Formation and Evolution of the Universe

Our universe began with an explosion of space itself - the Big Bang. Starting from
extremely high density and temperature, space expanded, the universe cooled,
and the simplest elements formed. Gravity gradually drew matter together to form
the first stars and the first galaxies. Galaxies collected into groups, clusters, and
superclusters. Some stars died in supernova explosions, whose chemical remnants
seeded new generations of stars and enabled the formation of rocky planets. On at
least one such planet, life evolved to consciousness. And it wonders, “Where did I
come from?” Our Milky Way Galaxy was once thought to comprise the entire known
universe. Today our universe encompasses many billions of galaxies, and its history
can be recounted back to its earliest moments.
The Sun
The Sun has been called by many names. The Latin word for Sun is “sol” which is the main adjective
for all things Sun-related: solar. Helios, the Sun god in ancient Greek mythology, lends his name to
many Sun-related terms as well, such as heliosphere and helioseismology.

❖ Formation
The Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago in a giant, spinning cloud of gas and dust called the solar nebula. As
the Nebula collapsed under its own gravity, it spun faster and flattened into a disk. Most of the nebula's material
was pulled toward the center to form our Sun, which accounts for 99.8% of our solar system’s mass.
Much of the remaining material formed the planets and other objects that now orbit the Sun. (The rest
of the leftover gas and dust was blown away by the young Sun’s early solar wind.)
 ❖ Composition
The sun is mostly composed of the elements hydrogen (H) and helium (He).
By mass the composition of the sun is 92.1% hydrogen and 7.9% helium.

❖ Atmosphere
Above the photosphere is the chromosphere, the transition zone, and the corona. Not all scientists refer to the
transition zone as its own region – it is simply the thin layer where the chromosphere rapidly heats and becomes
the corona. The photosphere, chromosphere, and corona are all part of the Sun’s atmosphere. (The corona is
sometimes casually referred to as “the Sun’s atmosphere,” but it is actually the Sun’s upper atmosphere.)
The Sun’s atmosphere is where we see features such as sunspots, coronal holes, and solar flares

❖ Surface
The Sun doesn’t have a solid surface like Earth and the other rocky planets and moons. The part of the Sun
commonly called its surface is the photosphere. The word photosphere means "light sphere" – which is
apt because this is the layer that emits the most visible light. It’s what we see from Earth with our eyes.
❖ Structure
The Sun is a huge ball of hydrogen and helium held together by its own gravity.
The Sun has several regions. The interior regions include the core, the radiative
zone, and the convection zone. Moving outward – the visible surface or
photosphere is next, then the chromosphere, followed by the transition zone,
and then the corona – the Sun’s expansive outer atmosphere.
Once material leaves the corona at supersonic speeds, it becomes the solar wind,
which forms a huge magnetic "bubble" around the Sun, called the heliosphere.
The heliosphere extends beyond the orbit of the planets in our solar system. Thus,
Earth exists inside the Sun’s atmosphere. Outside the heliosphere is interstellar space.
The core is the hottest part of the Sun. Nuclear reactions here – where hydrogen is fused
to form helium – power the Sun’s heat and light. Temperatures top 27 million °F (15 million
°C) and it’s about 86,000 miles (138,000 kilometers) thick. Energy from the core is carried
outward by radiation. This radiation bounces around the radiative zone, taking about 170,000
years to get from the core to the top of the convection zone.
 ❖ Discovery of Helium
In the year 1868, an astronomer from France, found a mysterious element, which is presently called as
helium. This was done by the Astronomer in the gamut of the sun during a most-expected total eclipse that
took place in Guntur. Earlier, this element was never found on earth and this is why it was pointed out as
extraterrestrial element. Before the discovery of helium by the French Astronomer, many astronomers had
been eagerly waiting for a total solar eclipse right from the year 1859. During this waiting period, the
German Physicist named Gustav Kirchhoff identified how to make use of the analysis of light for identifying
the chemical composition of the Sun and the stars. They thought of analysing the bright red flames that
came out of the Sun and these red flames are now called as thick smokes of gas or solar prominences. But
until the year 1868, they thought that the spectrum of Sun could only be observed during a full eclipse day.
