Manufacturing : Before knowing what is manufacturing take a few seconds and inspect various objects

around you pen, watch, calculator, desk, table etc . You will soon realize that all these objects has a
different shape at one time. You could not find them in nature as they appear in this room . So they
have been transferred from various raw materials and assembled to a shape that you now seeing .

Some objects are made of a single part as nails , bolts, metal brackets etc and some other objects are
having thousands of parts like auto engine, computer, aircraft, machines etc . These parts are made by
various processes that we call manufacturing .

So manufacturing in its broadest sensed is the process of converting raw materials in to useful products

Input no of operations= process Out Put

Raw material Useful Product

The word manufacturing is derived from the Latin word manufactus meaning made by hand
The end product has the necessary shape, size and meets the specified requirements.
Manufacturing process involves various steps in the conversion of raw materials to get the final product
In includes
i) Design of the product (sugar cane juice extracting machine)
ii) Selection of the raw materials and
iii) the sequence of processes through which the product will be manufactured
Importance of manufacturing process: “To live well, a nation must produce well” “satisfying human
wants and needs is manufacturing “
If you see the history , a nation wealth , standard of living and status in the international community
have directly benefited from the nation’s manufacturing capability
Transportation systems, energy generation and distribution, construction, agriculture , healthcare and
every aspect of the modern way of life depend on the quality and affordability of manufacturing
products

Some important manufacturing processes are

i) casting (Net shape, additive process, liquids, primary )

ii)Machining ( Substrative, solidus, secondary)
iii)Forming ( Net shape, solid, neither additive or substractive , secondary)
iv)Joining ( Additive, secondary )

Casting: Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing process and even today is the first step in
manufacturing most of the products (Primary)
The process is similar to that of making ice cubes in a refrigerator . Casting is the process of pouring
molten metal in to mould cavity of required shape & size and allowing for cooling . It involves a series of
operation like i) Pattern making ii) Mould making iii)Melting iv) Pouring & v) Cleaning and inspection
Machining: Machining of metal involves forcing of cutting tool through the excess material of the
workpiece . The excess material is progressively separated from the workpiece in the form of chips to
get required shape ex-machine tool- like lathe, drilling, milling etc

Forming : Shaping of a component by the application of external forces . metal is deformed plastically
under the action of externally applied forces ex- forging, rolling, drawing etc

Joining: In engineering practice none of the product can be made in a single pieces. The products are
assembly of many individual parts. Any product around us like television ,computer, automobile,
aeroplane etc are having individual components joined together by various means . Joining is a general
term covering many processes like welding, brazing, soldering, riveting & other mechanical fastening

Classification of manufacturing processes:

1) Casting (Net shape, Primary, Additive, Liquids)
2) Machining (Secondary, Subtractive, Solid)
3)Forming (Net shape, Secondary, Neither additive or subtractive, Change in shape)
4)Welding (Secondary , Additive)

Casting : The process is similar to that of making the ice cubes in a refrigerator . Casting is one of the
oldest manufacturing process and even today is the first step in manufacturing most of the products
(primary)
CASTING is the process of pouring molten metal in to mould cavity of required shape & size and
allowing for cooling
Foundry is the place where metal is melted and castings are produced . The basic operations of casting
includes i) Pattern making
ii)Core making
iii)Moulding
iv)Melting
v)Pouring
vi)Cleaning and inspection
Casting is further classified as follows
Casting

Conventional (Normal) (Traditional ) Unconventional

Green sand CO2 Moulding( Strong mould)

Dry sand Permanent ( Metal mould, mass )

Shell mould(Thinn mould)
Investment (Precision)
Centrifugel (Without core)
Continuous Casting (Open Mould)
Machining: Machining of metal involves forcing of cutting tool through the workpiece to remove excess
material . The excess material is progressively separated from the workpiece in the form of chips to get
required shape & size .
Machining is further classified as follows

Machning

Conventional Unconventional
Normal, traditional methods M/C process using special technique
Turning by lathe EDM, ECM, EBM, WJM, AJM etc
Grinding by grinding machine
As the world is advancing forth technically in the field of space research, missile, nuclear industry very
complicated & precise components are required by these industry. The challenge was taken after
World War II and many new machining methods are developed which uses a special technique. These
methods are not limited by hardness brittleness and toughness of the material

Forming: Shaping of a component by the application of external force . Here metal is deformed
plastically under the action of externally applied load. To realize the importance of the metal forming
process consider the component shown in below fig which can be manufactured by casting machining
or forming

If this component is produced by casting it involves a series of operation and lot of molten metal is
wasted in gating & risering

