Unit 2.

Coordinate system of the earth

Unit Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
 Define coordinate system;
 List the types of coordinate system;
 Find the position of an object in coordinate system;
 Differentiate Cartesian coordinate system from geographic coordinate system,
 Differentiate vertical and horizontal datum;
 Identify the grid reference of locations.

2.1. Shape and Size of the Earth

2.1.1. Shape

2.1.2. Size

2.2. Types of Coordinate System

 In order to describe the location/position or area size of places on a map, it is possible to

use or refer to the coordinate systems of the map. There are two major methods of
explaining the location of an event or place on a map using coordinate systems.
 The two types of coordinate system; Geographical Coordinate System and Cartesian
coordinate system.

2.2.1. Geographical Coordinate System

 In spherical coordinate the earth is assumed to be two dimensional. This method tries to
determine the location of places on a map using geographical lines such as latitudes or
parallels and longitudes or meridians.
 The geographical coordinate system measures location from only two values, despite the
fact that the locations are described for a three-dimensional surface.
 The two measures used in the geographic coordinate system are called latitude and
longitude
 The values for the points can have the following units of measurement: decimal degrees
(0), decimal minutes (,) and decimal seconds (").
 Equator is the line of latitude that defines the origin (zero degrees) for latitude
coordinates.
 The prime meridian is the line of longitude that defines the origin (zero degrees) for
longitude coordinates
  One of the most commonly used prime meridian locations is the line that passes
through Greenwich, England
 Locations north of the equator have positive latitudes that range from 0 to +90
degrees, while locations south of the equator have negative latitudes that range from
0 to -90 degrees.
 Locations east of the prime meridian have positive longitudes ranging from 0 to +180
degrees
 Locations west of the prime meridian have negative longitudes ranging from 0 to -
180 degrees.
 In starting the location of a place using the set of latitude & longitude, latitude must be
given before longitude.
 Note that N or S must be added to distinguish whether the latitudes are located north or
south of the equator and E or W must be added to distinguish whether the longitudes are
located east or west of the Greenwich Meridian.
 Great Circles
 A great circle is defined by the intersection of a sphere with a plane passing
through the center of the sphere. Great circles have the following properties:
 Great circles bisect the sphere, i.e. divide the sphere into two equal hemispheres.
 Intersecting great circles bisect each other.
 Arcs of great circles represent the shortest route between two points on the
surface of the sphere.
 The Equator is a great circle and all meridians of longitude are arcs of great
circles. An infinite number of great circles are possible since a plane passing
through the center of the Earth can be placed at any angle relative to the Equator,
not just north-south or east-west.
 Small Circles
 A small circle is defined by the intersection of a sphere with a plane that does not
pass through the center of the sphere. All parallels of latitude, except the equator,
are small circles. Again, an infinite number of small circles are possible,
depending on the position and orientation of the plane relative to the sphere
 Procedures that are used to determine the position of places by using latitudes and
longitudes are:
 From the place required, draw a perpendiculars & parallels to the nearest boarders of
the map.
 Read the latitudes & longitudes from the vertical boarder and horizontal borders
respectively.
 Estimate the position of a place /point/ minutes or in seconds if the point /place is far
away from the given marked latitude & longitude.
 Determine the position of the place /point/ in accordance with the rule of marking
latitude & longitude.
 Coordinate system can be defined by either a sphere or a spheroid approximation of the
earth's shape.
 Because the earth is not perfectly round, a spheroid can help maintain accuracy for a
map, depending on the location on the earth. A spheroid is an ellipsoid that is based on an
ellipse, whereas a sphere is based on a circle

 The shape of the ellipse is determined by two radii. The longer radius is called the semi-
major axis, and the shorter radius is called the semi-minor axis.

 The shape of the ellipsoid is defined by its semi-major axis (a), semi-minor axis (b) and
flattening (f).
 f= (a-b)/a Where, a= 6,371,837 m and b= 6,356,752.3142m

 Length of 1 Degree of Latitude

 If the Earth were perfectly spherical in shape, the length of one degree of latitude
would constant everywhere on the Earth's surface. However, because of the slight
flattening of the Earth at the poles, the length of one degree of latitude varies slightly
with distance from the Equator, but averages approximately 111 km.
 The north-south distance between two consecutive lines of latitudes is nearly constant
close to 111km.
At Latitude Length of 1 Degree of Latitude

0-1 110.567 km

39 - 40 111.023 km

89 - 90 111.699 km

Average 111 km

 Distance of Latitudes
 All parallels except the equator are small circles. The size of these small circles is not
equal in length. In other words, the length of each parallel varies as the cosine (cos.)
of the latitude. To find the circumference (length) of each parallel mathematically, it
is expressed as:

C = 2πr cos ø, where: C = circumference of the earth

r = mean radius of the earth

ø = angular measurement of parallel.

E.g. calculate the circumference (length) of the 30th parallel or 300 N lat.

C = 2πrcos lat.

. C = 2x3.14x6371x0.87

C = 34809 km.

What is the circumference of the parallel of 900N latitude?

