CVP321: Geotechnical Engg.

Laboratory
Sem. I – 2023-24
Triaxial Test & Shear Strength

Instructor: Dr. Debayan Bhattacharya

Department of Civil Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

 Shear Strength: brief refresher
• Shear strength → internal resistance (per unit area) that the soil
mass can offer to resist failure and sliding along any plane inside it

• Shearing resistance → analyze soil stability problems  bearing

capacity, slope stability, lateral pressure on earth-retaining walls etc.

• Mohr-Coulomb (MC) failure-criterion:  = f(); 𝝉𝒇 = 𝝈𝒇 tan 𝝓𝒇 + 𝒄𝒇

A (,) → 
B (,) → failure
C (,) → 

2
DB, CE Dept. IITD after B. M. Das & K. Sobhan: Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI-8th Eds.
 Triaxial Cell and Test Apparatus

soil sample at
failure

soil assembly in triaxial cell

after B. M. Das & K. Sobhan: Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI-8th Eds.

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DB, CE Dept. IITD
 Triaxial Test Stages

Stages:

1. Saturation stage (B-value)

2. Consolidation stage (c)
𝝈𝒄
𝝈𝒄
3. Shearing stage (c +d)

• ഥ - Skempton’s pore
Concept of B and 𝑨
pressure parameters

after B. M. Das & K. Sobhan: Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI-8th Eds.

Note: Stresses are applied

in principal stress space !!

4
DB, CE Dept. IITD
 Conventional triaxial tests
• UU: Unconsolidated-Undrained Test (Q-quick test)→su

• CD: Consolidated-Drained Test (S-slow test) → c’, ’

• CU: Consolidated-Undrained Test → c, ; uw measured  c’,

’
UU Test: Few Imp. Things
• Drainage from the soil specimen not permitted during application of all around cell
pressure (c = 3)

• Test specimen → sheared to failure by application of deviatoric stress (1 =c + d);
drainage is prevented (Const. Vol. Test; V = 0). Because drainage not allowed at
any stage  quick test !!

• Note: Pore-pressure develops during shearing stage (d); uw  measured  ’

(NOT KNOWN); parameters  total stress parameters → su (undrained shear
strength); cu u  undrained situations (e.g., short term stability, quick loading)
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DB, CE Dept. IITD
UU Test: IS 2720-PART 11 (1993) Reaffirmed (2002)
Determination of the shear strength parameters of a specimen tested in Unconsolidated
Undrained Triaxial Compression without the measurement of Pore Water Pressure

Equivalent Intl. Standard = ASTM D2850-03 (2017) Standard Test Method for
Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial Compression Test on Cohesive Soils
Note:
• Initially  confining pressure (σc = σ3) is applied through water around the
specimen in an impermeable (latex) membrane (thickness  0.3 mm)

• Vertical stress = major principal stress (σ1); confining pressure (σ3) acts in other
two principal directions; axisymmetric problem  σ2 = σ3 ; σ2 = intermediate
principal stress

• Deviatoric stress (σd) = difference of σ1 and σ3, i.e., σd = σ1 –σ3 ; (Note: σ1 > σ3 ; in
triaxial compression) acts on specimen while it is sheared
σc = σ3 σ1 = σ3 +  σd
Loading
Initial σc = σ 3 σc = σ3 σc = σ3 σc = σ3 Final

DB, CE Dept. IITD σ c = σ3 σ1 = σ3 +  σd 6

Test Procedure
Undisturbed Sample (from sampling tubes, trim the sides with wire-saw etc.) and
Remolded Sample (density and moisture content decided from compaction curve –
moist tamping method in layers); aspect ratio = 2H: 1D on cylindrical specimens
1. Specimen (38 mm dia., 76 mm height) placed in the Proving Ring
compression machine and a pressure plate is placed (Load)
on the top. Note to prevent any part of the machine or
cell from jogging the sample while it is being setup.
Dial Gauge (Axial Triaxial
2. Fill up the cell with water until water comes out of the defmn.) loading
bleed valve. Ensure water-tightness, uniformly frame
clamped down to prevent leakage of pressure during
test, specimen properly sealed with rubber O-rings,
latex membrane is not having any leakage.
Triaxial
3. Air-pressure is regulated, and pressure is employed Cell
on the specimen via air-water interface. Constant cell
pressure (c) to be maintained. Tests on identical Soil
specimens (at 100, 200, 300 kPa) depending on the specimen
depth of specimen collection.

