Short 1

Cofactors are key components of enzyme pathways that facilitate the activity or regulation
of enzymes. Cofactors can be metals (e.g. magnesium, copper) or organic compounds (e.g.
heme, sugars, proteins). Cofactors come in three types including cofactors, coenzymes, and
prosthetic groups

Short 2
Bacteriophages can be modified to identify nonbacterial targets including eukaryotic
proteins and tissues by altering the tail fibers or capsid proteins to include eukaryotic
targeting motifs using phage display

Short 3
The apicomplexans are characterized by having an apical complex. It is a special organelle
that appears as a conical structures on the tapered end (or the apical end) of the cell. It
contains rhoptries, micronemes, polar rings, and conoid. Most of the apicomplexans are
single-celled, spore-forming, and parasitic.

Short 5
Basidiomycetes generally refer to fungus whose spore development occurs in basidia. They
are commonly called club fungi. They possess a well-developed, branched, and septate
mycelium.

Short 7
Polymorphism is the existence of multiple types of structurally and functionally diverse
individuals within a population. The phylum Coelenterata's class Hydrozoa contains a huge
number of colonial species with several forms of individuals known as zooids.

Short 8
Autonomic movement is a spontaneous movement and induced movement is a paratonic
movement. - If the movement of the plant takes place spontaneously without any external
stimuli. Those movements are called spontaneous movements or autonomous movements.

Short 10
The term "angioplasty" means using a balloon to stretch open a narrowed or blocked artery.
However, most modern angioplasty procedures also involve inserting a short wire mesh
tube, called a stent, into the artery during the procedure. The stent is left in place
permanently to allow blood to flow more freely.

Short 11
Common allergy triggers include: Airborne allergens, such as pollen, animal dander, dust
mites and mold. Certain foods, particularly peanuts, tree nuts, wheat, soy, fish, shellfish,
eggs and milk. Insect stings, such as from a bee or wasp.

Short 12
Chlorophyll occurs in several distinct forms: chlorophylls a and b are the major types found
in higher plants and green algae; chlorophylls c and d are found, often with a, in different
algae; chlorophyll e is a rare type found in some golden algae; and bacterio-chlorophyll
occurs in certain bacteria.

Short 13
The stages of plant tissue culture are: selection/preparation (stage 0),
initiation/establishment (stage 1), multiplication (stage 2), rooting (stage 3), and
acclimatization/hardening (stage 4). A formulation for growth medium is selected based on
which stage the plant is in or will be entering.
Long 1

Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
They serve as a crucial source of energy for living organisms and are essential components
of a balanced diet. Carbohydrates can be classified into three main types: monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

1. Monosaccharides: These are the simplest form of carbohydrates and cannot be further
hydrolyzed into smaller units. They consist of a single sugar molecule. Common examples
include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Monosaccharides are the primary source of energy
for cells and are readily absorbed into the bloodstream.

2. Disaccharides: Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides combine through a

dehydration synthesis reaction, resulting in the formation of a glycosidic bond. Examples
of disaccharides include sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and
maltose (glucose + glucose). Disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides during
digestion to be utilized as a source of energy.

3. Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of long chains of

monosaccharides. They are formed by the condensation of numerous monosaccharide units.
Polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Starch is the main storage form of
glucose in plants, while glycogen serves as the storage form in animals. Cellulose, on the
other hand, provides structural support to plant cell walls.

Functions of carbohydrates:
1. Energy Source: Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy for the body. When
consumed, they are broken down into glucose, which is used by cells for energy production
through cellular respiration.

2. Storage: Excess glucose is converted into glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles
for later use. In plants, carbohydrates are stored as starch.

3. Structural Support: Carbohydrates such as cellulose provide structural support to plant

cell walls, giving rigidity to plant cells and tissues.

4. Cell Signaling and Recognition: Certain carbohydrates, such as glycoproteins and

glycolipids, play a role in cell signaling and recognition. They are involved in processes
like immune response, cell adhesion, and tissue development.

5. Dietary Fiber: Some complex carbohydrates, particularly dietary fiber, are not fully
digested by the human body. However, they play a vital role in maintaining digestive health,
regulating bowel movements, and preventing constipation.

It's important to maintain a balanced intake of carbohydrates as part of a healthy diet,

ensuring an adequate supply of energy and essential nutrients.
Long 2

The non-cyclic electron pathway, also known as the non-cyclic photophosphorylation, is

one of the two pathways involved in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. This
process occurs in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts and is responsible for generating
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate)
to fuel the light-independent reactions.