C = 2∏ r cos ө
 = 2 × 3.14 x 6371 km × cos 900

= 3 × 3.14 x 6371 km ×0

= 0km

Length of 1 Degree of Longitude

 Since meridians of longitude converge at the poles, the length of one degree of
longitude varies from approximately 111 km at the equator to 0 km at the poles. At
any latitude, the length of 1 degree of longitude can be calculated by multiplying the
length of 1 degree of longitude at the equator times the cosine of the latitude.
 The distance between two consecutive meridians is about the same at the equator as
that of one degree of latitude. However, as distance of latitude increases pole wards,
the distance between two consecutive meridians decrease. On an ellipsoid surface, the
distance between two consecutive meridians equals to the distance between two
consecutive meridians at the equator multiplied by the cosine of latitude.
Symbolically it can be expressed as the following.
L = EcosA
Where: L = the distance between the two consecutive meridians
E = the distance between the two consecutive meridians at the equator
A = the angle of latitude at a place in question
E.g. calculate the distance between the two consecutive meridians at 600 N.
L = 111km.x0.5
L = 55.5km.

E.g. calculate the distance between the two consecutive meridians at 900 N.
Compute the distance between the two consecutive meridians at 400 lat. (cos. = 0.77).

At Latitude Length of 1 Degree of Longitude

0 111.321 km

30 96.448 km

60 55.802 km

90 0 km
Distance of Longitudes

 The distance of a longitude (a meridian) varies from about the same as that of latitude
at the equator diminishing to zero at the poles. On an ellipsoid surface since meridian
is half circle, the length can be calculated by using the following formula:

Length of meridian = 2πrcosø x½ or πrcosø

E.g. calculate the length of a longitude at 200lat.

L = 2πrcosø½

L = 2x½x3.14x6371x0.94

L = 18804.64km.

The Geographical coordinates on the map (figure above) shows longitude 80 degree east and
latitude 55 degree north.

Activity
Compute:

1. The distance between the two consecutive meridians at 400 lat.(cos.= 0.77).

2. The length of 60 lat. (cos. = 0.99).

3. The length of a longitude at 800 lat. (cos. = 0.17).

4. The distance between the two consecutive meridians at 650 lat. (cos. = 0.42)

2.2.2. Cartesian Coordinate system

 In pane coordinate System the earth’s surface will be divided in to different grids. The
center point will serve as point of reference. It sees the earth surface as one dimensional.
The first value that has to written the X-value and the next one must be Y-value. Hence,
the value of the reference point for both x and y is zero that is, (0, 0).
 The Cartesian Coordinate System, also known as the rectangular coordinate system,
consists of two number scales, called the x-axis (at y = 0) and the y-axis (at x = 0),
that are perpendicular to each other.
 One of the rectangular systems used to determine the position of an object on the surface
of the Earth is the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system.
 The Transverse Mercator projection is used, with the cylinder in 60 positions.
 It creates 60 zones around the world.
 Positions are measured using Eastings and Northings, measured in meters,
instead of Latitude and Longitude.
 It has the following Properties
 The most western edge of UTM is zone 1 and the most eastern edge is
zone has 60. Each zone has 6 0 longitudinal extents. That means zone 1
extends from 1800 W to 174o W. Ethiopia is largely in zone 37.
 The latitudinal interval is 80. The latitudinal extent is form 84 0 N to
800 S
 The rows of quadrilaterals are assigned letters C to X consecutively
(with I and O omitted) beginning at 80 0S latitude. Row X which
extends from 720N to 840N to cover all land areas in the northern
hemisphere is having a latitudinal extent of 120.
 Each zone has a central meridian. Eastings are measured from the
central meridian.
 Each quadrilateral (60 X 80) is assigned a number and letter
combination.

 Universal Transverse Mercator Zones( figure below)

2.3. Datum, Spheroid/ Ellipsoid and Geoid

2.3.1. Datum

 Datum
  Refers to a set of numerical values that serves as reference or base for mapping.
 Geodetic datum defines the reference systems that describe the size and shape of
the earth.
 A datum is a set of values that defines the position of the spheroid relative to the
center of the earth (a point, line, or surface used as a basis for measurement or
calculation in mapping or surveying).
 The zero surfaces to which elevations or heights are referred.
 Provides a frame of reference for measuring locations and defines the origin and
orientation of latitude and longitude lines.
 Hundreds of different datum has been used to frame position descriptions since
the first estimates of the earth's size were made.

 Global and Local Datum

 Some datum is global and intends to provide good average accuracy around the
world.
 Example: the global datum World Geodetic System 84 (WGS 84)

 A local datum aligns its spheroid to closely fit the earth's surface in a particular
area.
 For example Ethiopia uses the Local Datum Adindan, United States uses
the North American Datum, in Japan the Tokyo Datum, in some European
countries the European Datum, in Germany the Potsdam Datum.
 Datum can be two types: Horizontal Datum and Vertical Datum.
1. Vertical Datum
 It is defined as a natural reference surface of the land surface. It fits the mean sea
level surface throughout the area of interest & provides the surface to which
height ground control measurements are referred.
 Vertical datum is used to fix a position, in a vertical direction up and down, in the
Z values.
 Vertical datum is a line, value or a set of value from which height are measured.
 Examples are the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD29) based on
sea-level measurements and leveling networks and the North American Vertical
Datum of 1988 (NAVD88) based on gravity measurements.

