Before the 20th century, literary criticism primarily revolved around mimesis, seeking faithful

representation of reality, and Romanticism, privileging authorial subjectivity and emotional

response. However, as the century dawned, intellectual currents shifted dramatically, paving the
way for a vibrant and diverse landscape of literary theory.
This shift was fueled by groundbreaking advances in various fields. Psychology unveiled the
hidden complexities of the human mind, linguistics illuminated the intricate workings of
language, and social sciences exposed the interwoven tapestry of culture and literature. This
fertile intellectual ground nourished the birth of Russian Formalism, a revolutionary approach
led by Viktor Shklovsky and Roman Jakobson.

Russian Formalism rejected traditional methods that judged literature based on external
factors like author biography or historical context. Instead, it championed intrinsic form and
technique as the sole lens through which literature should be understood. This focus on the
interplay of elements like plot, style, and narration laid the groundwork for a new critical
movement: New Criticism. Emerging as an offshoot of its Russian forerunner, New Criticism,
spearheaded by figures like T.S. Eliot and Cleanth Brooks, further solidified the focus on internal
analysis. They viewed the text as a self-contained work of art, an autonomous entity to be
meticulously examined for its own sake. Their methodology centred on delving into the intricate
interplay of literary devices like irony, imagery, and tone to uncover their effects and determine
the poem's meaning.

However, the emphasis on the text's autonomy wasn't destined to remain unchallenged. Reader
Response Theory, spearheaded by Wolfgang Iser and Stanley Fish, emerged as a counterpoint,
arguing that meaning is not inherent in the text itself, but actively constructed by the reader.
They emphasized the reader's engagement with the text, their experiences, knowledge, and
historical/cultural context as crucial elements in shaping meaning.

Meanwhile, on the continental stage, Structuralism emerged, drawing inspiration from Ferdinand
de Saussure's linguistic theories and Claude Lévi-Strauss's anthropological structural analysis.
Structuralists viewed cultural phenomena as sign systems and focused on identifying underlying
patterns, oppositions, and structures that form the bedrock of narratives, myths, and cultural
practices. This approach had a profound influence on narrative theory in literature. In a critical
turn, post-structuralism, championed by figures like Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and
Roland Barthes, emerged in the 1960s and 70s as a reaction against certain aspects of
structuralism. They challenged the assumption of fixed structures and binary oppositions,
emphasizing instead how meaning is deferred and unstable. Post-structuralists highlighted how
language constructs rather than reflect reality, introducing techniques like deconstruction to
dismantle philosophical dichotomies and offer fresh perspectives on literature, culture, and
politics.
Freud's groundbreaking work on the unconscious mind also cast a long shadow on literary
criticism. Psychoanalytic Theory, drawing on concepts like the id, ego, superego, and the
Oedipus complex, provided a framework for analyzing symbolism, dreams, and the
representation of psychological impulses in literature. Jacques Lacan further developed this field
with his theories on language and desire, offering insights into complex character motivations
and themes. Emerging in the late 1970s-80s, New Historicism challenged the tendency to
universalize psychological impulses in literature. Led by scholars like Stephen Greenblatt and
Michel Foucault, it emphasized situating texts within specific cultural and historical contexts.
New Historicists examined how power structures, social forces, and competing worldviews of a
period shaped literary works. This approach combined historicist contextualization with insights
from fields like psychoanalysis to offer a nuanced understanding of literature as a product of its
time and a reflection of its anxieties and desires.

Finally, the late 20th century witnessed the rise of post-colonialism, a theoretical framework
pioneered by Edward Said, Homi Bhabha, and Frantz Fanon. This approach provided tools for
analyzing literature through the lens of colonial and neo-colonial power dynamics. It examined
how the cultures of colonised peoples were represented and affected by imperial attitudes and
policies of cultural dominance. By reclaiming subjugated histories and asserting pluralistic
national and cultural identities, post-colonialism challenged dominant narratives and offered a
critical perspective on literature as a site of both colonial subjugation and reclamation of voice.

To sum up, literary theory blossomed into a rich field that has profoundly shaped how we
analyze and understand literature, over the 20th century. From formalist approaches like Russian
Formalism and New Criticism to modern schools including Reader Response, Structuralism,
Post-Structuralism, Psychoanalytic Theory, New Historicism and Post-Colonialism, theorists
have illuminated literature from diverse vantage points. These perspectives continue to influence
contemporary criticism and open up new pathways to interpreting texts through sociocultural,
historical and psychological lenses. Literary theory allows for deeper and more engaging
analysis of both individual works and the very nature of literature.

References:

1. Shklovsky, Viktor. (1917). "Art as Technique." In Russian Formalist Criticism: Four Essays.
Edited by Lee T. Lemon and Marion J. Reis. University of Nebraska Press, 1965.
2. Said, Edward W. (1978). Orientalism. Pantheon Books.
3. Eagleton, Terry. (2008). Literary Theory: An Introduction. Wiley.
4. Bhabha, Homi K. (1994). The Location of Culture. Routledge.
5. Saussure, Ferdinand de. (1916). Course in General Linguistics. Translated by Roy Harris.
Open Court, 1986.
6. Freud, Sigmund. (1900). The Interpretation of Dreams. Basic Books, 2010.