Habitat International 123 (2022) 102542

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Habitat International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/habitatint

Investigation on the solid waste recyclers’ perspective in La Paz, Bolivia

Navarro Ferronato a, *, Edith Gabriela Guisbert Lizarazu b, Daysi Janneth Valencia Vargas c,
Rodolfo Pasinetti c, Vincenzo Torretta a
a
University of Insubria, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, Varese, Italy
b
Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, Department of Environmental Engineering, La Paz, Bolivia
c
COOPI – Cooperazione Internazionale, Bolivian Office, La Paz, Bolivia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Bolivia faces increasing challenges with solid waste management. Rapid urbanisation and population growth will
Developing countries increase the need of Bolivia’s cities to develop an effective waste management system. This study performed 998
Solid waste management household surveys in La Paz through online forms during the covid19 pandemic. The aim is to explore residents’
Separate collection
waste recycling practices and their connection with waste collection services. Survey results point to provide
Municipal waste
information related to the characteristics of the citizens that are active in recycling in a low-middle income
Latin America
Circular economy context, where separate collection actions are under development and the informal recycling exist. The study
included a correlation analysis to assess the main factors that can influence the involvement of the population
within the separate collection system. Results reported that the citizens more active in recycling in La Paz are
likely women, with an educational level (undergraduate or graduate) and with an age between 30 and 40 years
or older than 50 years. The informal recycling sector is responsible to give an effective alternative collection
system to the citizens of lower income levels, increasing the participation of the citizens of La Paz in appropriate
circular economy systems. These findings highlight the potential for improving Bolivia’s solid waste management
by implementing recycling plans with the introduction of information campaigns and infrastructures.

1. Introduction
This paper explores the role and engagement of the citizens of La Paz,
Bolivia, in municipal solid waste (MSW) separate collection systems.
The characteristic and perspective of the population most active in
supporting formal recycling, as well as the informal separate collection
system carried out by waste pickers and informal recycling companies,
were evaluated through an online survey from October to December
2020. The research would support local policy-makers, as well as the
international scientific audience in better understanding how cities in
Latin America are performing recycling actions towards a circular
economy. The “Circular Economy”, is defined by Kirchherr et al. (2017)
as the principle in which raw materials are reduced in consumption and
products are designed in such a manner that they can be easily reused
after use (eco-design). In addition, in a CE the lifespan of products is
prolonging through maintenance and repair, while recyclables are used
in products and raw materials are recovered from waste (van Buren
et al., 2016). Inclusion of the population in separate collection plans is
one step to move towards this direction. This topic has been widely
investigated in the last decade with the aim to move towards a sus­
tainable future at a global level (Kawai & Huong, 2017; Pakpour et al.,
2014; Razali et al., 2020).
Large amount of research has been dedicated to assessing people’s
participation in separate collection actions in developing countries,
where the informal recycling system is active (Abeliotis et al., 2014;
Asari et al., 2019; Permana et al., 2015). In Abidjan, capital city of the
Ivory Coast, interviews were carried out for assessing the importance of
implementing separated waste collection (Andrianisa et al., 2016).
Similarly, in Thailand, the willingness to pay for the addition of recy­
cling services in different types of settlements was assessed through
questionnaire surveys (Challcharoenwattana & Pharino, 2016). Other
authors, in Johannesburg, South Africa, evaluated the role of the
informal waste pickers through direct interviews to informal recyclers
(Simatele et al., 2017), while in Paynesville, Liberia, research was car­
ried out for assessing residents’ waste disposal practices, always through
questionnaire surveys (Almazán-Casali et al., 2019).
Currently, recycling efforts and circular economies in Latin American
are still under development. Despite important improvements in waste

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: navarro.ferronato@uninsubria.it (N. Ferronato).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2022.102542
Received 14 May 2021; Received in revised form 1 March 2022; Accepted 3 March 2022
Available online 5 April 2022
0197-3975/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Ferronato et al. Habitat International 123 (2022) 102542