The French astronomer, who discovered helium stayed at Guntur on the solar eclipse day to get a site of
the moon passing in front of the sun and showcased solar prominences. He found that the prominences
were mostly made out of extremely hot hydrogen gas. But, he also found something extra with the help of
a special instrument known as spectroscope. He found that the yellow light that was previously identified
as sodium does not match the wavelength of the elements that were discovered earlier. Janssen decided to
continuously study the mysterious line and he was surprised to know that it will be possible to see the
Sun’s emission not just during an eclipse day, but also during normal days.
But, to view the same during normal days, it is important that the other visible lines should be emitted.
With continuous research, he found a device called as spectrohelioscope, which is specially used for
examining the spectrum of light from the Sun. Janssen decided to continuously study the mysterious line
and he was surprised to know that it will be possible to see the Sun’s emission not just during an eclipse
day, but also during normal days. But, to view the same during normal days, it is important that the other
visible lines should be emitted. With continuous research, he found a device called as spectrohelioscope,
which is specially used for examining the spectrum of light from the Sun. Without knowing the fact that
French astronomer is working on finding helium, another scientist was engaged in the same research
activities at a distance of about 5000 miles. This scientist named Joseph Norman Lockyer, actually thrived
in his view of solar eminences in normal day light in the year 1868 on the month of October. In an
unexpected scientific sync, the research papers of both these scientists reached the French Academy of
Science that too on the same day. This is why both men were credited for first sighting of helium.
Guntur finds place in the history as the place of birth of helium and so like many other significances, this
city holds this significance in the history as well.
ISRO – Indian Space Research Organisation
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is the space agency of India. The organisation
is involved in science, engineering and technology to harvest the benefits of outer space for
India and the mankind. ISRO is a major constituent of the Department of Space (DOS),
Government of India. The department executes the Indian Space Programme primarily through
various Centres or units within ISRO.ISRO was previously the Indian National Committee for Space
Research (INCOSPAR), set up by the Government of India in 1962, as envisioned by Dr. Vikram A
Sarabhai. ISRO was formed on August 15, 1969 and superseded INCOSPAR with an expanded role
to harness space technology. DOS was set up and ISRO was brought under DOS in 1972.
The prime objective of ISRO/DOS is the development and application of space technology for various
national needs. To fulfil this objective, ISRO has established major space systemsfor communication,
television broadcasting and meteorological services; resources monitoring and management;
space-based navigation services. ISRO has developed satellite launch vehicles, PSLV and GSLV,
to place the satellites in the required orbits.
Alongside its technological advancement, ISRO contributes to science and science education in
the country. Various dedicated research centres and autonomous institutions for remote sensing,
astronomy and astrophysics, atmospheric sciences and space sciences in general function under
the aegis of Department of Space. ISRO's own Lunar and interplanetary missions along with other
scientific projects encourage and promote science education, apart from providing valuable data to
the scientific community which in turn enriches science. ISRO has its headquarters in Bengaluru.
Its activities are spread across various centres and units. Launch Vehicles are built at Vikram Sarabhai
Space Centre (VSSC), Thiruvananthapuram; Satellites are designed and developed at U R Rao Satellite
Centre (URSC), Bengalure ; Integration and launching of satellites and launch vehicles are carried out
from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), Sriharikota ; Development of liquid stages including cryogenic
stage is carried out at Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC), Valiamala & Bengaluru; Sensors for
Communication and Remote Sensing satellites and application aspects of the space technology are taken
up at Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad and Remote Sensing satellite data reception
processing and dissemination is entrusted to National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad.