If this component is produced by machining by removing the unwanted material from the raw
material. Large amount of material has to removed by M/C to get the desired shape

1 2

The same component can be produced by the metal forming process by the application of tensile forces
as shown below
Flat workpiece

Desired
shaped
die
Metal Forming is further classified as

i)Based on working temperature

ii) Based on type of stress applied on the workpiece
iii) Based on low or high energy rate of forming

i) Based on working temperature :

Cold Forming : If working temperature is lower than recrystallization temperature- blanking,
Punching
Blanking Punching

O O

Hot Forming: If working temperature is higher than the recrystallization temperature of the material –
forging , rolling, drawing

Recrystallization: At a certain temperature range new equiaxed and strain free grains are formed
replacing the older grains is called recrystallization temperature . Recrystallization temperature is
different for different materials

ii) Based on type of stress applied on the workpiece

Direct compression type process--- Forging, rolling

Tension type process---Stretch forming
Combined stress type process( Ten& Comp)----- Drawing process like wire, rod, tube forming processes
Shear type process---- Piercing, blanking

tension

compression
iii) Based on low or high energy rate forming

Conventional – uses a form of mechanical energy ( Forging, rolling, drawing etc)

Unconventional – Special tech or method is used ( Like chemical energy , electrical energy , EHF, EMF,
Explosive forming )

Joining: In engineering practice none of the product can be made in a single process. The products are
basically assembly of many individual parts . Any product around us like television, computer,
automobile, aeroplane etc are having individual components joined together by various means . thus
joining is a very important part of engineering

Joining is a general term covering many process like welding, brazing, soldering, riveting & other
mechanical fastening methods

Joining

Temporary fastening Permanent fasting

Bolts &nuts Screws Riveted Welded

Fusion

Solid

Soldering & Brazing

Welding: Welding is a permanent fastening process involving high temperature

Fusion welding : Two piece are joined by the application of heat – up to melt- addition of filler- solidify
on cooling ex: Arc , gas, electron beam welding
Solid phase welding : Two piece are joined by application of pressure – Combined action of heat &
pressure ex: resistance, ultrasonic, explosive welding

Soldering & brazing : Here base metals are not melted some fusible or metal called solder applied in
the molten state Soldering –Melting point is less than 4270c
Brazing- Melting point is more than 4270c
 Introduction to casting
Casting or foundry is one of the oldest manufacturing process even today is the first step in
manufacturing most of the products. Casting has been practiced for over 5000 years

Casting based on the property of a liquid to take up the shape of the vessel containing it

Casting is the process of pouring molten metal in to mould cavity of required

shape & size and then allowed for cooling. The solidified part is taken out of the mould , cleaned and
finished to make it suitable for use

Products ranging from a few millimeters to meters and a few grams to several tons can be cast
efficiently and economically .

The mould may be made of refractory grains or metal. The mould made out of refractory grains is called
sand moulds and that made out of metal is called metal moulds

Steps involved in making a casting : The basic steps in making a casting are
i) Pattern making
ii) Core making
iii) Mould making
iv) Melting
v) Pouring
vi) Cleaning & Inspection
i) Pattern making : Pattern making is the first stage for developing a new casting . Pattern is the principal
tool during the casting process.

Defined as a model or a form around which sand is packed to give rise to a cavity known as mould cavity
in which molten metal is poured , the result is the cast object

The mould cavity and therefore ultimately the casting is made from the pattern

Pattern--- mould cavity---- molten metal --- cast object

ii) Core making : Core is defined as that portion of the mould which forms the hallow interior of the
casting or hole through the casting . The core means that mass of dry sand which is prepared separately
baked in an oven and then placed in the mould .
 Cores are also used on the outside of the casting to form features such as lettering
or deep external pockets

iii) Mould making : Mould preparation involves forming a cavity by packing sand around a pattern
enclosed in a supporting metallic frame called flask. When the pattern is removed from the mould , an
exact shaped cavity remains in to which the molten metal is poured . Gating & risering are provided at
suitable locations in the mould.

iv) Melting : Metals or alloys of required composition are melted in a furnace

v) Pouring: The molten metal from furnace is poured in to mould cavity

vi) Cleaning & inspection: After the molten metal has solidified and cooled the rough casting is removed
from the mould cleaned and then sent for inspection to check for dimensions or any defects like blow
holes , cracks etc

