Foundations of a Nutrients

Healthful Diet The foods we eat provide nutrients. There are six
categories of nutrients and each provides a dif-
Nutrition is the overall process of ingestion, di- ferent function in the body. Nutrients do not act
gestion, absorption, and metabolism of food. All independent of one another; they all work syner-
of these processes allow the nutrients from food gistically.
to be assimilated and utilized by the tissues of the
body. The guidelines for healthy nutrition apply to Macronutrients
both physically active and sedentary individuals
alike. The needs of athletes and physically active Provide energy
Carbohydrates
individuals are primarily different from sedentary for the body
individuals in the fact that physical activity boosts Help build and re-
caloric needs. With an increase in caloric intake, Proteins
pair tissues
the macronutrients and micronutrients typical-
Necessary part of every
ly follow suit (assuming the additional calories
cell, help protect inter-
don’t come solely from soft drinks, candy, and Fats
nal organs, and provide
desserts!). However, certain guidelines and rec- fat-soluble vitamins.
ommendations that differ from sedentary popu-
Comprises about 60
lations may apply to athletic populations (such as
percent of the body,
the timing of nutrient intake, increased carbohy-
is the most important
drate consumption, etc). Therefore, it is important Water
nutrient, and is crucial
to understand the basic, underlying principles of for various chemical
nutrition and nutrients, so this information can be reactions in the body.
applied in practice.
Micronutrients
Training for a triathlon, no matter what
Regulate various body
the distance, requires a lot of planning, training,
Vitamins processes, but do
and time. Over time, these things become like not provide energy.
clockwork, and athletes come up with their
own individual training plan that works for Regulate various body
them. However, many athletes, from beginner Minerals processes, but do
to advanced are still confused about how not provide energy.
to eat properly for these types of events. As
professionals, it is important to have a basic
knowledge of nutrition for triathlons or other
endurance events, and to understand how it Energy Equivalent of Macronutrients
differs from other types of physical activities.
General nutrition advisement will be explored for Carbohydrate (CHO): 4 kcal/g
endurance athletes including nutrition planning,
hydration strategies, and electrolyte balance. Protein (Pro): 4 kcal/g
Fat: 9 kcal/g
Alcohol: 7 kcal/g

103
 Carbohydrates According to the recently released dietary
guidelines, adults should get 45 percent to 65
The Basics percent of their calories from carbohydrates (for
those who prefer calculation in grams, follow the
guidelines later in this chapter). This range ac-
Carbohydrates play a number of roles in the counts for differences in lifestyles, activities, and
body. Two of the primary functions of carbohy- goals. It also correlates to the Food Guide Pyra-
drates are to provide glucose for the brain and mid which allows for some variation among food
energy for working muscles. Carbohydrates are groups depending on activity level and prefer-
stored in the muscles and liver as glycogen. Gly- ences. A description of the Food Guide Pyramid
cogen allows individuals to perform exercise for also comes later in this chapter.
a sustained period of time, ride a bike, go for a
run, etc.
Simple Carbohydrates
While there are no essential carbohy-
drates, per se (meaning the body can make glu- When used at proper times throughout the day,
cose from non glucose sources during extreme simple carbohydrates can also play an important
situations, such as fasting, as described earlier), role in an athlete’s diet. However, they should
carbohydrates play a crucial role during exercise. comprise very little of the overall diet because
Energy levels will decrease if carbohydrate intake they offer very little to nothing in terms of nutri-
is limited or carbohydrate stores in the body are ents. Simple carbohydrates are more technically
low. Some individuals need higher levels of car- known as monosaccharides (mono means one)
bohydrates than others (e.g., endurance athletes and disaccharides (di means two), which are sin-
vs. purely strength trained athletes), but no one gle and double sugar molecules, respectively.
should eliminate or drastically reduce carbohy-
drates for non-medical reasons. Doing so will
hurt mental and physical performance and there
are two nutrients that cannot be obtained by any Carbohydrates
other food aside from carbohydrates: fiber and
vitamin C. There are 3 major types:
1. sugar
There is much confusion about this whole- 2. starch
some nutrient. Popular diets recommend avoid- 3. fiber
ing them; they are often blamed for “fattening
America” and nearly every food product on the
shelf has a low-carbohydrate alternative. Individ-
uals often follow what they hear in the media and Monosaccharides
questions arise: “Should I stop eating carbohy-
drates after 4 PM? If I have too many carbs, will it
They are the simplest form of car-
make me fat? I can’t eat fruit, it contains too many bohydrate and include:
carbohydrates, right?” So what is the truth? The 1. fructose (fruit sugar)
truth is that carbohydrates are great for you; it is 2. glucose
the type of carbohydrates that should be of con- 3. galactose
cern, rather than carbohydrates themselves.

104
Monosaccharides are symbolized like this: under the following disguises; don’t be fooled,
these are all essentially simple carbohydrates.

Common names of sugar found on

food labels
Disaccharides Brown Sugar
Turbinado
Sugar Honey
Maple syrup
Sucrose
Glucose
They are made up of two mono- Corn Syrup
Dextrin
saccharides and include: Sugar
Lactose
1. Sucrose, which is a combina- Molasses
Fructose
tion of glucose and fructose Confectioner’s Sugar
Honey
Date Sugar
2. Lactose, which is milk sugar, a com- Caramel
High fructose
bination of glucose and galactose Fruit sugar
corn syrup
3. Maltose, which is two units of glucose Maple sugar
Brown rice syrup
Dextrose
Maltodextrin
Chicory syrup
Molasses powder
Disaccharides can be symbolized like this:

Complex Carbohydrates
These are all forms of simple carbohy-
drates. Some real food examples of simple sugars
include honey (glucose + fructose), table sugar
(glucose and fructose), and soft drinks (fructose
and glucose, often listed as high fructose corn
Starches and dietary fiber constitute the complex
syrup). All of the above mentioned simple car-
carbohydrates. These are known as polysaccha-
bohydrates rapidly convert to glucose, so the
rides (poly, meaning “many”). Polysaccharides
body can use them for fuel. This is appealing for
are many sugar molecules linked together to
many athletes because they each provide a quick
make a complex structure, as seen below.
source of energy; however, with that quick “pick
me up” there also comes a quick fall of energy Only plant foods that contain starch and
levels. The only time that quick acting, simple dietary fiber (such as grains, oats, fruits, vege-
carbohydrates should be the focus of the meal tables, potatoes, dried beans, etc.) are consid-
is during and after a workout, when the muscles ered complex carbohydrates. There is very little
are hungry for glycogen (again, the stored form of carbohydrate available in animal products. Com-
carbohydrate). plex carbohydrates should constitute the major-
ity of the diet. These substances provide a large
At this time, it is recommended to con-
amount of vitamins and minerals, in addition
sume a rapidly absorbed carbohydrate source,
to fiber. Aside from providing a more sustained
such as a carbohydrate drink (e.g., Gatorade or
source of energy, complex carbohydrates also
Powerade) or 100% fruit juice along with some
reduce the risk of heart disease and some can-
protein. Eating the proper nutrients soon after a
cers.
workout will help replenish glycogen stores and
enhance protein building (anabolism). Real food Like simple carbohydrates, complex car-
works well too, but be sure to focus on foods that bohydrates are also broken down into glucose
are high in the glycemic index chart (which is dis- and ultimately used for energy. However, be-
cussed in detail in subsequent pages). Sugar also cause there are more sugar molecules linked to-
goes incognito on food labels and often “hides” gether (as depicted above), this is a more labori-

