BIOCLIMATIC SKYSCRAPERS

Bioclimatic buildings are built with design

and construction methods that are based on the
local climate. They aim to be comfortable and
aesthetically pleasing by using solar energy and
other eco-friendly sources. Instead of fighting
nature, this type of architecture works with nature,
and its principles date back many centuries.
(Bioclimatic Buildings: Their Benefits, Features &
Challenges, n.d.)

RULED SURFACES
A ruled surface is defined by the property that
through every point in the surface, there is at least one
straight line which also lies in the surface. A ruled surface
may be thought of as one "swept out" by a straight line
moving in space. To describe how such a line moves, first
recall that any line is uniquely determined by two distinct
points which lie on it. (Oxford, 2022)

CURVED SURFACES OF A CONSTANT GENERATIX

A surface of revolution is a surface globally
invariant under the action of any rotation around a fixed
line called axis of revolution. The rotation of a curve
(called generatrix) around a fixed line generates a surface
of revolution. The sections of a surface of revolution by
half-planes delimited by the axis of revolution, called
meridians, are special generatrices. The sections by
planes perpendicular to the axis are circles called
parallels of the surface. (Ferréol & Esculier, 2022)

CURVED SURFACES OF A VARYING GENERATIX

Zero curvatures can be made by folding a plane's
surface, while positive or negative curvatures cannot
transform into 2-dimensional planes without some degree
of surface distortion (Mansoori, 2019). A double-curved
surface is a surface on which no straight lines can be
drawn, that can be generated by a curved line moving in a
curved path. Double-curved surfaces cannot be developed,
although in practice approximate developments may be
used to form surfaces that are nearly correct.
EXTRUDER SKYSCRAPER
Buildings of this type have the same cross section for their full height. An example can be
a rectangular or cylindrical solid. Extruder type of high-rise buildings: (a) Marina City towers
(Chicago, cylindrical central core system), (b) Bay Gate (Dubai, wall frame system), (c) Doha
tower (Doha, tube frame system), (d) Greenland Puli Center (Jinan, core and outrigger system)
and (e) the World Trade Center (Bahrain, shear wall frame system). (Szolomicki & Golasz-
Szolomicka, 2019)

ROTOR SKYSCRAPER
Buildings of this type have the same cross section for their full height. An example can be
a rectangular or cylindrical solid. Rotor type of high-rise buildings: (a) Mode Gakuen Cocoon
Tower (Tokyo, tube system with concrete columns), (b) Swiss Re (London, diagrid frame tube
system), (c) Westhafen Tower (Frankfurt, diagrid frame tube system), (d) Torre Agbar (Barcelona,
diagrid frame tube system) and (e) Tornado Tower (Doha, concrete core system with an external
tubular steel diagrid). (Szolomicki & Golasz-Szolomicka, 2019)

TWISTER SKYSCRAPER
Buildings of this type are in the form of a twisted solid with the “twister” facade repeated
on all floors (Figure a). The conversion tower axis of the helical form the Revolution Tower (Figure
c) may be derived from orientation of asymmetric floors not through the center of the circular
segment stories, but the center of gravity of the floor. The body of the building belongs to the
category of “sliding twister” (Figure c), where the floors are moved upward along the 2D or 3D
curve and rotation is added to the outer structure. When the 3D curve rotation has the shape of a
spiral it belongs to the category of “helical twister” (Figure d,e). The intersecting body of the
building, in the shape of a twisted spiral, has an internal vertical zone dedicated to the lift shaft.
(Szolomicki & Golasz-Szolomicka, 2019)

TORDOS SKYSCRAPER
Buildings with an orthogonal core and one or two twisted towers belong to the category of
“toros” (Figure b).
Twister and Tordos types of high-rise building: (a) Turning Torso (Malmö, mega core
system), (b) Al Bidda Tower (Doha, wall frame system), (c) Revolution Tower (Panama City, core
system), (d) Evolution Tower (Moscow, core system)) and (e) Mode Gakuen Spiral Towers
(Nagoya, tube system). (Szolomicki & Golasz-Szolomicka, 2019)

