solar

Pyranometers
Figure 6: Thermoelectric pyranometer principle Figure 7: Pyranometer with sun screen
radiation) as the instruments for the improves the response of the sensor when the
measurement of hemispherical (global) solar
radiation in a wavelength range from at least PYRANOMETER sun is close to the horizon, ‘bending’ the
incoming radiation beam. The highest
300nm to 3,000nm. Similar requirements EFFECT specification pyranometers use quartz domes
can be found in the WMO’s Guide to The uncertainty of the measurement is for a wider spectral response. The higher
Meteorological Instruments and Methods affected by a number of factors that refractive index further improves the
of Observation, currently in its seventh are functions of the pyranometer directional response, and better thermal
edition (2008). design and construction, the most conductivity than glass provides other
Pyranometers are categorized by their significant are: temperature response; performance benefits. A typical pyranometer is
performance such that there are scientific directional response; spectral range; shown in Figure 7.
precision instruments as well as those for response time; non-stability; non-
routine measurements. ISO 9060:1990 has linearity; and zero offsets. What is the pyranometer output?
three categories, as shown in Table 2. Thermopile pyranometers do not require a
Please note that it is no longer power supply because the detector generates
encouraged to use terms such as ‘accuracy’ that may affect the measurement – such as a small voltage in proportion to the
or ‘error’, except in the most general sense, precipitation, dirt, and wind. The principle temperature difference between the black
for measurement performance. These are is illustrated in Figure 6. absorbing surface and the instrument
poorly defined terms. The term ‘uncertainty’ Nearly all pyranometers use an optical housing. This is of the order of 10µV
should be used where appropriate. The quality glass for their hemispherical single or (microvolts) per W/m2, so on a sunny day the
International Organization for Standard- double domes. Depending upon the glass, the output will be around 10mV (millivolts). Each
ization (ISO) Guide to the Expression of transmission is from 300nm, or less, to about pyranometer has a unique sensitivity defined
Uncertainty Measurement provides a standard 3,000nm. Double domes give better stability during the calibration process, which is used
method for the determination of uncertainty under dynamically changing conditions by to convert the output signal in microvolts
in measurement. further ‘insulating’ the sensor surface from into global irradiance in W/m2.
Photoelectric sensors (photodiodes) environmental effects such as wind and rapid The better the quality of the pyranometer,
cannot meet the ISO 9060 and WMO temperature fluctuations. The shape of the the smaller are these effects. The very best
spectral range and selectivity requirements, dome, and the refractive index of the material, pyranometers with glass domes can achieve an
so compliant pyranometers use the
thermoelectric detection principle. The
incoming radiation is almost 99% absorbed Figure 8:
by a horizontal blackened surface over a Ventilation unit
very wide wavelength range. The resulting
increase of temperature is measured via
thermocouples connected in series or
series-parallel to make a thermopile. The
active (hot) junctions are located beneath
the blackened receiver surface, and are
heated by the radiation absorbed in the
black coating. The passive (cold) junctions
of the thermopile are in thermal contact
with the pyranometer housing, which serves
as a heat-sink.
It is necessary to protect the black
detector coatings against external influences

Pyranometers
Table 1: Wavelengths
of solar and
atmospheric radiation
uncertainty in the daily total of global

irradiance of less than 2%. The best model Table 2: ISO 9060:
currently available uses quartz domes and can 1990 pyranometer
categories
measure to within 1%.
Ventilating a pyranometer
Of course, getting the best performance from
a pyranometer depends on regular
maintenance, in particular keeping the dome
clean. It will be appreciated that dirt,
pollution, dew, frost, or other obscuration
will significantly affect the measurements.
Ideally, the dome should be regularly cleaned,
but this is not always possible.
The availability of ‘good’ data can
be significantly increased by using a
ventilation unit as shown in Figure 8. This
blows filtered air over the pyranometer dome
to help keep it clean and can apply heating
when required, to remove precipitation.
Ventilation also reduces thermal offsets in the
pyranometer, thus improving performance.
What is new in pyranometers?

The ‘smart pyranometer’ is the new buzz
phrase. Good-quality meteorological data
loggers are designed with inputs able to
measure down to 5µV, to take the very small
pyranometer output signal directly, and can
make the conversion to W/m2. However, the
new generation of automatic weather stations Figure 9: Smart pyranometer interfacing
are designed around meteorological sensors
with serial outputs. Until now, the
pyranometer has been the ‘odd one out’, but integrated temperature sensor and polynomial cable lengths of hundreds of meters. All the
not any longer. functions provide correction for the outputs are protected against short-circuits.
The new SMP Series from Kipp & Zonen of temperature sensitivity of the detector. The
Delft, Netherlands, are the world’s first smart response time has been digitally enhanced and Using the sensors
pyranometers with built-in intelligence. the output ranges are standardized. Using The pyranometers are individually addressable
Building on the proven CMP Series design and Modbus, a range of instrument status and and can be daisy-chained in networks with other
technology that is used around the world in configuration information is available, Modbus sensors, saving on cabling costs. The
meteorology and climatology networks and in with user-selectable options. high-quality waterproof cable connector and
solar energy, Kipp & Zonen has integrated SMP pyranometers have extremely low standardized outputs make it easy to interchange
digital signal processing. The company has power consumption so that internal heating instruments for recalibration. SMP3 is an ISO
developed a smart interface that features does not affect the detector performance. They 9060 Second Class pyranometer and SMP11
‘Modbus’ data communication for connection operate from a wide range of supply voltages, exceeds the requirements for Secondary
to and also digital data acquisition systems. making them ideal for power-critical Standard. The pyranometers are traceable to the
Amplified analog outputs are also included for applications. There are two versions; one has World Radiometric Reference. z
systems that have 4-20mA current loop or an analog output of 0-1V, the other is 4-20mA.
high level voltage inputs. The smart interface Both have a two-wire RS-485 interface with Clive Lee is the business manager for meteorology & cli-
doesn’t only provide versatile outputs; an Modbus (RTU) protocol that can operate over matology with Kipp & Zonen, based in the Netherlands

Modular reactor
by Tom Blees
A ROAD NOT TAKEN

Understanding alternative fuels in a
meteorological capacity
Some countries seem more enthused about mass-producible modular reactor
PRISM than others
hose who grew up during the years

T of the Cold War will probably
never forget the Cuban Missile
Crisis of 1962, a time when two
superpowers came perilously close to
unleashing all-out nuclear war. Several of
US President John F. Kennedy’s generals
purportedly advised an attack at least on
Cuba, if not on the Soviet Union itself.
Soviet Premier Khrushchev likely received
similarly bellicose advice from some of his
advisors. The fact that these two men took
the decision to stand down brought the
world back from the precipice.
But this harrowing incident was
certainly not the only time that these two
nations came close to initiating nuclear
Armageddon. As General Secretary of the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union from
12 November 1982 until his death fifteen
months later Yuri Andropov was also
reportedly urged by his military advisors to
attack the USA but refused to listen to
them. And then there have been close calls
caused by malfunctioning early warning
systems, sometimes in the USA, sometimes
on the other side. The average citizen was
blissfully unaware of these near misses,
and will likely never know about them
except from hearsay or historical reporting
many years after the fact.
But there is another nuclear road that
was not taken. Ironically, the failure to take
that road could lead to global catastrophe for
humankind and many of the species with
whom we share this planet.
This article is being written on the first
anniversary of the Tohoku earthquake and
tsunami that devastated communities in
northeastern Japan in March 2011. Although you’re talking about. For the press coverage nuclear power entirely. Since those power
nearly 16,000 people were killed in the of the nuclear accident at the Fukushima plants were supplying about 30% of Japan’s
tsunami and over one million buildings Daiichi power plant dwarfed the attention electricity, this has dramatically increased
were destroyed or damaged, if one were to paid to the devastation wrought elsewhere the country’s carbon emissions as it has
ask nearly anyone outside Japan about the by the tsunami. turned to fossil fuel imports to keep the
Tohoku earthquake it would likely elicit no As a result of this incident, Japan has lights on and the factories running. It has
recognition. But mention Fukushima and taken almost all of its 54 nuclear power also created Japan’s first trade deficit in more
immediately people know which earthquake plants off line amid pressure to abandon than 30 years, with an estimated cost of