105
 ous process for the body, and it requires more Within the overall classification of fiber, there are
work to digest complex carbohydrates. Thus an three subgroups:
individual will often feel “fuller” for a longer pe-
riod of time when eating complex carbohydrates
compared with simple carbohydrates. Performs specific, beneficial
functions in the body, such
How to Pick a Whole Grain as decreasing food intake by
providing a feeling of fullness,
maintaining stable blood sugar
Whole grains are intact kernels loaded with health- (glucose) levels, preventing
promoting bran, fiber, vitamins and minerals (par- constipation, decreasing fat
ticularly the B vitamins, Vitamin E, magnesium, and cholesterol absorption.
Functional
and zinc) and various antioxidants. The general The types of fibers specifically
Fiber
rule of thumb is to pick carbohydrates where the are psyllium, pectin, gels, cel-
lulose, seed and plant gums.
first ingredient on the label has the word “whole”
Some common foods these
in it (100% whole wheat, whole oats, etc).
types of functional fibers are
found in include: the bran
Fiber component of oats (oatmeal,
oat bran), wheat, vegetables,
fruits, and dried beans.
Fiber is crucial for optimal health. Total fiber in-
take among adults in the U.S. is well below the Consists of nondigestible
recommended amount. This is unfortunate be- Dietary Fiber carbohydrates and lignins
cause fiber provides no calories, may lower the that are within plants.
risk of heart disease, obesity, certain cancers,
and diabetes. Fiber is also important to help slow The sum of functional
Total Fiber
plus dietary fiber
the digestion of foods. With athletes or active in-
dividuals, this slowing of digestion helps provide
sustained energy over a longer period of time, Carbohydrate Grams
rather than a quick burst of energy that would
come from a high sugar intake. This is also why 2.3-3.2g 5.0-7.0g
Moderate per pound per kilogram
it’s important to recommend to clients “think fi-
Intensity of body- of body-
ber, not carbs.” weight weight
3.2-4.5g 7.0-10.0g
Average and Recommended Daily Intakes of
Vigorous per pound per kilogram
Fiber for Adults Training of body- of body-
weight weight
Men 19-50 years Recommended 38.0 g
4.5-6.0g 10.0-13.0g
Average 13.7 g Extreme per pound per kilogram
Endurance of body- of body-
Women 19-50 years Recommended 25.0 g weight weight
Average 13.2 g
(Note: To convert pounds to kilograms, divide the
number in pounds by 2.2)

106
Carbohydrate Choices

Select most often Select moderately Select least often

Amaranth Cornbread Brown sugar
Barley Corn tortillas Brown rice syrup
Beans Couscous Chicory syrup
Brown rice, Wild rice Crackers Confectioner’s sugar
Buckwheat Flour tortillas Corn syrup
Bulgur (cracked wheat) Grits Dextrose
Millet Noodles Evaporated cane juice
Oatmeal Spaghetti Glucose
Quinoa Macaroni High fructose corn syrup
Sorghum Most ready-to-eat Honey
Triticale breakfast cereals Malt Syrup
Wheat berries Pitas Maltodextrin
Whole grain barley Pretzels Molasses
Whole grain cornmeal White bread Raw sugar
Whole rye White sandwich
Whole grain bread buns and rolls
Whole wheat pasta, White rice
crackers, tortillas

107
 Eating Your Colors: Fruits and Vegetables by Color. Eat a variety of fruits and vegetables from every
column daily

yellow/
green blue/purple white red
orange
Artichoke Acorn squash Blackberry Banana Apple
Arugula Apricots Black grape Blueberry Cauliflower Corn
Asparagus Butternut Cabbage Garlic Green peas
Bean sprouts squash Eggplant Kohlrabi Lima beans
Elderberry
Bok choy Cantaloupe Mushroom Potatoes
Figs
Broccoli Carrots Plums Onion Pomegranate
Brussels Corn Parsnip Red pepper
sprouts Grapefruit Rutabaga Tomatoes
Cabbage Lemon Shallots Radish
Celery Mango Turnips Raspberry
Collard greens Nectarine Wax bean Red onion
Cucumber Orange Strawberry
Green bean Papaya Tomato juice
Green grapes Peach Watermelon
Green pepper Pineapple
Kale Pumpkin
Kiwi Sweet potato
Mesclun Yellow squash
Mustard
greens
Okra
Peas
Romaine
lettuce
Spinach
Turnip greens
Watercress
Zucchini

Note: while fairly comprehensive, this is not a complete list of all food choices

108
Clearing up Carbohydrate categorization of glycemic index (GI) of
common food sources
Confusion
High GI (>70) GI value
Carbohydrates have been demonized in the pop- Glucose 100
ular press and media. The problem is not carbo-
hydrates themselves, but the types of carbohy- Cornflake 92
drates. It is best to instruct clients to understand Honey 87
the different types of carbohydrates. As discussed Potato (baked) 85
earlier, both simple and complex carbohydrates
ultimately breakdown into glucose and are used Rice Cakes 78
by the brain, muscles, and organs for energy. The Jellybeans 74
rate of breakdown is different, however, and is Watermelon 72
dependent on a variety of factors. One of those
factors is something called the glycemic index. Bagel (white) 72

Moderate GI (40-70)
Glycemic Index
Sugar (white) 68
Snickers 68
The glycemic index is a ranking of carbohydrates
Oatmeal 65
based on their immediate effect on blood glucose
(blood sugar) levels. The blood glucose response Raisins 64
is called the glycemic response and is deter- Beets 64
mined after ingesting a food containing 50 g of
Corn 60
carbohydrate. This value is then compared to the
glucose response of a “standard” carbohydrate, Sucrose 59
with a known value. White bread is typically used Pasta (white) 50
for the “standard” carbohydrate because it has
Pasta (whole wheat) 42
an “assigned” value of 100.
Chickpeas 42
The table on the right lists a variety of
popular foods and their associated placement on Strawberries 40
the glycemic index chart. High glycemic carbo- Low GI (<40)
hydrates quickly enter the blood stream and are
All-Bran Cereal 38
best used during and after exercise because the
body needs to replenish glucose as quickly as Apple 38
possible. The remainder of the diet should focus Milk (chocolate) 34
on foods that are low to moderate on the glyce-
mic index chart (and, subsequently, are high in fi- Yogurt (low-fat) 33
ber because fiber slows the glycemic response). Milk (skim) 32
Beans (kidney) 29
Lentils 29
Peach 28
Milk (whole) 27
Grapefruit 25
Peanuts 13