2. Horizontal Datum

 Horizontal Datum defines the relationship between the physical earth and
horizontal coordinates such as latitude and longitude.
 Horizontal datum is used to fix a position, in a horizontal X and Y direction.
 It is also referred as geodetic datum or reference datum.
  Examples of horizontal datum include the North American Datum of 1927
(NAD27) and the European Datum 1950 (ED50)

2.3.2. Spheroid/ Ellipsoid

 An ellipsoid is formed when an ellipse is rotated about its minor axis.

 Note that ellipsoid and spheroid are being treated as equivalent and
interchangeable words.
 Official Ellipsoids in use (table below)

Name Date Equatorial Polar Radius Polar

Radius (m) (m) Flattening (m)
WGS* 84 1984 6378 137 6356 752.3 1/298.26
WGS 72 1972 6378 160 6356 750.5 1/298.26
Australian 1965 6378 160 6356 752.3 1/298.25
International 1924 6378 388 6356 911.9 1/297.00
Clarke 80 1880 6378 249.1 6356 514.9 1/293.46
Clarke 88 1866 6378 206.4 6356 583.9 1/294.98
Everest 1930 6377 276.3 6356 079.0 1/300.8

 The ellipsoid(the amount of polar flattening or oblate ness) may also be

defined by its semi-major axis a, and semi-minor axis b, which is given by:
f= (a-b)/a
Typical values of the parameters for an ellipsoid are:
a = 6378135.00m b = 6356750.52m
f = 1/298.26

For example: What is the polar flattening, if a = 6378.5km and b = 6357 km?

 The shape of the earth with slight bulge at the equator and flattening at the
poles is referred to as oblate spheroid or oblate Ellipsoid.

 A cross section of an ellipsoid (figure below)

 Ellipsoid as a reference surface can be local or global.
 The local reference ellipsoid is important only fit to earth’s shape over a
particular country or continent.
Ethiopia uses the local ellipsoids called Clarke 1880.
 The World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) provide the basic reference
frame for GPS (Global Positioning System) measurements.

2.3.3. Geoid

The shape of the earth has obvious deviations from true perfect sphere due to three
reasons.
I. slight bulge at the equator and flattening at the poles
II. topographic inequalities on its surface
 The surface of the earth varies in elevation from the highest mountain
peak, Mount Everest at 8848 meters above mean sea level to the deepest
ocean trench, the Mariana Trench of the Pacific Ocean at 11,035 meters
below sea level. This makes a total difference of nearly 20 kilometers
elevation.
 Perspective view of the Geoid or Geoid undulations (figure below).
  The surface or topography of the land masses show large vertical
variations between mountains and valleys which make it impossible to
approximate the shape of the earth with any reasonably simple
mathematical model.
 The zero surfaces to which elevations or heights are referred is called a
vertical datum.
 The mean sea level (MSL) then is defined as the zero elevation for a local
or regional area.
III. Findings of recent studies from orbiting satellites have shown that the earth
has some distortions in the form of shallow depressions in wide areas in
certain latitudes with proportional bulges in the same latitudes of the opposite
hemisphere.
 All these distortions and irregularities on the earth’s surface make its shape very
unique. That is, the shape of the earth is so unique that it can be only defined as being
geoid.
 Geoid
 Means earth like.
 It is the three-dimensional shape that would be approximated by mean sea level in
the oceans and the surface of a series of hypothetical sea level canals crisscrossing the
continents.
 It is a surface on which gravity is everywhere equal to its strength at mean sea level.
  Is the true zero surfaces for measuring elevations (a hypothetical surface of the Earth
that would exist if a cross section were taken at sea level).
 It deviates so slightly from the ellipsoid in an irregular manner.
 If the earth were of uniform geological composition and devoid of mountain ranges,
ocean basins and other vertical irregularities, the geoid surface would equal the
ellipsoid exactly.
 However, due primarily to variations in rock density and topographic relief, the geoid
surface deviates from the ellipsoid by up to 100 meters in certain locations.
 For practical purposes, we assume that at the coastline the geoid and the MSL
surfaces are essentially the same.
Nevertheless, as we move inland we measure heights relative to the zero height at the
coast, which in effect means relative to mean sea level (MSL).

2.3.4. Reference Surfaces or bases for mapping

 The physical surface of the Earth is complex shape and in order to represent it on plane, it
is necessary to move from the physical surfaces to a mathematical one.
 In mapping three different surfaces are used:
I. A geometric or mathematical or Topographic reference surface
II. The ellipsoid or spheroid, for measuring locations
III. Geoid reference or Vertical datum: for measuring heights
The topography - the physical surface of the earth.
The Geoid - the level surface (also a physical reality).
The Ellipsoid - the mathematical surface for computations of locations

2.3.5. Which shape of the earth can cartographers use for mapping?

Cartographers use these three approximations to the earth’s true shape in

different ways.
I. The spherical model
 The reference surface for small-scale maps of countries, continents, and
larger areas.
 The spherical shape of the earth is considered for small-scale mapping and
calculations.
 This is because the difference between sphere and ellipsoid is negligible
when mapping large areas in a general manner on page-size maps.
 In addition, the spherical and ellipsoid mathematical equations for a
particular map projection give essentially the same results for small-scale
maps.
 For instance, the surface of the earth appears rugged to us. But the highest
peaks and deepest ocean trenches are barely noticeable irregularities as
compared to the immense size of the earth when represented on a small-
scale map.

