Vedism and Brahmanism in Buddhist Literature: An Overview

Shrikant Bahulkar
1. Names of Mañjuśrī: `Vedic' Epithets

महातधरो मौी चारी तोमः।

महातपापोिनः ातको गौतमोऽणीः।।
िवद ् ाणो ा िनवाणमावान।्
मिु मो िवमोाो िवमिः
ु शाता िशवः।। मीनामसङगीित
ु ८. १८-१९

“He Holds on to the great vow of austerity, (he) wears the cord of muñja-grass, observds
chastity, (he is) best in holy practice, he has great penance, he is intent upon penance, He is
Gautama, the foremost snātaka, the knower of brahman, a brāhmaṇa, Brahmā himself, and he
is one who has attained the brahmanirvāṇa. (He is) release, he is liberation, he has for his body
the true release, (he is) true release, he is peacefulness, he is Śiva.”

This is not a description of any Vedic sage named Gautama, but of Mañjuśrī, the Bodhisattva
of the Tenth Stage (daśabhūmīśvara). The verses are from the Mañjuśrīnāma-saṅgīti (MNS), a
Buddhist Tantric text. This text has for its back ground the early Buddhist as well as later,
Mahāyāna tradition; at the same time it evinces some element of Vedism and (later)
Brahmanism. The text incorporates in all 812 names of Mañjuśrī, reminding us of the
Viṣṇusahasranāma, “Thousand names of Viṣṇu”, a text popular in the Vaiṣṇava tradition.
Some of the names in the MNS clearly show the influence of Vedic and post-Vedic religious
traditions. This text was composed sometime between the sixth and the eighth century C.E.
and was translated into Tibetan and Chinese. It is still popular amongst Tibetan and Nepalese
Buddhists. Like this work, there are some other Buddhist Tantric works, the Tantras and their
commentaries, which have some element that can be connected with Vedism and
Brahmanism.

2. Vedism and Brahmanism: Heesterman's View

As regards the terms “Vedism and Brahmanism”, one may refer to Jan C. Heesterman's
contribution “Vedism and Brahmanism” in the Encyclopedia of Religion (Vol. 15). He says at
the outset: “The somewhat imprecise terms Vedism and Brahmanism refer to those forms of
Hinduism that revolve primarily around the mythic vision and ritual ideologies presented by
the Vedas. These terms are classifications that have been used by historians to categorize in a
typical manner a variety of religious beliefs and practices in ancient and contemporary South
Asia. Vedic and Brahmanic religious sensibilities are thereby distinguished from Āgamic,
Tantric, and sectarian forms of Hinduism, which look to a variety of non-Vedic texts as the
source of religious authority. Vedism is older than Brahmanism, which developed from and
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remains true to the Vedic overview but accommodated and remoulded the religious ideas and
practices of non-Vedic South Asian traditions.'' (Heesterman 1987: 217). The case of Buddhist
texts is somewhat different. While criticizing the Vedic tradition on one hand, they honour
that tradition on the other and borrow some terms, concepts and practices from the Vedic and
later Brahmanical traditions.

Heesterman has therefore restricted himself to the texts in Hindu tradition. It was natural for
the post-Vedic Hindu religious cults to show reverence toward the Vedas and their tradition
and seek the origin of their deities, religious practices and philosophical concepts in the Vedic
tradition or even to call them “Vedic”. The Hindu Tantric cults have a similar position;
however at times they show some anti-Vedic attitude, despising the religious and social
hierarchy based on the Varṇāśramadharma. The Buddhist Tantric cults belong to the same
Indian soil where various Tantric cults emerged and developed along with them about the
same period of Indian history.

3. Veda and Vedism in the Pāli Canon

The period of the early Pāli canon overlaps with the late Vedic Sūtra period. Unfortunately,
we do not have adequate knowledge of the background of the formation of Vedic schools and
the institution of sacrifice which they represent (Witzel 1993: 265). The references to Vedic
schools in the Pāli canon might be of some use for reconstructing the history of Vedic
sacrificial institutions. The Vedic sacrifice, which was in ancient times the core of the
Brahmanic life, is reflected in the Pāli canon. It displays the knowledge of Vedic ritual and
Vedic texts.

i) Meaning of the term `Veda'

When we try to find how the Buddhist look at the Vedic and Brahmanical tradition, we
may observe that there is a mixed feeling about the Vedism and Brahmanism, reflected
through the Buddhist literature, in the Pāli canon, and in the later texts composed in Buddhist
Hybrid Sanskrit, the classical Sanskrit and the Buddhist Tantric Sanskrit. In the Pāli canon,
there is seen, on the one hand, reverence towards the Vedic lore, the study of Vedas and at
times the Vedic sacrifices, and the views opposing the supremacy of Brahmins over the other
Varṇas and their indulgence in sacrificial ritual, on the other. A well-known passage from the
Ambaṭṭhasutta of the Dīghanikāya (D 3) may be cited in this connection. The passage
describes the accomplishment of a Brahmin:

अायको मंतधरो ितणं वेदानं पारगू सिनघडुकेटुभानं सारभेदानं इितहासपमं।

D 3.1.3 (Davids and Carpenter 1975: I. 884-5).
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“A student of Veda who knows mantras, perfected in three Vedas, a skilled

expounder of the rules and rituals, the lore of sounds and meanings, and fifthly, of
the legends.”

ii) Vijjā and Tevijja

The word vijjā is sometimes used in the sense of Veda, as we find in a verse from the
Aṅguttaranikāya (A 3.6):

एतािह तीिह िवािह तेवीो होित ाणो।

तं अहं वदािम तेिवं नां लिपतलापनं।।
A 3.6 (Warder 1961: 16531-32).