management, the region still faces many issues that require attention
(Margallo et al., 2019). In Colombia, challenges in implementing
appropriate MSW management systems are due to financial sustain­
ability, inclusive recycling, and the current legal framework (Calderón
Márquez and Rutkowski, 2020). In Perú, the transition from an informal
system based on open dumping to a landfill-based system is still under
development (Ziegler-Rodriguez et al., 2019). In Bolivia, recycling ac­
tivities are mainly informal and open dumping is still a reality (Ferro­
nato et al., 2020a, 2020c).The research presented in this article
evaluates the participation of citizens in the source separation of waste
in La Paz, providing quantitative and statistically significant data to
strengthen actions towards a circular economy focused on waste recy­
cling and recovery. In particular, the research was carried out for
identifying the perspective of the Bolivian recyclers, and the main bar­
riers that the people interested in implementing the separate collection
can find in one of the most important cities in Bolivia. At the scientific
level, the results may be of international interest due to the peculiarity of
the characteristics of the city of La Paz, as an area under development
within the framework of waste management, and the response of people
towards recycling during the covid19 pandemic era.
The paper also adds to the literature by introducing a new aspect of
the separate collection system, identifying particular characteristics of
citizens engaged with the solid waste management system (SWM) in a
continent where scientific literature regarding this topic is scarce. In
Latin America, solid waste management issues, such as open dumping
and burning (Aulinas Masó and Bonmatí Blasi, 2008), lack of collection
facilities, and waste picking at the dumpsites are very common (Cruvinel
et al., 2020). However, in this area of the globe, the international sci­
entific literature related to the evaluation of population involvement in
formal or informal separate collection is lacking. Only a few studies were
recently published, like the ones of Colombia (J. Padilla & A.Trujillo,
2018) and Brazil (Vieira & Matheus, 2018). This research contributes to
filling this information gap providing evidence about the perspective of
the people active in separate collection in the Latin America and
Caribbean. The results can be interesting to policy-makers and scholars
for planning future actions, campaigns, and activities for supporting the
separate collection in Latin America and the Caribbean.
2. Methods
The study used structured surveys to gather information of the
population of La Paz in relation to the type of waste selected at home, the
barriers that the citizens might have in delivering the sorted waste, and
the general impact that the covid19 could have generated within the
municipality. The analysis was carried out within the boundaries of the
project “LaPazRecicla”, financed by the Italian Agency of Development
Cooperation, and led by the Italian NGO COOPI, which foresees the
support of recycling actions and the organization of sensitivities cam­
paigns on the formal MSW management system of La Paz. The survey
was conducted during the covid19 pandemic; therefore, the submission
of the questionnaires was implemented by online forms.
2.1. Study area
La Paz is one of the most important cities in Bolivia (see Fig. 1). It
counts about 950,000 inhabitants, and the population increases of about
1.1% per year. La Paz generates about 650 tonnes of MSW per day, about
240,000 tonnes per year, principally made of organic waste (about 50%)
and recyclable fractions (about 25%), such as paper, cardboard, plastics,
glass, and metals. The solid waste management system of La Paz counts
with a sanitary landfill with the capacity of about 2.5 million tonnes of
waste, a material recycling facility (MRF) that can sort about 1000
tonnes of waste per year and a structured collection system made of
street containers and compactor trucks (Ferronato et al., 2021). The
separate collection system with separate street containers started in
2018 with pilot actions, while in 2020 the system has been expanded in
some districts of the city, potentially increasing the amount of waste
separately collected. In parallel, an informal separate collection system

Fig. 1. Location of the study area. Pictures are collected from Google Earth (2021).

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N. Ferronato et al. Habitat International 123 (2022) 102542

is active in La Paz, estimating about 40 tonnes of MSW collected per day
by about 1000 waste pickers (Ferronato, Preziosi, et al., 2020).
2.2. Questionnaire design
For the preparation of the forms, eight hypotheses (Hi) were
considered. In addition, the queries were chosen based on the needs of
the municipality to have indications on the measures to improve the
separate collection system. Six groups of questions were organized, for a
total of nine questions (Di) on the topic of waste and seven (Qi) to obtain
data on the characteristics of the participants, about the age, gender,
average salary, place of residence, number of family members, educa­
tion degree, and district of living. The hypothesis behind the research
and the general topics assessed within the research are reported in
Table 1, while the list of queries and responses is reported in Table A1.
All the responses could be answered on a Likert scale, with minimum
and maximum values, except for gender (Q5), the districts of living (Q7)
and the waste delivery method (D3).
thanks to the support of students and volunteers who were trained
during online seminars. The form was organized on the free online
platform “Google Form”, giving the chance of sharing the link to
everyone with a mobile phone, internet connection or a social network
webpage. The sending of the forms was carried out during December
2020 and only within the boundaries of the metropolitan area of La Paz.
Therefore, the study has not been carried out randomly, but rather
voluntarily by residents who wanted to participate in the campaign. For
this reason, the participation rate cannot be assessed, and the balance of
the sample, in relation to the gender, age, and educational level could
not be controlled. The approach is justified by the requirement of the
analysis: evaluate the recyclers’ perspective in La Paz. Consent for
participating in the study was obtained in the first part of the ques­
tionnaire, where the description of the use and objectives of the research
were explained. No ethical issues have been identified since no personal
information has been collected and the survey was totally anonymous.
2.4. Statistical analysis

To analyse the statistical significance of the answers obtained by the

2.3. Survey procedure
participants, a confidence interval (CI) has been calculated for each
question. A 95% confidence level (CL) has been considered. The CI has
The forms were shared through social networks and messages,
been reported for each response. The population size of the studies was
calculated to obtain a confidence interval (CI) of 4.5 in the worst case of
Table 1 respondences (50% in binary answers – i.e. Yes/No), with a confidence
Hypotheses behind the research and topics assessed within the survey. level of 99%. Following the results, at least 821 citizens should be
Hypothesis Topics assessed involved within the analysis.
H1.1 Citizens do not believe that Analysis of the comprehensive solid To analyse the data, two types of statistical analysis were used:
recycling is useful for the waste management system. Four Pearson’s correlation analysis and the Chi-square test (χ2). The first al­
environment. questions were organized asking the lows evaluating the statistical correlation between answers with a Likert
H1.2 Few citizens implement source participant to answer about the
scale, while the Chi-square allows evaluating the dependence between
separation of waste. perceived importance of recycling,
H1.3 Whoever separates the waste at the type of waste separated at home, queries. In particular, this test allows evaluating the queries related to
source delivers it only to the formal the actors to whom it delivers the the gender, age, districts, and waste delivery methods. The statistical
management system. separated waste and the cleaning tax analysis were carried out using the RStudio© software v.1.1.463. The
H1.4 Citizens do not want to pay a that they would be willing to pay for statistically significant results that are recorded in the study will have a
cleaning tax for recycling. a better waste recycling.
p-value<.05. The correlation is presented by means of a correlation
table, in which the correlation factors (r) are shown, and the statistically
H2 There are factors of the separate Recycling factors that can annoy significant results are highlighted. In particular, significant factors r
collection system that annoyed citizens. It was asked about which greater than |0.14| for correlations and greater than |0.41| for high
citizens. factor could annoy the citizen to correlations were considered within the results.
measure whether the presence of
bins at home, containers and
vehicular traffic could be a variable 3. Results
that affects the will of the citizen to
comply with recycling. 3.1. Descriptive characteristics of respondents