RIGID FRAME STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

Rigid frame system, which is also termed as moment frame
systems, consists of linear element like beams and columns. The
word rigid means ability to resist the deformation. It is used in steel
and reinforced concrete buildings. Rigid frames are characterized
by the lack of pinned joints within the frame, and typically statically
indeterminate. (Hamakareem, n.d.)
A rigid frame is capable of resisting both vertical and lateral
loads by the bending of beams and columns. Stiffness of the rigid
frame is provided mainly by the bending rigidity of beams and
columns that have rigid connections. The joints shall be designed
in such a manner that they have adequate strength and stiffness
and negligible deformation. (Hamakareem, n.d.)
SHEAR FRAME STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
Shear frames or Vierendeel frames, in which beams and columns are rigidly connected to
provide moment resistance at joints, are placed in two orthogonal directions to resist wind forces
in each direction. Each frame is required to resist its proportion of the wind shear, which is
determined on the basis of its relative stiffness compared to the total. The efficiency of
development of lateral stiffness is dependent on bay span, number of bays in the frame, number
of frames and the available depth in the floors for the frame girders. Bay dimensions in the range
of 6m to 9m are commonly used. In these shear frames, the predominant contribution to sway
deflection under wind load comes from the bending of beams and columns due to the wind shear
and to a smaller extent, from column shortening or the cantilever component. The design of these
frames is controlled therefore by the bending stiffnesses of individual members. The deeper the
member, the more efficiently the bending stiffness can be developed. (Lecture 14.15: Tall Building
Design, n.d.)

FLAT PLATE
The flat plate is a two-way reinforced
concrete framing system utilizing a slab of
uniform thickness, the simplest of structural
shapes. The flat slab is a two-way reinforced
structural system that includes either drop
panels or column capitals at columns to resist
heavier loads and thus permit longer spans.
(Seo, 2021)

MEGA COLUMN STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

Mega column or mega frame systems have large cross-section columns running
continuously throughout the building. The system resists all the vertical and horizontal loads.
These columns can also have inner voids like shear walls and are used in tall buildings. (Yazar,
2018)

CORE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

System core structure and supporting wall (core and
bearing walls) This system is a vertical plane that forms an outer
wall and surrounds a core structure. This allows open interior
space that depends on the stretch ability of the floor structure.
This system includes vertical mechanical transport systems as
well as increasing the rigidity of the building. (ateh, 2017)

MEGA CORE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

Mega core systems resist both vertical and
horizontal loads and the core generally made of concrete
shear walls. The core combined with another structural
system for tall buildings. Since floors are cantilevered off of
the core part, that system provides column-free spaces in
floors. (Yazar, 2018)

OUTRIGGERED FRAME STRUCTURAL

SYSTEM
In outrigger frame systems external columns are tied
to a core wall with outriggers and it connects the core and
perimeter columns in at least one level throughout the
building. Horizontal shear trusses or shear walls located
usually on mechanical floors. Use of belts can contribute to
the efficiency of the whole system. It can be said that
outrigger frame systems are more successful for higher
buildings than the other systems. (Yazar, 2018)
TUBE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
Trussed-tube systems are actually very similar to framed tube
system but it has fewer exterior columns space. The exterior perimeter
columns are interconnected and create a rigid box so the system can
resist lateral forces. Bundled-tube systems include a combination of
more than one tube and they work together to resist lateral forces and
overturning moment. Compared to framed-tube, structures that include
bundled-tube system rises with wider slabs. It also allows versatile
building designs and interesting shapes, rather than box-like towers.
(Yazar, 2018)

DIAGRID SYSTEM
By definition, a diagrid is a framework of
diagonally intersecting members formed with elements
like metal, concrete or wooden beams. Increasingly
widespread, this type of structural system is used in
large span and high rise buildings, especially those with
complex or curvilinear geometry. Each project
represents a different way of understanding diagrid
design at a variety of different scales, from pavilions to
skyscrapers, all across the world. (Baldwin, 2021)

DISSIPATION DAMPERS
The dampers possess two obvious yield points
by using the preset gaps, so the dampers can realize
graded yielding energy dissipation under earthquakes of
different intensities. The dampers possess stable energy
dissipation behavior and can effectively achieve graded
yielding energy dissipation under earthquakes of the
multi-level intensities. (Chen, Yu, Zhang, & Li, 2022)