Incidents that let to the study of the sun
❖ Carrington event – (01-09-1859)
In the early morning of that day, when it was still dark, people were surprised by the colorful lights that
suddenly appeared in the sky . Red, green and purple… the sky was shining in full Colors and it resembled
the day. A British astronomer named Richard Carrington was observing The sun through the telescope as
usual in his laboratory on the morning when the telegraph system broke down and all the experts fell down
without knowing the reason. Seeing the black spots that he had never seen before, and drew them on paper.
Within a few minutes, two round bead-like shapes appeared on those spots with blinding white light, and
their shape began to change in various ways. Surprised, he turned around for a moment to show the people
around him ,. and the whole scene changed. The phenomenon that Carrington saw in the telescope is called
a ‘magnetic eruption or storm’ on the Sun. The event was named the ‘Carrington Event’ after its first detection.
The colored lights seen in the sky are also the result. They are called ‘Northern Lights’ and ‘Auroras’. The
telegraph system around the world was suddenly disrupted. Not only were the operators who touched the
devices shocked, but the papers on which the messages were to be printed were burnt to ashes. They got
worried and disconnect the batteries. However, the telegraph messages were transmitted as they were and
Confused the employees.
On March 13, 1989, the power supply system at the Quebec hydroelectric station in Canada broke down. Sixty
lakh people had to spend 72 hours without electricity. At the same time, some transformers in New Jersey also
melted all the toe wires.
In December 2006, the GPS navigation signals of the satellite communication system at some places did not work
for ten minutes. In 2017, services at Zurich airport were suspended for 15 hours. This magnetic storm is the cause
of the problem at the Quebec power station. In 2006, GPS signals stopped due to X-rays from the Sun. It took a
long time for the astronomers who noticed that the sun is not always the same and that various changes are
constantly taking place there that the result of those changes is what we see on earth and the and the
technological systems are being damaged. Who could have imagined that these things could happen because of
the sun, which is somewhere 15 million kilometers away? But the effects of the results fall on satellites orbiting
above the earth. Their orbits are changing and their lifetimes are getting shorter. Physicist Eugune Parker of the
university of Chicago proposed solar wind and magnetic fields in the sun’ outer ring in the 1950s. Since then,
Research of the sun has gained momentum. That is why NASA named the solar mission launched in 2018 as
‘Parker Solar Probe’ after him.
NASA's Parker Solar Probe
NASA's Parker Solar Probe will revolutionize our understanding of the Sun. The spacecraft is gradually
orbiting closer to the Sun’s surface than any before it – well within the orbit of Mercury. Flying into the
outermost part of the Sun's atmosphere, the corona, for the first time, Parker Solar Probe is collecting
measurements and images to expand our knowledge of the origin and evolution of solar wind. It also
makes critical contributions to forecasting changes in the space environment that affect life and
technology on Earth.
•Parker will fly more than seven times closer to the Sun than any spacecraft.
•Over seven years, the spacecraft will complete 24 orbits around the Sun.
At its closest approach, the spacecraft will come within about 3.9 million miles (6.2 million kilometers) of
the Sun. NASA's Parker Solar Probe is diving into the Sun’s atmosphere, facing brutal heat and radiation,
on a mission to give humanity its first-ever sampling of a star’s atmosphere.
On Dec. 14, 2021, NASA announced that Parker had flown through the Sun’s upper atmosphere – the
corona – and sampled particles and magnetic fields there. This marked the first time in history, a
spacecraft had touched the Sun.
Parker Solar Probe is designed to swoop within about 4 million miles (6.5 million kilometers) of the Sun's
surface to trace the flow of energy, to study the heating of the solar corona, and to explore what
accelerates the solar wind.
During its journey, the mission will provide answers to long-standing questions that have puzzled scientists
for more than 60 years: Why is the corona much hotter than the Sun's surface (the photosphere)? How does
the solar wind accelerate? What are the sources of high-energy solar particles?