Totally, 998 citizens participate to the online survey. This is the

H3 There are no factors that affect the Factors that affect the
implementation of waste source implementation of recycling. The
separation. question has been divided into 7
factors to which the citizen could
give a rating in terms of influence
when recycling.
H4 Citizens still recycle low amounts of Selected amounts of waste. In the
waste. same way, this group has been
divided into the five urban waste
fractions that can be separated at
home when the waste is delivered
separately. The aim is to evaluate
not only the type of waste selected,
but also the amount of waste
separated according to the opinion
of the neighbour.
number of people that answered the questionnaire during the period of
the survey (one month), which overcome the minimum number of re­
spondents required by the research. Therefore, the sample number has
been considered optimum for the research. About 73.3% of the partic­
ipants are women. The educational level is predominantly high, with
58.9% who are graduated at the university, while 24.5% having a
postgraduate degree. Most of the participants live in apartments (42.7%)
or in family dwellings (50.9%), with an average number of people per
family equal to 3.83 ± 1.76. The average age of the participants is equal
to 33.3 ± 11.6 years old, with 30.1% being between 26 and 35 years old.
The average monthly salary per household is less than 700 USD (43.7%),
with less than 19% having an income higher than 1500 USD per
household.
3.2. Results related to the MSW management system

H5 Covid19 has affected the
participation of citizens in recycling.
Waste and covid19. Finally, the
objective was to evaluate how much
the covid19 could have affected the
separation at source of the waste.
3.2.1. General assessment
Most of the participants consider very useful (87.6%, CI 2.48) or
useful (8.0%, CI 2.48) to recycle the waste (D1). Less than 5% of the
participants think recycling is of little use. Therefore, the initial

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N. Ferronato et al.
hypothesis (H1.1 - citizens do not believe that recycling is useful) is
rejected. The results of D2 (which waste do you separate at home to be
recycled?) indicate that the most recycled materials are plastics (73.1%,
CI 2.32), paper and cardboard (71%, CI 2.32), while organic is the less
recovered (36.4%, CI 2.32). From these results it is also possible to
obtain information on the number of fractions separated by the neigh­
bours. Less than 10% of the interviewees do not separate any fraction,
while more than 45% (CI 2.32) separate more than 3 waste fractions.
These results suggest rejecting the initial hypothesis (H1.2 - few citizens
implement the separation at source). Therefore, by the results can be
underlined that the vast majority of the people involved in the separate
collection in La Paz think that recycling should be implemented,
involving a relevant number of inhabitants. This statement is particu­
larly true for plastics, paper, and cardboard, which are the waste frac­
tions more separated also in other Latin America contexts (Ibáñez-Forés
et al., 2018).
Around 42% (CI 2.32) of the residents deliver the waste to municipal
separate street containers, while around 38% sell it, deliver it to
informal collectors or leave it on the streets. Therefore, the initial hy­
pothesis is rejected (H1.3 - whoever separates the waste at source de­
livers it only to the formal management system), due to the fact that less
than half of the participants claim to deliver the waste separated to the
formal collection system. There is also 14% (CI 2.32) of participants who
claim to deliver them or use them in other ways. The results are reported
in Fig. 2. This is an important result for local policy makers since
informal recycling is present at local level, supporting the separate
collection system implemented by the citizens. This is a common in low-
middle income areas, where informal recycling is active (Wilson et al.,
2006).
Finally, residents were asked how much they would like to pay for a
tax destined to contribute to an improved separate collection system for
recycling (D4). About 28.3% of the participants think that it is not
necessary to pay a tax, while 42.1% (CI 2.32) think that less than 1.5
USD per person per month could be paid. So, the initial hypothesis (H1.4
- citizens do not want to pay a cleaning tax for recycling) is partially
rejected. There is less than 30% (CI 2.32) of the residents who do not
want to pay a cleaning tax, but the other part of the population is willing
to pay, even though a minimal one. This result highlight difficulties in
tax collection and implementation, which can be due to different factors.
This is a common issue in developing countries for supporting safe
collection and disposal. Similar results were obtained in Nigeria, where
80% of the population is willing to pay for the waste management sys­
tem, with an average of 24 USD per year (Ezebilo, 2013), similar to La
Paz, where the vast majority of the interviewed (about 70%) suggested
paying at least 18 to 20 USD per year.
Fig. 2. Answer to question D3 (When you separate the waste at home, to whom do you deliver it?) (n = 998, CI 2.32, CL 95%).
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3.2.2. Factors that might affect the citizens
The initial hypothesis (H2) is that there are factors of the separate
collection system that annoy citizens. From the results, it can be stated
that 89.5% (CI 2.48) of the respondents are not annoyed by the use of
separate containers on the street, 70.3% are not annoyed by the use of
separate bins at home (CI 2.48), while 68% (CI 2.48) of the participants,
are not annoyed by the increase of vehicular traffic due to the presence
of the collector trucks. Therefore, the initial hypothesis can be rejected.
In addition, from the analysis of these values, the most limiting factor
can be the vehicular traffic, with an average value of 1.65 ± 1.06, fol­
lowed by the separate bins at home (1.53 ± 0.91). By the results, it can
be stated that waste separate collection in La Paz is not implemented due
to other factors, different from the simple annoyance due to the traffic
flow and the presence of separate collection bins at home. Similar results
have been found in Brazil, where the main barriers were the lack of
knowledge, the unequal sharing of the costs and benefits of recycling,
and lack of infrastructures (Conke, 2018).
The factor that most affects the implementation of recycling in La Paz
is not knowing to whom the waste can be delivered once classified (3.06
± 1.44), since 22% (CI 2.48) affirm that it affects them very much or a
lot. The factor that least affects the participants is the lack of interest
(1.58 ± 0.9). The tendency is that the households are affected by the
lack of space at home, with more than 40% (CI 2.48) being affected by
this problem, followed by lack of time. Therefore, H3 is rejected (there
are no factors that affect the implementation of the separate collection).
This statement confirms previous considerations: there are many factors
that can affect separate collection, but they are not due to the annoyance
on its implementation but for the lack of infrastructures. Similar results
were obtained in China, where the presence of organized garbage
disposal site strongly encourages proper disposal behaviour (Wang
et al., 2018).
3.2.3. Amounts of waste selected
The initial hypothesis (H4) is that citizens still recycle low amounts
of waste. The results indicate that paper and cardboard (3.22 ± 1.34)
and plastics (3.36 ± 1.34) are the most separated fractions, with more
than 20% (CI 2.48) of the participants affirming that they separate all
those that generate. In Fig. 3, the graphs clearly show the distributions of
the responses. Metals are the least separated, with more than 59% (CI
2.48) of the participants claiming to not separate anything. At the same
time, around 20% (CI 2.48) affirm that they separate all the organic
waste generated. It is an interesting result since there are not many
campaigns related to organic waste separation within the municipality
of La Paz. Finally, less than 20% (CI 2.48) of the interviewees affirm that
they do not separate paper and cardboard or plastic.
N. Ferronato et al. Habitat International 123 (2022) 102542