109
 Protein slows production of new proteins (muscles, or-
gans, hair, nails, etc) until, at some point, it breaks
The Basics down protein faster than it can be made. The re-
sults of this can be seen during starvation and
extremely low calorie diets.
There has always (and probably will always) be
debate over the protein requirements of athletes. There are eight essential amino acids (nine
Muscle contains about 40% of the protein in the in children and some adults) and 11 non-essen-
human body, which has led people to believe that tial amino acids:
eating dietary protein correlates directly to large
muscles. The truth is that eating protein does not Essential Amino Nonessential
build muscle; it is the stimulus of exercise (re- Acids Amino Acids
sistance training) that ultimately builds muscles. Histidine1 Alanine
Yes, dietary protein is crucial in the rebuilding Isoleucine 2
Arginine
and recovery process, but in and of itself, pro- Leucine2 Asparagine
tein does not build muscle. This misguided belief Lysine Aspartic acid
is particularly true among strength athletes, who Methionine Cysteine
regularly consume an abundance of dietary pro- Phenylalanine Glutamine
tein, protein supplements, and amino acids, but Threonine Glutamic acid
many other athletes follow this mantra too. Tryptophan Glycine
Valine2 Proline
Amino Acids Serine
Tyrosine
1 histidine cannot be synthesized by children
Amino acids are called the “building blocks” of and some older adults, so it is essential in these
protein. This is because every single protein is populations. It can be synthesized by most
adults, however, so it is considered non-essen-
made up of various amino acids, uniquely linked
tial or sometimes, conditionally essential.
together by something called peptide bonds. The 2 A branched-chain amino acid (notice there
linkage is what makes a protein unique (e.g., steak are 3)
and tofu will have different amino acid combina-
tions and structures). While there are 20 different
amino acids required by the body, the combina- Protein Quality
tion of more than 100 amino acids makes a pro- Animal vs. Plant Proteins
tein (the 20 amino acids will repeat in a protein
when linked together, getting to the minimum of Animal and plant proteins can differ considerably
100 amino acids needed). in proportions of essential and nonessential amino
An essential amino acid (also called indis- acids. Animal proteins contain very high amounts
pensable) is one that cannot be synthesized by of the essential amino acids. On the contrary,
the body. It therefore must be consumed via the plant proteins (legumes, rice, etc) are low in one
diet. Notice there are eight (and sometimes nine, or more essential amino acids (called the limiting
depending on the population) essential amino amino acid). Some say that soybeans contain all
acids. A non-essential amino acid does not mean essential amino acids in sufficient quantities, but
it is unimportant. It means it can be produced by while higher than some beans, they are still much
the body and, therefore, is not required to come lower in the limiting amino acid (methionine).
from the diet. Foods do provide both essential Proteins that offer a complete amino acid profile
and nonessential amino acids, though. If a per- are sometimes referred to as complete proteins,
son does not consume enough food to provide whereas ones that do not provide all the essen-
a sufficient supply of essential amino acids, the tial amino acids are referred to as incomplete
body first struggles to conserve what it can. It

110
proteins. However, this is not really a concern in
developed countries. Assuming individuals are
consuming adequate levels of calories and these
calories come from a variety of foods, there is
little concern for meeting protein needs. This is
because eating a variety of foods offers the abil-
ity to consume “complementary proteins.” Com-
plementary proteins are when two or more
proteins combine to compensate for deficiencies
in essential amino acid content in each protein.
For example, rice and beans alone are each lim-
ited in different amino acids; when combined,
however, all amino acid requirements are met. If
someone was to live solely on corn as their pro-
tein source, for example, they would not obtain
sufficient quantities of all essential amino acids.
If all essential amino acids are not consumed in
sufficient quantities, none of them can be used in
the body, and it limits the amount of protein the
body can synthesize.
The take home message is that it is very pos-
sible to consume adequate sources of high qual-
ity proteins if one is a vegetarian. However, it is
crucial to ensure that:
Protein Needs
It is well established that endurance, strength,
and strength-endurance trained athletes have
higher protein needs than sedentary individuals.
Similarly, growing teenage athletes, and those
just beginning exercise programs have higher
needs. However, current debate focuses on the
specific requirements for each group of athletes
or individuals. What is understood, is that all of
the aforementioned athletes need only slightly
more protein than other people. It comes down
to essentially the amount found in a piece of
chicken, a few cups of milk, or other high qual-
ity protein sources. Furthermore, there is no evi-
dence that eating more than the requirements
provides additional benefit. Many believe that if
some is good, more must be better. This is not
true and additional protein will not be of benefit
in and of itself. But it will provide additional calo-
ries. If extra calories are needed, these calories
should come from whole grain, high-fiber foods,
not additional protein.
Requirements for Endurance Athletes

1. Enough calories are consumed on a daily Contrary to popular belief, training actually may
basis have a protein sparing effect. In fact, the more
seasoned an athlete (or better trained an indi-
2. There is sufficient variety in the diet vidual), the lower the protein breakdown and use
3. Diets must be sufficiently planned to ensure (oxidation) for energy during exercise. In fact,
protein adequacy protein supplies very little of the energy to the
body (approximately 5-15%) during resting con-
If dealing with a vegetarian client, it is recom- ditions and this actually decreases during exer-
mended to work with a registered dietitian who cise. During exercise there is an increased need
can design and implement a healthy diet to en- for carbohydrates and fat as fuel. It is typically
sure all nutrient needs are met. recommended that endurance athletes increase
the intake of protein to 1.2 to 1.6g/kg of body
weight (.6 to 0.7g/lb/body weight). The truth is, as
energy expenditure increases (from the increase
in training), energy intake (calories in) must in-
crease as well to maintain a normal body weight.
Therefore, with this increase in calories, there is
If one is considering protein supplementation (such a simultaneous increase in protein (assuming the
as for a vegetarian), 100% whey protein hydrolysates increase is not solely from soft drinks, sugar, and
have the greatest bioavailability. other non-nutritive food items).

111
 To identify the protein needs of a particular indi-
Recommended protein intakes vidual using the table on the left:
1. Determine the appropriate category based on
Protein Grams activity level
2. Measure body weight on a scale
.4g .8g
3. Multiply the protein factor by body weight to
Current RDA for per pound per kg
Sedentary Adults of body- of body-
determine daily protein needs
weight weight
Example: A 200-pound weightlifter would need
.5-.7g .8-1.5g
approximately 0.7-0.8 grams of protein/pound of
Recreational per pound per kg
Athlete of body- of body- body weight.
weight weight 200 * 0.7 = 140
200 * 0.8 = 160
.6-.7g 1.2-1.6g
Adult Therefore, this athlete should consume
per pound per kg
Endurance between 140 to 160 grams of protein each day to
of body- of body-
Athletes allow his body to continue to recover and grow.
weight weight

.7-.8 g 1.5-1.7g Requirements for Strength Athletes

Adult Strength-
per pound per kg Unlike endurance athletes, resistance exercise
Trained
Athletes
of body- of body- does not increase the rate of protein oxida-
weight weight tion. The increase in needs for strength athletes
comes with the increase in muscle mass (hyper-
To convert pounds to kilograms, divide the number in pounds trophy). Beginning strength trained athletes have
by 2.2. Table adapted from Nancy Clark’s Sports Nutrition the highest needs as bodies acclimate to the
Guidebook, 3rd edition new stressor. This increase seems to subside a
bit as individuals become more seasoned in the
weight room; however, to allow for optimal re-
covery and continued hypertrophy, protein needs
are increased. Research suggests that strength
athletes need approximately 1.5 to 1.7g/kg/body
weight (0.7 to 0.8g/lb/body weight).
Protein Choices

Select most often Select moderately Select least often

Beans Canadian bacon Bacon
Chicken breast (without skin) Mixed nuts Chicken (with skin)
Crab Lean cuts of beef/pork Chicken wings
Egg whites Low-fat luncheon meats (e.g., Fatty beef, lamb, pork
Flounder turkey) Fatty luncheon
Halibut Peanut butter meats (e.g., bologna, pastrami,
Low-fat/non-fat milk or yogurt Reduced fat and part- corned beef)
Low-fat/non-fat cottage cheese skim cheese Fried chicken and fish
Salmon Shrimp Liver
Snapper (red or blue) Texturized Ribs
Soy milk vegetable protein Sausage
Tilapia Turkey bacon Turkey (with skin)
Tofu Whole eggs Untrimmed beef and pork
Tuna (steaks or Whole milk
canned, in water) Whole milk cheese
Turkey breast (without skin)

112
Fat Monounsaturated fat (MUFA) (mono means one)
There is one “empty seat” on the bus and the
rest are full. There is room to fit more hydrogen
The Basics because of the one “empty seat.” Monounsatu-
In the early 1990s, dietary fat received the same rated fats are liquid at room temperature (veg-
bad rap that carbohydrates are now receiving. It etable oils, olive oil, canola oil, etc).
was thought that fat would be detrimental to per-
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
formance, health, and cause weight gain when I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I O
eaten in excess. Contrary to this belief, scien-