Modular reactor
Tom Blees, conference speaker at Meteorology Technology World Expo 2011
“The IFR was invented by a group of

brilliant scientists and engineers at
Argonne National Laboratory”
cases those who exercised the most

influence remain for the most part
nameless, unknown to those who were
outside the process.
The road not taken was the one that
would have led to the deployment of the
Integral Fast Reactor (IFR). (I wrote about
this nuclear power system shortly after the
Fukushima accident – see Life In The Fast
Lane, May 2011 issue, p90-93.) The IFR was
invented by a group of brilliant scientists
and engineers at Argonne National
Laboratory who had recognized the need to
solve all the problems with nuclear power if
it was to become the world’s first source of
These images show the effects of the tsunami on
Japan’s coastline. The image on the left was taken
unlimited energy that could be economically
on September 5, 2010; the image on the right was and feasibly tapped. They successfully
taken on March 12, 2011, one day after an earthquake demonstrated a system that could consume
and resulting tsunami struck the island nation. Images: nuclear waste, weapons-grade material, and
German Aerospace Center (DLR)/Rapid Eye even depleted uranium as fuel. It was
designed to be inherently proliferation-
resistant, passively safe, and over 150 times
public?) reached far beyond Japan. Shortly more efficient at utilizing the energy from
before the accident, there had been uranium than the type of reactors currently
arguments in Germany over whether to bow in use around the world.
to political pressure from green parties and
decommission its perfectly serviceable Political agenda
nuclear power plants. Then in 1994, as the project entered its final
Fukushima tipped the scales, consigning phase, the US Congress peremptorily pulled
Germany to a future of more coal and gas the final funding request for the project that
burning and almost certainly more had taken years of dedicated work and
(ironically, nuclear-generated) electricity billions of dollars. Because Japan had offered
from its neighbors. In the first month of tens of millions of dollars to help finish off
2012, a cold snap forced German utility the project, sending that money back across
companies to restart some reactors in order the Pacific meant that it actually cost the
to keep the heat on. Some other European USA more to shut down the project just
nations have likewise reacted to Fukushima short of its goal than it would have cost to
by foreclosing the option of building any finish it. What on earth could have
new nuclear power plants. prompted such a short-sighted and
about US$100 million per day for additional But the nuclear road not taken was a far self-destructive decision?
energy imports. more consequential decision, and one that Despite years of research into the subject,
might, without exaggeration, be termed a there has never been (to my knowledge)
Nuclear plants disaster. Like many choices of great import, credible evidence of any sort of conspiracy.
But the impact of the Fukushima accident the decision to abandon a new type of It seems that, on the surface, like so many
(can it truly be termed a ‘disaster’, or even nuclear power system was taken by a few other good things gone bad, the IFR
‘catastrophe’ when there was not a single people in key positions. History is unlikely project was the victim of ignorance,
instance of radiation-induced injury to the to judge them kindly, though as in so many misinformation, political self-interest, and

Modular reactor
Artists impression of depleted uranium canisters

lined up in front of the Capitol Building, demonstrating
the huge wastage of depleted uranium storage
abysmal shortsightedness. But if there were to design a commercial-scale version of the primitive compared with today’s new
no powerful players at work behind the reactor, a mass-producible modular reactor designs, requiring much on-site fabrication.
scenes to scuttle the IFR, it would only be dubbed PRISM (Power Reactor Innovative Yet in little more than a decade France had
because they were ignorant of what the IFR Small Module). The expected progression of replaced nearly all its non-hydro generation
era portended. events would have seen the first PRISM built with nuclear, without even breaking a sweat.
by the turn of the millennium, and soon Today France has some of the cleanest air
PRISM and beyond they could have been deployed not only in and lowest electricity rates in Europe, and
The team at Argonne National Lab that the USA but around the world. electricity is its fourth largest export.
developed the IFR expected that the final France had already clearly demonstrated How much easier would it be if a country
demonstration phase of the project would be just how quickly a country could convert its were to embark on a similar path with the
finished by about 1996. Long before the electricity infrastructure to nuclear power. opportunity to use modular systems that
fateful day that Congress pulled its funding, In the 1970s that nation’s leaders realized could be mass-produced in factories and
a consortium of major US corporations the precariousness of relying on fossil fuel shipped to the power plant sites? This is the
(including General Electric, Westinghouse, imports and decided that nuclear power was promise of the PRISM system (and its
Bechtel, and Raytheon) had been working a far more stable option. The reactors that somewhat larger offspring, the S-PRISM,
with the scientists and engineers at Argonne they decided to build were relatively which will hereafter be simply referred to as

Modular reactor
the light-water reactors (LWR) that comprise

the vast majority of today’s nuclear power
stations. All of this, plus material from
decommissioned nuclear weapons, can be
used to fuel PRISMs. Not only is the fuel
already available, but its cost is less than
free as those in possession of these vast
inventories would happily pay to get rid
of them.
Since PRISM reactors, like other nuclear
power plants, operate very well at full power
around the clock, imagine the impact on a
nation that opts for an all-out conversion to
IFRs. Today’s electricity generating systems
are sufficient to meet peak demand, fueled
mostly by coal and natural gas (except in
France and a couple other countries that rely
primarily on nuclear and hydro). Now think
about what it would imply if those fossil fuel
sources were replaced by IFRs. Since the
fuel is free they could run at full power all
the time. But peak electricity demand is 2-3 The author (left) and colleagues visit the EBR-II
times average demand. This means that the shortly before its planned demolition
system would have an excess of up to twice
as much power as what’s needed to provide
for the entire grid. would it be too late to stop the effects of
human-caused climate change?
Fuel alternatives But we’re not even close to such a
This state of affairs would completely transition. Politicians are still arguing
overturn the energy status quo. Liquid fuels about whether carbon emissions are even
could be generated with the excess power in a problem, whether the spectre of climate
a number of different ways. Hydrogen change is even a real phenomenon. The
derived from electrolysis of water could be Department of Energy has decided that
combined with nitrogen from the air to the US inventory of almost 800,000 tons
produce ammonia, which is not only a of depleted uranium should be converted
widely-used fertilizer but can also be used from its gaseous form into solid so that it
as a liquid fuel for automobiles or trucks. can be buried, instead of used as IFR
And of course the deployment of electric fuel. At the moment, it’s stored in vast
vehicles would be far more desirable once storage areas of row upon row of
their electricity wasn’t being generated canisters, tucked away where the public
by dirty coal. takes no notice. This so-called waste, if
After a decade-long conversion to IFRs, used to fuel IFRs, would be enough to
the fossil fuel industries would soon be on provide all the energy the USA needs for
their way out. Coal would be first, the direct hundreds of years. No more mining, no
victim of the conversion. But natural gas and more drilling, no more imports.
oil wouldn’t have much time left either. And May I make a suggestion? As those
let’s not forget that desalination projects canisters are emptied, ship them to
(and the energy to move the freshwater to Washington DC and line them up on the
PRISM). In my book, Prescription for the wherever it’s needed) would be possible on National Mall, between the Capitol building
Planet, I analyze the economic impact that hitherto unimagined scales, enabling and the Washington Monument. That way
France experienced during its nuclear semi-arid and even arid regions to bloom. when legislators and employees of the
transition and demonstrate that a developed Had the IFR road been taken in 1994, we Department of Energy are ruminating about
nation could effect a similar conversion to would be well along on this path, and where we can possibly obtain all the energy
nuclear power using PRISM systems within greenhouse gas emissions would be our country needs, they’ll be able to simply
about a decade. diminishing rapidly and on their way to a look out of the window for the answer. z
This is truly disruptive technology in the negligible level. Instead, emissions are rising
most wide-ranging sense. Half a century of precipitously, methane is bubbling out of the Tom Blees is an advanced energy systems consultant.
nuclear power has left many countries not tundra, and the prospects for a future of He is the author of Prescription for the Planet – The
only with substantial amounts of spent fuel, severe weather, population dislocation from Painless Remedy For Our Energy & Environmental
mischaracterized as ‘nuclear waste’, but with rising sea levels, and even runaway Crises. Blees is president of The Science Council
vastly larger amounts of depleted uranium, greenhouse effects threaten our very for Global Initiatives (www.thesciencecouncil.com)
the leftovers from the process of uranium survival. Even if our politicians decided and a board member of the UN-affiliated World
enrichment that must be employed to fuel today to go all-out for an IFR transition, Energy Forum

www.dq.fo
Proxy radar alternative
by Dr Choglin Liu, Dr Stan Heckman & Dr Elena Novakovskaia
WHEN LIGHTNING
SPEAKS
Total lightning detection
for proxy radar analysis
Research has confirmed that detection of both in-cloud and cloud-to-ground flashes
provides essential data used to create affordable radar, storm cell tracking, and
advanced severe weather warning solutions
ecent research has indicated a tornadogenesis (the process by which a
R strong correlation between total
lightning data from the Earth
tornado forms) and that using CG lightning
flash patterns exclusively to detect tornado
Networks Total Lightning Network and formation is not practical.
severe storm activity. It has now enabled a The Earth Networks Total Lightning
practical and cost-effective proxy radar Network (ENTLN) provides detection of
alternative – PulseRad – which can be both IC and CG lightning on a continental
used to track precipitation in real time scale. Earth Networks uses ENTLN data
over large areas and to monitor potential combined with sophisticated algorithms to
flooding and drought conditions. track lightning cells. A lightning cell is a
Although radar is a proven valuable tool in cluster of flashes with a boundary as a
weather forecasting and alerting, many polygon determined by the flash density
areas of the world lack the resources to value for a given period. The polygon is
deploy and operate radar systems. calculated every minute. The cell tracks
PulseRad overcomes these limitations. and directions can be determined by
correlating the cell polygons over a period
Storm characteristics of time. By counting the flashes in the cell,
Lightning flash rates have been the subject it is possible to estimate the lightning flash
of numerous studies of storm characteristics rate (flashes/min). The cell speed and area
such as radar reflectivity, storm cell height, are also calculated.
vertically integrated liquid, and precipitation To simplify the calculation, a convex
for several decades. Severe thunderstorms polygon, which is the cell polygon at the time,
have certain characteristics in lightning is generated from each of the closed contours.
flashes, such as high in-cloud (IC) flash rates In most cases the cell polygon is similar to the
in the storm formation stage. The greater previous minute polygon, so the correlation
volume of strong updrafts during a severe between the two polygons is straightforward.
thunderstorm results in more charging But in the case of a sharp rise in the flash rate,
overall, leading to greater numbers of ICs or cell split or merger, the correlation of
and positive cloud-to-ground (CG) flash subsequent cells is not obvious. Special care is
rates. Past studies have also shown that the taken to link the cell polygons and produce a
CG flash rate has no correlation with reasonable path of the moving cells. When a
Figure 1: Lightning
activities
corresponding to
high dBZ values