Terms involved I casting

Components produced by casting process: Casting is the first step and the primary process for shaping
any material . All the materials have to be cast before it put to use. The ingot produced by casting
process are used as raw material for secondary processes like machining, forging, rolling etc . more than
90% of all manufactured goods use castings for their manufacture . To list the components produced
by casting is an endless process. A few major components produced by casting are given below :

Automotive sector: Nearly 95% of the parts in automobiles are manufactured by castings. A few parts
include brake drum, cylinder, cylinder linings, pistons, engine blocks, universal joints , brackets etc

Aircraft: Turbine blades and casing , Marine propeller blades

Machining: Cutting tools, M/C beds, wheels ,pulleys , blocks and table for supports etc

Agriculture and rail road equipments , pumps and compressor frame, bushings , rings pinion etc

Valves , pipes and fittings for construction work, camera frames, parts in washing machines, refrigerator
and air conditioners

Steel utensils and a wide variety of products

Advantages : 1) Large hollow and intricate shapes can be easily cast

2) No limit to size and shape . Parts ranging from few millimeters to meters and few grams to tons can
be cast efficiently and economically

3)Better dimensional tolerance and surface finish can be obtained by good casting practice

4) Design flexibility

5) Reduced costs

6) Versatility in production – any shape, size , change

7) Components are produced to near final shape

8) Any type of metal or alloys can be easily cast

9) Process can be easily adopted to automation and mass production

10) Even casting is best suited for composites

Limitations : 1)Lot of molten metal is wasted in gating and risering

2) Casting may require machining to remove rough surface

3) casting process is not economical for small number of parts

4) Cooling of metal takes more time

Pattern: A pattern is the replica of the object to be cast. It is used to prepare a cavity in to which the
molten metal is poured. Pattern making is the first stage for developing a new casting

Patten is the principal tool during the casting process. The quality of the casting produced depends
largely on the material of the pattern , design and construction

The mould cavity and therefore ultimately the casting is made from the pattern. Even if only one casting
is desired it is necessary to have a pattern, but a great many castings may be made from a single pattern

Also defined as a model or a form around which sand is packed to give rise to a cavity known as mould
cavity in which molten metal is poured , the result is the cast object

Pattern- Mould cavity—Molten metal—Cast object

Primitive man discovered the art of melting the metal and found that the molten metal would take the
form of the impression or cavity into which it has been poured. The impression obtained by the
hollowing out the sand with his hands. He soon learned that he must have some object to use as a
model or pattern , if accurate impression were to be made. This lead to the art of making pattern

Pattern making is a highly skilled trade translating the 2-D design plan to a 3-D object . A skilled pattern
maker builds the pattern from wood, metal, plastic or other materials with the help of machines and
special tools

Functions of Pattern : 1) A pattern is used to prepare a casting whose shape resembles the shape of the
desired object

2) Patterns helps to position a core in the mould

3) In some cases, gating and risering are incorporated in the pattern itself

Pattern Materials : Materials used to prepare pattern . Before selecting the materials first we have to
see the factors which affect the materials

1) The number of castings to be produced ( Metal patterns are preferred when the production quantity
is large )

2) The desired dimensional accuracy and surface finish required for the castings (metal and plastic
patterns have high dimensional accuracy and surface finish)

3) Method of moulding ( Hand or machine )

4) nature of casting process ( If sand casting – wooden or metal , If investment casting- wax , If shell
casting- metal pattern)

5)Shape, complexity and size of the castings ( For large size-wood, for complicated shape- plastic, small
size & large no-metal )
6) Chances of repeat orders (More- metal )

Properties of pattern :

1) Easily worked, shaped & Joined

2) Light in weight for easy handling ( large size-wood small size & more no- metal)
3) Resistance to wear , corrosion , abrasion
4) Strong, hard & durable
5)Available at low cost
6) It can be repaired

So wide variety of pattern materials are available . some of important them are
1) wood(Large in size small in number)
2) Metal (Small in size large in number)
3)Plastic (High dimensional accuracy & surface finish required)
4) Plaster ( Correct quantity of water)
5)Wax( Investment casting)
The different materials have their own advantages limitations and applications

1) Wood : Wood is the material most commonly used material for pattern as it satisfy many of the
requirements like
Advantages: i)Inexpensive
ii) Easily available in large quantities
iii) It can be easily shaped or worked and joined to form any complex shape
iv) light in weight
v)Can be repaired easily
vi)Wooden patterns can be preserved for quite long times with the help of suitable wood preservatives

