Quaternary Science Advances 12 (2023) 100118

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Quaternary Science Advances

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Long-term estimation of glacier mass balance using geospatial techniques in

Western Himalayas, Ladakh, India
Shubham Bhattacharjee a, *, Arvind Chandra Pandey b, Rahul Dev Garg a
a
Geomatics Engineering Group, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee – 247667, Uttarakhand, India
b
Department of Geoinformatics, Central University of Jharkhand, Cheri Manatu – 835222, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: All glaciers are subject to mass fluctuations in the current context of climate change. For daily requirements like
Mass balance food, drink, irrigation, and the generation of hydroelectric power, these glaciers provide water to important
Accumulation area ratio (AAR) basins including the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra. Changes in glacier patterns are a blatant sign of local
Digital elevation model (DEM) differencing
climate variability. Monitoring of glaciers requires long-term studies on glacier dynamics. Himalayan glaciers,
Areal fluctuations
Satellite imagery
because of their disposition in a complex topographic setting and inaccessible terrain render difficulty in the
glacier observations in a continuous mode. Glacier mass fluctuations can be associated with glacier area
shrinkage or expansion and concomitant snout shift. In the current study, two adjoining glaciers of different
sizes, Pensilungpa and Drang Drung glaciers in the Zanskar Valley, Ladakh, India are selected. The period of the
study was taken between the years 2000–2022. Earlier studies used a single day per year Accumulation Area
Ratio (AAR) method to compute mass balance, which had limitations due to snow cover variability. The present
study calculated and averaged all the AAR values for cloud-free images per year during the peak ablation period
(mid-July to early September). Digital Elevation Model (DEM) difference technique was also employed for
computing the mass budget between 2000 and 2021 b y utilizing two-time period DEMs. It was revealed that in
the case of the AAR method, the Pensilungpa glacier showed 7 years of positive and 16 years of negative mass
balance. The years 2003–2005 and 2011 to 2016 were depicted with negative mass balance with the highest
value up to − 0.752-m water equivalent (m.w.e.) for the year 2015. It has negligible areal fluctuations ranging
from 0.01 to 0.6 km2. Drang Drung Glacier has shown 12 years of positive and 11 years of negative mass balance.
The years 2002–2004 and 2009 to 2012 were depicted with positive mass balance with the highest value up to
0.305 m. w.e. Except, for the year 2009–2012 (areal increment ~ 2.65 km2), years 2013–2015 showed a negative
mass balance with negligible areal fluctuations. Mass balance estimation using DEM differencing method
revealed an average estimated mass balance of − 0.03 m. w.e. For Pensilungpa glacier though, it is 0.08 m. w.e.
For Drang Drung glacier which shows good matches with the mass balance estimated using AAR method in m. w.
e. Such contrasting behavior of mass balance suggests higher sensitivity of smaller glaciers to climate change.