Fig. 3. Answers to questions D15-19 related to the amount of waste selected at home (n = 998, CI 2.48, CL 95%).
Notes: 1 – I do not separate this waste fraction; 5 – I separate all this waste fraction that I produce.

3.2.4. Recycling and covid19 about the information obtained on precautions for handling waste
In the last part of the questionnaire, residents are asked to answer during the covid19 pandemic. The initial hypothesis (H5) is that covid19
two questions about changing in habits in waste separate collection and has affected citizens’ participation in recycling, reducing the amounts of

Table 2a
Correlation analysis. Focus on general information (Q1-Q7), n = 998.

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N. Ferronato et al.
waste separated at the source. It is noted that 24.7% (CI 2.48) of the
interviewees separate more than before, while around 21% (CI 2.48)
previously separate and now they do not, or they separate less than
before. Therefore, the balance is more or less the same, considering that
always around 8% of those who respond do not separate the waste at the
source. On the other hand, the responses to D21 shows that around 39%
(2.69) have not received any information about precautions in waste
management during the pandemic (approx. during the period March­
–October 2020), while only 13% (CI 2.69) got them frequently. There­
fore, the initial hypothesis is rejected only in part, due to the fact that
only a small part of the population has not been affected by the Covid19
pandemic in MSW separate collection. Results are in line with the in­
ternational literature. A recent review paper underlines that COVID-19
also has significant effects on waste recycling and littered waste
composition at a global level (Yousefi et al., 2021). This information
should encourage Bolivian decision makers in put in place more efforts
for supporting recycling after the pandemic period.
3.3. Correlation analysis
3.3.1. General information
Tables 2a and 2b and reports the correlation values and the statis­
tically significant correlations (p < .05). Starting with the general in­
formation (Table 2a), the outcome of the analysis shows that there is a
negative correlation (r = − 0.165, p < .05) between the education level
(Q1) and the number of people per family (Q3). At the same time, as the
number of people per households increases, the age of the participant
decreases (Q2) (r = − 0.152, p < .05). So, the youngest live in larger
households, also explaining why the educational level is lower in larger
families. Finally, as the number of people per family increases, there is
also a positive correlation in houses size (r = 0.322, p < .05).
In relation to the above, when increasing the educational level (Q1)
the age of the participant to the survey increases (Q4) (r = 0.397, p <
.05) and the salary of the family increases too (Q6) (r = 0.265, p < .05).
There is a (negative) correlation also in relation to the district where the
respondents live (Q7) and the same education level. In particular, with
increasing education level, participants live in high-income areas of the
city (r = − 0.154, p < .05). Coherently, people who live in high-income
areas of the city (Q7) are older (Q6) (r = − 0.182, p < .05).
3.3.2. Personal information and waste separate collection
The correlation analysis (Table 2b) shows that with increasing age
Table 2b
Correlation analysis of the main information collected from the questionnaire (n = 998).
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(Q4) the types of waste fractions separated at home increases (D2) (r =
0.247, p < .05). In particular, analysing these data through chi-square
analysis, it is noted that there is a significant dependence (χ2[285] =
364.19, p < .001) between the number of the recycled fractions and an
age between 30 and 40 years old, and older than 50 years. In addition, as
age increases, the limitation factor related to the “time” decreases (D8)
(r = − 0.194, p < .05), as well as the lack of habit (r = − 0.230, p < .05).
In other words, young people are more affected by the lack of time and
the lack of habit when they should implement the separate collection at
home. Through the analyses it is noted that families with more people
(Q6) separate more amounts of glass (D16) (r = 0.185, p < .05), while
those with a higher salary per family (Q3) separate fewer amounts of
glass (r = − 0.146, p < .05). Finally, those with a higher salary (Q6) are
more willing to pay a higher cleaning tax (D4) for an efficient separation
and recycling service (r = 0.156, p < .05).
3.3.3. General perceptions and waste separate collection
First, those who think that recycling is important (D1) also separate
more waste fractions at source (D2) (r = 0.187, p < .05). At the same
time, those who think recycling is important are not annoyed by the
separate containers on the street (D5), (r = − 0.177, p < .05), selects
more amounts of plastic waste (D18) (r = 0.175, p < .05) and during the
pandemic it is likely that has improved separate collection habits (D20)
(r = 0.255, p < .05). In general, the responses to D2 have a negative
correlation with all the other queries D8-14, which are about the factors
that affect the source separation, with the exception of the space at home
(D12), which is not statistically significant. That is, those who are less
affected by the factors that might limit MSW source separation are likely
to separate more waste fractions. Likewise, the more fractions are
separated (D2) the more quantities of residues are separated from all
MSW fractions (D15-D19). At the same time, the number of the sepa­
rated fractions (D2) has a positive correlation both with the improve­
ment of the waste separation habits (D20) (r = 0.453, p < .05), and with
the quantities of information obtained during the same period (D21) (r
= 0.154, p < .05). In relation to the pandemic, it is likely that those who
have obtained information (D21) have also improved their habits in
waste separate collection (D20) (r = 0.156, p < .05).
3.3.4. Factors that might affect the waste separation at the source
According to correlation analyses, those who are affected by separate
bins at home (D6) are also annoyed by containers on the street (D5) (r =
0.479, p < .05) and vehicular traffic (D7) (r = 0.347, p < .05). Likewise,
N. Ferronato et al.
whoever is annoyed by the containers are also concerned by the traffic
(D7) (r = 0.417, p < .05). That is, the three factors are highly correlated.
There are also specific correlations between other answers. In particular,
those who are affected by the containers on the streets (D5) are also
likely to be affected by the too rigid rules for collection (D13) (r = 0.157,
p < .05). In a different way, who is annoyed by the separate bins at home
(D6), is also affected by the lack of interest (D9) (r = 0.194, p < .05), lack