4. Proving ring piston in contact with soil specimen. Dial

gauge connected. Specimen is sheared at constant Bottom
deformation rate ( 0.6 mm/min); strain-rate (0.1%- platen
1%). Shearing continued till 20% axial strain (failure
strain considered)
DB, CE Dept. IITD Display panel 7
 Typical stress strain behaviour & failure envelope – UU test
Modified failure envelope

t C (sfC, tfC)
B(sfB, tfB) 
A (sfA, tfA)

a = c Cos
Initial stress state or s
consolidation stress
stress path
 = tan-1(Sin)
To plot & estimate:

1. Deviatoric stress vs axial

strain (d vs a)
2. Failure envelope (s-t space)
3. Shear strength parameters
Note: Area correction
Total stress Mohr’s circles and failure envelope (u = 0) obtained from (corrected area = Ac) at
unconsolidated-undrained triaxial tests on fully saturated cohesive every axial defmn. step;
soil Ac =A0 / (1-a (in %)) 8
DB, CE Dept. IITD
Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) Test: IS 2720-PART 11 (1993)
Reaffirmed (2002)
ഥ - Skempton’s pore pressure parameters; 𝑩 = 𝜟𝒖𝒄ൗ𝜟𝝈 ; B = 1 →
Concept of B and 𝑨 𝒄
ഥ= 𝜟𝒖
saturated specimen (in isotropic loading stage); 𝑨 𝒅
ൗ𝜟𝝈𝒅 (in shearing stage)

Note: Total stress Pore pressure Effective stress

σv = 0
σ'v = -ur
Sampling
σh = 0 u = ur σ'h = -ur
stage

σ v = σc u = ur + uc ( Bσc) σ'v = σc - ur - uc

Undrained
Isotropic σ'h = σc - ur - uc
Loading
σh = σc

σv = σc + σd u = ur + uc ( Bσc) + ud σ'v = σc - ur - uc

Undrained
( 𝑨ഥ  σd) + (𝟏 − 𝑨)  σd
Shearing
stage
σh = σc

σ'h = σc - ur – uc −𝑨  σd
9
DB, CE Dept. IITD
Consolidated Drained (CD) Test (*saturated specimen)
Determination of the shear strength parameters of a specimen tested in Consolidated
Drained Triaxial Compression
Equivalent Intl. Standard = ASTM D7181-11 (2020): Method for Consolidated Drained
Triaxial Compression Test for Soils
Note: Total stress Pore pressure Effective stress

σv = 0 σ'v = -ur
Sampling
σh = 0 u = ur σ'h = -ur
stage

σ v = σc
B = 1 ensured σ'v = σc

Drained
Isotropic u=0
Loading
σh = σc σ'h = σc

σv = σc + σd σ'v = σc + σd

Drained
Shearing u=0 σ'h = σc
stage
σh = σc

10
DB, CE Dept. IITD
 Consolidated Drained (CD) Test (*saturated specimen)
Volume change (Vc) of specimen caused by (cell)
isotropic confining pressure

Dev. Stress: Dense

Dev. Stress: Loose sand or OC clay
sand or NC clay

Effective failure envelope from drained tests on sand and

normally consolidated clay

Vol. change: Loose Vol. change: Dense

sand or NC clay sand or OC clay

Consolidated Drained triaxial test

Effective failure envelope from drained tests for
overconsolidated clay 11
DB, CE Dept. IITD
 Estimation of specimen dimensions after isotropic
ഥ test (*saturated specimen)
consolidation in a CD or C𝑼
Volume change (Vc) of specimen caused by (cell)
isotropic confining pressure c
D0 D

Initial
L0 L
dimensions c c

after
Volume Change plot
c consolidation
(end of isotropic consolidation stage) in Isotropic
Consolidated Drained/ Undrained triaxial test consolidation with c

Assumption: Specimen dimensions (at end of consolidation stage) can be determined assuming
that the specimen retains its geometry i.e., cylindrical and behaves isotropically.