“By counting the flashes in the cell,

it is possible to calculate the
lightning flash rate”
Figure 2:
Comparison of
lightning rate to
radar dBZ values in
the lightning flash
cells (left)
Lightning cells;
(right)
Corresponding
radar cells
storm cell regroups after weakening, based on (Figure 1). The lightning flash rate for a
the trajectory of the cell and the time distance location is calculated by counting the
of two polygons, a continuous cell path may be number of flashes in the area within a
maintained. With the lightning cells five-mile radius over a period of six minutes.
maintained during the life of the storms, the To study the relationship between
comparison of the lightning flash rate and lightning flash rate and radar reflectivity, the
radar reflectivity for the areas inside the cells composite radar maps, which have the
can be done. maximum dBZ reflectivity from any of the
The high sensor density of the ENTLN and reflectivity angles of the NEXRAD (US
the improved detection efficiency on the server National Weather Service) weather radar,
side, especially in IC flash detection efficiency are used. For each composite radar dBZ
on the server side, especially in IC flash reflectivity map with certain scan intervals,
detection, make it practical to track and predict a lightning cell map is generated by using
severe weather in real time. Studies have shown the lightning cell tracking system.
that severe weather often occurs minutes after The median lightning flash rate in each
the total lightning rate reaches its peak, and lightning cell (polygon) and the median
tracking the rise of the total lightning flash rate radar reflectivity value in the corresponding
provides severe weather prediction lead times. polygon are recorded as a sample (Figure 2).
By using the ENTLN total lightning data, a Since all the samples are collected from the
real-time lightning cell tracking system and lightning cell polygons, this ensures that
subsequent dangerous thunderstorm alert only the convective storms were considered
system have been developed. Investigation of in the study. From the samples, the statistic
the relationships between the total lightning variables such as mean and modal can be
flash rate and the radar reflectivity inside the calculated. The statistics clearly indicate
lightning cells has unveiled statistical models logarithmic increase in maximum radar
that can be used to create a proxy radar map reflectivity with increasing total lightning
from total lightning data for convective storms. flash rates. The relationships vary in
different climate regions and seasons.
Flash rate data
When plotting the lightning flash data on Proxy radar from total lightning
top of the radar reflectivity map, one can see To quantify the relationships between the
that most of the lightning activities happen lightning flash rates and the dBZ values of
in the areas with high dBZ values (>30dBZ) the composite radars, three climate

historical PulseRad data, it is possible to

issue drought or flooding warnings in areas
during convective storm seasons.
Many geographical regions have similar
climates and lightning characteristics, thus
the statistical models can be adjusted and
applied. As long as ENTLN total lightning
data is available, PulseRad can be created for
any region with a known climate. A regional
or national implementation of an ENTLN
facilitates the data necessary to establish
PulseRad coverage for a desired area.
Accurate and practical alternative

This analysis confirms the correlation
between the logarithmic scale of the total
lightning rate (dBR) and maximum radar
reflectivity (dBZ) in convective storms. By
converting the dBR to dBZ, a proxy radar
map (PulseRad) can be created using data
from the ENTLN.
PulseRad is arguably the first practical
radar alternative capable of coverage on a
national and continental scale that is
useful for weather nowcasting in areas
that lack radar coverage, as well as for
improving the lead-time and accuracy of
severe weather warnings.
The detection of both IC and CG flashes
provides the necessary data used to create
an affordable radar alternative, storm cell
Figure 3: PulseRad (top) and Doppler radar (bottom) comparison
tracking, and advanced severe weather
warning products. PulseRad is a lower-cost
but reliable and effective alternative radar,
regions were chosen in contiguous United regions and associated correlations which enables advanced alerting of
States. The three regions include can be easily developed for any region dangerous storms, and can be used to track
mid-latitude east, subtropical, and of the world. precipitation in real time over large areas, as
mid-latitude west. The seasons are divided Early studies have shown that a high well as to monitor potential flooding and
into the warm season from June to lightning rate or a sudden jump in total drought conditions. This enabling
September, and the cold season for the lightning rate is usually the precursor to technology will provide enhanced weather
rest of the year. Applying the statistical severe storms. Likewise, the high dBZ visualization and forecasting capabilities for
model to each climate region in the values or sudden increase of dBZ values in many areas of the world. z
different seasons, the lightning flash rates the PulseRad system can be used as an
can be converted to the relative dBZ indicator for intensifying storms. Like Dr Choglin Liu is chief architect; Dr Stan Heckman is
values, which in turn can be used to regular Doppler radar maps, the PulseRad senior lightning scientist and Dr. Elena Novakovskaia
create the simulated radar map, known as map can also be used for precipitation is senior research scientist with Earth Networks
PulseRad (Figure 3). Additional climatic estimation (Figure 4). By combining (www.earthnetworks.com).
Figure 4: 24-hour precipitation estimate visualizations for 8/13/2011, from PulseRad (left) and NWS (right), courtesy of NWS Advanced Hydrologic Prediction
Service, http://water.weather.gov/precip/index.php

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MSGView Software
by Aydın Gürol Ertürk
NEXT-GENERATION
FORECASTING
Software distributed free of charge
to up-and-coming meteorologists
A system developed by Eumetsat in 2004 has been modified by the Turkish State
Meteorological Service and is now operational and downloadable
he Seviri (spinning enhanced operationally since 2006 at various

T visible and infrared imager)
instrument on the MSG (Meteosat
forecast centers. The software can analyze,
process, and display U-MARF
Second Generation) satellite produces HDF5-formatted MSG Seviri data, and is
high-resolution spectral, spatial, and being used nationally, internationally, and
temporal data. With its 11 narrowband, at EUMETSAT’s training workshops and
infrared, visible channels, and one computer lab. The software is distributed
broadband visible channel, it is a useful free of charge to support young and
tool for meteorological researchers researching meteorologists. Evaluation of
and forecasters. training workshops indicates that
The ‘channel difference’ and RGB (red, MSGView is an effective tool for easy
green, blue) applications based on the interpretation of MSG images.
physical features of Seviri channels can
provide better visualization of the Seviri forecasts
characteristics of meteorological Seviri is used to support nowcasting and
phenomena. These applications can be used short-term forecasting. During the course
for the detection of cold and warm air mass, of a day, the Seviri radiometer collects 96
convective systems, Cumulonimbus cloud images – one every 15 minutes.
tops, fog, dust, and fire. Each radiometer is a composite of 11
MSGView software was initially narrowband channels in the following areas
developed by EUMETSAT in 2004, and of the spectrum: solar (VIS), near infrared
then development continued within the (NIR), water vapor (WV), and thermal
Turkish State Meteorological Service infrared (IR). In addition to this, it includes
(TSMS). It has now been used one high-resolution visible broadband
Figure 2: (left) November 5, 2007, 6:00am (GMT) Meteosat 9 IR10.8 image, thunderstorm over
southwestern coast of Turkey; (right) October 26, 2009, 11:45am (GMT) Meteosat 9 IR10.8 image. Cold
ring shape storm over Cyprus

MSGView Software
“The software has been developed

to support operational meteorology
and short-term forecasting
and nowcasting”
Figure 1:
channel with a sampling distance of up to
MSGView 1km at the sub-satellite point.
interface, full MSGView is an MSG Seviri data
disc RGB321 processing and display software running on
image the MS Windows (XP, Vista, and Windows
7) platform, and developed at the Turkish
State Meteorological Service (TSMS). The
software has been developed to support
operational meteorology and short-term
forecasting and nowcasting. It has been
running operationally since 2006 at the
weather forecast centers in Ankara and
Istanbul, and at the TSMS’s forecast centers
at Izmir and Antalya.
The MSGView software was unveiled in
2009 by EUMETSAT, and to date, about 50
users have requested and downloaded the
software across the world. Figure 1 shows the
interface of the software; it has a main menu,
a wide display, and a specification panel.
The main target audience for this
software is forecasters, researchers, and
especially trainees of satellite meteorology.
Even though MSGView has been developed
for operational meteorology, it can be used
for satellite meteorology training. It is
user-friendly and has many tools to make it
easier to understand the physical
backgrounds of images.
Prime features
MSGView has been developed by using C++
for MS Windows platforms, and is easy to
install with a setup file. The software
supports Hierarchal Data File format version
5 (HDF5), as well as the EUMETSAT archive
system (UMARF) GEO HDF5 file format.
There are several alternatives when
displaying MSG images. These are: full
disc display (displaying the whole MSG
disc); partial display (displaying a part of
the MSG disc); single channel (displaying
a single channel such as IR10.8 and
VIS0.6); channel difference (displaying
brightness, temperature, or the
reflectance differences of two Seviri
channels); or RGB composite (displaying

MSGView Software
Figure 6: Ash cloud over Europe
Figure 4: Fog at Po Figure 5: Dust storms