of habit (D10) (r = 0.189, p < .05) and lack of space at home (D12) (r =
0.164, p < .05). Finally, whoever is disturbed by traffic (D7) is likely to
be affected by too rigid rules (D13) (r = 0.152, p < .05). These corre­
lations can also be read from the other side, that is, those who are
affected by too rigid rules, are also annoyed by vehicular traffic from
compactors trucks.
All factors that might affect the citizens in separate collection and
that are assessed within the survey have a positive correlation with each
other. In particular, there are factors that carry a high correlation (r >
0.41). That is, lack of interest (D9) has a high correlation with the lack of
habits (D10) (r = 0.595, p < .05). In addition, those who are affected by
the lack of habits (D10) are likely to not know how to separate residues
(D14) (r = 0.439, p < .05), and those who do not know how to separate
the waste (D14) probably think that the rules are too rigid (D13) (r =
0.439, p < .05). Finally, who is affected by the lack of time (D8) is also
affected by the lack of space at home (D12) (r = 0.476, p < .05). These
factors also depend on the young age of the survey participants.
Evaluating the correlations between the factors that affect the waste
separation and the quantities of waste selected, it is noted that those who
are affected by the lack of habit (D10) and those who do not know how
to separate the waste (D14) are likely to separate a few amounts of waste
fractions. Differently, the single lack of interest (D9) has a negative
correlation only with the amounts of paper (D15), plastic (D18) and
organic (D19) separated at home. Finally, those who do not know to
whom to deliver the selected waste (D11), is likely not to do the separate
collection of metals (D16) and glass (D17). Therefore, the presence of
collection infrastructures is decisive for the waste fractions that are not
still collected and recycled. At the same time, the factors related to the
interest, habits and knowing-how to separate are important for the cit­
izen to start separating the waste.
The overall scheme of the significant correlation results is reported in
Fig. 4. Diagram of the correlations between the factors that affect the citizens of La Paz when they should implement the waste separate collection at home.
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Habitat International 123 (2022) 102542
Fig. 4. From the figure, the relationships between the perception of too
rigid rules, with not knowing how to separate, lack of habit and lack of
interest are noted. This is what has a correlation also with the factors
that annoy the citizens. So, lack of interest also means collecting less
amounts of paper, plastic and organic, which represent the waste frac­
tions most collected by the citizens, and increasing the annoyance of the
presence of bins, containers, and vehicles.
3.3.5. Amounts of waste collected
Analysing only the answers on the quantities of waste separated by
people, it is noted how they all have a correlation. In particular, there
are two high correlations: one, between D16 and D17, that is the sepa­
ration of glass and metals (r = 0.613, p < .05), and between D15 and
D18 (r = 0.490, p < .05), which refers to the separation of plastic, paper,
and cardboard. Therefore, it is noted that there are two groups of waste
collected jointly. Similarly, there is a correlation between D20, and the
amounts of waste collected. In particular, there is a high correlation (r =
0.432, p < .05) between D18 (plastic collection) and D20. At the same
time, D18 has a correlation with D21. Whoever separates plastics is
likely to have obtained a lot of information on how to separate waste
during the pandemic in Bolivia (r = 0.146, p < .05).
3.4. Dependence among the responses
3.4.1. Gender and SWM
The dependence between the gender and all the responses to the
form has been analysed. It is noted that there is a high dependence on:
the opinion on recycling (D1); the number (D2) and the amount of waste
collected, in particular glass (D16), plastic (D18), and organic (D19); the
vehicular traffic as a factor of recycling (D7) that can be annoying; and
the lack of interest as a factor that affects waste separation at source
(D9).
In relation to D1, women are the ones that give higher value about
the importance of recycling while men gave a lower value to it (χ2[8] =
25.526, p < .005). The same occurs with the responses to D2, that is,
women are the ones who separate more waste to be recycled, while men
separate fewer fractions (χ2[10] = 30.803, p < .001). In addition, ac­
cording to the analysis of D3, men separate less waste and, when
N. Ferronato et al.
separated, they are the ones who sell more waste, while women deliver
it more to the municipality or leave it on the street for someone to pick it
up (χ2[10] = 53.746, p < .001).
From D7 it is noted that annoyance with vehicular traffic depends on
the gender of the survey participants. In particular, it is more likely to
annoy men much more than women. In the same way, there is much
more lack of interest among men (χ2[8] = 24.335, p < .001), while for
women the lack of interest does not affect waste separation (D9). On the
issue of the quantities of waste separated at home, a statistically sig­
nificant dependence between gender and quantities of glass (D16),
plastic (D18) and organic (D19) is noted. In particular, these three res­
idues are mostly separated by women. Finally, women are the ones who,
during the covid19 pandemic, have separated waste much more than
before (D20). These results are consistent with the participation of
women in the information and awareness campaign, as well as in the
other environmental activities implemented in the municipality of La
Paz.
3.4.2. Delivery of the MSW separated at the source
The dependencies between the responses to D3 and the other ques­
tions in the survey have been analysed. It is noted how the delivery to
specific providers, formal and informal, is significant with many vari­
ables. Those who have a higher education level are likely not to sell the
waste, while there is a dependency between those who have a low ed­
ucation level and those who sell the waste. In addition, having a low
educational level is correlated with not doing the separate collection at
the source.
Analysing the dependence on the salary per household (Q6), it is
noted that whoever has a lower salary is likely to sell the waste. Those
who have a medium-high salary are likely to use the formal street
containers or not to do the separation at source. So, the lower economic
level does not mean that the separation is not made at the source, while
not doing the separation is likely to depend on the educational level.
Based on these correlations, it is likely that waste separated by house­