HYSTERETIC DAMPERS
During moderately severe earthquakes
these dampers act as stiff members which reduce
structural deformations, while during very severe
earthquakes the dampers act as energy absorbers
which limit the quasi-resonant build-up of structural
deformations and forces. (Skinner, Kelly, & Heine,
1974)
VISCOUS DAMPERS
Viscous dampers (also known as seismic dampers)
are hydraulic devices that dissipate the kinetic energy of
seismic events and cushion the impact between structures.
They are versatile devices that can be designed to allow
free movement as well as controlled damping of structures
to protect them from wind load, thermal motion, or seismic
events. (Viscous Dampers / Seismic Dampers, n.d.)

STEEL DAMPER
Steel damper is one kind of energy
dissipation devices in structure passive control.
During the earthquake or wind, structure
vibration could be well controlled through energy
dissipation with hysteretic plastic deformation.
Because of its simple structure, clear conception,
reliable performance and easy implementation,
scholars around the world have been conducting
theoretical and experimental researches on it
and developing dampers with various structural
forms. (Zhang, et al.)

STEEL JOINT DAMPER

The steel structure having the damper joint of
the present invention is to connect the pillar and the
beam to each other in the steel structure, and when the
beam is attached to the pillar, only the web of the beam
is fixed to the pillar, and the load applied to the beam
can be attenuated. (Steel structure with damper joint,
1998)

VISCOELASTIC DAMPER
Viscoelastic dampers effectively reduce vibrations by
converting kinetic energy into heat, thereby damping the
movement of the system. Their design allows them to be used
over a wide range of frequencies, however, the required type
of viscoelastic damper depends on the planned application.
(Lisega)
LEAD DAMPER
Lead-extrusion based damping devices
were first considered in the 1970s as a method
to absorb earthquake response energy during
an earthquake in a controlled manner. This
creates repeatable hysteretic behavior in a
compact package. (Aher, Mar, & Rodgers)

FRICTION DAMPER
Friction dampers are damping elements that
convert the kinetic energy of moving components into
thermal energy, thus reducing hard stops or avoiding
excessively large vibration amplitudes. Friction
dampers essentially consist of a housing, a tappet,
and a friction element that acts like a connecting
member. The damping or friction force is generated
by the friction element due to the relative movement
between the housing and tappet. (Friction dampers)

TUNED MASS DAMPER

A tuned mass damper (TMD) is a device consisting
of a mass, a spring, and a damper that is attached to a
structure in order to reduce the dynamic response of the
structure. The frequency of the damper is tuned to a
particular structural frequency so that when that frequency
is excited, the damper will resonate out of phase with the
structural motion. Energy is dissipated by the damper
inertia force acting on the structure. (Tuned Mass Damper
Systems, 2002)

TUNED LIQUID DAMPER

A Tuned Liquid
Damper (TLD) is a type of
TMD where the mass is
replaced by a liquid (usually
water). Tuned Liquid Column
Dampers (TLCDs) are a
special type of TLDs relying
on the motion of a column of liquid in a U-tube like container to counteract the forces acting on
the structure. (Tuned Liquid Dampers (TLDs) and Tuned Liquid Column Dampers (TLCDs)
Research at NatHaz Modeling Laboratory)
ACTIVE MASS DAMPER
An active mass damper (AMD) was developed
that uses a linear motor and coil spring to reduce the
vertical vibration of a long-period cable-stayed bridge
subjected to wind and earthquake loads. A scaled-
down bridge model and AMD were fabricated, and the
control effect of the AMD was investigated
experimentally and analytically. The AMD was
controlled via a linear quadratic Gaussian algorithm,
which combines a linear quadratic regulator and
Kalman filter. (Chang, 2020)

ACTIVE VARIABLE STIFFNESS

DEVICES
The Variable Stiffness Devices are variable
rigidity load-bearing structural elements
controlled by fluid pressure. This internal fluid
pressure applied onto granular media can be
finely controlled to adjust inter-particle distances
thus in turn finely tuning the compressive
stiffness of the entire system. (Variable Stiffness
Devices and Methods of Use (Hydro Bone), n.d.)