II. The Ellipsoid

  With large-scale maps, one cannot ignore the irregularities of the earth’s
surface.
 The ellipsoidal model of the earth is used for large-scale mapping.
 With detailed, large-scale maps of small areas, such as topographic maps and
nautical charts, the differences between distance between two points on the
spherical and ellipsoidal models of the earth can be significant.
 We need to consider the earth’s oblateness.
 The measurements of distances, directions and areas would be incorrect on the
large-scale detailed map if the spherical shape of the earth were our reference.
 Therefore, cartographers use the ellipsoid as the reference surface for these
large-scale maps.
 Using the ellipsoid also ties in well with modern data collection methods for
large-scale mapping.
 For example, global positioning system (GPS) receivers compute latitude,
longitude, and elevation using the WGS 84 ellipsoid as the reference surface.
 The Ethiopian Mapping Authority uses Clarke 80 ellipsoid as reference for the
large-scale topographical maps of Ethiopia.

III. The Geoid

 The geoid is the reference surface for ground surveyed horizontal and vertical
positions.
 The geoid shape of the earth is used for ground-surveying and horizontal
representations of data on maps.
 Horizontal positions are adjusted to the ellipsoid surface since the
irregularities on the geoid would make map projection and other mathematical
computations extremely complex.
 On the other hand, elevations are determined relative to the mean sea level
geoid.

2.4. Grid and Graticule, Grid Reference

 Graticules are always expressed in geographic coordinates (latitude and
longitude) while grids are expressed in the native X and Y coordinates of the
coordinate system of the component.
 The graticule represents the projected positions of selected meridians (lines
with constant longitude) and parallels (lines with constant latitude).
  The imaginary network of parallels and meridians on the earth is
known as graticule.
 The interval used for graticules are in Degrees, Minutes, and Seconds

Graticule system (figure above)

 A Grid is an object that stores spatial data in a locational data format in which
space is partitioned into square cells and measured by meters.
 Each grid line is one of an even-interval selection of measurement
units.
 The north-south lines are called eastings and the east-west lines are
called northings.
Grid System

 Grid Reference
 Each country has its own grid origin. That is why it is called national
coordinate system.
 When we place the origin at the south-west of a country, only the upper right-
hand quadrant of a plan coordinate system is employed. This helps to make
the values positive.
 Distance is measured in kilometers starting from the grid origin (in this case,
from 00 latitude and 340 30' E longitude origins) in kilometers.
 The distance between two vertical lines of this coordinate system could be
100km, 10km or 1km. This depends on the scale of the map.
 On the topographical map Ethiopia with the scale of 1:50 000, the distance
between the vertical lines is 1km. These lines running from north to south to
measure distance east of the grid origin are called Eastings. On the other
hands, horizontal lines running from west to east to measure distance in km
from the grid origin are referred as Northings.
 When using grid reference, you always read the big letters of the easting value
and then the northing value on the topographic map. Nevertheless, sometimes
the digits may not be written in large and small numbers.
  A grid reference is given as an even set of numbers run together. It could be
four digits, six-digits or eight digits. This depends on the scale of the map.
Plane (rectangular) coordinate system is used only on large-scale maps.
 On the topographical maps of Ethiopia, each square is 1km2. The six-digit
reference will give the location to one decimal point. However, decimals are
avoided. Moreover, the six-digit reference will give the location of a point
within 100 meter square. This system is only used to give only the location of
points. It is not used to locate areas.

 When any reference point is given on the map, always take the easting number first and
then the northing second.
 For more precise location within 100 meters a six-figure reference is needed.
 The six figure reference is called Normal National Grid Reference (NNGR) and obtained
by estimating the tenth sub-divisions of each square on the 1:50,000-scale map.
 On 1: 10,000 or 1:25,000 scale maps, for example, a marginal strip is sub-divided in to
100 meter intervals.

 Steps to assign a Normal National Grid Reference

1. Always refer to the south-west corner of the square in which the point lies (if it lies on a
printed line, follow this line until the south-west corner is reached).

2. Write down the tens and units of the Eastings printed on the line running vertically through the
corner.

3. Estimate the tenths eastward by dividing the square vertically in to ten parts, and add the
figure to the previous one.

4. Write down tens and units of the northing printed on the line running horizontally through the
corner.

5. Estimate the tenths north ward by dividing the square horizontally in to ten parts, and add the
figure to the previous one.

6. Combine these two groups of figures. Always write the easting before the northing.

 Four-Digit Grid Reference

Example : By referring to the map given below;

What is the four-digit grid reference point C?

  Six-Digit Grid Reference

Example : By referring to the map given below;

What is the six-digit grid reference for point A?

What is the six-digit grid reference for point B?