=
H–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C=C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C

I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
tists are now realizing more and more that fats H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
OH
play a crucial role in the body for performance
and health. The key is to focus on the quality of
the fat, maybe even more so than the quantity. Polyunsaturated fat (PUFA) (poly means many)
Aside from protein, fat is the only other essential Several of the “seats” are empty. Polyunsaturat-
macronutrient; dietary fat provides essential fatty ed fats are also liquid at room temperature (flax
acids (like essential amino acids) that cannot be oil, fish oil, etc).
produced by the body and must be consumed
via the diet. H H H H H H H H H H H
I I I I I I I I I I I O

=
H–C–C–C=C–C–C=C–C–C=C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C

Types of Fat
All fatty acids have the same basic structure; they
are a chain of carbon atoms with varying amounts
of hydrogen atoms attached to each carbon. One
simple way of describing the various types of fats
is to think of the structure of fats as a school bus;
the bus itself is the carbon atom chain discussed
above and all the seats are the hydrogen atoms.
Saturated Fat (SFA)
All the carbon atoms are full of hydrogen atoms
making the “seats on the bus” full. No other at-
oms can fit onto the structure because there are
no “empty seats.” Saturated fats are easy to
identify because they are solid at room tempera-
ture (butter, shortening, animal fats, etc).
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I O listed on the ingredient list, the food contains
=
I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I OH
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Trans Fats
Trans fats are basically vegetable fats that have
been changed chemically by a process known as
hydrogenation. Remember the unsaturated fats
from above had empty “seats” without a hydro-
gen atom. The process of hydrogenation or par-
tial hydrogenation is when food manufacturers
artificially add hydrogen to liquid unsaturated fats
to provide greater stability and, ultimately, longer
shelf life; hydrogenation makes liquid fats solid at
room temperature. Trans fats should be avoided
as much as possible. Beginning in 2006, all food
labels will be required to have trans fats listed
on the food panel. In the meantime, if the words
“hydrogenated” or “partially hydrogenated” are

H–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C
some quantity of trans fats. Foods such as hard
I

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
OH
margarines, shortenings, and most commercial-
ly fried foods and bakery items usually contain
trans fats. The table below lists several common
foods and their trans fatty acid content.

113
 Essential Fatty Acids
Trans fats have been shown through a number of
studies to be more harmful than saturated fats; they
tend to raise blood cholesterol and increase the risk The essential fatty acids are labeled depending
of cardiovascular disease. Intake should be limited to on structure. Without delving into advanced bio-
< 1% of overall fat intake/day. chemistry, the length of the carbon chain (remem-
ber from above all fats have a carbon backbone),
deciphers the specific types of fat. The primary
Trans fatty acid content of common foods dietary sources of essential fats are seafood, flax
oil/seeds, and mixed nuts.
Food TFA (grams)
Animal Crackers 1 Omega-3 fats are a family of essential un-
Beef .5-1
saturated fats that have recently received a tre-
mendous amount of press lately; these fats are
Biscuit ~4 touted for heart health properties, potential aid in
Breakfast Cereal 0-1.5 recovery, and reducing the risk of several other
diseases. The three omega-3 acids are alpha-
Butter 0
linoleic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA),
Cheese .5 and docosahexaeonoic acid (DHA). ALA is found
Chocolate Chip Cookies 1.5-2.5 in the plant sources of omega-3’s, such as flax
Commercial and mixed nuts, while DHA and EPA are both
6 found in highest concentrations in cold water fish
Cinnamon Buns
(e.g., salmon, mackerel, lake trout, tuna steaks
Doughnut 6
and canned, anchovies, etc). ALA itself can con-
French Fries (large) 5-7 vert to the more useful EPA and DHA, but the
Frozen Apple Pie 2-4 conversion rate is very low (~5-15%).
Margarine (1 tbspn) 3-4
Omega-6 fats are also essential fats. The
Microwave Popcorn 2-3 major omega-6 fatty acid is known as linoleic
Olive oil 0 acid and is found primarily in vegetable oils, like
canola and corn oils. While these are essential
Onion Rings ~ 7-9
fatty acids, the typical American diet is very high
Shortening 1-5 in omega-6 fats; it is recommended instead to
Tortilla Chips 1.5 boost the intake of omega-3’s through the food
sources listed above.
Milk (whole) .2-.5

Note: ranges are given for some foods because many

brands differ.

Omega-3 fats are healthier fat options, but these

fats still provide the same 9 calories/gram like all
other fats. Overeating any type of fat (or other ma-
cronutrient) will be stored as body fat.

114
fat choices larger insulin secretions, the more quickly blood
glucose levels drop (right after the insulin secre-
Select Select Select least tion causes blood glucose to be stored), causing
most often moderately often us to get hunger pangs and/or cravings. Gastric
Avocado Vegetable Animal fat emptying time studies show that the longest time
Fish oil oil Butter that CHOs will stay in the stomach is one hour.
Flax oil Margarine Coconut oil In contrast, protein will stay in the stomach two
Olives (without Cream hours, and fats will stay in the stomach three to
Olive oil trans fat) Fried foods five hours. This is why you find yourself getting
Mixed nuts Egg yolks Ice cream hungry 20 to 40 minutes after having a piece of
Soy- Lard fruit, or some bread, pasta, rice, veggies, or even
bean oil Shortening some cereal. This is also why you feel stuffed
Sun- Sour cream for four hours after having a high fat containing
flower oil Whole
meal.
Walnut oil fat dairy
products These studies also found that when a pro-
tein is combined with a carbohydrate, both the
Note: while fairly comprehensive, this is not a complete list
of all food choices protein and the fat contained in the protein (since
most proteins have some fat in them) cause the
Macronutrients and carbohydrate to stay in the stomach longer (ap-
proximately three and a half to four hours), which
Gastric Emptying Time basically means that this increases gastric empty-
ing time (a good thing). A longer gastric emptying
Gastric emptying time, (the time it takes for the time also means a slow and controlled increase
stomach to empty), is normally 1 to 4 hours, de- in blood glucose, which lessens the chances of
pending on the amount and kinds of food eat- storing a large portion of this meal as fat. The
en. When eaten alone, carbohydrates leave the tendency to store glucose as fat is due to a quick
stomach most rapidly (within ONE HOUR OR and high increase in blood glucose followed by a
FASTER), followed by protein (which takes about large secretion of insulin. A longer gastric empty-
TWO HOURS) and then fat (taking THREE TO ing time also means mild successive insulin in-
FIVE HOURS to leave the stomach). However, creases over time, as well as mild or slower suc-
in a mixed diet, emptying of the stomach is pro- cessive decreases in blood glucose levels caused
longed. Liquids empty more rapidly than solids, by the long time that it takes for food to leave the
and large particles empty more slowly than small stomach. As a consequence, hunger does not
particles. These factors play an important role for come as quickly, and it is easier to do away with
the upcoming meal program recommendations sweet cravings, which are usually caused by the
and calculations. need to raise low blood glucose levels after such
a drop as described above occurs.
Because blood glucose control is very
important in controlling diabetes, many studies Fluids
have been conducted to determine how different
foods affect blood glucose levels. One study is The Basics
the “gastric emptying time test,” which measures
how long it takes food to leave the stomach. The Water is the most important nutrient. Water ac-
reason this is a very important study is that the counts for 50 to 60% of overall body mass. Lean
more quickly carbohydrates leave the stomach, body tissues (such as the muscle, heart, liver,
the more quickly blood glucose levels rise. Usual- etc) are about 72-75% water by mass, whereas
ly, the more quickly blood glucose levels rise, the adipose (fat) tissue is about 5% by mass. There-
more effectively glucose gets stored as fat due fore, it is crucial to emphasize the importance
to larger insulin secretions, and because of these of regular fluid consumption throughout training
and performance.
115
 Hydration Status 2. The difference in weight will be primarily from
fluid losses
Athletes constantly risk dehydration. This is par- 3. Consume 20-24oz of non-alcoholic fluid for
ticularly true for those who train in hot and humid every pound lost
environments. The longer and harder the athlete Assess Fluid Losses by Urine
works, the greater the risk. Dehydration will hurt Color and Volume
performance. In fact, it only takes a 2% loss of
body weight (about 3 pounds for a 150 lb per-
son during exercise) for performance to suffer. It 1. If urine is pale like lemonade and there is
is important to emphasize to clients that weight plenty of it, this is a good sign of adequate
loss in one practice, game, or training session is hydration
NOT fat loss; it is therefore crucial to rehydrate. • If urine is dark like apple juice and scanty, it is
On the contrary, weight gain means drinking too crucial to consume more fluids
much fluid—cut back the next time. Most impor- • If someone is taking vitamin supplements,
tantly, dehydration can be dangerous and large urine color may not be a good marker of hy-
fluid losses can result in death. dration status; the riboflavin in most multivi-
tamins will give urine a darker color (In these
cases, go by volume)
Water
Water is crucial for life for a variety of reasons: It is also possible to overhydrate (called,
• In blood it helps transport glu- hyponatremia). This is not a common occurrence,
cose (blood sugar), oxygen, and but it can be lethal. To prevent hyponatremia, it is
fats to working muscles important to again monitor urine volume. What is
• It eliminates waste products happening is that the body fluids become diluted
• It absorbs heat from working muscles causing sodium levels to drop dangerously low.
• It regulates body temperature
• It lubricates joints and cush- Hyponatremia is seen most commonly in
ions organs and tissues distance athletes (triathletes, ultrarunners, and
sometimes unfit individuals who have higher
Measuring Hydration Status sweat rates than others). This can be common in
endurance athletes but not as common with the
Thirst is NOT an adequate sign of hydration sta-
average individual. It is important to understand
tus; by the time a person is thirsty, dehydration
that it is possible.
has already set in. However, follow the cues of
thirst; this clearly means it is time to drink (there
is a deficiency). dehydration
While more in-depth techniques performed
in the laboratory are more accurate than making Common signs and symptoms of dehy-
educated guesses, these techniques are often dration include, but are not limited to:
1. Muscle cramps
impractical on a regular basis or during training.
2. Intense thirst
There are simple ways to measure fluid balance, 3. Weakness
however. 4. Irrational behavior
5. Reduced performance
Assessing Fluid Losses by 6. Headache
7. Nausea
Weight 8. Fatigue
1. Have a client weigh naked before and after a 9. Dizziness
workout 10. Confusion