“With these three vidyās a Brahmin becomes Tevijja, the possessor of three vidyās. I
call him Tevijja, not any other so called in empty words.”

The concept of three vidyās is common to the Vedic and the Buddhist tradition;
however the implications are different. It is said therefore in the Aṅguttaranikāya (A 3.6):

“Well, Brahmin, the Brahmins describe a Brahmin as the possessor of three vidyās;
this is in one sense and one is (described as) the possessor of three vidyās in the
discipline of the Ārya in another sense).''1

The word tevijja- represents the three vidyās both in the Vedic and the Buddhist traditions: in
Vedic, it represents the first three Vedas and thereby the dharma centred around the
performance of solemn sacrifices (trayīdharma), while for the Buddhist, it denotes the three
vidyās identified with the three out of six kinds of superhuman knowledge, termed as abhiññā
(Skt. abhijñā) which the Buddha possessed. They are: 1) the knowledge of former births
(pubbenivāsa), 2) of the (future) rebirths of beings (cutūpapāta), and 3) of the destruction of
the depravities (āsava-kkhaya). It is said that during his enlightenment, the Buddha, having
entered the fourth jhāna, attained the three vijjās (Bhayabherava sutta, Majjhimanikāya, M I.4;
Trenckner 1964: 22-23). Though not as frequently as found in the Pāli canon, the word
traividya occurs in the Mahāyāna texts, particularly, in the Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra (3.90;
5.29; 7.59 (=Vaidya 1960: 117), the Lalitavistara (Tripathi 1987: 209; 291; 300; 352), and in the
Mahāyānasūtrālaṅkāra (7.9; Bagchi 1970). The connotation of this term is however not the
same in all these texts.

iii) Yañña `a sacrifice': Buddha's View

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The word yañña- too has a two-fold meaning: in the context of the Vedic tradition it means `a
sacrifice', while in the Buddhist sense, it is `almsgiving, charity, a gift to the Saṅgha or a
bhikkhu.' In a certain context, it is said in the Selasutta of the Suttanipāta (Sn 3.7):

ु या सािवी छसो मखं

अिगमखा ु ।
Sn 568 (Andersen and Smith 1965: 111).

“The oblations in the sacred fire are the foremost of the sacrifices and the Sāvitrī, the
foremost of the chandas''.

There are numerous expressions of this kind, showing respect towards the Vedic lore. The
Buddha himself was well-versed in the Vedas. In the Sundarikabhāradvājasutta of the
Suttanipāta (Sn 3.4), the Buddha asks Bhāradvāja:

“If you call yourself a Brahmin and myself a non-Brahmin, I ask you about the
sāvitrī, having three pādas and twenty-four syllables.”2

Finally, Bhāradvāja realizes that the Buddha is a real Brahmin, expert in Vedas,
Brahmā himself and one who deserves the oblation of the sacrificial bread (pūraḷāsa)
(Sn 479).3 The metaphor of sāvitrī is again used in a different context in some Mahāyāna
works, with which we shall deal later. References to the Vedic sacrifices are also frequently
met with. While showing respect for the Vedic lore and even for the sacrifice, the Buddha
however opposes killing of animals and waste of natural resources in the sacrifice.

The Kūṭadantasutta (D I.5) describes in an elaborate manner a bloodless sacrifice. Kūṭadanta, a

Brahmin living in the Brahmin village Khānumata, had planned a great animal sacrifice. Seven
hundred bulls, seven hundred bullocks, and so on had been brought to immolate them in the
sacrifice. At that time the Buddha was staying in that village. Kūṭadanta heard that the ascetic
Gotama had known how to conduct successfully the triple sacrifice with sixteen requisites (D
5.4).4 He approaches Gotama who narrates how in ancient times a king Mahāvijita performed
a bloodless sacrifice. Gotama says:

“In this sacrifice, O Brahmin, no bulls were slain, no goats or ship, no cocks and
pigs, nor were various living beings subjected to slaughter, nor were trees cut down
for sacrificial posts, nor were grasses mown for the sacrificial grass''. (Walshe 1987:
138).5
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The Buddha further speaks of a sacrifice which is simpler, less difficult, more profitable than
the threefold sacrifice with sixteen attributes; he mentions more and more profitable sacrifices
consisting in giving gifts to ascetics, providing shelter for the Saṅgha, going for refuge to the
Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saṅgha, undertaking precepts and finally, attaining the four
jhānas, various insights and the cessation of the corruptions. Here it is interesting to see that
the sacrifice involving immolation of ‘seven hundred bulls, seven hundred bullocks, etc is
found nowhere in the texts describing Vedic solemn sacrifices (Dharmadhikari 2006: 228). It
appears that the story of that kind of sacrifice is used just to convince Kūṭadanta of the
impropriety of a sacrifice involving animal killing. In the said story, the Vedic concept of
sacrifice has been modified and is given a deeper meaning.

v) Supremacy of Buddha's Dharma over Brahmanical Dharma

While showing reverence towards the Vedic lore and using the Vedic vocabulary, the
Buddhist texts show the supremacy of their dharma over the age-old and well-established
Vedic tradition. The story of Buddha’s Enlightenment says that he remained four weeks at the
bodhi-tree after attaining Enlightenment. He was doubtful whether he would be able to teach
dhamma to others. He finally decided to engage himself in preaching, only when Brahmā
appeared and requested him to do so. This episode has been interpreted in different ways. It
may suggest that the representative of the Vedic tradition recognized the importance and the
supremacy of dhamma over his own dharma.