Here is an account of the events that take place during the non-cyclic electron pathway:

1. Absorption of light: When light strikes the photosystem II (PSII) in the thylakoid
membrane, it excites the electrons in the reaction center of chlorophyll pigments. This
energy transfer occurs through a process called resonance energy transfer.

2. Electron transfer: The excited electrons are captured by the primary electron acceptor
molecule in PSII, leaving the reaction center chlorophyll positively charged. To replenish
the lost electrons, water molecules are split by an enzyme called water-splitting complex.
This process is known as photolysis, and it releases oxygen as a byproduct.

3. Electron transport chain: The high-energy electrons from the primary electron acceptor
are transferred through a series of electron carriers in the thylakoid membrane. This electron
transport chain consists of plastoquinone (PQ), cytochrome b6f complex, and plastocyanin
(PC).

4. ATP synthesis: As the excited electrons move through the electron transport chain, their
energy is used to pump protons (H+) from the stroma into the thylakoid lumen, creating a
proton gradient. This gradient drives ATP synthase, an enzyme complex embedded in the
thylakoid membrane, to generate ATP from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and inorganic
phosphate (Pi) through a process called chemiosmosis. This step is often referred to as
photophosphorylation.

5. Photosystem I: The electrons that have passed through the electron transport chain
eventually reach the photosystem I (PSI) reaction center chlorophyll. The PSI pigments
absorb additional light energy, further exciting the electrons.

6. NADPH production: The excited electrons from PSI are captured by another electron
acceptor molecule called ferredoxin. These electrons, along with protons from the stroma,
are used to reduce NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) to NADPH.
NADPH is an important reducing agent required for the light-independent reactions, such
as the Calvin cycle.

7. Return of electrons: After the electrons are transferred from PSI to reduce NADP+, the
reaction center chlorophyll of PSI is left with a positive charge. To replenish the lost
electrons, the electrons from the electron transport chain of PSII are fed back into PSI. This
cyclic electron flow allows for further ATP production without the generation of NADPH.

Overall, the non-cyclic electron pathway in photosynthesis generates ATP and NADPH,
which are used in the light-independent reactions to convert carbon dioxide into glucose
and other organic compounds.
Long 3

Inflorescence refers to the arrangement and grouping of flowers on a plant. It is the

reproductive structure of flowering plants where flowers are organized in a specific manner.
The various types of inflorescence are categorized based on the arrangement and pattern of
flowers and their peduncles (flower stalks) within a plant.

Here are some common types of inflorescence:

1. Raceme: In a raceme inflorescence, flowers are arranged along a central axis, with each
flower attached to a separate pedicel. The oldest flowers are found at the base, and the
youngest ones are at the top. Examples include the snapdragon (Antirrhinum) and sweet pea
(Lathyrus odoratus).

2. Spike: In a spike inflorescence, flowers are sessile (lack pedicels) and are arranged
directly along an elongated, unbranched axis. Each flower is attached to the main stem.
Examples include wheat (Triticum) and rye (Secale cereale).

3. Panicle: A panicle inflorescence is branched, with multiple secondary branches bearing

smaller groups of flowers. The main axis has lateral branches, and each lateral branch bears
flowers. Examples include oat (Avena sativa) and pyracantha (Pyracantha coccinea).

4. Umbel: In an umbel inflorescence, multiple flower stalks arise from a common point at
the apex, resembling an umbrella. The flowers are at the same level, and their pedicels
radiate from the center. Examples include the dill (Anethum graveolens) and carrot (Daucus
carota).

5. Cyme: A cyme inflorescence has a determinate growth pattern, with the terminal flower
opening first and subsequent flowers developing in a basipetal sequence. The central stem
terminates in a flower, and the lateral branches also terminate in flowers. Examples include
the yarrow (Achillea millefolium) and hydrangea (Hydrangea macrophylla).

6. Corymb: In a corymb inflorescence, the flowers have different pedicel lengths, resulting
in a flat-topped or slightly rounded appearance. The lower flowers have longer pedicels than
those near the apex. Examples include the hawthorn (Crataegus) and rose (Rosa).

7. Head/Capitulum: In a head or capitulum inflorescence, multiple flowers are closely

packed together on a flattened or rounded receptacle. The individual flowers are often small
and inconspicuous. Examples include sunflowers (Helianthus) and dandelions
(Taraxacum).

These are just a few examples of the various types of inflorescence found in flowering
plants. It's important to note that plants can exhibit different types of inflorescence structures
depending on species, and sometimes even within the same species, different types may be
observed.