Chapter 2

Chapter 2
Optical sensors
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Content
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Optical units
2.3 Materials
2.4 Effect of optical radiation
2.5 Quantum-based optical sensors
2.6 Photoelectric sensors
2.7 Charge couple (CCD) sensors and detectors
2.8 Thermal based optical sensors
2.1 Introduction
❖ Optics is the science of light and light is electromagnetic
radiation that manifests itself either as an
electromagnetic wave or as photons.
❖  = c/f; c: speed of light, f: frequency
❖ Optical sensors are those sensors that detect

electromagnetic radiation in what is generally
understood as the broad optical range—from far
IR to UV
❖ The sensing methods rely on direct methods of

transduction from light to electrical quantities
such as in photovoltaic (PV) or photoconducting
sensors or indirect methods (conversion first into
temperature variation and then into electrical
quantities (passive IR (PIR) sensors and
bolometers.
2.2 Optical units
2.3 Materials
▪ Alkaline materials (Li, Na, K, Ca, Rb) have low work function and thus is useful in
the production of cathode for photoelectric cells.
▪ Semiconductors (GaAs, InSb…) are useful for photoelectric cells.
2.4 Effect of optical radiation
2.4.1 Thermal effect
• The thermal effect is based on electromagnetic energy absorbed by
the medium and converted into heat through the increased motion
of atoms.
2.4.2 Quantum effects
Photoelectric effect (hiệu ứng quang điện): a phenomenon in which

electrically charged particles are released from or within a material when it
absorbs electromagnetic radiation
Photon energy ℎ𝑐
𝑒 = ℎ𝑓 =

h = 6,625 × 10-34 J.s = 4,13 × 10-15 eV.s : Planck constant
c = 3 × 108 m/s: speed of light
 [m] is the wavelength of light
f [Hz] is the frequency of light
• In the quantum mode, energy is imparted to materials by elastic collision
of photons and electrons.
• The electrons acquire energy and this energy allows the electron to release
itself from the surface of the material by overcoming the work function
of the material.
ℎ𝑐
ℎ𝑓 = = 𝑒0 + 𝑘 [𝑒𝑉]
𝜆
e0 is the work function and is the energy required for an electron to leave
the surface of the material
k = ½ mv2 represents the maximum kinetic energy of electrons can have
outside the materials.
v is maximum velocity of electrons
work function: công thoát
kinetic energy: động năng
• Quantum efficiency is the ratio of the number of electrons released (N ) to e
number of photons absorbed (N ):ph
𝑁𝑒
𝜂=
𝑁𝑝ℎ
• Cut-off frequency is the photon frequency at

which the photoelectric effect happens.
• UV range has high energy photons ➔

photoelectric effect.
• IR range has low energy photons ➔ thermal The emission of electrons from a metal plate
effect caused by light quanta – photons (from
Wikipedia)
Solution
photoconducting effect (hiệu ứng quang dẫn)
• Semiconductors have bandgap energy. When photons interact with electrons, they will
jump from the valence band to the conduction band and become the free electrons in
bulk, resulting in an increase in the conductivity of the material and, as a result, in an
increase in current through the material. This is photoconducting effect.
▪ An electron can only move into the conduction band if its energy is more
than the energy gap (bandgap energy)
▪ The electron in the conduction band is mobile and contributes to the current.
▪ The number of electrons in the conduction band (or the current) is
proportional to the light intensity.
❖ Remarks
The conductivity of the medium is due to the concentrations of both carriers and their
mobilities:
𝜎 = 𝑒 𝜇𝑒 𝑛𝑒 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑛𝑝 [S/m]
 is conductivity
𝜇𝑒 and 𝜇𝑝 [m2/(v.s)] are mobilities of electron and hole, respectively.
n and p are the concentrations (carriers/m3 or carriers/cm3) of electrons and holes
• n-type semiconductor 𝑛𝑒 >> 𝑛𝑝 (minority: hole; majority: electron)
𝜎 = 𝑒𝜇𝑒 𝑛𝑒
• p-type semiconductor 𝑛𝑒 << 𝑛𝑝 (minority: electron; majority: hole)
𝜎 = 𝑒𝜇𝑝 𝑛𝑝
❑ Note: The photoconducting effect is most common in semiconductor because of the
bandgap are relatively small.
Spectral sensitivity
Each semiconducting material has a range of the spectrum in which it is sensitive,
given as a function of frequency or wavelength. The upper range (longest wavelength
or minimum energy) is defined by the bandgap (about 1,200 nm in Figure 4.3)
2.5 Quantum-based optical sensors
2.5.1 Photoconducting sensors (photoresistive sensors)
Other names: photoresistor, or light-dependent resistor (LDR)
• Photoconducting sensor is made from a semiconducting material connected to two
conducting electrodes and are exposed to light through a transparent window.
• Materials: CdS, CdSe, PbS, InSb
• Dark conductivity (absence of light):
𝜎 = 𝑒 𝜇 𝑒 𝑛𝑒 + 𝜇 𝑝 𝑛𝑝
Resistance ranges a few M to a few k 