Valley. MSG 2, over The Middle East.
December 1, 2007, MSG 2, June 25, 2007,
9:45am (UTC). A) 6:45pm (UTC). A)
Channel IR3.9; B) Channel IR8.7; B)
Channel IR10.8; C) Channel IR10.8; C)
Differences between Differences between
channel IR3.9 and channel IR8.7 and
channel IR10.8 channel IR10.8; D)
Dust RGB
three MSG channels or channel before making a display, all necessary U/V storm and, on the right, a cold
differences as RGB composite). specifications should be arranged on this ring shape storm.
While displaying a single channel, grey panel. The center of the image is determined The high-resolution visible channel
scale a look-up table can be used with a using the Latitude and Longitude edit box. (HRV) is also useful for understanding
proper scale. It is also possible to apply a To display just a single channel, RGB, cloud-top features. MSGView offers a good
land/sea ‘mask’ for better understanding of or a channel difference image, the HRV display with grayscale and Figure 3
the images. Selected areas or whole images channels can be selected appropriately. shows a convective cloud-top example in an
can be saved as a physical value (i.e. Look-up tables are located in the color HRV image. Gradient waves and cirrus
brightness, temperature, reflectance, and table combination box. To add a cycle in plumes can also be seen clearly.
radiance). Single channel, channel an animation, the box on the right of the
differences, or an RGB composite image can MSG cycle name should be checked. RGB application
be animated and saved as a picture (JPEG or Overlay, animation tools, and various MSG infrared channel difference is used for
BMP format). MSGView software also has a other features are also located on the the detection of fog and dust storms. Figure
zoom feature for selected areas. specifications panel. 4 shows how to detect fog using the channel
The software features have been difference application, and Figure 5
developed to perform with the forecasters’ IR-VIS channel applications demonstrates the detection of dust storms.
needs in mind and in cooperation with the IR images with or without a look-up table RGB is one of the most useful tools for
MSG interpretation guide, which was are crucial for detecting convective cloud interpreting MSG images, and makes it
prepared by EUMETSAT. tops, and there is a color table available in possible to recognize snow cover, fog, cloud
The ‘specifications panel’ (Figure 1) is MSGView software for locating convective phase, multilayer clouds, storms, dust, ash
the most important part of the software, and storms. Figure 2 shows detection of a cold cloud, and other meteorological phenomena.

MSGView Software
Figure 3: November 5, 2007, 6:00am (GMT) Meteosat 9 HRV Image
Figure 6: RGB321
snow over Alpines
Figure 7: Scatter-plot diagram for deep convection

over Saudi Arabia. Deep convection (yellow)
reflectance differences of VIS06 and NIR16 is
around 35-45%, BT of IR108 is around 205-225°K,
BTD of WV channels is around -3 and 1°K and BTD
of WV62 and IR108 is around -2 and 2°K
MSGView has a simple interface for drawn before working out a linear features and shortcuts to give users and
selecting three Seviri channels and correlation coefficient, or fitting a regression experts more time to analyze MSG images
displaying an RGB image. Additionally, line), which draws scatter plots of selected efficiently, and data also helps users to
different RGBs recommended by areas from storms, air masses, dust, and ash understand the quantitative information
EUMETSAT are found in the ‘combo’ box RGB images. BTD (brightness temperature in the MSG images.
and can be displayed for selection (MSG difference), BT (brightness temperature), or Besides its operational use at forecast
Interpretation Guide, 2006). The two Figures differences in reflectance for Seviri channels centers, MSGView is also an efficient
6 represent some RGB examples. can be plotted to help users understand training tool for meteorological students.
There is also a feature to make a specific meteorological phenomena quantitatively. It While preparing images (single, channel
channel difference and to differentiate RGB is also useful for determining thresholds and difference, or RGB), trainees can easily
by using special scales. Users can customize clusters. Figure 7 shows a squall line over understand the physical backgrounds of
the MSG channels by focusing on certain Saudi Arabia with the variation of Seviri the MSG Seviri channels. This software is
meteorological events. This tool gives great channels showing ‘brightness temperature’ also recommended for use in training
flexibility to users and applies hundreds of (BT) and their differences as an example of a workshops, and the fact that it is free
RGB channel applications with many scatter plot diagram. This makes it easy to means unlimited users can benefit from
different scales. recognize storms in a pixel base. using MSG images in their workplaces at
no cost. z
Scatter-plot diagrams The bottom line
MSGView also has a feature for displaying a Since 2006, the quality of MSG images Aydın Gürol Ertürk is a satellite expert from
scatter-plot diagram (a summary of a set of and applications for forecasters has the remote sensing division at the Turkish State
bivariate data with two variables, usually improved greatly. There are many useful Meteorological Service

Windshear solutions
by André Weipert & Dr Ronald Hannesen
SHEAR STRESS
The quality of on-time wind alerts
for airports is essential
A multiple-Doppler algorithm combines 3D scanning radars and lidars and is ideal for
improving windshear warnings in air traffic control
odern windshear monitoring

M systems will ultimately and
increasingly fulfill goals for airspace
Figure 1: The
schematic diagram
showing the areas for
monitoring, which are: to detect hazardous dual-Doppler
events while reducing the number of false observations. The
alerts or microburst warnings; and to green circle illustrates
increase the accuracy of the glide slope the ‘perfect
related wind loss/gain or the quantification dual-Doppler’ area
of crosswind estimates for approach or the where the
observations are from
departure corridor. perpendicular
The usage and combination of different directions. The
types of 3D scanning remote sensing green-shaded areas
technologies (radar and lidar) as well as are those where the
the supportive deployment of dual-Doppler results
can be considered as
ground-based windshear detection stable, i.e. where the
solutions such as Low-Level Windshear difference α1-α 2 is
Alert Systems (LLWAS) are appropriate sufficiently large. The
measures depending on climatological, red points illustrate
orographical, and airport infrastructure locations with
related constraints. unstable results, i.e.
where the difference
α1-α 2 is too small. To
Siting for success cover the green shaded
Remote sensing instruments have to be area, a minimum
used to obtain wind data aloft, in particular scanning range as
in the crucial altitude of 500 to 1,500ft indicated by the two
above ground. Wind profilers can measure blue circles is required
for each sensor
vertical profiles of the horizontal wind with
high vertical and temporal resolution but
are not useful to obtain horizontal
variations of the wind field, such as in gust as Amsterdam Airport Schiphol), several Weather System (ITWS) makes use of the
fronts and in microbursts. systems would be needed for each runway. S-band NEXRAD weather radar network
Doppler weather radar and Doppler lidar and one C-band Terminal Doppler
get a three-dimensional field of the wind at Dual-Doppler principle Weather Radar (TDWR) located close to
an update interval of about one to a few Dual-Doppler analysis is the process by each US international airport. But instead
minutes, but provide only a which the best estimate of the horizontal of combining the alerts that have been
one-dimensional quantity, i.e. the radial wind-velocity vector is computed at an obtained using the data of each separate
component of the wind field. This may be analysis position (x, y, z), on the basis of radar, the three-dimensional arrays of the
sufficient if the radar or lidar is located to estimates of the radial velocity produced by radial wind data from each radar covering
observe along the glide slope paths. For resampling the data from two (dual-Doppler) an airport can be combined to obtain the
flight operations during landing and or more (multiple-Doppler) Doppler radars true horizontal wind field with high
take-off, changes of the headwind or and/or lidars. spatial resolution.
tailwind are much more important than Several airports are currently within Furthermore, the use of a complementary
variations of the sidewind. Therefore the the observation range of two or more windshear detection system comprising an
radar or lidar can detect the operational Doppler weather radars. This X-band radar and Doppler lidar combination
runway-oriented shear if located properly. can happen, for example, when there is a is going to be assessed/installed at major
In practice, the runway-oriented fairly dense radar network from a airports worldwide (such as the
approach is not feasible in all cases. It would meteorological or hydrological service, or complementary Selex X-band Radar for
require the sensor to be placed directly by data from a dedicated airport surveillance Hong Kong International and its 3D
the runway. And for airports with several radar and a Met Services’ networks can be windshear detection system for Frankfurt
runways set up into various directions (such combined: the US Integrated Terminal and Munich in Germany; the testbeds are at

Windshear solutions
“The new ATM system standards will

make use of enhanced integrated
meteorological capabilities”
Nice Côte d’Azur and Paris Charles de

Gaulle airports in France).
Combination of Doppler data

For each radar, the horizontal wind vector
→
v = (u,v) causes a radial velocity vR with
vR = u sin ( ) + vcos ( )
where u and v are the North and East

→
components of v , and is the azimuth
angle (clockwise from North).
If the same point is measured by two
radars (subscripts ‘1’ and ‘2’), we have two
independent linear equations for the two
unknown variables u and v:
vR1 = u sin( 1 ) + v cos( 1 )

vR2 = u sin( 2 ) + v cos( 2 )
The resulting u and v can be calculated,

provided that the directions of the angles are
not identical, i.e. 1≠ 2 and 1≠ 2 + 180°.
From a practical viewpoint, the directions of
the angles should be rather perpendicular,
because the results become more stable the
closer the difference 1- 2 reaches 90°.
Multiple Doppler extensions

If the same point is measured by three or
more radars, we obtain three or more
independent linear equations for the two
unknown variables u and v,
vRj = u sin( j ) + v cos( j ), j = 1,…,N
with N being the number of radars or lidars.