4. Vedism and Brahmanism in Mahāyāna

In the Mahāyāna texts, a similar attitude of reverence towards the Veda and the inclination for
Vedism is found. Mātṛceṭa, a Buddhist poet who flourished around the first century C.E., has
composed a beautiful hymn, the Varṇārhavarṇastotra, in praise of the Buddha. A section of
that hymn is called brahmānuvādastava “The praise (of the Buddha) in Brahmanical terms''.
Some of the verses from that section (VII. 1, 2 and 13) are relevant to the present discussion:

“Oh Sun (Savitṛ) of the Good Law, you have illuminated that sāvitrī of the Law, of
twice twelve (i. e. twenty-four) members (pada), running both forward and
backward, (in which consists) the nature of this world, (consisting) in the
manifestation and the cessation (of the world), (and) which all worldly beings
including the gods severally obey (1-2). You are Brahma, in you is the brahmanical
path, you are the chief among brahmans, you are the guide and the preceptor, the
priest and the chaplain (Bailey 1951: 965, 967).6

How is the formula of the pratītyasamutpāda to be understood as the sāvitrī, i.e. the mantra of
Savitṛ? The sāvitrī is an invocation of the deity Savitṛ, in the Gāyatrī metre, and hence is also
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called Gāyatrī mantra. The metre has three pādas having eight syllables each, thus having
twenty-four syllables in all. The formula of the pratītyasamutpāda has twelve links (dvādaśa
nidāna). The formula is to be recited both ways: the formula denoting the origination (pravṛtti,
anuloma) and that of the cessation (nivṛtti, viloma). The anuloma order is:
avijjāpaccayā saṅkhārā, saṅkhārapaccayaṃ viññāṇaṃ.... and so on. Then the formula is to be
recited in the viloma order where the cessation is mentioned: avijjānirodhā saṅkhāranirodho,
saṅkhāranirodhā viññāṇanirodho and so on. Thus the formula becomes one having twenty-
four constituents. We find a similar metaphor, in a philosophical work. Bhāviveka (or
Bhavya), in his Madhyamakahṛdaya (Lindtner 2001), devotes a small chapter to “Taking
recourse to the vow of an ascetic.'' (Madhyamakahṛdaya, Munivratasamāśraya, Chapter II).
He describes in a poetic manner how the ascetic, aspiring for Enlightenment, should engage
himself in the practice of the vow of an ascetic:

`` (One aspiring for Enlightenment), resides in a beautiful forest, meant for penance,
in the form of Mahāyāna, takes for his meals the fruits of the joy of meditation. He
takes the cows (in the form of his faculties) to graze (go-cara) on the (four)
foundations of mindfulness (smṛtyupasthāna). He destroys all sin through the study
(svādhyāya) of the vast and profound Sūtrāntas and relying on the two-fold truth,
muttering the (mantra in praise) of Savitṛ in the form of the formula of dependent
origination (pratītyotpāda)''.7

Here the words svādhyāya- and sāvitrī- are of Vedic origin. In the Vedic tradition,
svādhyāya means the study (literally, recitation) of one's own Śākhā (sva+adhyāya), while in
the Buddhist tradition, it denotes the study of their religious scriptures. The word sūtrānta-
reminds us of the word vedānta-, the study and practice of which are essential for the
realization of the ultimate truth, according to the schools of Vedānta. This instance is just one
that points to Vedism in the Mahāyāna. There could be many more instances of this kind in
other texts.

5. Vedism and Brahmanism in Buddhist Tantric Literature

i) Meaning of the term mantra / Mantrayāna

Among the Mahāyāna texts, the Tantric works are particularly replete with the Vedic and
Brahmanic vocabulary and are much more inclined towards Vedism and Brahmanism. The
Buddhist Tantric way is known as Vajrayāna or Mantrayāna and is a part of Mahāyāna. The
term mantra- denotes the prominence of mantras to be recited in various Tantric practices.
There are also the mantras associated with various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, e. g. Om Maṇi
Padme Hum (Tibetan pronunciation om mani peme hum), the mantra of Avalokiteśvara,
occurring on the prayer-wheels in the Tibetan Buddhist temples, or “Namu Amida Butsu'', the
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six-character mantra of Amitābha (popularly called nembutsu in Japanese), popular in the

Pure Land sect of the Japanese Buddhism. The word mantra- has however a peculiar meaning
in the Tantric Buddhism. It is said in the Sekoddeśaṭīkā (SUT):

“Moreover, mantra is also called the supreme, imperishable knowledge, as it

becomes the protection for the mind. The meaning of mantra, conveyed by the word
mantra, is the imperishable knowledge of emptiness. Mantra is endowed with the
sacred knowledge and is of the nature of (the union of emptiness and compassion''.8

Mantrayāna is therefore the way that aims at the realization of the union of emptiness and
compassion, i.e., the great bliss (mahāsukha), the attainment of the state of the Complete
Enlightened Buddha.

ii) Vajra / Vajrayāna

The word vajra- in the name Vajrayāna has obviously been borrowed from the Vedic tradition,
and is associated in a unique manner with the Buddhist Tantric sect.