• Under light illumination: 𝜎 ′ = 𝑒 𝜇𝑒 𝑛𝑒′ + 𝜇𝑝 𝑛𝑝′
• The change in conductivity:

Δ𝜎 = 𝜎 ′ − 𝜎 = 𝑒 𝜇𝑒 Δ𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 Δ𝑝
Where Δ𝑛 = 𝑛𝑒′ − 𝑛𝑒 and Δ𝑝 = 𝑛𝑝′ − 𝑛𝑝 are the excess carrier concentration generated
by the radiation (light)
• Note that when electrons and holes are generated by the photon, they also recombine
afterward. The generation and recombination rates depend on a variety of properties,
including the absorption coefficient of the material, dimensions, incident power
density (of the radiation) wavelength, and the carrier lifetime.
• The excess carrier density depends on the power absorbed by the photoconductor.
• The total number of excess carrier pairs released per unit:
𝑃𝑇𝑤𝐿 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠
∆𝑁 = 𝜂 [ ] T is a fraction of power peneration
ℎ𝑓 𝑠
• The rate at which carriers are generated per unit volume per second:
𝑃𝑇𝑤𝐿 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠
∆𝑛 = 𝜂 [ 3 ]
ℎ𝑓𝑤𝐿𝑑 𝑚 .𝑠
• Considering the recombination factor, the rate at which carriers are generated per unit
volume:
𝑃𝑇𝜏 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠 Where 𝜏 is the lifetimes of electrons and holes
∆𝑛 = 𝜂 [ ]
ℎ𝑓𝑑 𝑚3
Note that both majority and minority excess carriers generated by light have the same
densities.
Example
Consider a simple CdS structure as in Figure 4.4(a) of length 4 mm, width 1 mm, and thickness
0.1 mm. The mobility of electrons in CdS is approximately 210 cm2/(Vs) and that of holes is 20
cm2/(Vs). The dark concentration of carriers is approximately 1016 carriers/cm3 (for both
electrons and holes). At a light density of 1 W/m2 the carrier density increases by 11%:
Calculate the conductivity of the material and the resistance of the sensor
under dark conditions and under the given illumination.
Solution:
(a) The conductivity is calculated by:
𝜎 = 𝑒 𝜇𝑒 𝑛𝑒 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑛𝑝 = 1,6×10-19(210 ×1016 + 20 ×1016)

= 0,3684 (S/cm)
= 36,84 (S/m)
• Under light conditions, the carrier density increases by a factor of 1.11 and we get:
𝜎 = 𝑒 𝜇𝑒 𝑛𝑒 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑛𝑝 = 1,6×10-19(210 ×1016 × 1,11 + 20 ×1016 ×1,11)

= 0,409 (S/cm)
• The resistance of the photoresistor:

Under dark conditions:
𝐿 0,04
𝑅= = = 1085,5 Ω
𝜎𝑤𝑑 36,85 × 0,001 × 0,0001
Under light conditions:

𝐿 0,04
𝑅= = = 978 Ω
𝜎𝑤𝑑 40,9 × 0,001 × 0,0001
2.5.2 Photodiode
• when a diode is exposed to light, it adds excess carrier to the
existing charges in the conduction band same as a pure
semiconductor.
• 3 modes: forward biased, reverse biased, unbiased
- Forward biased mode: not useful
- Reverse biased mode: similar to photoconducting
- Unbiased mode: photovoltaic mode.
• Photodiode uses reverse biased mode (so-called
photoconducting mode). (chế độ quang dẫn)
• Solar cell use unbiased mode. (chế độ quang thế)
The semiconducting (p–n) junction.