 UNIT 3: MAP PROJECTION
Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
 Define map projection
 List the steps in the creation of map projection;
 Classify projection depending on different bases;
 Explain the properties of map projection;
 Illustrate the uses of different projection;
 Select the suitable projection based on different requirements.
 Prepare graticules for the different types of projections

3.1. Map Projection: Concept and Definition

A map projection:

A technique or system of showing the curved surface the earth on a map(flat surface) by
transferring parallels, meridians, coastlines, and major features of the earth(on the globe) either
geometrically or mathematically with scale alteration.

The Difference between Globe and Map

Globe

 It shows the exact shape of the earth.

 It shows all geographical measurements such as relative distance, angle, areas,
and circles exactly without any distortions.
 It has no detailed information rather it is more of generalized information
 It uses latitudes and longitudes.

Global properties:

 It represents the earth and its other features in their true shape. It has the property of
conformity (orthomorphic). Conformity implies that the shape of the map surface at any
given spot is identical to the shape of the corresponding spot on the earth.
 All features represented on the globe maintain their proportional sizes on the ground. It
therefore has the property of equivalence or equal area.
 Distances between any two points are correctly maintained.
 Directions of points on the globe from a given point are the same as the directions on the
surface of the earth. In short directions on the globe are truly represented as they are on
the ground
 The longitudes and latitudes are so arranged that is convenient to locate any point with
ease and precision.
In addition, the meridians and parallels on the globe have the following characteristics:

 The equator divides the globe in to two halves: the northern hemisphere and southern
hemisphere
 The equatorial plane is perpendicular to the polar axis.
 All the parallels are parallel to the equator.
 The spacing between any two parallels is almost the same along all meridians,
 The equator is the only great circle of the parallels of latitude
 Each meridian is half of a great circle in length.
 All the meridians converge at the north and south polar points.
 The spacing between meridians is equal along a given parallels but different along other
parallels
 The parallels and meridians intersect at right angles
 All areas are in correct scale ratio to earth measurements

The Earth's graticule has the following properties:

 all parallels of latitude are parallel

 parallels are equally spaced along meridians
 meridians are equally spaced along parallels
 meridians of longitude are half great circles and converge at the poles
 quadrilaterals formed by the same two parallels and having the same longitudinal
dimensions have the same areas
 area scale is uniform
 distance scale is uniform

On the other hands the globe has many practical disadvantages

 It is a three dimensional round model with only less than half if its surface absorbed at a
time ,
 It is cumbersome to handle
 It is difficult to store
 It is expensive to make and reproduce.
 It is also difficult to draw and measure on it. One often needs to know distances between
places, areas of districts zones and regions etc.

Map

 It uses latitudes and longitudes.

 It shows the shape of the earth on a flat paper.
 It does not show the exact shape of the earth.
 It has geographical distortions (distance, area, angles, etc)
 It has detailed and clear information.
Significance of Map Projection

Significance of map projection is to eliminate difficulties encountered when using a globe.

What are the advantages a map over a globe?

3.2. Properties of Map Projection

Some distortion of conformity, distance, direction, scale and area always result from projection
process.

Some projections minimize distortions in some of these properties at the expense of maximizing
errors in others.

Regardless of what type of projection is used, it is inevitable that some error or distortion will
occur in transforming a spherical surface into a flat surface.

The four (4) valuable properties of map projection:

 Conformity –True shape

 Equivalence –True area
 Equidistance –True distance
 Azimuthal- True direction

However, no map projection can be true in all properties.

1. Conformal Property:
It is the characteristic of true shape or orthomorphic, wherein a projection preserves
the shape of any small geographical area.
This is accomplished by exact transformation of angles around points.
The property of conformity is important in maps which are used for analyzing,
guiding, or recording motion, as in navigation in the sea, air and meteorological
charts.
No map projection preserve shapes of large area.
2. Equivalence Property
It is the characteristic of equal area.
Equivalent projections are used extensively for thematic maps that show distributions
of phenomena such as population, agricultural land, forested areas, etc
Equal area projections preserve the area of displayed features. To do this, the other
properties— shape, angle, distance and scale—are distorted.
3. Equidistance Property
It is the characteristic of true distance measuring.
 If this property is used, the scale of distance is constant over the entire map.
This property can be fulfilled on any given map from one, or at most two, points in
any direction or along certain lines.
Equidistance is important in maps which are used for analyzing velocity, e.g. ocean
currents.
4. True direction property
It is characterized by true direction line between two points which crosses reference
lines, e.g. meridians, at a constant angle or azimuth.
These are termed rhumb lines and this property makes it comparatively easy to chart a
navigational course.
However, on a spherical surface, the shortest surface distance between two points is a
great circle along which azimuths constantly change.
Note that all meridians are great circles, but the only parallel that is a great circle is
the equator.
The creation of a map projection involves three steps in which information is lost
in each step:
1. Selection of a model for the shape of the earth or round body (choosing between a
sphere and ellipsoid)
2. Transform geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) to plane coordinates
(easting and northing).
3. Reduce the scale (in manual cartography this step came second, in digital
cartography it comes last)
Sequence of Transformations
The process of producing a flat map of the Earth can be thought of as a sequence of
transformations. Irregularities in the shape of the geoid make it difficult to model
mathematically. Thus the first step in the process is to model the Earth by a simpler
solid object having the same surface area as the Earth. For large scale maps that show
a small portion of the Earth's surface but in great detail, the Earth is modeled using an
ellipsoid since this gives a better approximation to the true shape of the Earth than a
perfect sphere. National mapping agencies in different countries around the world use
different ellipsoids, adjusting the lengths of the polar and equatorial radii to get the
best fit within their region of interest. For small scale maps that show a large area
with little detail, a spherical model is used since it is mathematically simpler and at
small scales, distortion due to irregularities in the Earth's shape can be considered
negligible.
3.3. Classes of Map Projection