116
Tips for Staying Hydrated body occur appropriately. Vitamins are essential
organic molecules that cannot be synthesized in
the body and, like essential amino acids and fatty
Keep in mind that any non-alcoholic food or
acids, these substances must be obtained from
beverage counts toward total daily fluid intake.
food. Vitamins also help to aid in the conversion
Foods like watermelon and lettuce, for example,
of fats and carbohydrates into energy for use by
have very high water content; therefore, these all
the body. Vitamins and minerals do not directly
count towards the total intake. In fact, foods ac-
supply energy; however, both are required in en-
count for approximately 30% of total fluid intake.
ergy metabolism in the body.
Because sweat rates differ, it is impossible to
make a blanket recommendation (such as drink-
There are essentially two categories of vi-
ing 8 cups of fluid every day). Understand that it
tamins. These are fat soluble and water soluble.
is important to hydrate regularly throughout the
Vitamin deficiencies reduce body function and
day, because sweat is 99% water.
impair health. However, over-consuming vitamins
and minerals is also not healthy. It’s particularly
1. Carry a water bottle during training sessions
important to note that fat soluble vitamins can all
(Aim for an intake of approximately 16 oz/ses-
be stored in the body, increasing the likelihood
sion, dependent on overall body weight and
of toxicity if megadoses are consumed. The wa-
sweat volume)
ter soluble vitamins on the other hand can be
2. Hydrate regularly throughout the day, not only excreted, but still put undue stress on the body
immediately before, during, and after training when over consumed. Both extremes can be
avoided by eating a wide variety of whole foods
3. Sports drinks (such as Gatorade, Powerade, and enough total calories. The Institute of Medi-
All Sport, etc.) are typically unnecessary for cine recently released the updated tables and
activities lasting less than 60 minutes recommendations for all vitamins and minerals.
4. Suggest squeezing a lemon or lime into water These tables are summarized below, along with
to enhance palatability food sources for each nutrient.

5. Cold water rehydrates the body more effec-

Fat Soluble Water Soluble
tively than warm water
C
6. Drink to replace fluid losses (don’t over Pyridoxine
drink) Cobalamin
A
Thiamin
7. Drink before, during, and after athletic events D
Pantothenic acid
or training sessions E
Riboflavin
K
Biotin
8. Plain water is an adequate way to effectively Niacin
rehydrate the body Folic acid
9. Alcoholic beverages act as diuretics (not ef-
Whole food is the optimal way to obtain
fective at rehydrating the body)
all nutrients. However, it is very challenging to
achieve all necessary nutrients in times of high
Vitamins, Minerals, and stress or exercise exertion. In most cases, a vita-
Antioxidants min-mineral supplement may be advisable. Food
provides much more than just a single nutrient
Vitamins and minerals are necessary for virtu- (such as a vitamin tablet) and no pill, potion, or
ally all reactions to occur in the body. While each powder will ever equate to the benefits derived
has its own unique properties, these substances from eating real food. That said, the Journal of
work synergistically to ensure reactions in the the American Medical Association recently pub-

117
 lished a manuscript stating that all adults should Antioxidants
take a multivitamin. The key is the multivitamin
need not contain 1000s % above the RDA, as The term antioxidant is a classification of several
many do. It is to act as insurance, not replace or organic substances, including vitamins C and E,
make up for a poor diet. vitamin A (which is converted from beta-caro-
In the recently released Dietary Reference tene), alpha-lipoic-acid, grape seed extract, sele-
Intakes, some definitions were established that nium (a mineral), and a group known as the caro-
are important to discuss: tenoids, among others. In fact, the list of nutrients
that double as antioxidants grows continually. As
Dietary Reference Intakes antioxidants, these substances are thought to be
effective in helping to reduce the risk of cancer,
Recommended Daily Intake: the heart disease, stroke, aging, side effects associ-
average daily nutrient intake level ated with uncontrolled diabetes, etc.
sufficient to meet the nutrient require-
RDA
ment of nearly all (97 or 98 percent)
Technically speaking, antioxidants serve
healthy individuals in a particu-
lar life stage and gender group.
to “deactivate” certain particles called free radi-
cals, which are created from reactive oxygen
Adequate Intake: the recommended
species. Although that may sound a bit strange,
average daily intake level based on
observed or experimentally deter- since oxygen is obviously necessary for life, oxy-
mined approximations or estimates of gen also does increase free radical production.
AI In fact, intense resistance and aerobic exercise
nutrient intake by a group (or groups)
of apparently healthy people that both increase free radical production (the body
are assumed to be adequately-used requires more oxygen during exercise, thereby
when an RDA cannot be determined. increasing the production of free radicals). For-
Tolerable Upper Intake Level: tunately, the human body has well-developed
The highest average daily nutri- defense mechanisms in place to protect against
ent intake level that is likely to pose toxic-oxygen species.
no risk of adverse health effects to
UL
almost all individuals in the gen- Here is a very simplified version of how it
eral population. As intake increases works: the oxygen molecule wants to be oxidized.
above the UL, the potential risk of
The term ‘oxidized’ means that a substance los-
adverse effects may increase.
es one or more electrons. This results in an un-
Estimated Average Requirement: stable molecule that can move around the body
the average daily nutrient intake level and cause damage. On the other hand, when a
EAR estimated to meet the requirement of substance is reduced it means that it gains one
half the healthy individuals in a par- or more electrons which neutralizes the oxidized
ticular life stage and gender group. molecules such as free radicals. This process
of oxidation can sometimes be carcinogenic.
Of course this does not mean that exercise is
bad, but it is one way that free radical produc-
tion increases inside the body. Similarly, tobacco
smoke (first or second hand smoke), radiation,
and exposure to environmental pollutants all in-
crease free radicals. Free radicals are the natu-
ral by-products of many processes within and
among cells.