(a) Forward biased. (b) Reverse
biased. (c) Unbiased. (d) The I–V
characteristics of the junction
• The current in forward-biased mode:
𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑒𝑉𝑑 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)
𝐼0 is the leakage (dark) current

Vd is the voltage across the junction, also called the voltage barrier or built-in potential
k= 1.3806488 × 1023 kg m2/s2/K is Boltzmann’s constant
T is absolute temperature [K]
• In reverse mode, only the current I0 may flow, and it is very small and negligible:
• The current produced by photon is given as: 𝜂𝑃𝐴𝑒

𝐼𝑝 = [A]
ℎ𝑓
P is the light power density [W/m2]
f is frequency [Hz]
h is Planck’s constant
 Is the quantum absorption efficiency
A is exposed area of the diode
• The total current available external to the diode is:
𝑒𝑉𝑑
𝜂𝑃𝐴𝑒
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑑 − 𝐼𝑝 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1 − [A]
ℎ𝑓
• Reverse-bias condition: 𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑒𝑉𝑑 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)  0

𝜂𝑃𝐴𝑒
𝐼𝐿 ≈ [A]
ℎ𝑓
➔ The photocurrent depends on the power of light (light intensity) and its frequency (or
wavelength)
• Any diode can serve as a photodiode but it can be modify to improve their properties
• To lower dark current, p layer is covered with a thin layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2)
• PIN structure can lower dark current and lower junction capacitance → better time
response.
• pnn+ construction improve low-wavelength sensitivity
• Schottky diode improve long wavelength (IR) response.
• Photomultiplier diode is a diode operating in avalanche mode (high reverse bias, ~107
V/m), for high sensitivity, low-light applications
Solution
• The laser produces 10 mW; but to calculate the power entering the diode, we need to take into account the
losses. To do so, we first calculate the input power, P, in decibels:
2.5.3 Phototransistors
• the phototransistor can be viewed as two diodes connected back to back.
𝐼𝑐 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝑒 = 𝐼𝐵 (𝛽 + 1)
• Under dark conditions, the collector current is small and is almost entirely due to
leakage currents (I0). This causes a dark current in the collector and emitter:
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼0 𝛽 𝐼𝑒 = 𝐼0 (𝛽 + 1)
• When the junction is illuminated, the diode current is the current due to photons:
𝜂𝑃𝐴𝑒
𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑝 = [A]
ℎ𝑓
• The collector and emitter currents under illumination are:
𝜂𝑃𝐴𝑒
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑝 𝛽 = 𝛽 [A]
ℎ𝑓
• The operation of the phototransistor is identical to that of the photodiode except for the
amplification, , provided by the transistor structure. Thus, the phototransistor is a very
useful device and is commonly used for detection and sensing.
Example 4.7: Sensitivity of a phototransistor
Figure 4.15(a) shows the I–V characteristics of a transistor as a function of base current.
However, in a phototransistor, the base current is not measurable. Rather, the current is a
function of light power density on the junction. The following is an experimental evaluation
of the current in a phototransistor as a function of incident light power density. The table
below shows selected values, but all values measured are plotted in Figure 4.16.
Since the curve is linear for light power densities between 0 mW/cm2 and about 400
mW/cm2, the sensitivity of the sensor can be written using any two columns in the table.
Taking the first and the eighth columns, we find its sensitivity in the linear range as
2.6 Photoelectric sensors (tế bào quang điện chân không)
• Photoelectric sensors, including photomultipliers, are based on the photoelectric effect

(also called the photoemissive effect).
• The photocathode is made of a material with relatively low work function to allow
efficient emission of electrons.
• These electrons are then accelerated toward the photoanode because of the potential
difference between the anode and cathode.
Photomultipliers (bộ nhân quang)
The sensor is used for very low-light applications, such as in night vision systems. For
example, a photomultiplier sensor may be placed at the focal point of a telescope to view
extremely faint objects in space.
Charge coupled (CCD) sensors and dectectors
When optical radiation impinges on the device, it penetrates through the gate and oxide
layer to release electrons in the depletion layer. The charge density released is proportional
to the incident radiation intensity. These charges are attracted toward the gate but cannot
flow through the oxide layer and are trapped there.
The main value of CCDs is in building one-dimensional (linear arrays) or two-dimensional
arrays of MOS devices for the purpose of imaging.
2.7 Thermal-based optical sensors
Thermopile PIR (passive IR detector)
One of the most common applications of PIR

sensors is in motion detection (in which the
transient temperature caused by motion is
detected)
The structure of a PIR sensor showing the thermopile used to