Although an infinite number of map projections are theoretically possible, approximately 400
projections have been described in the literature and only a few dozen of these are widely used.
But, all of them have their own strong side and weak side.

1. Based on mode of development - Based on the methods of construction (On the basis
of Methods of drawing)
 Perspective - a type of transformation, which is actually done from reference
globes to flat surfaces strictly following geometrical rules. They have one
property in common. That is, direction or bearing from the center of the map is
true. They are alternatively known as geometrical projections. Variety within
perspective projections is obtained by varying the position of the point of origin
of the projection (the light source).Gnomonic, stereographic and orthographic
projections are some of them.

 Non-perspective - They are derived from their perspective counterparts by

suitable modification. In such projection, the graticules may be straightened or
curved and the space between parallels and meridians may be reduced or enlarged
 to suit particular requirement. Zenithal equi-distant and zenithal equal area is
example of non-perspective projection.
 Conventional or mathematical projections - are derived purely by
mathematical computation and have little, if any, relation to projected images.
They have parallel and meridians simply drawn to conform to some arbitrarily
chosen principle. They are not projected in the usual sense of the word. They are
not also modified from perspective projections. Mollweide and sinsusoidal
projections are conventional projection.
2. Based on developable surface used
 Cylindrical projection- On a cylindrical surface
 Conical projection- On a conical surface
 Zenithal or Azimuthal or planar projection- On plane surface
 Conventional projection-Using mathematical calculation
3. Based on preserved qualities (Properties of the projection) - On the basis of the
criteria they satisfy
 Homolographic or equal area projection - is projection that preserves the ratio of
mapped area to the corresponding earth area. Examples for this projection are cylindrical
equal area, zenithal equal area, Sinusoidal Projection, Molleweide’s Projection etc.
 Orthomorphic or true shape projection - B. Orthomorphic (conformal) Projection: The
term conformity implies that the shape of the map surface at any given spot is identical to
the shape of the corresponding spot on the earth. Stereographic, Gnomonic are examples
of orthomorphic ((conformal) Projections.
Orthomorphic, however, is a property which requires careful interpretation when large
areas are under consideration. Thus, a small square on the equator of the globe will be
projected as a square. An equally small square in latitude 60 0(N or S) will also be
projected as a square but as a square on a very different scale. Provided the areas under
consideration are small. However, shape is accurately projected over the entire map in the
case of large areas.
 Deformation (Distortions)
Along the equator the scale is correct but away from the equator there is marked
exaggeration. Since exaggeration of the scale along the parallels is accompanied by
equal exaggeration of the scale along the meridians, areas become grossly exaggerated in
high latitudes. For this reason the Polar Regions cannot be satisfactorily projected.
Universal transverse Mercator (UTM) projection - Universal transverse Mercator (UTM)
is oblique case Mercator projection. That means the cylindrical paper touches the globe
along the great circle formed by two selected opposite meridians. This projection is
commonly used in computer software. Thus, it is worthwhile to give detailed explanation
for this projection. The UTM grid system has been widely adopted for topographic maps
satellite imagery, natural resources data bases and other applications that require precise
positioning. It is a metric system (meter is the basic unit of measurement).
 Azimuthal or true bearing projections
 Equidistant or true distance
4. Base on aspects or position of tangent surfaces
 Polar
 Equatorial or normal
 Oblique
5. Based on the position of view point or light source
 Gnomonic
 Stereographic
 Orthographic
6. Based on geometric shape
 Rectangular
 Circular
 Elliptical
 Butterfly shape
Representing the earth’s surface in two dimensions causes distortion in the shape, area,
distance, or direction of the data.

Therefore, map projection is transforming its three-dimensional surface to create a flat

map sheet.

The main reason for map projection is to minimize the Scale distortion.

The term 'projection' comes from the notion of placing a light source inside a transparent
globe and projecting shadows of the meridians, parallels and other geographic features
onto a sheet of paper placed tangent to the globe.

Several useful map projections can be constructed using the light source called perspective
projections.

3.3.1. Cylindrical Projection

The cylinder may be either tangent to the Earth along a selected line, or may be secant (intersect
the Earth) along two lines.

Imagine that once the Earth's surface is projected, the cylinder is unwrapped to form a flat
surface.

The lines where the cylinder is tangent or secant are the places with the least distortion

1. It is putting the cylindrical shape paper in to a globe and transferring all lines of latitude
and longitude in to the flat paper.

