14.
1 Types of Skeletons
Endoskeleton
• A hardened internal skeleton buried in
the soft bodies of all vertebrates
including fish, amphibians & birds.
• Consist of a rigid framework (bones &
cartilage), which is made up of calcium
& phosphate to which muscles are
attached
• It support the soft body & protects
internal organs from injury
• Bones are connected at joints by
ligaments that allow freedom of
movement
Exoskeleton
• Exoskeletons are (non-living &
incapable to growth), a hard covering
deposited on animal’s surface / shell
(made of calcium carbonate)
• Exoskeleton have cuticle, consists of
chitin restrict the growth of animals
must be shed their exoskeletons from
time to time in order for the animal to
grow (ecdysis)
• Also found in the shells of molluscs &
the bony plates of tortoises.
• Examples : insects, crabs, lobsters,
tortoise, snail, grasshopper
Hydrostatic Skeleton
• A skeleton formed by fluid-filled
compartment within the body cavity
• The fluids are held under pressure in
compartment surrounded by muscles
• Since watery liquid cannot escape, it
forms an incompressible skeleton
(Earthworm rigid)
• The body shape of the animal changes
as these muscles contract & relax
• Earthworm uses muscles to move fluid
within the segmented body cavity,
changing the animal shape to control
movement
• The animals are soft & flexible, the
hydrostatic fluid does protect body parts
by acting as a shock absorber.
• Examples : earthworm, jellyfish, leech &
caterpillar.
Axial Skeleton comprises
• Skull
• Vertebral column
• Ribs & sternum
(breastbone)

Appendicular Skeleton comprises

• Pectoral girdle
• Pelvic girdle
• Upper & Lower limb

Scoliosis
• Sideways curvature / twist of the spine (C / S
shape)
• Scoliosis brace (special equipment)
• Worn under clothing
• Method used to improve the curvature of the
spine / to support the spine
 Vertebral Column
/Backbone (33)
Function of Vertebral Column
• Intervertebral disc
(cartilage in between the vertebrae)
• Encloses & protect the spinal cord
• Supports the head
• Serves as a point of muscle
attachment for the rib, pelvic
girdle, back muscles & neck
 1. Cervical Vertebrae (7)

1
2

4
• Short spinous process Atlas vertebra (Nodding) Axial vertebra(Rotate/Shaking)
• Wide & short • 1st cervical vertebra • 2nd cervical vertebra
transverse process • Large neural canal • Large spinous process
• Small centrum • Small spinous process • Small transverse process
• A pair of transverse/ • A pair of transverse foramen • A pair of transverse foramen
vertebral foramen • No centrum • Has odontoid process
(passage for blood • Articulate with skull (articulate with facet of atlas
vessels & nerves) vertebra’s neural canal)
2. Thoracic Vertebrae (12) 3. Lumbar Vertebrae (5)

Lumbar vertebra
• Biggest & strongest vertebrae
• Large centrum (bear the weight of
lower back of body)
• Short spinous process

• Long & directed downward spinous

process
• Thick & big centrum
• Spinous & transverse process 4. Sacral Vertebrae (5)
- serve as attachment sites for • 5 vertebrae fused
muscles & ligaments together to form
• Short transverse process have facets triangular bone
for articulation within the ribs

5. Caudal Vertebrae (4)

• 4 bones fused together to
form triangular structure,
pointed at 1 end
 Similarity between Vertebrae
1. Contains centrum (bear body weight)
2. Have vertebral foramen (contains spinal cord)
3. Have transverse & spinous process (muscle attachment sites)

Differences between Vertebrae

Cervical vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae

- Small centrum
- Short spinous process
- 2 transverse foramen &
1 vertebral foramen
- Small transverse process
contain foramina
-Medium size centrum
-Long & sharp spinous process
-No transverse foramen
1 vertebral foramen
-large transverse process
-Large centrum
-Short & blunt spinous process
-No transverse foramen
1 vertebral foramen
-Thin & tapered transverse foramen