sense temperature (under an IR absorber). A temperature
sensor monitors the temperature of the cold junctions
Pyroelectric sensors
• The pyroelectric effect is an electric charge

generated in response to heat flow through
the body of a crystal
Optical sensors: structure and applications
Types of Optical Sensor configuration
• Photoelectric sensors consist of a light emitter and a light receiver.
• The emitter is a light emitting diode (LED) that emits a specific wavelength of light. Most photoelectric
sensors use infrared, visible red, green, or blue light sources.
• The receiver is a photodiode, or phototransistor, that provides a change in conducted current
depending on how much light is detected. Photodiodes and phototransistors are more sensitive to
certain wavelengths of light. To improve efficiency, the light emitter and receiver must be spectrally
matched.
• Three basic types of photoelectric sensors: throughbeam, retro-reflective, and diffuse photoelectric
sensors.
Three types of photoelectric Sensors
From Festo
Sensors Connection
• For sensor type PNP, the load is

connected between the output
and ground potential (L-).
• For sensor type NPN, the load is
connected between the output
and L+.
Through-Beam Sensors (cảm biến thu phát độc lập)
Advantage: Large operating distances can be achieved and the recognition is independent of the
object’s surface structure, color or reflectivity.
To guarantee high operational dependability it must be assured that the object is sufficiently large
to interrupt the light beam completely.
Block diagram for a through beam •Voltage regulator:
photoelectric sensor The voltage regulator provides a clean power supply to the internal
circuitry of the sensor.
•Photodiode and lens system (receiver)
The lens system receives the beam and applies optical filtering and
directs it onto the photodiode. The photodiode conducts current when
the beam is focused onto its sensing face. This signal is amplified by
an op-amp. The gain is adjustable using a potentiometer available on
the sensor housing.
•Signal Conditioning Stage
The amplified signal is filtered and matched with the receiving
frequency. This allows the sensor to specifically monitor the
transmitter’s beam and not be interrupted by an external light source.
Any light beam that does not meet the system’s operating frequency
criteria is filtered out at this stage.
•Output Stage
• The output stage consists of the electronics to control the output.
Depending on the signal from the signal conditioning and filtering
stage, this stage switches the output on/off.
• There are various types of output options available such as PNP,
NPN transistor output and Normally Open/Normally Closed relay
output. Most of the sensors available in the market have both
NO/NC options.
https://www.omch.co/through-beam-photo-electric-sensor/
Retro-Reflective Sensors
(Cảm biến quang phát thu chung phản xạ gương )
Working principle: The emitter of retro-reflective sensors projects a light beam toward
a reflector, which directs the beam back to the receiver contained in the same housing,
as shown in the following figure. The presence of a target object interrupts the reflected
light beam and indicates the sensor detects an object.
Advantage: Retro-reflective sensors enable large operating distances with switching

points, which are exactly reproducible requiring little mounting effort. All objects
interrupting the light beam are accurately detected independently of their surface
structure or color.
Diffuse Reflection Sensors (phản xạ khuếch tán)
In diffuse light sensors, the emitter and receiver are also contained in the same housing, without the
use of a reflector (see the following figure). The emitter projects a light beam. When a target object
enters the beam, light reflects off the object and back to the receiver. The primary advantage of a
diffuse-reflective sensor is its simplicity.
Advantage: The diffused light intensity at the receiver serves as the

switching condition. Regardless of the sensitivity setting the rear part
always reflects better than the front part. This leads to the
consequence to erroneous switching operations.
The sensing range of diffuse light sensors depends
on several factors. The most important factors are:
• Object size. The larger the object detected, the

more it reflects light. Thus, sensors detect large
objects at a longer sensing distance than small
objects for a given sensitivity of the sensor.
• Object material. Certain materials (light-colored
materials, metals) reflect more light than other
materials (e.g., dark-colored materials, fiber glass).
• Object shape and orientation. Flat surfaces
reflect light in a more direct way than curved
surfaces, as shown in (a) of the following figure.
Curved surfaces deflect most emitted light away
from the sensor’s receiver.
Different Light Sources For Optical Sensors
1. LED (Light Emitting Diode)
During the recombination process of electrons with holes at the junctions of