2. It is shown on all maps and atlases that all lines of latitude and longitude make
square/grids/ map

3. Its distortion is very low that it is useful to show all geographical phenomena/such as
population and climatic distribution/.

4. All latitude and longitude are straight lines as well as have equal distance.

5. All latitude and longitude are perpendicular as well as parallel.

6. All latitude lines cross the longitudes at the right angle.

7. All lines of latitudes and longitude create a grid having square shape.

Cylindrical Projection can be :

Secant Cylindrical Projection

Tangent Cylindrical Projection

Oblique Cylindrical Projection

Transverse Cylindrical Projection

3.3.2. Conical Map Projection

Conic projection transforms information from the spherical Earth to a cone that is either tangent
to the Earth at a single parallel, or that is secant at two standard parallels.

The Conic Projection has the following basic properties:

 The scale become equal only for the standard parallel

 The longitudes become straight lines and have equal angle interval from the vertex of the
cone.

 The latitudes have round shape.

 It does not show the whole parts of the earth surface rather some portions of the earth.
Conic Projection as Tangent and Secant

3.3.3. Azimuthal Projection

A type of map projection constructed as if a plane were to be placed at a tangent to the earth's
surface and the area to be mapped were projected onto the plane.

It is also called Zenithal projection or planar projection.

All points on this projection keep their true compass bearing.

The five common azimuthal (also known as Zenithal) projections are the Stereographic
projection, the Orthographic projection, the Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection, the
Gnomonic projection and the azimuthal equidistant (also called Postel ) projection.
Azimuthal or Planar Projection

3.3.4. Conventional Projection

Conventional or mathematical projection are mathematically derived projections from the above
three types. Sinusoidal, Mollweide, and Van Deer Granter are examples of conventional or
mathematical projections.

3.4. Suitability of Map Projection (Choosing an Appropriate Map Projection)

In order to choose appropriate map projection, cartographers’ need to be thoroughly familiar

with map projections. They must understand the effects different transformation has on the
representation of angles, areas, distances and directions. Only then can they make proper
allowance when making measurement or analyses on maps. For example, one should not
measure areas on Mercator’s projection. Cartographers frequently transfer data from one
projection to another. Knowing the distortion characteristics of each is necessary to maintain
accuracy during the transfer. Computer software is of great aid in this data transfer process.
Cartographers are now relieved from the tedious work of calculating and drawing map
projections. Computers and plotter help the cartographer to complete this work within short time,
and little energy. The ease with which such operations can be performed enhances the
cartographer’s primary task, which is selecting the proper projection.

Many diverse factors may influence the choice of map projection. Geographers, historians, and
ecologists are likely to be concerned with relative sizes of regions. Navigators, meteorologists,
astronauts, and engineers are generally concerned with angles and distances. For example, for
navigation, ocean currents, and winds, Mercator is to be recommended. For most distribution
maps equal-area projections are desired. A sinusoidal or equatorial case of zenithal equidistant
would be probably chosen for a map showing the Cape to Cairo rail route, and a conic with two
standard parallel or Bonne’s to show the trans-Siberian railway. The atlas map makers often
want a compromise.

The choice of a projection also broadly depends upon the position and the extent of the area to be
mapped and particularly up on the purpose and scale of the map. Regions in tropical temperate,
polar latitude would in general be mapped up on projections taken respectively from normal
cases in the cylindrical conic and azimuthally groups. The whole world on one sheet could be
mapped on various cylindrical, sinusoidal, Mollweide, or Gall’s stereographic. For the world in
hemisphere choice would most likely lie between Mollweide , the stereographic or an equatorial
Zenithal. The choice of projection for continent would depend largely up on whether it lay in
both hemispheres, as do Africa and South America, whether it was largely in the intermediate
latitudes like the remaining continents. There is little visible difference in the shape of maps of
small countries, whatever projection is used.

You should keep several guidelines in mind when selecting a transformation to create your map
projection. The first thing to consider is the projections major property such as conformity,
equivalence, azimuthally reasonable appearance, and so on. Projection attributes such as parallel
parallels, localized area distortion and rectangular coordinates may also contribute to a map’s
success. For example, a small scale map of temperature distribution over large areas will be more
effective if the parallels are parallel. The map will be more expensive if the parallels are straight
lines that allow for easy north-south comparison. This is because the temperatures decrease
normally with increasing latitude.

A second important element is the amount and arrangement of distortion. Mean distortion, either
maximum angular or area is the weighted arithmetic mean of the values that occur at points over
the projection. When derived for similar areas on different projections, a comparison of the mean
distortion values provides one index of the relative efficiency of the projection. Therefore, a
good match between the shape of the region being mapped and the shape of the area of low
distortion on the projection is desirable. Certain general classes of projections have specific
arrangements of the distortion. Knowing these patterns helps considerably in choosing and using
a particular projection.

How do you represent certain geometrical attributes of the earth without distortion? The science
of map projection tries to give solution to such problems by using specific types of projections
which may allow you to correctly represent the attribute you have in mind. At this point, it is
important to know that there is no one maps projection that is better than the other. What you do
is to choose a projection type which is useful in retaining the attribute(s) which you want to
accurately transform to a flat map.