VERY HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE

In the early 1970s, experts predicted that the
practical limit of ready-mixed concrete would be unlikely to
exceed a compressive strength greater than 11,000 pounds
square inch (psi). Over the past two decades, the
development of high-strength concrete has enabled builders
to easily meet and surpass this estimate. Two buildings in
Seattle, Washington, contain concrete with a compressive
strength of 19,000 psi. (High-Strength Concrete, n.d.)

SELF-CONSOLIDATING CONCRETE
Self-consolidating concrete is highly flowable, non-
segregating concrete with a slump flow of 20 to 30 inches
that can spread into place, fill the formwork, and
encapsulate the reinforcement without any mechanical
consolidation. (WHAT IS SELF-CONSOLIDATING
CONCRETE?, 2015)
MOVING FORMWORKS
It is a self-contained formwork system and can
require little crane-time during construction. This is a
formwork system that can be used to form any regular
shape or core. The formwork rises continuously, at a
rate of about 300mm per hour, supporting itself on the
core and not relying on support or access from other
parts of the building or permanent works. (Different
types of slip formwork, 2022)

THERMO-MECHANICAL CONCTROL
PROCESS
Thermo-mechanical control process (TMCP) is one of
microstructural control techniques, combining con- trolled rolling
and controlled cooling, to obtain excel- lent properties of steel
plates, such as high strength, excellent toughness and
weldability. (Endo & Nakata, 2015)

DP STEEL
Dual-phase (DP) steels were the first family of
high strength automotive sheet steels which
manufacturing involved specific phase transformations.
Featuring a high balance of strength and ductility
(formability), they range in tensile strength (TS) from
450 to 1200 MPa. Their important advantages are very
high strain hardening and additional high gain of the
yield strength (YS) during paint baking of the finished
parts (baking hardenability, BH). (Fonstein, 2017)

TRIP STEEL
TRIP Steels (Transformation Induced Plasticity
Steel) are part of the Advanced High-Strength Steel
(AHSS) family. TRIP steels are notable due to the higher
carbon content than other members of the AHSS family,
such as dual phase steels. They typically require the use of
an isothermal hold at an intermediate temperature, which
produces some bainite. Silicon and aluminum are added in
order to both accelerate the ferrite and bainite formation
process, as well as avoiding carbide buildup in the bainite region of the material. (What are TRIP
Steels?, 2018)

NANOTECHNOLOGY
Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and
technology conducted at the nanoscale, which is about 1 to
100 nanometers. Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the
study and application of extremely small things and can be
used across all the other science fields, such as chemistry,
biology, physics, materials science, and engineering.
(What Is Nanotechnology?)

SOLAR ARCHITECTURE OF BUILDINGS

Solar architecture is an approach to design with an
emphasis on harnessing the sun’s power (usually
through solar panels) to create energy-efficient
buildings. By incorporating these green practices in
design, architects can help address the climate
crisis head-on. And it doesn’t hurt that solar panels
can lower monthly electricity costs. This solar
architecture approach can be used in housing, office
buildings, and more. (Khatri, 2021)

VENTILATED DOUBLE SKIN FACADES

A ventilated double facade can be defined as
a traditional single facade doubled inside or outside by
a second, essentially glazed facade. Each of these two
facades is commonly called a skin. A ventilated cavity
- having a width which can range from several
centimetres at the narrowest to several metres for the
widest accessible cavities - is located between these
two skins. (Loncour, Deneyer, Blasco, Flamant, &
Wouters, 2005 )

ACTIVE WALL FAÇADE

Active curtain wall systems incorporate an adjustable flap that
allows hot air to circulate back to the exterior in the summer and
keep hot air inside the building during the winter season. This
mechanical flap is powered by a Photo-voltaic solar Cell integrated
with the curtain wall. Active façades can greatly reduce energy costs (both air conditioning &
heating), and provide excellent acoustic performance and greater comfort for the building
occupants. (Active Façade Systems & Solutions)

INTERACTIVE WALL FAÇADE

The interactive wall façade has a digital,
mechanical adaptive solution system, which can react.
The concept is that the interior side of the façade
interacts with its inhabitants, perceiving their body
movement and adjusts its form accordingly. The
exterior side interacts with the movement of the sun,
working as a shade, reacting to environmental
changes. (Vengateri)

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