Bhagavān is so called, because he subdues defilements and passions. The SUT quotes a verse
from the Hevajra Tantra (HT):

“Bhaga is said to be `breaking', since it destroys mental afflictions (kleśa-māra) and

so forth. Those defilements are to be destroyed by means of wisdom; therefore,
wisdom is called bhaga”.9

As regards the word vajra-, it has a special meaning in the Buddhist Tantric tradition.
In a verse quoted in the Advayavajrasaṃgraha (AVS), Vajra is equated with śūnyatā
`emptiness` through which Enlightenment is attained.

“Firm, substantial and solid, of uncuttable and unbreakable character, unburnable,

indestructible, the void is said to be vajra”.10

iii) Oṁkāra / svāhā / vauṣaṭ / vaṣaṭ

It is often said in the Buddhist Tantric texts that the mantra is to be preceded by om and
followed by svāhā. This is just like any Vedic, post-Vedic Hindu or a Hindu Tantric tradition.
The Kālacakra Tantra (KT III. 79ab) says:

“In the beginning of the mantras of all gods and goddesses, there should be
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praṇava; while during the offerings, it should end with svāhā; it is the essence; also
in (all acts of) worship, it should end with namas”.11

The authors of these Tantric works were aware that the syllable om was called
praṇava and was uttered at the beginning of the recitation of the Vedas. The HT
calls om as `foremost of the Vedas' (vedānām ādima) and says that it should be
placed at the beginning of the mantra. The commentary Yogaratnamālā on this
Tantra calls it praṇava (Snellgrove 1959b: 82; 153).

iv) Homa `sacrifice': Inner and Outer

All these mantras are to be used in the rites where the offerings in favour of deities are to be
made in the fire. This sacrificial act is frequently termed homa, and is known by the same term
in the Buddhist Tantric sects of other countries. For instance, in the Shingon sect of Japan, it
occurs in its phonetic translation as goma. The Buddhist Tantric texts use the same Vedic and
post-Vedic sacrificial terminology; but in particular context, the implications are different. The
Cakrasaṃvara Tantra (CST) describes “the inner sacrifice (adhyātmahoma) and prescribes that
one should consume caru. This substance of offering, caru, generally means ‘cooked rice'; but
here, it has a typically Buddhist Tantric sense, i.e., the five sacred ambrosias (pavitrāṇi
pañcāmṛtāni, Pandey 2002: 499), namely, blood, semen, human flesh, urine and excrement
(Wayman 1961: 91; 1977: 291).

v) Fruits of Sacrifice

The Saṁvarodaya Tantra mentions the fruits of all divisions of homa:

“Now I shall speak of the fruits which result from all the divisions of homa: the
(sacrificial) ground increases landed property; the hearth-pit makes the house
prosperous (54). Clarified butter brings about every (kind of) prosperity; fuel
increases splendour; firewood increases heroism; kuśa-grass protects everything
(55). White mustard pacifies (calamities); grains of rice are considered to be
increasing welfare; sesame seed is known to destroy evil; corn brings grain and
wealth (56). Beans produce great strength; barley gives wind-like speed; dūrvā-
grass extends the life span; wheat removes sickness (57). Honey and milk bring
about wisdom; boiled rice mixed with curd (dadhyanna) grants all kinds of
happiness; (the sacrificial) fire makes the desired object fulfilled; one's own
guardian-deity grants liberation (58). Other things are known to effect the rites of
pacifying and so on according to the (nature of) the rite; the pot (pātrī) is wisdom;
the ladle (sruva) the means (upāya); their union is the practice of non-duality (59).
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Clarified butter poured from them (as offering the sacred fire) is considered to be
the ambrosia of great wisdom; with it (the practitioner) should please the (sacred)
fire, whose essence is the whole world (60). He who in this way carries out homa,
brings about fulfilment and good luck (for the sacrificer) (61).'' (Tsuda 1974: 313).12

vi) Sacrificial utensils: Tantric interpretation

The Vasantatilaka (VT) also mentions sruva, bhājana, pātrī, and kuṇḍa (VT 8.23-24) using a
similar metaphor (VT 8.21-24). It speaks of the inner and the outer homa. The inner fire is the
fire of wisdom (prajñāgni) and the outer is the one emerged from the friction of the two
wooden blocks (araṇimanthana; commentry on VT 8. 21-24, Rinpoche and Dviwedi 1990: 66-
67). One of the MSS of the VT reproduces a passage from the Ḍākārṇava where we find a
similar metaphor (Rinpoche and Dviwedi 1990: 69).

It may be observed that, while the Buddhist Tantras and particularly the Kālacakra,
vehemently denounce the Vedic Dharma for its hierarchy and discrimination in respect of the
four varṇas, this ritual act of fetching the fire from the houses of different castes maintains the
hierarchy of castes.

viii) Yajñopavīta

In the Buddhist Tantras, there is a mention of yajñopavīta `the sacred thread' as one of the
ornaments of the deities. In the Yoginīsañcāra Tantra (YST), Heruka, a manifestation of the
Buddha, the main deity, his consort Vajravārāhī and other deities have been described and
their attributes have also been mentioned:

‘`All the deities, Śrīheruka and others are standing in the ālīḍha posture and are
adorned with a necklace (kaṇṭhikā), a pair of bracelets (rucaka), ear-rings (kuṇḍala),
a jewel (-like round-shaped ornament) on the head (śiromaṇi), the sacred thread
(yajñopavīta) and ashes (bhasman). These ornaments are also called six mudrās.''13

Tathāgatarakṣita, in his commentary Nibandha, explains the yajñopavīta as brahmasūtra ‘a

Brahmanical thread' or mekhalā `a girdle' tied upon the waist (Pandey 1998: 63-64).