Limitations : i) They absorb moisture and change shape & size

ii) They cannot withstand rough handling
iii) They are week as compared to metal patterns
iv) They are weak wear resistance
Applications: If the casting are large in size and small in number wooden patterns are preferred
Wood to be used for making patterns should be free from knots and other common defects . It should
be straight grained and properly seasoned. Wood should be seasoned before it is put in to service.
Seasoning minimizes the effect of subsequent moisture variations. Seasoning can be done by natural or
artificial methods
Natural seasoning: Here wood is stacked suitable in open space and subject to air drying for a period of
time extending up to one full cycle of weather condition
Artificial seasoning: i) Kiln method: The timber is stacked in drying kiln and subjected to fast air drying
by allowing hot air to pass through the kiln chamber
ii) Electrical method: Large sections of timber are exposed to a high frequency electric field such that the
moisture content is brought down to the desired level within few minutes
iii) Chemical method: wood is kept immersed in suitable salt solution and then exposed to air for drying
Common woods used are : i) White fine iii) Teak iii) Mahogany iv) Deodar v) Shisham vi) Kail
2) Metal: Metallic patterns are used where repetitive production of castings in large quantities . Many of
the patterns used in production work are made of metal because of its ability to withstand hard use.
Furthermore metal patterns do not change their shape when subjected to moist conditions
Advantages: i) Unlike wooden patterns, they donot absorb moisture , they retain their shape
ii) They are stronger & accurate
iii)They posses life much longer than wooden patterns
iv) They can withstand rough handling
v) They have accurate dimensional tolerances
vi) They are far stable under different environments
vii) It is easy to obtain smooth surface finish
Limitations: i) Expensive as compared to wood
ii)Are not easily repaired
iii) they are heavier than wooden patterns
iv)They cannot be machined so easily as wooden ones
Applications: Metal patterns are employed where large number of castings have to be produced from
the same patterns
Here also wide variety of metal patterns are available some of them are i) Aluminium ii) Steel iii) Cast
iron iv) Brass
A comparative evaluation of these metals
Factors Aluminium Steel Cast iron Brass
Availability Good Good Good Good
Castability Less difficulty Difficulty Good Good
Machinability Very good Good Good Very good
Surface finish Very good Good Good Very good
Weight Very light Very heavy Very heavy Heavy
Brittleness Low Low High Low
Tendency to oxidation No Yes Yes No
Cost Medium Low Low high

3) Plastic : Plastics patterns are now becoming modern pattern materials because of i) Light weight ii)
Accurate dimension iii)More durability iv)Easy withdrawal from mould
Both thermosetting and thermoplastics materials are used for pattern work
Advantages: i) It gives fine surface finish
ii) It is more durable
iii) It is light weight
iv) Good strength
v) High wear & corrosion resistance
vi) A plastic pattern does not stick with mould materials and can be easily taken out without spoiling the
mould cavity
vii) patterns are easy to make
viii) A plastic pattern does not involves any change in its size & shape
Limitations : i) Patterns itself costly as compared to other
ii) Plastic patterns are fragile and thus light sections may need metal reinforcements
iii) cannot withstand severe shock
Applications: When high dimensional accuracy & surface finish is required
4)Plaster : Plaster is also used as pattern materials . plaster patterns are made out of plaster of Paris or
gypsum cement . Plaster of paris when mixed with a correct quantity of water sets in a given time and
forms hard mass having high compressive strength . Further by careful design and the use of hardening
materials strength and hardness of plaster can be further enhanced
Advantages : i) It can be easily worked by using wood working tools
ii)Intricate shaped patterns can be done without any difficulty
iii) It has high compressive strength
iv) High surface finish can be achieved
v) Free from corrosion
Limitations: It can not withstand high compressive load
It can be used only to make small casting patterns
5) Wax: Wax is also used as material for pattern . It is mainly used where high accuracy is necessary .
The materials generally used are blends of several types of waxes . The waxes commonly used are
paraffin wax, shellac wax, bees wax & microcrystalline wax
Advantages: i) Wax patterns provides very good surface finish
ii) They impart high accuracy
iii)Free from corrosion
iv) No oxidation
v) After being moulded , the wax pattern is not taken out of the mould like other patterns , rather the
mould is inverted and heated . The molten wax comes out and evaporated. Thus there is no change of
the mould cavity getting damaged while removing the pattern
Limitations: i) It cannot withstand high compressive ramming ii) It cannot withstand severe shock
Application: Used in investment casting