holds with lower income levels deliver separated waste to informal
collectors.
Through the analysis, it can also be considered that those who live in
family dwellings deliver the separated waste to informal collectors or
they sell it (Q2). While for those who live in apartments, it is easier that
they deliver it to the municipal separate street containers located within
the city. This is consistent with Q3: who live with more people per family
is likely to deliver the waste to informal collectors or sell it (χ2[45] =
64.782, p < .05). While families that live with a maximum of 3 people, it
is more likely that they deliver the waste to the separate street con­
tainers or that they do not do the separate collection. Finally, those who
think that recycling is not important is likely not to do the separation at
the source.
In relation to the quantities of waste separated, there is a statistically
significant dependence for who delivers waste to municipal containers
and who collects large amounts of glass and metals, while there is no
dependence for plastic and paper. It means that whoever does the source
separation of metals and glass, is likely to deliver it to municipal con­
tainers. Finally, whoever separates the organic fraction, it is easy that
can find other measures for recycling.
4. Discussion
This study provides valuable insights about the perspective of the
citizens who are likely to implement the separate collection at home,
topic of interest for cities located in developing countries (Zen & Siwar,
2015). The results indicate that the factor that most affects the separate
collection is not knowing who to deliver it to. What affects the least, in
terms of frequency of responses, is the lack of interest. However, as the
form has been filled out on a voluntary basis, it must be considered that
the results may be affected by this limit. In addition, it is important to
underline that the informal collection is responsible for providing an
8
Habitat International 123 (2022) 102542
alternative service, also to the population that lives in areas where there
are no separate street containers for collection. This is a common
practice in developing countries (Ribeiro Siman et al., 2020).
In the scientific literature it is well explained how the absence of
educational programmes at all levels, making the citizens unaware of
how to participate in the solutions to waste management issues, increase
the difficulties in implementing recycling policies (Diaz, 2017). In
addition, informal recycling is most of the time unrecognized, although
it represents the main system that is implementing circular systems in
developing cities (Chen et al., 2018; Gall et al., 2020). Such issues make
difficult to understand and plan how to move towards a circular
economy.
Other authors recommended to work on social capabilities and
enable the development of collective businesses in order to promote the
circular economy in developing countries (Wu et al., 2021). However, at
the international level there is still very little attention given to circular
economy in low and medium-income countries (Halog & Anieke, 2021),
although it should be boosted in order to reduce environmental pollu­
tion at a global level. More information about social acceptance in
recycling activities (formal and informal) is required and appropriate
actions should be implemented by policy-makers.
4.1. Recyclers’ perspective
Based on the results, it can be stated that those who have a high
educational level are likely to separate the waste at the source, while the
economic level gives indications about the system to which the sepa­
rated waste is delivered. In particular, lower income households with a
high number of people per family are likely to sell the selected waste.
Thanks to statistical analysis, it has been possible to identify the char­
acteristics of the “recycler” of La Paz. Likely, they are:
• Women.
• With an education degree (undergraduate or graduate).
• With an age between 30 and 40 years or older than 50 years.
Meanwhile, those who support the formal collection have also
additional characteristics, such as:
• a medium or medium-high income level (>700 USD per household).
• household of maximum 3 people, probably living in flats.
• people that live in the central area of the city or in the high-income
areas.
These factors may be dependent on where the containers have been
located. Therefore, these results must be verified over time, perhaps
through future questionnaire surveys. Other studies agree that social
and environmental factors are drivers for a better source separation
(Alhassan et al., 2020). Similarly to this study, in South Africa, graduates
are the one that implement MSW source separation due to social re­
sponsibilities while awareness campaign, financial incentives and pro­
vision of recycling facilities are the driving force for waste source
separation for citizens with lower education (Okonta & Mohlalifi, 2020).
However, in China, residents with higher education, and those aged
20–50 years, have less environmentally responsible behaviour with re­
gard to MSW treatment (Wang et al., 2020). Therefore, results should
not be generalized since citizens’ participation can be due to cultural
characteristics. In addition, the study conducted in La Paz does not
provide explanations about the reason why women, with educational
degree and with an age between 30 and 40 years old are the ones that are
likely to support recycling activities in La Paz. Hence, future research
aimed at answering to this question can contribute to improving recy­
cling in La Paz and other Latin American countries.
N. Ferronato et al.
4.2. Waste fractions selected and waste management taxes
Plastic and paper are the waste fractions mostly selected, as
commonly happen worldwide (Ribeiro Siman et al., 2020). For plastic
waste, it is interesting to note that there is not a statistically significant
dependence at regional level and neither a dependence between the type
of system to which these waste fractions are delivered. This means that
the source separation of plastic materials is uniform throughout the city,
as well as the method of delivery. At the same time, there is a high
correlation in who separates metals and glass, and a dependence be­
tween who does the source separation of this waste and the delivery to
the municipal street containers. This indicates that there are good results
from the collection with separate containers (in terms of glass and
metals separation), while the population is already used to separating
plastics and paper thanks to the presence of the informal recycling
sector, which seems to have a very important role.
Finally, as reported also by other authors, households have certain
socio-economic characteristics that influence their willingness-to-pay