We live in the Sun's atmosphere and this mission will help scientists better understand the Sun's impact on
Earth. Data from Parker will be key to understanding and, perhaps, forecasting space weather. Space
weather can change the orbits of satellites, shorten their lifetimes, or interfere with onboard electronics.
Parker can survive the Sun's harsh conditions because cutting-edge thermal engineering advances protect
the spacecraft during its dangerous journey.
The probe has four instrument suites designed to study magnetic fields, plasma, and energetic particles, and
image the solar wind.
The mission is named for the late Dr. Eugene N. Parker, who pioneered our modern understanding of the
Sun. As a young professor at the University of Chicago in the mid-1950s, Parker developed a mathematical
theory that predicted the solar wind, the constant outflow of solar material from the Sun. Throughout his
career, Parker revolutionized the field time and again, advancing ideas that addressed the fundamental
questions about the workings of our Sun and stars throughout the universe.
He died March 15, 2022, at age 94.
In 2018, Parker became the first person to witness the launch of a spacecraft bearing his name. NASA’s
Parker Solar Probe continues its mission today in pursuit of the pioneering questions Parker first envisaged
more than a half century ago
Lagrange points
Joseph-Louis Lagrange (born Giuseppe Luigi Lagrangia or Giuseppe Ludovico De la Grange Tournier
. 25 January 1736 – 10 April 1813), also reported as Giuseppe Luigi Lagrange or Lagrangia , was an
Italian mathematician, physicist and astronomer, later naturalized French. He made significant
contributions to the fields of analysis, number theory, and both classical and celestial mechanics.
Lagrange was one of the creators of the calculus of variations, deriving the Euler–Lagrange
equations for extrema of functionals. He extended the method to include possible constraints,
arriving at the method of Lagrange multipliers. Lagrange invented the method of solving differential
equations known as variation of parameters, applied differential calculus to the theory of
probabilities and worked on solutions for algebraic equations. He proved that every natural number is
a sum of four squares. His treatise Theorie des fonctions analytiques laid some of the foundations
of group theory, anticipating Galois. In calculus, Lagrange developed a novel approach
to interpolation and Taylor's theorem. He studied the three-body problem for the Earth, Sun and Moon
(1764) and the movement of Jupiter's satellites (1766), and in 1772 found the special-case solutions to
this problem that yield what are now known as Lagrangian points. Lagrange is best known for
transforming Newtonian mechanics into a branch of analysis, Lagrangian mechanics. He presented
the mechanical "principles" as simple results of the variational calculus.
Lagrange points are positions in space where objects sent there tend to stay put. At Lagrange
points, the gravitational pull of two large masses precisely equals the centripetal force required
for a small object to move with them. These points in space can be used by spacecraft to reduce
fuel consumption needed to remain in position.
Lagrange Points are positions in space where the gravitational forces of a two body system like
the Sun and the Earth produce enhanced regions of attraction and repulsion. These can be used
by spacecraft to reduce fuel consumption needed to remain in position.
Lagrange points are named in honor of Italian-French mathematician Josephy-Louis Lagrange.
There are five special points where a small mass can orbit in a constant pattern with two larger
masses. The Lagrange Points are positions where the gravitational pull of two large masses
precisely equals the centripetal force required for a small object to move with them. This
mathematical problem, known as the "General Three-Body Problem" was considered by
Lagrange in his prize winning paper (Essai sur le Problème des Trois Corps, 1772).
Of the five Lagrange points, three are unstable and two are stable. The unstable Lagrange points -
labeled L1, L2 and L3 - lie along the line connecting the two large masses. The stable Lagrange
points - labeled L4 and L5 - form the apex of two equilateral triangles that have the large masses
at their vertices. L4 leads the orbit of earth and L5 follows.
The L1 point of the Earth-Sun system affords an uninterrupted view of the sun and is currently home
to the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory Satellite SOHO.