This equation system can be solved by a
weighted least-square fit:
→
v = M-1 b
with ‘M’ being the parameter-sum-matrix

and ‘b’ being the observation-sum-vector:
Mobile radar system

Windshear solutions
In the simplest form, all weights are
QUALITY COUNTS
considered being the same, e.g. by setting
them all to one. More advanced, the multiple-
Doppler algorithm considers potential
sources of error by considering weighting To increase airport safety and operational efficiency, the wind field at and
factors between zero and one (in order to around an airport has to be measured as precisely as possible. This means
focus on that data being less prone to errors). obtaining 3D arrays of a 3D quantity with fine spatial and temporal resolution.
The weight w j for each observation is In practice, the wind vector is often measured at a few points close to the
calculated using the following: surface using anemometers. Such instruments operate at update intervals in
• wR, a weight depending on the range gate’s just a few seconds.
distance to the radar and the beam width Using LLWAS, such data are combined to obtain wind shear gain/loss resp.
(wR e.g. is 1.0 at the radar and 0.5 at the microburst alerts at the runway, along the final approach path (three miles) and
distance of the beam volume’s diameter for the first two miles along take-off (ARENA - area for noted attention).
being 2km);
• wA, a weight depending on the difference alerts. The provision of all-weather-compatible windshear system) reaffirms the company’s
between the range gate’s azimuth angle and sensor solution concepts (‘dry’, ‘semi-dry’, position within and contribution to the aviation
the azimuth of a particular grid point, being and ‘wet’ conditions) and the unique flexibility community worldwide. z
1.0 if these azimuths are identical; to offer individual turnkey concepts based
• wI, a weight depending on the vertical on Selex METEOR 50DX X-Band Radar André Weipert is head of and Dr Ronald Hannesen works
interpolation. It is 1.0 if the range gate’s system and Selex ShearScout 2D/3D within meteorological information systems at Selex Systems
height of the closest slice equals the height technology (LLWAS, radar and lidar, 3D Integration GmbH, Germany
of a particular grid point;
• wN, a weight depending on the data
coverage and standard deviation of one
radar’s data in the area around a particular
grid point;
• wT, a weight depending on the difference
between the observation time Tj and the
average of all Tj.
The holistic concept for surveillance

The new ATM system standards will make use
of enhanced integrated meteorological
capabilities in order to support ICAO’s mission
for a secure, efficient, and environmentally
sustainable air transport system. The paradigm
shift from the air traffic control framework of
old to the new more integrated and
collaborative ATM concept will boost the
importance of combined and automated
weather monitoring system concepts.
To improve the situational awareness of all
stakeholders using weather information and to
ensure the seamless integration into airport
collaborative decision-making processes, each
single building block of an integrated
meteorological system has to contribute to
quality, accuracy, technical sustainability, and
system-wide interoperability.
The Selex solution concepts for the
surveillance of windshear and shear-related
phenomena for the aerodrome and airport
airspace area follow a holistic design approach.
Selex, one of the key suppliers for SESAR
technology, offers turnkey solution concepts
that combine 3D remote sensing technologies
such as Doppler radar and lidar as well as the
provision of turnkey LLWAS systems, including
a sensor-siting service according to FAA
standards. Selex is a NCAR certified LLWAS Top: Dual-Doppler results using ‘Radar 1’ and ‘Radar 2’, i.e. using two (out of three) simulated radar
supplier. Selex’s combination of different locations and showing the observed data from ‘Radar 1’
sensors for the next generation of enhanced Bottom left: As for figure 2, but using ‘Radar 1’ and ‘Radar 3’
multiple Doppler data systems provide precise Bottom right: Multiple-Doppler using the data from all three radars
meteorological products and corresponding

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FROM PETAFLOP
TO EXAFLOP
Using model systems to provide
more accurate forecasts
The evolution and advancement of high-performance computing for numerical
weather prediction brings with it a number of socio-economic benefits
ince the first landmark weather with the Great East Japan Earthquake and serve society’s needs and continue
S forecasts were executed on the
Electronic Numerical Integrator and
major floods in Thailand accounting for
more than two-thirds of this total. Also
advancing scientific research.
From model performance to system and
Computer (ENIAC) in 1950, high according to UN figures, some 29,700 data management, NWP presents unique
performance computing (HPC) has played a people lost their lives in 302 disasters HPC challenges. Some of the key drivers
central role in numerical weather prediction during the year.” include an increasingly comprehensive and
(NWP) and the ability of national The developing world is particularly explicit representation of the Earth’s
meteorological and hydrological services to vulnerable to severe weather and seasonal physical processes, increased observational
produce increasingly accurate forecasts. climate phenomena. Improved simulation capabilities, and increased model resolution.
Constantly improving computational accuracy and execution time is vital to While these drivers will affect the
efficiencies have allowed scientists and everything, from disaster mitigation, to computational requirements of each
forecasters to produce results in the shortest realizing economic opportunities. individual model, the total system
amounts of time, while also investigating performance from a throughput perspective
increasingly complex phenomena. HPC platforms is also rising rapidly, driven by factors such
The socio-economic impacts of improved Meteorology plays a key role in defining the as ensemble methods and demand for
predictive capabilities are well recognized requirements of HPC platforms. As early specialized forecast products.
by scientists, as well as government leaders. HPC adopters, weather and climate
Weather and climate play an important role scientists pushed HPC systems to their Models with greater resolution
in shaping economies and infrastructures, limits with the computational demands of Higher resolution models have been
and touch upon nearly every aspect of our numerical modeling. System requirements identified as a critical element to better
daily lives, including recreational activities, for sustained performance have grown estimating the long-term state of climate
food supplies, and energy resources. exponentially as science evolves, and systems and to improving weather
The United Nations Environmental numerical models are developed with more forecasting, particularly for severe weather
Program 2011 Annual Report stated that accurate representations of physical events. However, a simplistic doubling of
natural disasters worldwide, “…caused a phenomena. What underlies this growth is resolution in each direction of the model
record US$366 billion of damage in 2011, the need for better simulation accuracy to grid will result in an eight-fold increase in

HPC systems
10-YEAR
PLAN
HPC advances in the next five to 10
years hold great promise for the
NWP community. Not only will the
petaflop be surpassed at operational
NWP centers, but the HPC industry
is also striving toward reaching the
exaflop. These performance
capabilities are truly staggering and,
when placed in the hands of the
scientific community, they will
enable transformational predictive
and analytical capabilities.
surpass a petaflop (quadrillion floating point

operations per second) of peak performance.
Performance objectives and power

Ultimately, meeting these sustained
performance objectives will continue to
challenge both the HPC industry and
scientific modeling community. All HPC
computational demands are greater than components, from processing hardware to
current HPC facilities can support, and will system software, to networks and peripherals,
continue to outpace Moore’s Law. The issue must be scalable by design. In a marked
is compounded by the fact that the actual deviation from many of today’s conventional
– or realizable – performance of climate and architectures, research must be fostered in
key areas such as scalable operating systems,
Comparison of CAM simulations at 200km and 25km resolutions on NERSC Cray XE6. Image: LBNL,
interconnect communication networks, and
NCAR, University of Michigan, NERSC high-efficiency parallel programming support
in hardware and software.
For operational NWP centers with
“Meteorology plays a key role mission-critical workloads, these systems must
not just perform, but must also meet strict
in defining the requirements of reliability and manageability targets.
An additional dimension is electrical
HPC platforms” power consumption – both for system power
and cooling – and its impact on the total
cost of ownership. The issues of energy costs
computations. Some applications, such as weather models does not typically follow and efficient power usage are top concerns
global cloud resolving models, will require this microprocessor-based trend. These for HPC centers worldwide.
an even greater increase when compared computational models are usually While greater performance will remain
with current operational global NWP constrained by memory and interconnect an ongoing objective, an increased
models. Additionally, the accuracy of NWP communication latencies and bandwidths. awareness of the costs and trade-offs is
models is constrained by the quantity and The computational requirements for developing. Power management and the
quality of observational data. simulations of appropriate spatial and optimization of applications focusing on
Modern data assimilation techniques, temporal scales are immense and require lower power consumption, rather than
such as 4D data assimilation, have maximum parallel scalability to execute in solely on higher absolute performance, are
demonstrated an improvement in forecast practical timeframes. In addition, given the key issues in HPC today. Additionally, these
accuracy. While further increases in realities of stagnating microprocessor clock issues are expected to become even more
accuracy are expected with new sources of speeds, achieving the necessary performance important in the march towards exaflop
observational data, the result is increased levels will require a rapidly increasing amount (quintillion floating point operations per
computational cost for observations of parallelism. Many weather and climate second, or one thousand petaflop) systems.
processing, data assimilation, and forecast modeling groups are actively engaged in A better understanding of the trade-offs of
simulation, as well as increased data research to address these challenges and scale performance versus power consumption for
management requirements. single models to many tens of thousands of a given application can further improve the
Based on their scientific objectives, many processing cores. This work is essential as energy efficiency of a system, while still
large NWP centers report that the resulting several of the largest NWP centers will soon providing good performance. z