n-doped and p-doped semiconductors, energy is released in the form of
light. The excitation takes place by applying an external voltage and the
recombination may be taking place, or it may be stimulated as another
photon. This facilitates coupling the LED light with an optical device.
2. LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission Radiation)
A laser is created, when the electrons in the atoms in special glasses, crystals, or gasses
absorb energy from an electrical current they become excited. The excited electrons move
from a lower-energy orbit to a higher-energy orbit around the atom’s nucleus. When they
return to their normal or ground state this leads to the electrons emit photons (particles of
light). These photons are all at the same wavelength and coherent. The ordinary visible
light comprises multiple wavelengths and is not coherent.
Applications of Photoelectric Sensors
Through-beam sensors
In most through-beam sensors, the emitter and receiver are in separate housings. The emitter projects a light
beam directed toward the receiver, as shown in (a) of the following figure. The target object interrupts the
beam and the receiver senses the absence of the light beam, detecting the presence of an object.
❑ Through-beam sensors provide the longest sensing ranges. These sensors are
well suited to operate in very dusty or dirty industrial environments. They may
not be suitable to detect translucent or transparent targets since the receiver will
see through this type of target.
Object detection in industry
* Cảm biến quang sử dụng kỹ thuật tán xạ ngược
a) Kiểm tra vị trí đánh dấu chân 1 IC b) Kiểm tra nắp lọ
c) Kiểm tra Ren d) Phát hiện cuối cuộn

2.10 Các ứng dụng trong công nghiệp
* Cảm biến quang sử dụng kỹ thuật phản xạ (sủ dụng vật phản xạ)
a) Phát hiện xe tại cổng bãi đỗ xe b) Đếm chai c) Đếm hộp
d) Đếm hộp Các tông e) Đếm vật ở mọi vị trí trên băng f) Phát hiện người qua lại
Optical Sensor Based Liquid Level Indicator
Optical Sensor Based Liquid Level

Indicator consist of two main parts an infrared
LED coupled with a light transistor, and a
transparent prism tip in the front. The LED
projects an infrared light outward, when the
sensor tip is surrounded by air the light reacts
by bouncing back with-in the tip before
returning to the transistor. When the sensor is
dipped in liquid, the light disperses
throughout and less is returned to the
transistor. The amount of reflected light to the
transistor affects output levels, making point
level sensing possible.
Biomedical Applications
Optical sensors have robust applications in the biomedical field. Some of the
examples Breath analysis using tunable diode laser, Optical heart-rate
monitors an optical heart-rate monitor measures your heart rate using light. A
LED shines through the skin, and an optical sensor examines the light that
reflected back. Since blood absorbs more light, fluctuations in light level can
be translated into heart rate. This process is called as photoplethysmography.
The end

Chapter 2 - Optical Sensors

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Chapter 2 - Optical Sensors

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❖ Optical sensors are those sensors that detect

❖ The sensing methods rely on direct methods of

Photoelectric effect (hiệu ứng quang điện): a phenomenon in which

number of photons absorbed (N ):ph

• Cut-off frequency is the photon frequency at

• UV range has high energy photons ➔

Resistance ranges a few M to a few k 

• The change in conductivity:

𝜎 = 𝑒 𝜇𝑒 𝑛𝑒 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑛𝑝 = 1,6×10-19(210 ×1016 + 20 ×1016)

𝜎 = 𝑒 𝜇𝑒 𝑛𝑒 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑛𝑝 = 1,6×10-19(210 ×1016 × 1,11 + 20 ×1016 ×1,11)

• The resistance of the photoresistor:

Under light conditions:

The semiconducting (p–n) junction.

𝐼0 is the leakage (dark) current

• The current produced by photon is given as: 𝜂𝑃𝐴𝑒

• Reverse-bias condition: 𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑒𝑉𝑑 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)  0

• Photoelectric sensors, including photomultipliers, are based on the photoelectric effect

One of the most common applications of PIR

The structure of a PIR sensor showing the thermopile used to

• The pyroelectric effect is an electric charge

• For sensor type PNP, the load is

Advantage: Retro-reflective sensors enable large operating distances with switching

Advantage: The diffused light intensity at the receiver serves as the

• Object size. The larger the object detected, the

During the recombination process of electrons with holes at the junctions of

a) Kiểm tra vị trí đánh dấu chân 1 IC b) Kiểm tra nắp lọ

c) Kiểm tra Ren d) Phát hiện cuối cuộn

a) Phát hiện xe tại cổng bãi đỗ xe b) Đếm chai c) Đếm hộp

Optical Sensor Based Liquid Level

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