Vol. change (Vc) = V0 – V; vol. change is measured  burette (amt. of expelled incompressible
water); Volumetric strain (v) = Vc / V0
For isotropic consolidation (1 = 2 = 3 ), v = 1 + 2 + 3 = 31 = 3l
L = L0 -  L = L0 – L0 . l = L0 (1- l ) = L0 (1- v/3 ); Similarly, D = D0 (1- v/3 );

Also, if L is computed, D can be computed  𝝅Τ 𝑫𝟐

𝟒 . 𝑳 = 𝑽; V = volume after consolidation
Resources:
• https://research.iitgn.ac.in/stl/labmanual/
• http://home.iitk.ac.in/~madhav/ 12
DB, CE Dept. IITD
 Estimation of cross-sectional area during shearing stage in a
CD or C𝑼ഥ test (*saturated specimen) Resources:
• https://research.iitgn.ac.in/stl/labmanual/
c • http://home.iitk.ac.in/~madhav/

D c + d

c c L c
shearing stage
c Drained (V  0);
Undrained (V = 0)

c
after c + d
Isotropic
consolidation with c consolidation

Assumption: Specimen cross-section (during shearing stage) can be determined assuming that
the specimen retains its geometry i.e., cylindrical. Shearing stage  axial shortening (in
compression) → length decreases , and area increases 
A’ = c/s area of specimen at any stage during shearing; L = change in length during shearing;
V = change in vol during shearing; Vol. at any instant during shear (V’) = V  V; V = vol. @ end
of consolidation; A = c/s area after consolidation stage

V  V V (1 Vൗ𝑉 ) AL (1 Vൗ𝑉 ) A (1  Vൗ𝑉 )

A’ 𝑳 − L = V  V  𝑨 = = ′
= =
𝑳 − L 𝑳(𝟏 − Lൗ𝑳) 𝑳(𝟏 − 𝜺𝒂 ) (𝟏 − 𝜺𝒂 )

A
𝜺𝒂 = axial strain in specimen For an undrained test (V = 0)  𝑨′ =
(𝟏−𝜺𝒂 )
13
DB, CE Dept. IITD
 CD Test: Few imp. Points (In addition refer IS 2720-Part XII)
• Soil specimens  isotropically consolidated and sheared in compression with drainage at a
constant rate of axial deformation

• Drainage  allowed in both stages of triaxial testing → isotropic consolidation & shearing

• Takes considerably more time to complete a test as compared to UU and CU test 

commonly known as “slow” test → seldom conducted except for research interest !! →
slowest deformation rate (or strain rate  not to allow any excess pore pressure generation)

• Shear strength parameters (c’, ’) determined from CD test  used in embankment stability
analysis, earth pressure calculations, and foundation design → long-term stability analysis !!

• To ensure saturated specimen: CO2 stauration + forced water saturation (application of back
pressure)

• Determine t100  100% consolidation from V vs. t

𝜋𝐷2
• Compute cv = coefficient of consolidation 𝑐𝑣 =
100 t100

(Note: This is only valid for a specimen of aspect ratio 2:1

and having 2-way drainage)

• Specimen preparation: water-sedimentation, dry-pluviation, moist tamping

Resources:
• https://research.iitgn.ac.in/stl/labmanual/
• http://home.iitk.ac.in/~madhav/ 14
DB, CE Dept. IITD
 Analysis: Stress-Path (s - t) Method

Cambridge Definition MIT Definition

A ‘‘Stress–Path’’ is a curve or a straight line which is the locus of a series of stress points depicting the changes
in stress in a test specimen or in a soil element in-situ, during loading or unloading, engineered as in a triaxial
test in the former case or caused by forces of nature.