Automatic weather observing systems
by Nicola Giangregorio & Davide Tangorra
TAKING IN TAKE-OFF
Growth of air traffic has increased
demand for weather observations
Meteorological phenomena play an essential role in the safety of aviation operations,
and it is fundamental to understand that, beyond runway capacity issues, weather
conditions are a major factor influencing air traffic capacity
henomena such as rain, ice, or snow (ICAO), in order to ensure the development of
P on the runway increase the time
required by landing aircraft to slow
principles and techniques aimed at the
improvement of air navigation, have issued
down and exit, therefore reducing the safe several standard and recommended practices
arrival rate and requiring larger intervals concerning every aspect of international air
between arrivals. navigation, and they have been detailed in 18
Similarly, the presence of fog necessitates annexes. In particular, Annex 3 – Meteorology for
a reduction in the frequency of landings, Navigation Services, comprises the standards,
consequently increasing airborne delays. As recommended practices, and guidance material
well as considerations on fuel consumption governing the provision of meteorological
issues, there is, of course, a limit to the services to international air navigation.
number of aircraft that can be safely and In line with regulatory advances, through
efficiently held in the air. Therefore, it is the years, many investments have been made
necessary to avoid congestion upon arrival to develop reliable and sophisticated software
as much as possible by establishing a ground and systems to streamline and automate these
delay program for holding aircraft on the processes and provide, among other things,
ground before departure depending on the surface weather observations. The primary
weather conditions at the arrival airport. function of such systems is to provide the
Thunderstorms are also a major threat, and minute-by-minute information that is
represent a variety of hazards to air navigation. essential to safely and efficiently plan and
Aircraft will deviate around storms, either perform aviation operations.
reducing the capacity of the en-route system as Airport meteorological observations are
they require higher separation between them, performed at regular intervals, and are
or causing congestion as many aircraft have to integrated with specific observations in case
cruise in a limited airspace. It is not unusual of significant variations of important
for such factors to cause delays to aircraft meteorological parameters.
prior to departure as routes are closed by the All observations must be representative
storm systems. of the areas for which they are required: the
Over the years, international bodies such as airport and its immediate vicinity, the
the International Civil Aviation Organization runway, the take-off area, the climb-out
AWOS bulletin
creation display

“Airport meteorological
observations are performed
constantly with regular intervals”
area, the approach area, and, last but not

least, the landing area. All the
meteorological observations made by the
sensors are used as the basis for the
preparation of the messages that are
transmitted within and outside the airport.
Monitoring met parameters

Every runway, depending on its operating
category (I, II, and III within the function
of its instrumental approach systems),
is equipped with devices to measure (or
estimate), monitor, and dispatch
information about key meteorological
parameters such as: wind; runway visual
range; meteorological optical range;
present weather and ceiling; air
temperature; dew point temperature; and
atmospheric pressure.
Such a device is conventionally identified
as an automatic weather observing system
(AWOS) – an integrated system for the
automatic acquisition, processing,
dissemination, and display of all the
real-time weather values that affect take-off
and landing operations.
One of the key factors affecting the
effectiveness of an AWOS is the correct
positioning of the field sensors so that it is
capable of acquiring and delivering data
representative of the areas for which it is
required, while, at the same time, not posing
a risk to arriving and departing aircraft.
An AWOS can be more than a local
weather observing system. The growing
importance of weather forecasts in relation
to aeronautical activities, and the possibility
of delivering them to all operators, has
generated a growing need for the integration
of the various involved systems.
A modern AWOS must be able to interface
easily and effectively in real time with external
systems such as complementary weather
observing systems, message-handling systems,
information broadcasting systems, and
centralized weather forecasting systems. In
order to improve the efficiency and the

collecting meteorological information coming

Figure 2: AWOS
tower client
from various systems and presenting it in an
display integrated display to aid forecasters in their
routine activities, and to provide them with
all available meteorological information, as
well as manual weather observation.
Another typical interface of an AWOS is
the aeronautical fixed telecommunications
network (AFTN), which is based on a
standard format that allows meteorological
bulletins to be introduced in the AFTN
network. The AWOS specifies the
destination AFTN address, level of priority,
and other parameters.
Future development
The integration of the AWOS in a
harmonized network of meteorological
human machine interface, it is becoming Organization standards, ICAO Annex 3 systems opens the door to many
important that such integration is done at a updated to Amendment 75, and Enav opportunities and challenges, including the
‘native level’, in particular when referring to operative requirements. unprecedented availability of timely and
highly connected systems such as, for The ‘weather report creation’ module continuous observations from additional
example, an AWOS, automatic terminal processes the validated data, making the results meteorological systems. The main challenges
information systems, and low-level available to the communication interfaces that are generally related to the additional
wind-shear alert systems. disseminate the data on the LAN. Using know-how needed to fully understand and
specifically designed and integrated software, adjust operation in order to take the best
Automatic observing systems the AWOS is able to connect easily with advantage of this new information resource.
Enav, the Italian air navigation services several external systems, including: the In doing so, the potential applications of
company, provides meteorological automatic terminal information system AWOS data go beyond providing basic
observations and forecasts for air navigation. (ATIS), which is responsible for the weather information for aviation and
Enav ensures compliance with all the compilation, translation in audio format, and forecasting. The availability of real-time
regulations in force and implements any transmission to the pilots of the ATIS bulletin information coming from a nation’s AWOS
updates requested by the ICAO. on proper audio channels; the low-level network will also provide enhanced support
To comply with the ICAO’s standard and wind-shear alert system, which is responsible to other important national programs such as
recommended practices, and to increase the for the detection and management of wind public safety, hydrology, climatology, and
efficiency of the meteorological services on shear phenomena affecting approaching and environmental protection. z
offer, Enav is implementing its departing aircraft; and an integrated weather
meteorological systems (AWOS, runway system, a central system operative in Enav’s Nicola Giangregorio and Davide Tangorra are from
visual range, and airport terminal forecasting centers, which is responsible for Techno Sky, an ENAV Company
information systems) at all the 39 airports it
is responsible for.
The systems that will be installed are
designed and manufactured by Techno Sky,
a division of Enav. In addition to the
management, operational support, and
maintenance of the whole Italian air traffic
management (ATM) infrastructure, Techno
Sky also develops ATM operative software
and meteorological systems, starting with
the installation of the sensors and their
equipment. The AWOS is implemented in a
client-server architecture, based on a
master-slave mode. The software is
developed using Enterprise Java and the
MySQL DBMS.
In the Figure to the right, the internal and
external flows of data in an AWOS are
depicted. The AWOS is based on models to
guarantee total configurability, making it
suitable for managing all types of airports.
Once received, the streams are decoded,
validated, and stored in real time. The
validation is both syntactic and semantic, in AWOS system architecture
compliance with World Meteorological

16th International Road Weather Conference
23-25 May 2012 I Helsinki, Finland
www.sirwec2012.fi
Organised by
Finnish Transport Agency
Finnish Meteorological Institute
Centre For Economic Development
Sponsored by Media Partner Transport And The Environment
Lightning hazard warning
by Alan L. Hinckley, Jody A. Swenson & William H. Beasley
CHANGE IN
ATMOSPHERE
Electric-field meters for
lightning hazard warning
The implementation of low-power ‘field mills’, or meters, can effectively
prevent loss of property, injury, and death
lectronic lightning hazard-warning Texas, Clements & Orville, 2008) examined
E devices fall into two broad classes:
lightning detectors and electric-field
37 ordinary convective thunderstorms in the
Houston, Texas area to determine whether
monitors. A lightning flash has to occur before detection of cloud-to-cloud flashes could
it can be registered by a lightning detector, provide sufficient warning of subsequent
whereas electric-field monitors provide cloud-to-ground flashes. The detection
information about the electrical state of the technologies used included a lightning
atmosphere, from which the potential for future detection and ranging network (LDAR)
lightning flashes may be inferred. In a recent consisting of 12 very high-frequency
study (Lightning Casualties and their proximity to time-of-arrival sensors and the NLDN. The
Surrounding Cloud-to-Ground Lightning, Lengyel, study showed that the average warning time
2004, 2005), it was shown that more than half was just over three minutes using this method.
of lightning casualties (injuries and deaths) In some cases there was no warning time at
result from one of the first few or one of the last all, or the cloud-to-ground flashes occurred
few lightning flashes in a storm. before any cloud-to-cloud flashes or at the
Using cloud-to-ground lightning data same time as the first cloud-to-cloud flash.
from the National Lightning Detection As these studies show, lightning detection
Network (NLDN), 54% of the casualties in systems alone cannot be relied upon to
the study were determined to have little or provide adequate warning of cloud-to-ground
no warning based on the occurrence of lightning. In high-risk situations, prudence
prior, nearby cloud-to-ground flashes. dictates the use of both lightning detection
Detection of prior cloud-to-cloud flashes has data and local electric-field monitors.
also been shown to be an unreliable
forecaster of future cloud-to-ground flashes. Early technology
Another study (The Warning Time for In the early part of the 20th century, Prof. C.
Cloud-To-Ground Lightning In Isolated, T. R. Wilson developed an electric-field
Ordinary Thunderstorms Over Houston, meter that employed a shutter electrically
Electric-field meters at
a gold mine in the
highlands of Peru
sound alarms to
warn workers when
lightning danger
is high

“A comprehensive lightning hazard

warning system benefits from
knowledge of local atmospheric
electric field”
connected to earth potential to shield and

expose a sense electrode in alternation. It
was not long until inventors replaced
Wilson’s manually reciprocating shutter
with a continuously rotating vane (rotor)
driven by an electric motor.
The resulting instrument, known as a
‘field mill’, has been the instrument of
choice for measuring atmospheric electric
fields for decades. In standard field mills,
the metal rotor is electrically connected to
ground potential by means of a slipring or
brushes, and rotates in the space between
the external field to be measured and the
stationary metal sense electrodes. This
alternately shields and exposes the sense
electrodes from the external electric field,
resulting in a modulation of the charge
induced on the sense electrodes. Charge
amplifier circuitry converts the modulated
charge into a voltage proportional to the
external electric field to be measured.
The traditional methods of making
electrical contact with a spinning shaft
degrade with time because of wear and
contamination. Furthermore, traditional
field mills do not have an inherent way to
compensate for electronic drift with time
and temperature, along with changes in
leakage currents across sense-electrode
insulators, all of which induce measurement
errors. Frequent scheduled cleaning is often
necessary in critical field-mill applications,
especially in coastal environments, to
minimize measurement errors caused by
insulator leakage currents.
Electric field meter