Pattern allowances : A pattern is always larger in size as compared to the final casting because it carries
certain allowances due to metallurgical and mechanical reasons
Shrinkage allowance is the result of metallurgical phenomenon where as machining , draft , distortion
and shake are provided on the pattern because of mechanical reasons
Actually it is very difficult to predict exact allowances to be given by any mathematical rule . Trial and
error is best to achieve adjustment of pattern dimensions to obtain desired results
The various pattern allowances are:
i) Shrinkage or contraction allowance (+ve)
ii)Machining or finish allowance (+ve)
iii)Draft or taper allowance(+ve)
iv) Distortion or camber allowance(+ve)
v)Shaking or rapping allowance(-ve)

i) Shrinkage or contraction allowance : Almost all metals shrink or contract volumetrically after
solidification and therefore the pattern to obtain a particular sized casting is made oversize by an
amount equal to that of shrinkage or contraction
Different metals shrink at different rates because shrinkage is the property of the cast metal or alloy
All metal shrink during solidification , and hence , the dimensions of the casting becomes smaller than
the desired . To avoid this, the pattern must be made slightly larger in size to compensate for the
contraction of the metal
Here allowances should selected based on the individual type of metal to be cast . The metal shrinkage
depends up on a)The type of cast metal or alloy b)Casting dimensions iii) Moulding conditions
Shrinkage allowances for some cast metals
a) Gray cast iron- 6.95 to10.4 mm/m
b)White cast iron -20.8mm/m
c)Steel -20.8mm/m
d)Aluminium-17mm/m
e)Magnesium -17mm/m
f)Zinc -24mm/m
e)Brass-15.3mm/m

ii) Machining or finish allowance : Machining or finish allowance is the extra material added to certain
part of the castings to enable their finishing or machining to the required size . the amount that is to be
added depends up on the size &shape of the casting
It is intended to remove surface roughness and other imperfections form the castings . It is required to
achieve exact casting dimensions
How much extra metal or machining allowances should be provided depends on
a) Nature of metal ( Ferrous or nonferrous, ferrous gets scaled where as nonferrous once do not )
b)The type of machining operations ( turning, grinding etc, grinding removes much lesser metal as
compared to turning)
c)Moulding process employed ( shell casting need little machining where as sand casting need more)
d) The degree of surface finish required

Providing too large a machining allowance would mean producing a heavier casting than required as a
result removal of greater quantity of metal during machining . This will lead to a rise in the cast of the
production
On the other hand , too small a machining allowance would lead to a difficulty in
machining of desired accuracy as a result the casting may rejected . Thus allowance should be optimum
one
Machining allowances for some metals are
Metal/alloy M/C allowance (mm)
Cast iron
Medium castings 3mm
Large castings 10mm

Cast steel
Medium castings 4.5mm
Large castings up to 12mm

Non ferrous
Medium castings 1.5mm
Large castings 5mm

iii)Draft or Taper allowance: It is given to all surfaces perpendicular to parting line . It is given so that the
pattern can be easily removed from the moulding material without damaging the mould cavity
Draft means taper provided on all vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it can be
removed from the sand mould without tearing away the sides of the mould . giving a slight taper in a
direction parallel to which it is being withdrawn . below fig shows two patterns one with taper
allowance and the other without it

It can be visualized that it is easy to draw the pattern having

A B taper allowance out of the mould without damaging
mould walls or edges . Draft allowance is imparted on
internal as well as external surfaces

The amount of taper depends on shape and size (length) of the pattern in the depth directions in
contact with mould cavity

iv) Distortion or camber allowance : Sometimes casting get distorted during cooling due to a) typical
shape (irregular shape) b) all its parts do not shrink properly c)If arms are having unequal thickness d)
internal stresses e)unequal heat transfer rates

Ex if the casting has the form of the letter U, it will tend to contract at the closed end causing the vertical
legs to look slightly inclined and out of parallel
 So

Distortion can be practically eliminated by providing an allowance and constructing the pattern initially
distorted ( Out side in opp dn)so that casting after cooling neutralizes the initial distortion given on the
pattern and acquires the correct shape

The usual approach followed is one of trial and error , that is , after producing a trial casting the
distortion taking place is measured and then camber is provided on the pattern in the reverse direction

Its value is decided by experience or by trial and error

v) Shaking or rapping allowance: A pattern is shaken or rapped by striking the same with a wooden piece
from the side to side. This is done so that the pattern is loosened a little in the mould cavity and can be
easily removed . to compensate for this growth the pattern should initially be made slightly smaller

Therefore rapping enlarges the mould cavity which results a bigger sized casting

Hence a negative allowance is provided on the pattern i,e the pattern dimensions are kept smaller in
order to compensate the enlargement of the mould cavity due to rapping

In small and medium sized casting this allowance may be ignored but for larged sized casting or where
high precision is desired , this allowance should be considered