The L2 point of the Earth-Sun system was the home to the WMAP spacecraft, current home
of Planck, and future home of the James Webb Space Telescope. L2 is ideal for astronomy because a
spacecraft is close enough to readily communicate with Earth, can keep Sun, Earth and Moon behind
the spacecraft for solar power and (with appropriate shielding) provides a clear view of deep space
for our telescopes. The L1 and L2 points are unstable on a time scale of approximately 23 days,
which requires satellites orbiting these positions to undergo regular course and attitude corrections.
NASA is unlikely to find any use for the L3 point since it remains hidden behind the Sun at all times.
The idea of a hidden planet has been a popular topic in science fiction writing.
The L4 and L5 points are home to stable orbits so long as the mass ratio between the two large
masses exceeds 24.96. This condition is satisfied for both the Earth-Sun and Earth-Moon systems,
and for many other pairs of bodies in the solar system. Objects found orbiting at the L4 and L5
points are often called Trojans after the three large asteroids Agamemnon, Achilles and Hector that
orbit in the L4 and L5 points of the Jupiter-Sun system. (According to Homer, Hector was the Trojan
champion slain by Achilles during King Agamemnon's siege of Troy). There are hundreds of Trojan
Asteroids in the solar system. Most orbit with Jupiter, but others orbit with Mars. In addition,
several of Saturn's moons have Trojan companions.
ADITYA-L1
Aditya L1 is the first space based observatory class Indian solar mission to study the Sun. The
spacecraft is planned to be placed in a halo orbit around the Lagrangian point 1 (L1) of the Sun-
Earth system, which is about 1.5 million km from the Earth. A satellite placed in the halo orbit
around the L1 point has the major advantage of continuously viewing the Sun without any
occultation/ eclipse. This will provide a greater advantage of observing the solar activities
continuously. The spacecraft carries seven payloads to observe the photosphere, chromosphere,
and the outermost layers of the Sun (the corona) using electromagnetic and particle detectors.
Using the special vantage point of L1, four payloadsdirectly view the Sun and the remaining
three payloads carry out in-situ studies of particles and fields at the Lagrange point L1. The suit
of Aditya L1 payloads are expected to provide most crucial information to understand the
problems of coronal heating, Coronal Mass Ejection, pre-flare and flare activities, and their
characteristics, dynamics of space weather, study of the propagation of particles, and fields in
the interplanetary medium etc.
❖ MAJOR SCIENCE OBJECTIVES
• Understanding the Coronal Heating and Solar Wind Acceleration.
• Understanding initiation of Coronal Mass Ejection (CME), flares and near-earth space weather.
• To understand coupling and dynamics of the solar atmosphere.
• To understand solar wind distribution and temperature anisotropy.

❖ UNIQUENESS OF THE MISSION

• First time spatially resolved solar disk in the near UV band.
• CME dynamics close to the solar disk (~ from 1.05 solar radius) and thereby providing information in
the acceleration regime of CME which is not observed consistently.
• On-board intelligence to detect CMEs and solar flares for optimised observations and data volume.
• Directional and energy anisotropy of solar wind using multi-direction observations.
ADITYA-L1 SCIENCE PAYLOADS
The Aditya-L1 mission carries a suit of seven scientific payloads to carry out systematic study of
the Sun. The Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC) studies the solar corona and dynamics of
Coronal Mass Ejections. The Solar Ultra-violet Imaging Telescope (SUIT) payload images the Solar
Photosphere and Chromosphere in near Ultra-violet (UV) and also measures the solar irradiance
variations in near UV. The Aditya Solar wind Particle Experiment (ASPEX) and Plasma Analyser
Package for Aditya (PAPA) payloads study the solar wind and energetic ions, as well as their energy
distribution. The Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer (SOLEXS) and The High Energy L1 Orbiting
X-ray Spectrometer (HEL1OS) studies the X-ray flares from the Sun over a wide X-ray energy range.
The Magnetometer payload is capable of measuring interplanetary magnetic fields at the L1 point.