The choice of the projection type depends on the objective to be attained. For instance, if your
objective is to retain area, the map projection type that you must use is equal area or equivalent
projection. In this case, equality of area can be retained but shape can be highly distorted. When
the interest is to accurately retain shape, a conformal or orthomorphic map projection is used. A
conformal map is one on which any small area has the same shape as on the globe and one spot
is in true direction from any other as long as the points are close together. But to correctly retain
shape, size is distorted. For example on conformal map Greenland appears bigger than South
America even though in reality it is one-tenth as large.

Distance representation is a matter of retaining consistency of scale. For finite distance to be

represented correctly, the scale must be uniform along the appropriate line joining the points
being scaled. This means that the scale on projected map must be the same as the globe from
which projection was made. In other words the flat map must have a SF of 1.00. When the
purpose in mind is to represent correct direction we frequently use azimuthal or zenithal
projections. But in all cases there could be distortion on other aspects of measurement.

The choice of a projection also broadly depends upon the position and the extent of the area to be
mapped and particularly up on the purpose and scale of the map. Regions in tropical temperate,
polar latitude would in general be mapped up on projections taken respectively from normal
cases in the cylindrical conic and azimuthally groups. The whole world on one sheet could be
mapped on various cylindrical, sinusoidal, Mollweide, or Gall’s stereographic. For the world in
hemisphere choice would most likely lie between Mollweide , the stereographic or an equatorial
Zenithal.

Selecting an appropriate projection for a particular map requires consideration of the purpose of
the map and the region to be represented on the map. In general, the purpose of the map
determines the geometric properties that are most important. For example, if the purpose of the
map is to show route information, an azimuthal projection is likely to be the best choice. If the
purpose of the map is to show a population density distribution, then an equivalent projection
would be a better choice. General reference maps might use a conformal projection or a
compromise projection that does not distort shapes and areas too severely.

Consideration of the area to be mapped determines the method of construction to be used.

Cylindrical projections are generally used for maps of the entire Earth since they tend to avoid
the extreme distortion that occurs on azimuthal and conic projections in areas that are distant
from the standard point or line(s). In normal orientation, cylindrical projections have a narrow
band along the Equator in which distortion of all geometric characteristics is minimized, making
them suitable for representation of tropical regions. This pattern of distortion also makes
transverse cylindrical projections suitable for mapping areas that have a long north-south but
narrow east-west extent.

Conic projections are generally used to represent mid-latitude regions in either the northern or
southern hemispheres. By choosing a standard parallel near the centre of the region of interest,
distortion of geometric characteristics on the map can be minimized. Distortion can be further
reduced by using the secant case of conic projections. This results in two standard parallels
which are usually chosen to ensure that approximately two thirds of the area to be mapped lies
between the standard parallels.

Azimuthal projections are frequently used for mapping the polar regions but can be centred on
any location on the Earth's surface. Because of the radial pattern of distortion (increasing with
distance from the point of tangency), azimuthal projections are alos useful for mapping areas
having approximately equal north-south and east-west extents. However, they are often chosen
because of their correct representation of distance and directional relationships about the point of
tangency or because of their special properties with respect to representation great and small
circles.

1.5. Aspects of Map Projection

Aspect refers to the orientation of the projection surface relative to the generating globe.

 Normal aspect - aligns the axis of rotation of the projection surface with the axis of
rotation of the generating globe. For a cone, this implies that the apex of the cone lies on
a line connecting the north and south poles and the cone is tangent to the globe along a
parallel of latitude (tangent case) or intersects the globe along two parallels of latitude
(secant case). A cylinder can be thought of as an infinitely steep cone. In normal
orientation, it is tangent along the Equator or intersects the globe along two parallels of
latitude equidistant north and south of the Equator. Similarly, a plane can be thought of as
an infinitely flat cone. Its axis of rotation is thus perpendicular to the plane. In normal
orientation, it is tangent at the pole or intersects the generating globe along a parallel of
latitude.
  Transverse aspect - rotates the projection surface 90 degrees relative to the generating
globe. The result is a plane tangent at some point on the Equator, a cylinder tangent along
an opposing pair of meridians of longitude, or a cone whose axis of rotation lies in the
plane of the Equator. Transverse aspect is rarely used with conic projections but is
relatively common in the case of azimuthal and cylindrical projections.
 Oblique aspect- any other orientation of the projection surface with respect to the
generating globe is referred to as oblique aspect. Oblique azimuthal projections are
frequently used to generate maps centered on particular locations, e.g. a map of the world
centered on Toronto. Oblique cylindrical and conic projections are possible but are less
common.

Common Map Projections

The following table summarizes several commonly used map projections based on type of
projection surface and geometric properties. Click on the column headings to access documents
containing more detailed descriptions of the projections listed in the table.

Surface: Plane Cylinder Cone

Property Azimuthal
Perspective Gnomonic
Stereographic
Orthographic Equivalent
Azimuthal Plate Carre or Simple Conic;
Equidistant
Equidistant Equirectangular De l'Isle's
Lambert Conformal
Conformal Stereographic Mercator
Conic
Equivalent Lambert Equivalent Orthographic Alber's
Sinusoidal Bonne's
Mollweide