In the context of Tantric sacrifice, the Vimalaprabhā commentary on the KT speaks of various
types of Agni (vaiśvānara) and in that connection quotes a mantra from the Ṛgveda, (thinking
that it is from Vedānta). It says:

“Here, Vaiśvānara is threefold; dakṣiṇāgni, gārhapatya and āhavanīya. Here the

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dakṣiṇāgni is the lightening, the gārhapatya, the sun, and the āhavanīya, the
kravyāda. The fourth is the eternal, gnosis-fire, possessing bliss as its quality.
Therefore every offering is to be made below that (fire). It is also said in the
Vedānta: “I send afar flesh-eating Agni, bearing off stains. May he depart to Yama's
subjects. But let this other Jātavedas carry oblation to the gods, for he is skilled''.14

The verse quoted in the VP belongs to the hymn in the Ṛgveda (X. 16.9) which, along with the
next one (ṚV X.16.10), is employed in the funeral rite to be performed in the event of the death
of an Āhitāgni. According to Sāyaṇa, they are to be recited while the aupāsana fire is being
extinguished. The relevance of this Ṛgvedic verse in the Buddhist Tantric ritual is difficult to
understand. However, it denotes the element of the Brahmanical influence on the KT.

ix) Buddhist and other tenets

The Buddhist philosophical tenets make a distinction between those belonging to their own
tenet (bauddha) and the outsiders (bāhya), frequently termed as tīrthikas `heretics`. The
Buddhist Tantric texts use the same terminology (Upadhyaya 1986: 195, 266, 270; Dviwedi and
Bahulkar 1994b: 118). Sometimes this distinction is made with the terms svayūthya `belonging
to their own group' and parayūthya `those from other groups'. The VT says that the
svayūthyas have five great disciplines of learing (pañca mahāvidyā) and the parayūthyas, the
fourteen branches of learning. The reference to the fourteen vidyās is obviously to those
mentioned in an oft-quoted verse:
“(The six) limbs (i.e. Vedāṅga texts), (four) Vedas, Mīmāṃsā, extensive
Nyāya (system), Dharmaśāstra, and Purāṇa-- these are the fourteen Vidyās''.15

The enumeration of branches of knowledge as vidyā or kalā is an ancient Indian tradition,

reflected in various Brahmanical texts, religious and secular as well. The Buddhist tradition
too mentions them as five great or ten minor branches of learning.
x) Buddha: Origin of all knowledge

In the Hindu tradition, the Tantras have been recognized as authority and have been given the
status of revelation (śruti). This is stated by Kullūka quoting Hārīta, in his gloss on the
Manusmṛti (2. 1). He says:
‘`Therefore Hārīta (says); “And therefore (we) explain Dharma. Dharma has the
testimony of the Śruti. And Śruti is two-fold: Vedic and Tantric.''.16

The Hindu Tantras thus get recognition and the status equal to the Vedas. The Buddhist
Tantras attempt to establish their supremacy over the Vedic as well as the other tradition,
including the tenets of Śrāvakas. The HT (I. vii. 54) says:
‘`With all the Vedas and the Siddhāntas, and also with proliferation of acts, there is
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no accomplishment, nor with (any act of) purification.....''17

The Yoginīsañcāratantra (YST 12. 9-10) says:

‘`All the sciences, the Vedas and the Siddhāntas have arisen from this very doctrine
(of tantra) and have survived. There is no accomplishment (of the goal) without this
(tantra) either in this world or the yonder (world). This (tantra) is established (as)
the only essence (of all knowledge).''18

The commentary Nibandha on this Tantra explains that the Vedas are the doctrines
outside the Buddhist parlance and that the word siddhānta- denotes the scriptures of the
Śrāvakas and so on. The KT (5. 49ab) maintains that all Vedas and other doctrines have
arisen from the Buddha, manifested in the form of the deity with four mouths:
‘`The Lord of Jinas proclaims the Ṛgveda from his rear mouth; the Yajurveda from
the right mouth; from the left, the Sāmaveda; and the Atharvaṇa, in the clan of
Supreme Hari, from the mouth at the front…''.19
The Tantra goes on enumerating various tenets other than the Vedas, namely, Kaula,
Bhūtatantra associated with Garuḍa, Siddhānta, i. e. probably Śaiva Siddhānta and the
Dharma (proclaimed by) Viṣṇu that have arisen from the respective mouths of the Buddha.
(KT 5. 49cd; Dvivedi and Bahulkar 1994b: 34).