The CS110, an electric-field meter that
employs a reciprocating shutter evocative of
the early apparatus of Wilson, was recently
developed by Campbell Scientific Inc. The
reciprocating shutter design, along with other
An electric-field meter and lightning detector enhancements, offers several performance
can be integrated to provide a comprehensive improvements over traditional field mills.
monitoring and warning solution The reciprocating shutter permits a
direct bonded conductor to the motor

An electric-field meter at a US high school integrated with warning lights Military and industrial sites often rely on electric-field mills to protect
provides warning for a variety of outdoor sports activities equipment and personnel
shaft for the earth-ground connection, Field mill application

eliminating the problematic rotating In addition to thunderstorm research, field
electrical contact. In addition, DC mills are typically employed in
measurement errors associated with lightning-hazard warning applications to
electronic drift and insulator leakage help prevent loss of property, injury, and
currents are inherently compensated for death. Spectator venues benefit from these
by means of a zero electric-field reference instruments, from high school ball fields to
available when the shutter is closed before parks and golf courses. One professional
and after each sample of the electric field golf organization uses the CS110 as a
is taken. Low power consumption, standard part of its safety equipment
typically less than 1W at 12VDC, results during events.
because the motor is de-energized much Industrial and military sites can protect
of the time. Reduced measurement noise Data recorded by the CS110 during a
expensive equipment and explosives, in
results from the elimination of the thunderstorm in Cache Valley, Utah, is shown addition to personnel. In a lightning-prone
problematic slipping ground connection above. The rapid changes to the electric field region in the highlands of Peru, CS110s
and the fact that current is not flowing in are due to lightning discharges, some of which trigger alarms nearly every day during the
the motor windings when the electric are hazardous cloud-to-ground strikes lightning season to warn mine workers to
field is sampled. move to safe shelters. These electric-field
A stepper motor is used to actuate the meters also provide valuable information
reciprocating shutter. The environmentally cleaning is needed. A reciprocating shutter about when it’s safe to resume mining
sensitive charge amplifier circuitry, as well cycle of the CS110 electric-field meter is operations after a lightning threat. Other
as the stepper motor and drive circuitry, limited to approximately 5Hz, which is more applications include airfields,
are enclosed within a sealed case. An than adequate for lightning hazard warning, rocket-launching operations, tall buildings,
embedded datalogger for measurement, where one minute’s averaged data is often and large cranes – anywhere that lightning
control, and communication functions is used. For applications desiring faster than can cause harm to life and property.
also contained within the sealed case. 5Hz measurements, the CS110 can be In summary, a comprehensive lightning
Connectors for additional traditional configured as a slow antenna. In slow hazard warning system benefits from
meteorological sensors are also provided, antenna mode, the shutter is left open knowledge of local atmospheric electric
so that the CS110 can serve as the core of a indefinitely and the CS110 becomes a field, as measured by a field mill. In the
standard solar-powered remote field-change meter. past, field mills have been fairly expensive,
meteorological station. The charge amplifier output can be AC-powered instruments requiring
Polished 316-L stainless steel is used for sampled by the datalogger every 20ms frequent maintenance. New designs
external electrodes for corrosion resistance. (50Hz) when utilizing voltage have lowered the maintenance, power,
The CS110 provides a measure of insulator measurements with 250µs integration and cost of the CS110 so that it can
leakage current, along with a duration. In the slow antenna mode, the be solar-powered and require less
leakage-current compensation circuit electric field measurement has a maintenance than standard instruments. z
that generates a compensating current to band-pass filter frequency response with
negate unwanted leakage currents up to a lower cut-off frequency of 2.4Hz and Alan L. Hinckley is a meteorologist and Jody A.
±4nA. The measured leakage current is an upper cut-off frequency of 1.8kHz Swenson is senior design engineer at Campbell
reported, along with the electric field for a 250µs integration duration Scientific Inc. Professor William H. Beasley is from the
measurements, indicating when insulator voltage measurement. University of Oklahoma – School of Meteorology
• ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012

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Data reading
by Andres Thorarinsson
PLOTTING
THE FUTURE
Data interpretation using a
weather data management system
Three case studies from Iceland demonstrate how data can be compiled in an
easy and simple way for different weather types
here are a huge amount of
T
Figure 1: Trend
dataloggers across the world, most line for H 2S;
returning data as a time series. The 10-minute data for
interpretation of all this data can be March 2012.
overwhelming, with specialists analyzing a Several high
myriad of graphs, creating reports in readings are seen
spreadsheet programs, and at the same time
trying to correlate sensor readings and
examine and process the results.
Here, examples are given of how to
discover meaningful results in a simple
way by using tools built into a powerful
and complete Vista Data Vision (VDV)
data management system.
Case study one

An ambient weather station is situated close Figure 2: XY plot
to a heavy industrial park, measuring all showing H 2S
requested parameters – NO, NOx, NO2, readings as a
PM2.5, PM10, SO2, and H 2S, (Figure 1). function of wind
direction
There is a debate among experts as to
whether all the measured elements could Figure 3: Trend
come from heavy industrial air pollution or lines for the
from something else. As it happens, a wind Eyjafjallajökull
sensor is an integral part of the weather ambient weather
station for
station. Therefore it is possible to correlate September 2011
the H 2S sensor readings with wind direction
using an XY plot, and the results prove
interesting (Figure 2).
The XY plot reveals the science and truth
about the origin of H 2S sensor readings with
wind direction; when H 2S sensor readings
are giving high values, the wind direction
proves it is either from 140° or 60°. This is
unexpected and cannot be a coincidence.
The geothermal area of Brennisteinsfjöll in
Iceland is 16km away in the direction 140°,
and the geothermal area Nesjavellir is 40km
away in the direction 60°. This information
is extremely useful and makes it easier to
understand the sensor readings for H 2S, as
well as readings from all the other sensors.
Case study two

Another ambient weather station is also
located close to the now infamous volcano
Eyjafjallajökull, which last erupted between

Data reading
Figure 4: XY plot
showing the
correlation between
dust particles sized
PM10 ug/m3 in air,
and air humidity
in %RH
Right: Ash causing

mid-day darkness
close to the
Eyjafjallajökull
volcano after the
eruption in 2010
years. It shows the lowest level of water for late

autumn and highest level for early spring –
some 1.7m higher.
The Geokon vibrating wire water level sensor
also has a built-in temperature sensor and the
April 14 and May 23 in 2010. There was a The XY plot reveals the truth; the dryer temperature readings are logged. This makes it
huge amount of volcanic ash pumped into the air, the more the dust is concentrated. possible to study the correlation between the
the air, which caused massive disturbance to This is nothing new – just plain common water level and the water temperature, which
air traffic over the North Atlantic and across sense. However, it is only when the sensor might give some indication as to where from the
Europe. It has been almost two years since data is actually plotted in this way that it top level of the groundwater is coming from. The
the eruption ended, but the area is still becomes clear that this remains scientifically trend lines for one year show that the summer
troubled by dust in the air. true. But this correlation is not perfect as has been dry (sinking ground water level), and
The ambient weather station is equipped two parameters are missing in this case that the temperature variation is as little as 1.2°C
with a dust particle monitor for particles study: wind direction and windspeed. for the entire year.
sized PM10 ug/m 3, as well as wind sensor, When correlation between dust particles So why does this behavior occur? By looking
air temperature sensor, and an air humidity and wind direction is plotted, the behavior at precipitation data for the area, it seems as
sensor (see trend lines in Figure 3). becomes clearer; that is, the highest though surface water drips through the leaky
The weather station returns the data as concentration of dust is measured when ground layers in less than 24 hours; therefore
six graphs with trend lines. The trend lines wind is blowing from the east or west, for during rainy periods, the groundwater rises
for the dust are upper left, showing several instance alongside Eyjafjallajökull. quickly and water temperature rises by 0.2°C.
peaks. As dust in the air is unpleasant, it is These case studies demonstrate how XY plots
useful for the local public to understand Case study three give valuable information. z
when to expect higher airborne dust This case study is an example of a
concentrations. After some trial and error, groundwater level sensor that has been Andres Thorarinsson, CEO, Vista Data Vision,
there is some correlation (see Figure 4). hanging in its 6m-long vented cable for some Reykjavik, Iceland.
Figure 6: A graph showing one year of trend lines for groundwater level and Figure 7: XY plot for the six-month period from April to September 2011,
the groundwater temperature. The time period is from April 2011 to April 2012 showing groundwater level vs. groundwater temperature

Sodar system
by Jean-Michel Fage
FRESH WIND
The miniature PA-XS acoustic wind
profiler measurement system
The Doppler Sodar system remotely measures a vertical profile of windspeed, direction,
thermal stratification, and turbulence parameters
n 1982, a group of highly qualified

I physicists and engineers from
France and the USA got together to
A new prediction
system has been
introduced to
form a company to further explore the the market,
atmospheric boundary layer. In order to do the miniature
so, the newly formed Remtech developed the PA-XS acoustic
innovative and user-friendly Doppler Sodar wind profiler
system, which remotely measures a vertical
profile of windspeed, direction, thermal
stratification, and turbulence parameters
(sigma W, sigma Theta), up to 400m, 700m,
and 3,000m average altitude range,
depending on the particular sodar model
(40dBA ambient noise, 15°C, 70% H). The
RASS system remotely measures temperature
profiles in the atmosphere. It can be used in
environmental studies and the study of
telecommunications network disturbances
caused by atmospheric conditions. It comes
as an option with the company’s long-range
sodar, and can provide measurements up to
1,500m above ground.
Sodar measurement operation, GPRS modem and/or satellite