Simplified way to monitor stress changes is by showing the Mohr’s stress circles at different stages of
loading/unloading. But this may be cumbersome as well as confusing when a few circles are to be shown in the
same diagram

Lambe and Whitman (1969) - suggested the locus of points representing the maximum shear stress acting on
the soil at different stages be treated as a ‘stress path’, which can be drawn and studied in
place of the corresponding Mohr’s circles Resources:
• https://research.iitgn.ac.in/stl/labmanual/
DB, CE Dept. IITD • http://home.iitk.ac.in/~madhav/ 15
 Analysis: Stress-Path (s - t) Method Modified Failure Envelope

Co-ordinates of the points on the stress

t C (sfC, tfC)

path
B(sfB, tfB) 

𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟑 𝝈𝒗 − 𝝈𝒉 A (sfA, tfA)
𝒕= 𝒕=

a = c Cos
𝟐 𝟐
𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟑 𝝈𝒗 + 𝝈𝒉
𝒔= 𝒔=
𝟐 𝟐
Initial stress state or s
consolidation stress
𝒕 = 𝒔 tan 𝜓 (Modified FE)
stress path
t  = tan-1(Sin)
𝝉𝒇 = 𝝈𝒇 tan 𝝓 (MC)
𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈 𝟑
𝑫𝑶′ 𝒕 𝟐 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟑
= tan 𝜓 = = 𝝈 + =
𝝈 𝟑 𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟑
𝑶𝑶′ 𝒔 𝟏
C D 𝟐
𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟑
𝑪𝑶′ 𝝉𝒇 𝟐 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟑
= sin 𝝓 = =𝝈 + =
𝝈𝟑 𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟑
𝑶𝑶′ 𝝈𝒇 𝟏
𝟐
s
O 𝝈𝟑 O’ 𝝈𝟏 Resources:
• https://research.iitgn.ac.in/stl/labmanual/
DB, CE Dept. IITD • http://home.iitk.ac.in/~madhav/ 16
Deliverables & Typical Results : CD Test
Graphs & Tables :

• Deviatoric stress (d) versus axial strain (a) curve

for all confining pressures (individual & combined)

• Volumetric strain (v) versus axial strain (a) curve 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟑 𝝈𝒗 − 𝝈𝒉

𝒕= 𝒕=
for all confining pressures 𝟐 𝟐
𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟑 𝝈𝒗 + 𝝈𝒉
𝒔= 𝒔=
• Modified Failure Envelope for shear strength 𝟐 𝟐
parameter estimation

t  = tan-1(Sin)
a = c Cos

s s'

Pore pressure (uw) = 0 during shearing stage in CD test  0 i.e., 3 = 3’ ; 1 = 1’ & p = p’
Resources:
• https://research.iitgn.ac.in/stl/labmanual/
DB, CE Dept. IITD • http://home.iitk.ac.in/~madhav/ 17
 General Remarks: CD Test
• Saturation value - B must be acquired to be more than () 0.95 before starting the isotropic
consolidation phase in CD test.

• CD tests are performed at much slower strain rate as compared to CU tests for the same
soil. The strain rate for CD test can be chosen approximately 8-10 times lower than the
CU test.

• It is important to have no pore water pressure generation throughout the shearing phase
of CD test or in other words strain rate must be so small that pore water pressure must
get dissipated quickly when specimen is subjected to compression loading in CD test.

• In CD test, volumetric strain (v) versus axial strain (a) relationship shows contractive
response for NC soils and dilative response for OC soils. NC = Normally consolidated,
OC = Overconsolidated

• Filter paper strips can also be used around the cylindrical surface of the soil specimen to
allow radial drainage to improve the drainage conditions for CD tests on clays.
𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟑 𝝈𝒗 − 𝝈𝒉
𝒕= 𝒕=
𝟐 𝟐
𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟑 𝝈𝒗 + 𝝈𝒉
𝒔= 𝒔=
𝟐 𝟐
• Pore pressure (uw) = 0 during shearing stage in CD test  0 i.e., 3 = 3’ ; 1 = 1’ & p = p’
Resources:
• https://research.iitgn.ac.in/stl/labmanual/
DB, CE Dept. IITD • http://home.iitk.ac.in/~madhav/ 18
 ഥ Test : IS 2720 (Part XII) - 1981 (Reaffirmed 2002)
C𝑼
Determination of shear strength parameters of soil from Consolidated Undrained
Triaxial Compression Test with measurement of pore water pressure (*saturated
specimen)
Equivalent Intl. Standard = ASTM D4767 (2020): Standard Test Method for
Consolidated Undrained Triaxial Compression Test for Cohesive Soils
Note: Total stress Pore pressure Effective stress
σv = 0 σ'v = -ur
Sampling
σh = 0 u = ur σ'h = -ur
stage