In the same Tantra (1.156), it is said elsewhere that the gnosis-body of Jina proclaims the past,
the present, the future and all the sciences beginning with the Vedas, logic and so on.''20

xi) Buddha identified with Vedic and Brahmanical Deities

The Buddhist Tantras thus claim that the Buddha is the creator of all knowledge in this world.
Moreover, they identify the Buddha with the Brahmanical deities, namely, Brahmā, Viṣṇu,
Śiva and so on: The HT (I. v. 12-14) says:21
“This unity is known as Vairocana, Akṣobhya, Amogha, Ratna, Ārolik, and Sāttvika,
as Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Śiva, Sarva, Vibuddha, and Tattva.22 He is called Brahmā because
he has gained nirvāṇa and Enlightenment. Viṣṇu because he is all-pervading. Śiva
because he is propitious, Sarva because he abides in all things, Tattva because he
experiences real bliss, and Vibuddha because he is aware of this happiness”.23
And also elsewhere (HT II. v. 37):
“Their sets are Brahmā, Indra, Upendra, Viṣṇu, Śiva, Yama, Kubera,
Nirṛti, and Vemacitrin”.24

Thus the HT identifies the Buddha with the Brahmanical deities; however, it explains the
meaning of the names Brahmā and others in a different way, so as to fit in the Buddhist
 12

context. The verses from the MNS using the Brahmanical names, have already been quoted at
the outset. The commentators use all their knowledge and talent to offer a new interpretation.
For example, the Amṛtakaṇikā commentary on that text attempts to explain the epithets or the
names of Mañjuśrī in a very complicated manner. It is difficult at this stage to understand the
correct meaning of the glosses. However, it can be said that the author tries his best to show
that the words do not carry the usual meanings known in the Brahmanical tradition. For
instance, the word muñja- is used in the sense of not allowing the semen (bodhicitta) to
ejaculate. Thus, in the context of Vedic tradition, the word mauñjī- would mean ‘one wearing
a girdle made of the muñja-grass; while the commentator of the Nāmasaṅgīti understands it in
the sense of ‘one possessing the ability of controlling one's bodhicitta'. The commentator tries
to connect the word muñja- with the root muñc- ‘to release' and explains it on the basis of
verbal, rather, phonetic similarity.25 The word brahaman- in the name Brahmavit has a
peculiar meaning: it is the knowledge of the union of the emptiness (śūnyatā) and the
compassion (karuṇā). Mañjuśrī is called Brahmā, as he has the four heads in the form of the
four brahmavihāras and the four dhyānas. The word brahmanirvāṇa is obviously borrowed
from the Bhagavadgītā (2. 72), The commentator simply derives the word as a genitive
compound and explains it as `bliss` (ānanda). Further he quotes a passage from some text,
`bliss is the form or manifestation of Brahman' (ānando brahmaṇo rūpam iti vacanāt). All this
explanation might seem farfetched, to establish that the terms have a typically Buddhist
Tantric meaning and not usual the Brahmanical one.26

All these references and passages, point to the possibility of the influence of Vedic and
Brahmanical tradition on the Buddhist literature. This is not to say that the Buddhist had a
direct connection with the Vedic and later Brahmanical tradition or that they borrowed this
material directly from the Vedic and the post-Vedic texts. On the contrary, it rather appears
that the Buddhist had some knowledge of that tradition in a general way and that they did not
rely upon some specific Vedic or Brahmanical texts. In the case of the early Pāli canonical
texts, the compilers of those texts were close to the late Vedic period or the end of that period.
It is not surprising that the Buddhist used the vocabulary, concepts and practices that were
commonly known or popular. As for the Mahāyāna, there appears growing influence of the
then Brahmanical tradition. In the case of Buddhist Tantras, it appears that the authors lived in
the surrounding of the Hindu Tantras, particularly, the Śaiva. The rituals such as the Maṇḍala
visualization, the concept of worshiping the deity in the Maṇḍala and visualizing oneself as
the deity (śivo bhūtvā śivaṃ yajet “one should worship Śiva, having become Śiva”), the
vocabulary rich with ritualistic terms and so on, all this appears very close to the Śaiva
tradition. It is possible to say therefore that the Buddhist Tantras had come under the
influence of the Śaiva Tantric tradition, probably the Kashmir Śaivism, and not the Vedic or
Brahmanical tradition. These concepts, common to Brahmanism and Śaivism might have been
used equally by the Buddhists. That was probably a common stock for various religious
 13

traditions.

6. Conclusion

There is seen the tendency of Vedism and Brahmanism through out the Buddhist literature,
right from the early Pāli canon through the Mahāyāna to the late Buddha Tantric texts. While
borrowing the Vedic and Brahmanical vocabulary, concepts and ritual practices, the Buddhist
did not necessarily adhere directly to particular traditions or texts. The proportion of the
usage of such vocabulary and ritualistic practices has increased in the Mahāyāna and, more
prominently, in late Buddhist Tantric tradition that involved the muttering of various mantras,
offerings into fire and other practices, resembling the Vedic and Brahmanical sacrificial ritual.

*****

1
Aññathâ bho brâhmaṇa brâhmaṇâ brâhmaṇaṃ tevijjaṃ paññâpenti, aññathâ ca pana ariyassa vinaye

tevijjo hotî ti / A 3.6 (Warder 1961: 16623-24).

2
Brāhmaṇo ce tvaṃ brūsi mañ ca brūsi abrāhmaṇaṃ /

Taṃ taṃ sāvittiṃ pucchāmi tipadaṃ catuvīsatakkharaṃ // Sn 457 (Andersen and Smith 1965: 81).

3
Hutañ ca mahyaṃ hutam atthu saccaṃ, yaṃ tādisaṃ vedagunaṃ alatthaṃ /
Brahmā h sakkhi: patigaṇhātu me Bhagavā, bhuñjatu me Bhagavā pūraḷāsaṃ // Sn 479 (Andersen and

Smith 1965: 85).