(Continued following the table)

118
Minerals daily intake dietary reference (adapted from www.nap.edu)

RDA RDA RDA RDA

Mineral males females males females UL Food Source Major Function
19-30 19-30 31-50 31-50

Dairy prod-
ucts, meat, No biological func-
Arsenic ND ND ND ND ND
poultry, fish, tion in humans
grains, cereal

Potatoes,
Reproductive
legumes, milk,
Boron ND ND ND ND ND
avocado,
and develop-
mental effects
peanut butter

Dairy products,
calcium-set Essential in blood
tofu, kale, clotting, muscle
Calcium (mg) 1000 1000 1000 1000 2500
broccoli, contraction, bone
canned salmon and tooth formation
with bones

Some cere- Helps maintain

Chromium (µg) 35 25 35 25 ND als, meats, normal blood
fish, poultry glucose levels

Organ meats,
Component of
seafood, nuts,
Copper (µg) 900 900 900 900 10,000
seeds whole
enzymes in iron
metabolism
grain products

Fluorinated Inhibits beginning

water, teas, of dental cavities
Fluoride (mg) 4 3 4 3 10
fluorinated and stimulates
dental products bone formation
Foods of
Component of
Iodine (µg) 150 150 150 150 1100 marine origin,
Thyroid function
iodized salt

Meat, poultry,
Component of
fortified bread
Iron (mg) 8 18 8 18 45
and grain
hemoglobin and
many enzymes
products
Green leafy
vetetables, Cofactor for
Magnesium (mg) 400 310 420 320 350
nuts, unpol- enzyme systems
ished grains

Involved in forma-
tion of bone, and in
Nuts, legumes,
enzymes involved in
Manganese (mg) 2.3 1.8 2.3 1.8 11 tea, and
amino acid, choles-
whole grains
terol and carbohy-
drate metabolism

Cofactor for en-

zymes in catabo-
Molybdenum 45 45 45 45 2000
Legumes, grain
lism of sulfur amino
(µg) products, nuts
acids, purines
and pyridines

119
 Minerals daily intake dietary reference (continued)

RDA RDA RDA RDA

Mineral males females males females UL Food Source Major Function
19-30 19-30 31-50 31-50

Nuts, legumes,
No biological func-
Nickel (mg) ND ND ND ND 1.0 cereals, choco-
tion in humans
late milk powder

Milk, yogurt,
ice cream, Maintenance of pH,
Phosphorus cheese, peas, storage and transfer
700 700 700 700 4000
(mg) meat, eggs, of energy and
some cereals, nucleotide synthesis
and breads

Organ meats, Defense against

seafood, plants oxidative stress and
Selenium (mg) 55 55 55 55 400
(dependent on regulation of thyroid
soil selenium) hormone action

No biological func-
Plant-based
Silicon ND ND ND ND ND
foods
tion in humans has
been identified

Mushrooms,
No biological func-
shellfish, black
Vanadium (mg) ND ND ND ND 1.8
pepper, parsley,
tion in humans has
been identified
and sill seed

Red meat, Component of mul-

oysters and tiple enzymes and
Zinc (mg) 11 8 11 8 49 some other proteins; involved
seafood and in the regulation of
fortified cereals gene expression

120
Vitamins daily intake dietary reference (adapted from www.nap.edu)

RDA RDA RDA RDA

vitamin males females males females UL food source major function
19-30 19-30 31-50 31-50
Coenzyme in synth-
Liver, meats,
biotin 30 30 30 30 ND
and fruits
esis of fat, glycogen,
and amino acids

Precursor for acetyl-

Milk, liver, eggs,
choline (mg) 550 425 550 425 3500
peanut butter
choline, phospho-
lipids, and betaine
Meat, fish,
poultry, enriched
Coenzyme in
and whole
the metabolism
folate (µg) 16 14 16 14 35 grain breads,
of nucleic and
bread products,
amino acids
fortified ready
to eat cereals

Meat, fish, poul-

Involved with many
niacin (mg) 16 14 16 14 35 try, enriched and
biological actions
whole grains

Chicken, beef,
pantothenic Coenyzme in fatty
5 5 5 5 ND potatoes, oats,
acid (mg) cereals, liver, yolk
acid metabolism

Organ meats,
B2 (mg) Coenyzme in
1.3 1.1 1.3 1.1 ND milk, bread, and
(riboflavin) fortified cereals
reactions

Enriched, forti-
Coenzyme in the
fied, or whole-
B1 (mg) metabolism of
1.2 1.1 1.2 1.1 ND grain products,
(thiamin) bread, and
carbohydrates
and BCAA
bread products
Required for normal
Liver, dairy vision, develop-
A (µg) 900 700 900 700 3000
products, fish ment, and im-
mune function
Coenzyme in
Fortified cereals the metabolism
B6 (mg) 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 100
and organ meats of glycogen and
amino acids

Coenzyme in nucleic
Fortified cereals, acid metabolism,
B12 (mg) 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 ND
meat, fish, poultry prevents megalo-
blasic anemia

Cofactor in many
Citrus fruits and
C (mg) 90 75 90 75 ND
many vegetables
reactions and
an antioxidant
Fish liver oils, Maintain serum cal-
D (µg) 5 5 5 5 50
liver, fortified milk cium and phosphate
Vegetable oils,
E (mg) 15 15 15 15 1000 nuts, unpro- Powerful antioxidant
cessed grains
Green veg-
Involved in
K (µg) 120 90 120 90 ND etables, plant
blood cloting
oils, margarine