σ v = σc
B = 1 ensured σ'v = σc

Drained
Isotropic u=0
Loading
σh = σc σ'h = σc

σv = σc + σd σ'v = σc + (𝟏 − 𝑨)  σd

Undrained
Shearing
σh = σc ഥ  σd
u=𝑨
stage

ഥ  σd
σ'h = σc −𝑨 19
DB, CE Dept. IITD
 ഥ Test: Few imp. points (In addition refer IS 2720-Part XII)
C𝑼
• Soil specimens  isotropically consolidated and sheared in compression without drainage
(no vol. change) at a constant rate of axial deformation

• Takes relatively less time to complete a test as compared to CD test but more than UU test 
commonly known as “relatively fast” test → conducted for both cohesionless and cohesive
soils !! → CD test < CU - deformation rate < UU test (or strain rate)  0.05% per min (cohesive
soils) to 1% per min (granular materials)

• Shear strength parameters (c, ) determined; pore-pressure measurements  c’,  ‘ → used in

embankment stability analysis, earth pressure calculations, and foundation design → short-
term stability analysis !!

• To ensure saturated specimen: CO2 stauration + forced water saturation (application of back
pressure); To update specimen dimensions (after conso. + during shearing)

• Determine t100  100% consolidation from V vs. t

𝜋𝐷2
• Compute cv = coefficient of consolidation 𝑐𝑣 =
100 t100

(Note: This is only valid for a specimen of aspect ratio 2:1

and having 2-way drainage)

• Specimen preparation: water-sedimentation, dry-pluviation, moist tamping

Resources:
• https://research.iitgn.ac.in/stl/labmanual/
• http://home.iitk.ac.in/~madhav/ 20
DB, CE Dept. IITD
 ഥ Test
Deliverables & Typical Results : C𝑼

Graphs & Tables :

• Deviatoric stress (d) versus axial strain (a) curve for all confining pressures (individual & combined)

• Excess pore water pressure (uw) versus axial strain (a) curve for all confining pressures

• Modified Failure Envelope for Total Stress Analysis (s – t) => shear strength properties evaluation

• Modified Failure Envelope for Effective Stress Analysis (s’ – t’) => shear strength properties evaluation

• Pore pressure (uw)  0 during shearing stage in C𝑼

ഥ test
Resources:
• https://research.iitgn.ac.in/stl/labmanual/
DB, CE Dept. IITD • http://home.iitk.ac.in/~madhav/ 21
 ഥ Test
General Remarks: C𝑼
• Isotropic consolidation process must be started after ensuring the saturation value
(B) to be more than () 0.95

• Isotropic confining pressure in CU testing is applied with the drainage valve open to
allow the change in void ratio of saturated soil specimen. The change in void ratio
occurs due to the removal of pore water from the soil specimen during isotropic
consolidation process

• Excess pore water pressure (uw) shows positive values for NC (normally
consolidated) soil specimens and negative values for OC (overconsolidated)
specimens indicating contractive and dilative response, respectively for saturated soils

• Strain rate must be chosen carefully for CU test based on the soil type. Fine-grained
soils require to be sheared at much lower strain rate (0.05% per min – 0.2% per min)
as compared to the coarse-grained soils (0.5% per min – 1% per min). Fine-grained
soil has lower permeability (lower void space); thus, pore water pressure distribution
will not be uniform at higher strain in such soils (clay, silt)

• Filter paper strips can also be used around the cylindrical surface of the soil specimen
to allow radial drainage to improve the drainage conditions, specially in clayey soils.
Resources:
• https://research.iitgn.ac.in/stl/labmanual/
• http://home.iitk.ac.in/~madhav/ 22
DB, CE Dept. IITD
Thank you !