4
Sutaṃ kho pana me taṃ: Samaṇo Gotamo tividha-yañña-sampadaṃ soḷasa-parikkhāraṃ jānātîti / D

5.4 (Davids and Carpenter 1975: I. 12829-30).

5
Tesu pi kho brāhmaṇā, yaññesu n’ eva gāvo haññiṃsu, na ajeḷakā haññiṃsu, na kukkuṭa-sūkarā

haññim (sic ṃ) su,

na vividhā pāṇā saṃghātaṃ āpajjiṃsu, na rukkhā chijjiṃsu yūpatthāya, na dabbhā lūyiṃsu

 14

barihisatthāya/ D 5. 20.

(Davids and Carpenter 1975: I. 14223-26).

6
pravṛttau ca nivṛttau ca prakṛtir jagato'sya yā /

yāṃ sarve nātivartante pṛthag lokāḥ sadevakāḥ //

pratilomānulomāṅgā dvidvādaśapadā tvayā /

saddharmasavitar dharmasāvitrī samprakāśitā //

tvaṃ brahmā pratipad brāhmī tvayi tvaṃ brāhmaṇarṣabhaḥ /

praṇetā copanetā ca tvam ṛtvik tvaṃ purohita<ḥ> // Varṇārhavarṇastotra, VI. 1, 2 and 13 (Bailey 1951:

964, 966).

7
mahāyānamahāramyatapovanasamāśrayaḥ /

dhyānaprītiphalāhāras smṛtyupasthānagocaraḥ //

gambhīrodārasūtrāntasvādhyāyahatakilbiṣaḥ /

pratītyotpādasāvitrīṃ japan satyadvayāśrayaḥ // Madhyamakahṛdaya II.9-10 (Lindtner 2001: 6).

8
tathā manastrāṇabhūtatvān mantro' pi paramākṣarajñānam ucyate / Mūlatantre ca-

kāyavākcittadhātūnāṃ prāṇabhūto yatas tataḥ /

mantrārtho mantraśabdena śūnyatājñānam akṣaram /

puṇyajñānamayo mantraḥ śūnyatākaruṇātmakaḥ // Sekoddeśaṭīkā (Sferra and Merzagora 2006: 193).

9
bhañjanaṃ bhagam ākhyātaṃ mārakleśādibhañjanāt /

prajñāvadhyāś ca te kleśās tasmāt prajñā bhagocyate // Sekoddeśaṭīkā (Sferra and Merzagora 2006:

65); The verse is not found in the HT. However, it has a verse of similar import: bhagāni ṣaḍvidhāny
 15

āhur aiśvaryādiguṇākhilāḥ / athavā kleśādimārāṇāṃ bhañjanād bhagavān iti // HT I.v.15 (Snellgrove

1959b: 16).

10
dṛḍhaṃ sāram asauśīryam acchedyābhedyalakṣaṇam /

adāhi avināśi ca śūnyatā vajram ucyate // AVJ (Shastri 1927: 23, 37).

11
sarveṣāṃ nāma pūrvaṃ praṇava iti bhaved devatādevatīnāṃ

home svāhāntamantro hṛdayam api tathaivārcane vai namo' ntaḥ / KT III. 79ab (Dviwedi and Bahulkar

1994a: 78).

12
athānyatamaṃ vakṣye sarvahomāṅgajaṃ phalam /

kṣetravṛddhikarī bhūmiḥ kuṇḍaṃ gehavivṛddhikṛt //

sarvasampattikṛt sarpiḥ samit tejovivardhikā /

śauryādhikakaraṃ kāṣṭhaṃ sarvarakṣākaraḥ kuśaḥ //

śāntikṛt sitasiddhārthāḥ puṣṭikṛt taṇḍulo mataḥ /

tilaṃ pāpaharaṃ vidyād dhānyaṃ dhānyārthakarṣakam //

mahābalakaraṃ māṣaṃ vāyuvegapradaṃ yavam /

āyurvṛddhikarī dūrvā godhūmo roganāśakaḥ //

prajñāpade madhukṣīre dadhyannaṃ sarvasaukhyadam /

iṣṭārthasiddhido vahnir muktiṃ dadyāt sveṣṭadevatā //

śeṣaṃ karmānurūpeṇa jñeyaṃ śāntyādikarmakṛt /

pātrī prajñā sruvopāyas tacchleṣo' dvayabhāvanā //

 16

tato vinirgataṃ sarpir mahājñānāmṛtaṃ matam /

tena santarpayed agnim ātmanā sacarācaram //

evaṃ karoti yo homaṃ siddhisaubhāgyasampradam // SaṃT 23. 54-61 (Tsuda 1974: 144).

13
śrīherukādayas sarve ālīḍhāsanasaṃsthitāḥ /

kaṇṭhikārucakakuṇḍalaśiromaṇivibhūṣitāḥ //

yajñopavītaṃ bhasmeti mudrāṣaṭkaṃ prakīrtitam / YST 6. 12-13 (Pandeya 1998: 63-64).