for MSW management (Chen, 2019; Rahji & Oloruntoba, 2009).
Following the outcomes of the research, in La Paz, the willingness de­
pends only on the income level. The higher the salary, the more likely
the neighbour is willing to pay for the waste management system. This is
not a good news in managerial terms, because it means that there are no
ways for the municipality to provide other tools to the neighbours so
that they are willing to pay for improving the separate collection system.
In addition, there is a dependency between salary and districts where the
citizens live. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the inequality
of the service by different areas, due to the fact that this can increase the
social differences between the rich and the poor.
4.3. Recommendations and policy implications
There is potential to improve waste management practices in La Paz.
The first relevant factor for the municipality is the interest of the citizens
in actions towards recycling. Therefore, the first intervention is to invest
in education. This action has to be supported by a second intervention:
the implementation of collection systems that allow citizens to have
facilities to deliver the waste selected. In particular, infrastructures
should be provided for metals and glass collection, which are waste
fractions not interesting to informal recyclers.
At the same time, lack of time and lack of space at home are factors
that reduce the citizen’s commitment to source separation. The only way
to improve participation is to add collection points to make them closer
to citizens. Also, the lack of interest and not knowing how to separate the
waste, factors that affect the source separation, are issues that can be
faced, again, through the greater presence of collection infrastructures
and the implementation of information campaigns. These actions can be
carried out by the municipality of La Paz, also with the support of local
universities and NGOs, as the example provided by the project “LaPaz­
Recicla”, bearing in mind that appropriate solutions and consistent
assistance should be provided in low-income countries in order to avoid
failure in foreign support (Dangi et al., 2015).
Other studies suggested that pilot programs increases the frequency
of household waste sorting, reinforced for people with high levels of
social trust or low individualism (Zhang & Wang, 2020), while citizens’
participation in recycling activities is also due to their hesitation
regarding the proper operation of the programs. Therefore, there is a
need to build up the trust between citizens and the local Government.
Active public involvement is required to successfully implement new
MSW management strategies (Drimili et al., 2020). Severity of the
sanction, and the certainty of penalty imposed is not always the most
affordable solution since it does not move citizens to implement recy­
cling actions (Ogiri et al., 2019). Finally, informal collection can help
increase the interest of neighbours in waste source separation, as also
reported in other studies conducted in La Paz (Ferronato, Portillo, et al.,
2020). They are people who know the territory and the same neighbours
9
Habitat International 123 (2022) 102542
who live in the area. Therefore, at a strategic level, in areas where the
municipality cannot enter with separate street containers, actions can be
implemented to support informal recyclers or waste pickers. On balance,
study results strongly suggest that potential waste management pro­
grams should adhere to the following recommendations:
• Aid recycling through information campaigns with the support of
women who lead the actions.
• Maximize the distribution of separate street containers in the mu­
nicipality so that everyone can participate in the waste collection,
especially for glass and metals.
• Support informal waste collection through inclusive campaigns or
specific strategies that should be organized through dedicated
projects.
• Support the source separation of organic waste, especially where it is
already implemented, and add measures for the collection of this
waste fraction where it is not applied.
5. Conclusions
Although there are limitations in terms of sample collection, results
have given clear indications about the citizens that are likely to be
involved in recycling in La Paz. The research highlighted that most of the
participants consider very useful or useful to recycle the waste they
generate. It is a very important point since those who think that recy­
cling is important also separate more waste fractions (r = 0.187, p <
.05). In addition, less than 5% of the participants think recycling is of
little use. About 38% sell the sorted waste or deliver it to informal col­
lectors or leave it on the streets. Therefore, there is a strong link between
recycling and informal collection. In addition, the factor that most af­
fects the implementation of recycling is not knowing to whom the waste
can be delivered once classified, since 22% (CI 2.48) of the respondents
affirm that it affects them very much or a lot. Therefore, informal MSW
collection is supporting the formal system in providing a better recycling
rate and the improvement of citizens’ participation.
Future research should focus on the comparison of these results with
other areas of Bolivia and Latin America. Research should also explore
mechanisms to involve the informal system within the formal separate
collection and recycling, in order to foster the circular economy in short
terms. The research introduced in this paper can be of interest to policy-
makers and scholars providing reliable insights about the characteristics
of the citizens involved within a formal and informal recycling system in
Latin America, and for better understanding the opportunities and
challenges towards the implementation of an appropriate SWM system
in cities of developing countries.
Author contributions
Navarro Ferronato: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal
analysis; Investigation; Methodology; Software; Validation; Visualiza­
tion; Writing - original draft; Writing - review & editing. Edith Gabriela
Guisbert Lizarazu: Conceptualization; Formal analysis. Daysi Valen­
cia: Conceptualization; Formal analysis. Rodolfo Pasinetti: Conceptu­
alization; Funding acquisition; Resources; Supervision. Vincenzo
Torretta: Supervision.
Funding
This publication was produced with the financial support of the
Italian Agency for Development Cooperation in the frame of the project
“LaPazRecicla. Integrated approach to the waste management in Bolivia:
development of new technologies to foster circular economy in the
municipality of La Paz” – AID 011908. Its contents are the sole re­
sponsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the
Agency.
N. Ferronato et al. Habitat International 123 (2022) 102542