121
 If free radicals are left “untouched,” these
substances can cause damage to cell walls, cer-
tain cell structures, and genetic material within
the cells. Think of free radicals as the pinball in an
arcade pinball machine; when in motion, it can hit
everything and anything in its path, but unlike the
pinball, free radicals can cause irreversible dam-
age over time. This can lead to disease, such as
heart disease or cancer. Free radicals are not the
only cause of such diseases; there are genetic
factors and other lifestyle habits that have a neg-
ative effect on the development of disease, but
this is just one more piece to the puzzle.
This is where antioxidants come into play.
Think about the term antioxidant-oxidized mol-
ecules become free radicals, so something that
works against the oxidation process (anti, means
against) would be beneficial. Antioxidants are
sold as pills, drinks, and even topical creams; the
fact of the matter is that the absolute best way
to consume all antioxidants is through eating a
variety of whole foods. A diet abundant in fruits,
vegetables, and whole grains, provides nutrients
that cannot otherwise be obtained from any di-
etary supplement. Give the list of colorful fruits
and vegetables to clients and recommend they
eat produce from every color and category in that
chart, regularly.
Much of the research measuring the effects of
antioxidant supplementation on exercise has
been conducted in animals, where the doses
of antioxidants used are too high to replicate in
humans. Research in humans is growing, but it
is truly in its infancy. The best known source of
antioxidants are fruits and vegetables since they
offer much more than just a few vitamins and
minerals.
Food Guide Pyramid
(www.mypyramid.gov)
The United States Department of Agriculture re-
leased the updated Food Guide Pyramid (FGP) in
2005. The FGP was designed as a guide to edu-
cate the general public about what constitutes
a healthful nutrition plan. The recently released
122
FGP differs from the original one in its design.
The new pyramid has six categories of food
groups in vertical lines throughout the pyramid.
Food groups are wider at the bottom of the pyra-
mid and should correlate to the level of physical
activity performed. If a person is regularly active,
the person should eat more towards the base of
the pyramid meaning more of each food group.
Similarly, if a person is less physically active, ca-
loric needs would be lower, and the person would
eat more towards the top of the pyramid.
The FGP design was changed from the
previous pyramid to be more applicable to the
general population, meet the needs of most in-
dividuals, and get away from a “one size fits all”
approach. Moreover, this newly released pyramid
includes specific physical activity recommenda-
tions that were void from the previous version of
the pyramid. There are different ways to consume
a balanced diet; the key with this updated FGP is
that individuals can log onto the website and en-
ter personal variables such as age, gender, and
activity level, to obtain individualized recommen-
dations. It is an important tool to understand and
can be useful to introduce to clients. As a quali-
fied coach, it is wise to use tools such as the FGP
to help clients improve their dietary habits.
Eating a balanced diet requires variety. All
too often, individuals fall into the same dietary
pattern, eating the same foods repeatedly. For
example, although apples are a great source of
nutrients, apples should not be the only fruit con-
sumed. Each food offers many unique vitamins,
minerals, antioxidants, and phytochemicals,
which are all beneficial to the body.
When working with different individuals
from various backgrounds, cultures, and ethnici-
ties, many different eating styles can meet the
requirements of an adequate diet. The FGP is an
excellent starting point to assess a client’s dietary
intake. As a general rule of thumb, if an individual
is eating a variety of foods from each food group,
the individual will obtain the necessary variety of
vitamins and minerals. However, with the popu-
larity of low carbohydrate diets, as one example,
many individuals are reducing and in some cases
eliminating an entire food group. In these cases,
it is impossible to consume a diet that provides
adequate levels of vitamins, minerals and, in this Nutrition Recommendations
case, fiber.
for Endurance Athletes
Similarly, it is also important to note that
for certain individuals, the FGP may not provide The general nutrition recommendations
sufficient total energy; high level athletes are a for endurance athletes are:
great example since their needs may exceed the
• 50-70% carbohydrates
highest level of calories recommended with the
maximum number of servings in the pyramid. • 10-20% protein
As a coach, you will be working with a wide va- • 20-35% fat
riety of triathletes, so it is important to assess
the needs of each unique individual and work in
The large range in carbohydrates depends
conjunction with a registered dietitian to assist
on the distance of the endurance event. For ath-
the triathlete to the best of your ability.
letes training for Ironman distance triathlons, 70%
The FGP is a good starting point for basic of calories from carbohydrates is the appropriate
recommendations, but each individual is unique. amount to adequately replenish glycogen stores
Nutritionally speaking, overall success, whether (stored carbohydrates). However, these general
it’s weight loss, weight gain, or performance percentages for nutrients only work if the athlete
changes, comes down to energy balance and is eating the appropriate amount of calories.
meeting the needs of individuals to help them
To be adequately fueled for extreme
reach their goals. Success with dietary changes
amounts of exercise, the calorie recommenda-
all starts at the grocery store and with under-
tions are 44-51 calories/kg of body weight for fe-
standing and reading food labels.
males and 50-58 calories/kg of body weight for
males (To convert pounds/lbs to kilograms/kg di-
vide the athlete’s weight in pounds by 2.2). A fe-
male athlete who weighs 130 pounds or 59 kilo-
grams (kg) would need approximately 2350-3000
calories per day to fuel her activity levels and
normal daily activities. Of course these are gen-
eralizations and some athletes may need more
calories. A simple way to monitor calorie and
fuel needs is to measure body weight, recovery
(getting enough calories to recover), and perfor-
mance.
For athletes in heavy endurance training,
specific nutrition recommendations are:
• 8-10g of carbohydrate per kg of body
weight
• 1.2-1.4g of protein per kg of body weight
• 1-2g of fat per kg of body weight

To ensure the athlete has adequate glyco-

gen and protein stores for endurance exercise, it
is more accurate to make carbohydrate, protein,
and fat recommendations based on the athlete’s
weight in kg. Since the current recommendation
for athletes in endurance training events is ap-

123
 proximately 8-10 grams (g) carbohydrates per kg. 4. 2196 kcals/day of protein and carbohydrate (Add
Carbohydrate recommendations for a 59 kg fe- carbohydrate +protein calories (4 kcals/g
male in training would be approximately 470-590 of each) 472 g carbs x 4 kcals/g + 77 g
grams per day (59kg * 8-10g/kg = 470-590g). protein x 4 kcals/g)
Protein recommendations for endurance athletes 5. 604 kcals or 67g fat/day (Add total carb and
are 1.2-1.4 g of protein/kg, which can easily be protein calories and subtract this from the
reached if the athlete is consuming enough calo- total calorie recommendation: 2950-2196
ries. It is important that these protein goals be = 604 remaining calories which should be
met in order for the athlete to maintain their lean divided by 9 kcals/kg = 67g fat)
muscle mass. Protein is particularly important for
endurance athletes because prolonged exercise
Pre, During, and Post-Training
increases the chance that the body will use some Nutrition Strategies
protein stores for energy and for the avoidance
of muscle tissue catabolism. Protein recommen- Pre-Race/Workout Fueling Guidelines
dations for a 59 kg female in training would be
To maximize performance, the meal before the
approximately 70-83 g/day (59kg * 1.2-1.4g/kg
race/event should not be overlooked. The follow-
= 70-83g).
ing guidelines will assist the athlete in having a
Fat recommendations for endurance ath- good race without stomach discomfort, cramp-
letes are just as important as carbohydrates and ing, or dehydration.
protein. To ensure that stored intramuscular trig-
1. Allow enough time for digestion. Eat a larger meal 3-4
lycerides (stored fat in muscle used in extreme
hours before exercise and/or smaller snack 1-2 hours
endurance events) are replenished, professionals
before exercise.
need to emphasize that a low fat or a virtually fat-
free diet could be detrimental to performance. 2. The meal should be high in complex carbohydrates,
Depending on the amount of calories being con- or foods with a lower glycemic index to provide slow
sumed, the recommendation for daily fat intake and steady fuel prior to and during the event. The rule
is 1-2g/kg of body weight. If the athlete is trying of thumb is to consume the same amount of carbohy-
to lose weight, the amount of fat consumed will drates/kg as the hours before the race. This would be
be the nutrient that is decreased, not carbohy- 4 g carbs/kg if eating 4 hours before race/event time,
drates or protein. The minimum level of fat for and 2 g carbs/kg if eating 2 hours before race/event
an endurance athlete during peak training or high time.
competition time is 1g/kg. 3. Consume only moderate amounts of protein. Protein
foods take longer to digest than carbohydrates. Meals
How can all of these recommendations be
very high in protein may lead to increased urine pro-
put together and individualized for each athlete?
duction, which can add to dehydration.
See the example below to assist the athlete in
making specific nutrition recommendations for 4. Limit fats and oils as these substances take too long
endurance activities. to digest. By the time the athlete is ready to race, the
body may still be trying to digest the high fat meal and
The calorie, carbohydrate, protein, and fat blood will be going to the stomach, not the legs where
recommendations breakdown for a 59 kg it is needed most!
female in training would be:
5. Drink moderate, not excessive, amounts of caffeine,
1. 2800 kcals/day (Calorie needs assuming the only if the athlete is accustomed to doing so. Too much
athlete needs 47 total calories/kg of body caffeine can stimulate the body to increase urine out-
weight) put, leading to dehydration problems, and a full bladder
2. 472 g carbohydrates/day (Carbohydrate needs at can be very uncomfortable. This is particularly true for
8g of carb/kg of body weight) those who are caffeine naïve (not used to consuming
caffeine). Caffeine intake should be 200-300mg or
3. 77 g protein/day (Protein needs at 1.3 g/kg)