14
iha vaiśvānaras trividhaḥ / dakṣiṇāgniḥ, gārhapatya, āhavanīya iti / dakṣiṇāgnir atra vidyut /

gārhapatyaḥ

sūryaḥ / āhavanīyaḥ kravyādaḥ / satyaś caturtho jñānāgnir ānandadharmā / atas asyādhaḥ sarva eva

homaḥ

kriyate / tathā vedānte cāha—

kravyādam agnim prahiṇomi dūraṃ yamarājño gacchatu ripravāhaḥ /

ihaivāyam itaro jātavedā devebhyo havyaṃ vahatu prajānan // ( Ṛgveda 10.16.9) VP on KT 3.74-75

(Dviwedi and Bahulkar 1994a: 75).

15
aṅgāni vedāś catvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ /

dharmaśāstraṃ purāṇaṃ ca vidyās tv etāś caturdaśa //

Cf. purāṇanyāyamīmāṃsādharmaśāstrāṅgamiśritāḥ / vedāḥ sthānāni vidyānāṃ dharmasya ca

caturdaśa //

Yajñavalkyasmṛti I.3 (Pāndey 1967: 3).

16
Ata eva Hārītaḥ- athāto dharmaṃ vyākhyāsyāmaḥ / śrutupramāṇako dharmaḥ / śrutiś ca dvividhā
 17

/ vaidikī tāntrikī ca / Kulluka on Manusmṛti 2.1 (Nene 1970: 35).

17
samastavedasiddhāntaiḥ karmaprasaraṇādibhiḥ /

siddhir na syād bhavec chuddhyā punarjanma bhavāntare // HT I. vii. 54 (Snellgrove 1959b: 30).

18
śāstrāṇi ca samastāni vedasiddhāntasaṃsthitāḥ /

na ca tena vinā siddhir iha loke paratra ca //

samastavedasiddhāntasāram ekaṃ pratiṣṭhitam // YST 12. 9-10 (Pandey 1998: 114 ).

19
ṛgvedaṃ paścimāsyād api gadati yajur vāmavaktrāj jinendraḥ

savyāsyāt sāmavedaṃ paramaharikule' tharvaṇaṃ pūrvavaktrāt / KT 5. 49ab (Dvivedi and Bahulkar

1994b: 34)

20
etaiḥ sañcārarūpair avatarati vibhur jñānakāyo jinasya
bhūtaṃ bhavyaṃ bhaviṣytat pravadati sakalaṃ vedatarkādiśāstram // KT 1.156 (Upadhyaya 1986:
153)
21
vairocanākṣobhyāmoghaś ca ratnārolik ca sāttvikaḥ /

brahmā viṣṇuḥ śivaḥ sarvo vibuddhas tattvam ucyate //

brahmā nirvṛtito buddhaḥ viṣaṇād viṣṇur ucyate /

śivaḥ sadā sukalyāṇāt sarvaḥ sarvātmani sthitaḥ //

satsukhatvena tattvaṃ ca vibuddho bodhanād rateḥ / HT I. v. 12-14ab (Snellgrove 1959b: 16).

22
Snellgrove 1959b: 62, note 5: S (= Saroruha in Padmini, Padma can, Narthang Tenjur, xv. 142a-194b):

equates the buddhas with their six Brahmanical counterparts, associating the five with the five

wisdoms:

Vairocana Brahmā ādarśajñāna,

 18

Amoghasiddhi Śiva kṛtyānuṣṭhānajñāna,

Akṣobhya Viṣṇu suviśuddhadharmadhātujñāna,

Ratnasambhava Sarva samatājñāna,

Amitābha Tattva pratyavekṣājñāna,

Vajrasattva Vibuddha sahajānandamahāsukhapratīti,

He defines Vibuddha as special and noble Buddha.

23
Some errors in the transliteration in Snellgrove`s edition have been corrected.

24
brahmendropendrarudrāś ca Vivasvata Vināyakaḥ /

nairṛtir Vemacitrī ca Gauryādīnāṃ tu vistaram // HT II. v. 37 (Snellgrove 1959b: 80).

25
The verbal connection of the root muñc- with the word muñja- is also found in the Kauśika Sūtra

(26.2), a major ritual text in the tradition of the Atharvaveda, where a mantra having the verbal

form muñca is employed (muñca śīrṣktyā…Atharvaveda I.12.3).

26
The passage, the basis of the statement made above, is reproduced here:

Mahāvrateti/ skandha-dhātvindriyādiniḥsvabhāvīkaraṇaṃ mahāvrataṃ tad dharatīti tathoktaḥ /

muñjaḥ, bodhicittācyavanaṃ tadyogān mauñjī / acyutabodhicittatvād eva brahmacārī / ata eva

vratottamaḥ / … prakṛtiprabhāsvaraś śūnyatākaruṇābhinnaṃ jñānaṃ brahma tattādātmyena vetty

anubhavatī ti bramavit / pañcākṣararūpatvād haṃkāraḥ pañcatathāgatātmako brāhmaṇas

tannādam āgamya yāvad uṣṇīṣalayena sarvavikalpatvaṃ vāhayatī ti brāhmaṇāḥ /

ākāśāsaktacittatayāpratyāhārādiṣaḍaṅgasaṅkṣepa-

caturaṅgabrahmavihāracaturdhyānacaturmukhasvabhāvatvād brahmā / brahmaṇo nirvāṇam

 19

brahmanirvāṇam ānandaḥ / ānandaṃ brahmaṇo rūpam iti vacanāt/ Amṛtakaṇikā on MNS 8. 18-19

(Banarsilal 1994: 67).

*****