Table A1 Table A1 (continued )

Structure of the form Code Question Answers

collection system following factors

Code Question Answers that might affect related to improving
General Q1 Educational level 1 Any the citizens the separate
information 2 First level collection?
3 Secondary school D5 The use of separate From 1 to 5 (1 – it does
4 Graduation street containers for not affect 5 – it affects
5 Post-graduation the street very much)
Q2 House type 1 Room (shared D6 The use of separate
department) bins at home
2 Small department D7 The traffic of the
3 Department collection trucks
4 House
Q3 Number of people per From 1 to 10
household How do the following
Q4 Age Open response factors affect you
Q5 Gender Female when separating
Male waste at home?
Without specifying Factors that might D8 Lack of time From 1 to 5 (1 nothing - 5
Q6 Average income per 1 < 5.000 Bs (about 725 affect the D9 Lack of space at home very much)
household USD) separate D10 Lack of interest
2 5.000–10.000 Bs collection at D11 Lack of habit
3 10.000–20.000 Bs home D12 Not know to whom
4 20.000–30.000 Bs deliver the waste
5 > 30.000 Bs (about D13 The rules of
4350 USD) separation are too
Q7 District where the 1 Distric 1 rigid
household leaves 2 Distric 2 D14 I do not know how to
3 Distric 3 select the waste
4 Distric 4
5 Distric 5
6 Distric 6 How much waste do
7 Distric 7 you and your
household separate at
home?
Analysis of the D1 In your opinion, from From 1 to 5 Amount of waste D15 Paper and cardboard From 1 to 5 (1 nothing - 5
solid waste 1 to 5, with 5 being 1 – It is not useful selected at home D16 Glass all the generated)
management the highest grade, do 5 – It is very much useful D17 Metals
system you consider it useful D18 Plastics
to recycle the waste? D19 Organic
D2 You and your family, − I do not select the
what waste do you waste Solid waste D20 Has Covid-19 made 1 I do not separate the
select at home to be − Paper and cardboard separate you or your family waste
recycled? * − Glass collection and change your habits in 2 Before I selected the
− Metals covid19 relation to the waste, now I do not
− Plastics separate collection of separate the waste
− Organic waste for recycling? 3 I separate less waste
D3 When you separate 1 I do not select it than before 4. I select
waste at home, who 2 I leave it into the as before 5. I select
do you deliver it to? separate street more than before
containers provided D21 During the Covid-19 1. No, never
by the local pandemic, did you 2 Yes, a few times
municipality and your family get 3 Yes, frequently
3 I deliver it to the any information 4 Yes, always
informal waste pickers about precautions for
4 I sell it handling and
5 I leave it on the street separating waste?
so that someone will
*
collect it Answers have been evaluated based on the number of fractions selected: 0 -
6 Other none, 5 - all listed.
D4 How much would you 1 It is not necessary to
be willing to pay per pay for this tax Declaration of interests
person within your 2 < 1.5 USD per person
family nucleus for the per month
rate destined to 3 1.5–4.5 USD per The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
contribute to a more person per month interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
efficient urban 4 4.5–7.5 USD per the work reported in this paper.
cleaning service with person per month
an improved system 5 7.5–14.5 USD per
of differentiated person per month Acknowledgement
collection for 6 >14.5 USD per person
recycling? per month The authors thank the Municipal Secretary of Environmental Man­
agement of the Autonomous Municipal Government of La Paz and the
Italian non-governmental organization COOPI, La Paz field office, for
Factor of the How much do or
separate would you affect the
their cooperation in implementing the research within the framework of
the project “LaPazRecicla. Integrated approach to the waste manage­
(continued on next column)
ment in Bolivia: development of new technologies to foster circular

10
N. Ferronato et al.
economy in the municipality of La Paz”, led by COOPI.
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