The science payloads of Aditya-L1 are indigenously developed by different laboratories in the
country. The VELC instrument is developed at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bangalore; SUIT
instrument at Inter University Centre for Astronomy & Astrophysics , Pune; ASPEX instrument at
Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad; PAPA payload at Space Physics Laboratory, Vikram
Sarabhai Space Centre, Thiruvananthapuram; SoLEXS and HEL1OS payloads at U R Rao Satellite
Centre, Bangalore, and the Magnetometer payload at the Laboratory for Electro Optics Systems,
Bangalore. All the payloads are developed with the close collaboration of various centres of ISRO.
 Type Sl.No Payload
Visible Emission
1
Line Coronagraph (VELC)
Solar Ultraviolet Imaging
2 e imaging-narrow and
Telescope (SUIT)
Remote Sensing
Payloads 3
Solar Low Energy X-
ray Spectrometer (SoLEXS)
High Energy L1 Orbiting X-
4
ray Spectrometer (HEL1OS)
Aditya Solar wind Particle
5 analyzer: Protons and Heavier
Experiment (ASPEX)
In-situ Payloads 6
Plasma Analyser Package For
Aditya (PAPA)
Advanced Tri-axial High
7 Resolution Digital Magnetomet
ers
Capability
Corona Imaging
and spectroscopy
Photosphere and chromospher
broadband
Soft X-ray spectrometer: Sun-
as-a-star observation
Hard X-ray spectrometer: Sun-
as-a-star observation
Solar wind and Particle
ions with directions
Solar wind and Particle
Analyzer: Electrons and Heavier
Ions with directions
In-situ magnetic field (Bx, By
and Bz).
Laboratories
Indian Institute of
Astrophysics, Bangalore
Inter University Centre for
Astronomy &
Astrophysics, Pune
U R Rao Satellite
Centre, Bangalore
Physical Research
Laboratory, Ahmedabad
Space Physics
Laboratory, Vikram Sarabhai
Space
Centre, Thiruvananthapuram
Laboratory for Electro Optics
Systems, Bangalore
ADITYA-L1 MISSION DETAILS
September 02, 2023
India's first solar observatory has begun its journey to the destination of Sun-Earth L1 point
The vehicle has placed the satellite precisely into its intended orbit
The launch of Aditya-L1 by PSLV-C57 is accomplished successfully
September 03, 2023
The next maneuvre (EBN#2) is scheduled for September 5, 2023, around 03:00 Hrs. IST
The first Earth-bound maneuvre (EBN#1) is performed successfully from ISTRAC, Bengaluru. The new
orbit attained is 245 km x 22459 km
The satellite is healthy and operating nominally
September 05, 2023
Second Earth-bound maneuvre (EBN#2) is performed successfully. The new orbit attained is 282 km x
40225 km.
September 10, 2023
Third Earth-bound maneuvre (EBN#3) is performed successfully. The new orbit attained is 296 km x
71767 km.
September 15, 2023
Fourth Earth-bound maneuvre (EBN#4) is performed successfully. The new orbit attained is 256 km x
121973 km.
September 18, 2023
Aditya-L1 has commenced the collection of scientific data.
september 19, 2023
The spacecraft is currently travelling to the Sun-Earth L1 point.
September 25, 2023
An assessment of space situation around Sun-Earth Lagrange Point L1

September 30, 2023

The spacecraft has escaped the sphere of Earth's influence, on its way to the Sun-Earth Lagrange Point
1(L1).
October 8, 2023
A Trajectory Correction Maneuvre (TCM), originally provisioned, was performed on October 6, 2023, for
about 16 s. It was needed to correct the trajectory evaluated after tracking the Trans-Lagrangean Point 1
Insertion (TL1I) maneuvre performed on September 19, 2023. TCM ensures that the spacecraft is on its
intended path towards the Halo orbit insertion around L1
November 7, 2023
HEL1OS captures first High-Energy X-ray glimpse of Solar Flares