124
 less pre-workout (with the upper and lower range limits
depending on body size). Research shows that 200-
300mg of caffeine can actually improve performance
by decreasing the athlete’s perceived effort. This is
equal to about two to three cups of coffee (accord-
ing to the USFDA, for an 8oz caffeinated cup, coffee
can vary from 65-175mg, tea from 15-60mg, and soft
drinks from 15-55mg).
6. Drink plenty of fluids with the pre-race/workout meal.
Athletes should consume between 5-7ml/kg four hours
prior to exercise if adequately hydrated. If dehydrated,
the athlete should consume an additional 3-5ml/kg
two hours prior to the race/event. A 59kg runner would
need 300-400ml, or 10-14oz (divide ml by 30 to get
ounces) of fluids four hours prior to the race/event.
7. To monitor hydration status, have the athlete monitor
urine color after waking up and urinating in the morn-
ing. Urine color should be pale yellow or the color of
lemonade, and not dark yellow or the color of apple
juice. If urine is darker in color, remind the athlete to
consume the additional fluids two hours prior to the
event/workout.
Sample Pre Race/Workout Fueling Plan for
59 kg female. This includes carbohydrates,
protein, and fat content but only carbohy-
drate content is listed here. This sample
meal meets the needs of all 3 macronutri-
ents:
• 2 hours before (approx. 117g carb) or 4
hours before (approx. 232g carb)
• 1 plain bagel, 4” diameter (60g)
• 2 slices thick bread (45g)
• 1 tbsp regular jelly (17g) a 12% carbohydrate solution.
• 2 tbsp peanut butter (15g)
• 1 large banana (27g) mendation is 6-12oz per 15-20min of exer-
• 2 tbsp regular jelly (34g) tion.
• 1 large apple (30g)
• 12oz. water athlete sweats, approximately 500-1000mg
• 1 6-8oz yogurt (35g)
• 2oz pretzel sticks (50g)
• 12oz sports beverage (21g)
Race Day/Workout Nutrition Strategies
There are specific recommendations for the
amount and type of food, fluids, and electrolytes
to be ingested during the race/training based on
years of research. When advising athletes about
the race day or the training nutrition plan use the
following recommendations:
• Consume 30-60 g carbohydrates/hour.
More carbohydrates than the recommend-
ed amount can be too much for the body
to digest at one time, leading to stomach
cramps or delayed gastric emptying. More
is not always better! If an athlete swears
by less than the recommended amount,
explain that glycogen stores will not be re-
plenished adequately, leading to poor per-
formance.
• Consume high-glycemic carbohydrates to
increase the rate of absorption in the mus-
cles. Utilize sports gels, beverages, and
higher carbohydrate energy bars as neces-
sary.
• Beverages consumed during a race must
be a 6-8% carbohydrate concentration. If
the concentration of carbohydrates per 8oz
is higher than this, the stomach is not able
to absorb the sugar fast enough, which can
lead to stomach cramping. To cal-
culate % carbohydrate solution: Find the
grams of carbohydrates in the beverage
and divide that number by 237ml (amount
in 8oz). Gatorade has 14g carb per 1 cup,
so 14/237 = 6%. On the other hand, or-
ange juice has 28g carb per 1 cup, which is
• Fluids should be customized based on the
athlete’s sweat rate, but a general recom-
• Sodium is the main electrolyte lost in sweat
and must be replaced during heavy endur-
ance activities. Depending on how heavy the
sodium should be consumed each hour. If
the athlete has a white film on the clothes
after exercise, the athlete would be consid-
ered a “heavy sweater,” and should con-
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 sume the higher range of sodium per hour.
Many sports beverages, gels, bars, and
foods contain moderate amounts of so-
dium. However, if the sodium recommen-
dation is still not met with those products,
advise the athlete to consume electrolyte
tablets to make up the difference. Be sure
to read the back of the label due to varying
amounts of sodium per tablet.
Sample During Race/Workout Fueling
Plans for 59 kg female (Goals Per Hour are
30-60g carb, 20-30oz fluids, and 700 mg
sodium):
Sample A
PowerGel (25g carb, 200mg sodium)8 oz.
Gatorade Endurance (14g carb, 200mg sodium)
Water (12oz)
Salt tablets (300mg)
Sample B
Clif Bar (45g carb, 130mg sodium)
Water (25oz)
Salt tablets (600mg)
Sample C
Banana (30g carb, 0mg sodium)
8oz Gatorade Endurance (14g carb, 200 mg so-
dium)
Water (12oz)
Salt tablets (500mg)
Optimal Foods for Recovery
Studies show that post race/workout meal plan-
ning is vital to maximize the athlete’s carbohy-
drate stores. Use the following tips when talking
to athletes about post race/workout planning to
ensure maximization of carbohydrate stores.
• Consume mainly carbohydrate 30-60 min-
utes after the race/workout. Studies show Sample Meal
that waiting as little as two hours after will Cornflakes (2 cups) (50g carb)
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significantly lower the carbohydrate stores.
• Smaller, more frequent meals appear to fur-
ther the rate of glycogen synthesis. When
large meals are consumed, blood sugar
levels rise quickly and then go back to base
level soon. However, blood sugar levels can
be elevated higher for longer with more fre-
quent feedings. If the athlete reports having
a poor appetite after exercise, a recovery
shake made by many companies such as
PowerBar and Clif Bar can be a good sub-
stitute for food.
• Highest rates of muscle glycogen synthesis
occur when 1.5g carbohydrate/kg are con-
sumed within the first hour after exercise
and 0.75-1.5g/kg each hour after for the
next three hours.
• The carbohydrate chosen should be mainly
simple sugars or foods with a higher gly-
cemic index to increase blood sugar re-
sponse.
• The addition of protein or amino acids
may also be beneficial, but in very small
amounts. Most research suggests a ratio
of 3:1 or 4:1 for carbohydrates:protein (for
every 3-4g carb, athletes should consume
1g pro).
• Ensure adequate fluid intake for rehydration.
It is recommended to consume 24-32oz
cups for every 1 pound of water weight lost
during training.
• Salty foods such as pretzels, crackers, and
sports beverages as part of the recovery
meal can help balance electrolyte stores.
Sample Fueling Plans for Recovery
Goals for 59kg female assuming a two pound
weight loss:
• 90g carb in the first hour (45-90g carb each
hour after up to 3 more hours)
• 40-50oz fluids
• Approximately 20-30g protein
Milk (1 cup) (12g carb, 8g pro)
Banana (30g carb)
6oz water
Salty, high carbohydrate foods over the next 1-3
hours

Other great recovery foods include choco-

late milk, yogurt, smoothies, pretzels and dried
fruit. Each has a high glycemic index to help re-
plenish carbohydrate stores fast following exercise
for speedy recovery. Chocolate milk (yes, choco-
late milk) has the optimal carbohydrate:protein
balance for workout recovery.
These tips should help assist athletes
on adequate fueling to get them through tough
workouts day after day and still have the energy
on race day, when it really counts!

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