This type of sodar measurement is taken terminals are available.
by emitting a strong acoustic pulse in the The system enables full control of the
audio band and detecting the Doppler antenna beams: four of the electronically
frequency shift of the received steered beams are tilted 25° from
backscattered echo. This backscattered vertical and turned 90° from each other
echo signal is caused by thermal to provide the horizontal component
turbulence in the atmosphere. The of wind velocity. The last beam is
signal frequency shift (Doppler pointed vertically and provides that
shift) and its relative strength are component of the wind. The system
processed in various ways to software controls the sequence and
produce far more information rate of operation for each beam.
than was previously available All important parameters, such
with conventional methods such as averaging and sampling times,
as instrumented towers and tethersondes. transmitting power, range gates, and
As well as being wind profilers, the sodars Remtech PA0 sodar acoustic wind profiler
maximum range, can be modified remotely.
also produce various turbulence and The signal-to-noise detection and
stability parameters. comparison techniques, developed by
All 3D monostatic Doppler Sodar power, with a large temperature range, and Remtech following several years of
systems basically consist of a sole antenna includes additional sensors (digital compass, research, allow the system to produce
(phased array type) and an electronic case. 2D inclinometer, P, T, H) as well as GPS and reliable data in a noisy environment with
In the electronic case, which is fixed WiFi. This WiFi connection allows full comparatively short data averaging times
underneath the antenna, are the computer, control of the system on-site at up to 100m because of the discrete rejection of all
transceiver, and power amplifier. It is low away, using a small notebook. For remote spurious signals. Data that is considered

Sodar system
“All 3D monostatic Doppler

Sodar systems basically consist
of a sole antenna”
to be suspect, due to adverse

ambient-noise, is deleted from the system,
preventing users from being misled by
erroneous data. No additional data
processing is required to achieve the
system’s highest level of accuracy.
Archived data can be directly processed to
provide complete statistical data
summaries and climatological analyses.
System maintenance is facilitated using
special software diagnostics routines and,
if required, repair is carried out by
swapping the complete electronic case,
which vastly reduces downtime.
The PA-XS sodar

This year, Remtech introduced the PA-XS
sodar, which weighs just 7.3kg and reaches
an average altitude range of 400m. The new
PA-XS can be installed anywhere, and with
its low level of power consumption (18W), a
solar power system with a 1.75m 2 solar
panel is sufficient. This wind profiler uses
The PA5 sodar acoustic wind profiler
multifrequency coding and includes the
latest hardware: GPS; digital compass and
2D inclinometer; WiFi; as well as pressure,
temperature, and humidity measurements.
Wireless modem or satellite connections are
also available. All the hardware matches
military specifications (-40° to +85°C, with
up to 100% relative humidity).
Main applications
Remtech’s sodars – now in use in more
than 50 countries worldwide, from Alaska
to South Africa – are ideally suited to
wind energy site assessment; airport safety
(wind shear detection); air pollution
control and forecast; and site surveys
(power plants). Military organizations are
also using the sodar system in programs
for weapons development, parachuting,
landing on aircraft carriers, as well as for
flight testing in general. z
Jean-Michel Fage is the president of Remtech, which is

Remtech Radio Acoustic Sounding System (RASS) for remote sensing of temperature
based in France and the USA

European cooperation
by Christopher Hounsfield
READY FOR TAKE-OFF

EUMETSAT’s MSG-3 next-generation severe weather observation satellite is all
set to launch in June 2012
he European Organisation for the

T Exploitation of Meteorological
Satellites (EUMETSAT) is preparing
to ship its third Meteosat Second Generation
RAPID SCANNING SERVICE
(MSG-3) satellite to French Guiana for a Following trials in 2007 with an improved five-minute
June 19, 2012 launch from Kourou, the period, the rapid scanning service (RSS) resumed on
European spaceport, to ensure continuity of Meteosat-8 on May 13, 2009, delivering this vital service
real-time weather monitoring from in support of nowcasting of severe weather events. RSS
geostationary orbit 36,000km from Earth. delivers MSG image data, as well as a selection of
This service, currently provided by meteorological products. Rapid scan data complements
Meteosat-9 and the aging Meteosat-8, the 15-minute, high-resolution image data generated by
launched in August 2002, is vital to ensure the operational Meteosat satellite, Meteosat-9. The scan
the safety of lives, property, and period is now five minutes, the same as European
infrastructure, particularly in situations of weather radars, enabling the monitoring of rapidly
severe weather. The launch of MSG-3 is developing localized convective weather systems such as thunderstorms.
timed for the smooth transition from RSS products include atmospheric motion vectors, extracted every 20 minutes;
Meteosat-8, which has greatly exceeded its clear sky radiances, extracted every 15 minutes; and multisensor precipitation
expected lifetime. estimate, active fire monitoring, and global instability index, extracted every five
After the switching on and testing of its minutes. They are distributed via EUMETCast-Europe, EUMETSAT’s broadcast system
systems and instruments, MSG-3 will be for environmental data, and on the WMO’s Global Telecommunication System, and are
renamed Meteosat-10. Together with archived at EUMETSAT.
Meteosat-9, launched in December 2005, it
will form the two-satellite Meteosat Second
Generation system, which EUMETSAT extracted from the observed displacement of meteorological satellites. Seviri’s multiple
operates to support weather forecasters in cloud tops and water vapor patterns. channels have increased this potential
one of their most challenging tasks: The MSG satellite series is the result of considerably, with AMVs obtained by
nowcasting. This involves real-time the successful cooperation model with the tracking clouds in the visible and infrared
detection of rapidly developing high-impact European Space Agency, which develops the spectrums and water vapor channels in the
phenomena such as thunderstorms or fog, satellites according to EUMETSAT’s lower stratosphere. Moreover, the improved
predicting their evolution a few hours ahead, requirements and procures recurrent units temporal and spatial resolution of Seviri also
and issuing warnings accordingly. on the latter’s behalf from the European contributes both to data coverage and to the
Nowcasting requires very frequent space industry. All MSG satellites are accuracy of products.
high-quality images of the atmosphere that manufactured by a European consortium led The GII derived from Meteosat data is an
only advanced geostationary satellites can by Thales Alenia Space. airmass parameter that indicates the
deliver from space. stability of the clear atmosphere and is used
Supporting weather forecasting to support nowcasting.
Regional images Together with the actual image data, a
MSG-3 (Meteosat-10) will provide full disk number of meteorological parameters are Volcanic ash monitoring
images of the European and African derived from MSG data that make a major The ability of MSG satellites to monitor volcanic
continents, as well as parts of the Atlantic contribution to weather forecasting, such as ash cloud is important because of the potential
and Indian oceans, every 15 minutes; the provision of atmospheric motion vectors impact on air traffic as volcanic ash in the
Meteosat-9 will deliver more frequent (AMVs) and the global instability index (GII). middle and upper troposphere can damage
images over Europe every five minutes. AMVs are derived by tracking clouds or aircraft turbines. The second-generation
Furthermore, MSG-3 will expand the other atmospheric tracers from image to Meteosat-8 and -9 played a vital role following
35-year climate records accumulated by the image using techniques that have been in use the progress of the ash cloud from the April
Meteosat series since 1977 and deliver for several decades with data from Meteosat 2010 eruption of Icelandic volcano Eyjafjal-
unique information on wind in altitude, first generation and other geostationary lajökull in real time. z
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THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND HYDROLOGY TECHNOLOGIES AND SERVICES

The Most Advanced Doppler Radar Sensors

Advanced Forecast Modeling

4930 Research Drive

14 AURORA ROCKET LAUNCH 42 CARIBSAT PROJECT

18 PARACHUTE-BORNE 46 AIRPORT LIGHTNING WARNING

ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012 • 1

78 HIGH-PERFORMANCE COMPUTING 92 READY FOR TAKE-OFF

LEARN MORE ABOUT

As space get busy

Request more details about advertisers in this issue of

GOING force has meant seve have

2 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012

The Netherlands • France • United States of America • Singapore

Welcome to Meteorological Technology International,

The views expressed in the articles

4 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012

6 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012

As an increasingly intense geomagnetic storm rages in

ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012 • 7

“We can’t even tell in a week, let alone

8 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012

SOLAR SHIELD PROJECT

ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012 • 9

10 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012

Pulkkinen. “We can’t even tell in a week, let

Weaknesses in current system

Space Weather Services at NASA’s Goddard Space

ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012 • 11

envelope to have it done. When we do, we’ll be

Furthermore, imperfections exist in the

12 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012

Gematronik Weather Radar Systems

• More than 50 meteorological, hydrological,

• Integrated adverse weather surveillance and

• Key supplier to SESAR for meteorology

Selex Systems Integration GmbH • Gematronik Weather Radar Systems

n Saturday, February 18, at 20:41 In the 10 minutes, 25 seconds it took

14 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012

“With this data, we can

Photo of aurora in Fairbanks, Alaska by Jan Curtis

ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012 • 15

The 46ft NASA

16 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012

The Practical Radar Alternative for Convective Storms

a Proxy radar visualization and

a Assessment for potential

a Improved forecasting for

Global Environmental Observation Networks & Solutions

DROP IN THE OCEAN

NASA’s Global Hawk soars aloft from Edwards

18 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012

This composite photo depicts the launch of a

these sounding devices in a variety of This automated

ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012 • 19

Shown above are the paths of driftsondes that

2 0 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL M AY 2012