1. Introduction generation of hydroelectric power, these glaciers provide water to

The Himalayas, commonly known as the “Water Tower of Asia,” are
home to one of the world’s greatest mountain glacier networks (Bolch
et al., 2012). The Himalayan glaciers, which have a wide range of
topographical and morphological characteristics, are distinct from the
Inner Asian and European Alpine glaciers in that they have fewer
condensed valleys, slopes that can cause avalanches, and ablation zones
that are heavily covered in debris (Benn and Lehmkuhl, 2000; Scherler
et al., 2011). For daily requirements like food, drink, irrigation, and the
important basins including the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra
(Immerzeel et al., 2012; Tawde et al., 2017). According to Lepparanta and
Granberg (2010), changes in glacier patterns are a blatant sign of local
climate variability and climate change. Along with meteorological in­
fluences, geography, and morphometric traits also control changes in
glacier systems (Ghosh and Pandey, 2013). The Hindu
Kush-Karakoram-Himalayan range has seen retreating glacier fronts
since the middle of the 19th century (Bolch et al., 2012; Dehecq et al.,
2019).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: shubham_b@ce.iitr.ac.in (S. Bhattacharjee).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.qsa.2023.100118
Received 28 June 2023; Received in revised form 8 August 2023; Accepted 15 August 2023
Available online 19 August 2023
2666-0334/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
S. Bhattacharjee et al.
Approximately 17% of the Himalayan mountain area is covered by
glaciers (Ahmad et al., 2004). The climate change impact on the glacier
system is the focal key for understanding and forecasting the global
environment (Dehecq et al., 2019). Climate change directly influences
the overall health (width, area, and mass) of the glaciers (Poddar and
Pandey, 2014). Therefore, to understand the impact of climate change,
the study of glaciated regions is of major concern (Bahuguna et al.,
2014). Overall cumulative river basin runoff from the Himalayan
catchment reflects the contribution from rivers and glacier melting
(Immerzeel et al., 2009). During the last century on account of climate
change, around 12.5% of the Himalayan glaciers have retreated
(Bahuguna et al., 2014; Bhambri and Bolch, 2009; Prasad et al., 2009)
with annual snout fluctuations between 16 and 35 m (Dobhal and
Thayyen, 2004). During the years 1962–2001, parts of Zanskar Valley,
Ladakh, India depicted with glacier areal retreat of 18.16% with a snout
retreat of 6–33 m/year (Nathawat et al., 2008). According to recent
studies, the Himalayas, the Alps, the Andes, and the Rocky Mountains
have shown wide-scale retreats (Kulkarni et al., 2002). Mass balance
estimation is imperative to understand the spatiotemporal changes in
the glacier area, length, and volume.
In order to map the impact of changing climate, studies related to
growth/shrinkage, motion, thickness as well as the mass exchange of
glaciers are important (Bhattacharjee and Pandey, 2023; Kaser et al.,
2003). All glaciers signify climate change by indicating their mass
fluctuations, which can be either decreasing or increasing (Lepparanta
and Granberg, 2010). The position of the glacier snout and glacier area
can be reflected by mass fluctuations. Studies of long-term mass balance
are required for monitoring the health of any glacier (Bolch et al., 2012).
Remote sensing methods have been used extensively to map glacial
patterns in regions with rugged terrain conditions, rough weather, and
logistic issues like the Himalayan glaciers (Racoviteanu et al., 2008; Li
et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2010). In general, the mass budget of a valley
glacier is calculated using the stratigraphic/glaciological method, the
hydrological method, and the geodetic method (Ostrem and Stanley,
1969). In India, in-situ glaciological mass balance observations are
confined to a few glaciers and are limited to a few years which makes
satellite-based remote sensing techniques more reliable (Azam et al.,
2018; Kulkarni, 1992; Macgregor et al., 2005; Wagnon et al., 2007).
The utility of Equilibrium line altitude (ELA) and AAR methods to
compute glacier mass balance over the Himalayas is well documented
(Bhattacharjee and Pandey, 2021; Pandey et al., 2011; Poddar and Pandey,
2014; Kulkarni, 1992). Kulkarni (1992) showed the best fit AAR method
by establishing regression relations between AAR and mass balance
developed by field glaciological observations for the Himalayan range.
The use of the AAR approach in a recent study by Bhattacharjee and
Pandey (2021) in the Himalayan-Karakoram region on select 13 glaciers
between 1996 and 2021 demonstrated an increasing trend of mass loss
as the glaciers moved from the Karakoram Range to the Eastern Hima­
layas. The hydrological method was used for computing the mass bal­
ance of the Siachen glacier of Nubra Valley (Bhutiyani, 1999). Another
traditional method is called DEM differencing which uses remote
sensing and surveying imagery to compute mass balance estimates. It is
an indirect approach for estimating mass balance that computes the
difference between surface elevations from DEMs developed from his­
torical topographic data and remotely sensed products such as Satellite
pour l’Observation de la Terre (SPOT), Shuttle Radar Topography
Mission (SRTM), and Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and
Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) (Berthier et al., 2007).
Glacier mass changes were studied on select six glaciers in parts of
Zanskar Valley, Ladakh, India using AAR-ELA methods over a contin­
uous period from 2000 to 2010 with Landsat and Indian Remote Sensing
(IRS) satellite images revealed that glaciers experienced negative mass
balance for years 2000, 2001, 2004, and 2008. For the remaining years,
glaciers gained mass which indicated as compared to the mass gain,
mass loss was marginal (Poddar and Pandey, 2014). In Jammu & Kashmir
(Greater Himalayan range), India, patterns of temporal glacier
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Quaternary Science Advances 12 (2023) 100118
variability of 34 glaciers during 3 periods of observation based on IRS
and Landsat satellite datasets were carried out. The results showed an
area shrinkage of 1.5% for all glaciers during the first period
(1975–1992) with a snout retreat rate of 3–42 m per year which further
rose to 4% with a snout retreat rate of 0–88 m per year in the second
period (1992–2001). The third period (2001–2007) has shown similar
behavior to the second. (Pandey et al., 2011). A study using the AAR-ELA
method in the parts of Zanskar Valley revealed a transition of mass
balance measurements from positive (~42.61 cm) to negative
(~− 13.17 cm) between the years 1980–2000 and 2000–2011 (Ali et al.,
2014). A study on glacier mass balance using the DEM differencing
method over the central Nyainqentanglha Range for the duration of
1968–2013 using topographical maps, TanDEM-X and SRTM DEM
revealed a significant mass loss of 0.46 ± 0.04 m. w.e. Per annum since
1968, with exceedingly more diminishing/thinning at the
debris-covered part than the smoothened clean ice (Kunpeng et al.,
2019). Mass balance estimates of glaciers of the Pamir mountains in
central Asia shown by Zhou et al. (2019) using KH-9 imagery and SRTM
DEM during the study period (1975–1999) revealed values of − 0.03 ±
0.24 m. w.e. Per annum.
The present study focuses on analyzing two adjoining glaciers of
different sizes: Pensilungpa and Durung Drung glaciers in the Zanskar
Valley, Ladakh, India. Mass balance was modeled over a continuous
period from the years 2000–2022 using the AAR and DEM differencing
methods for comparison.
2. Study area
The study area (Fig. 1) incorporates Zanskar Valley (elevation ~
3700–6400 m), in the south of Ladakh, Greater Himalayan range, India.
During extensively long winter periods (November to late April), most of
the precipitation occurs as snowfall. The Zanskar Valley’s southwestern
and northeastern halves are where the highest and lowest relief regions
exist. During the winter, which typically lasts from mid-October to May,
nearly the whole valley is blanketed in a thick layer of snow. In the
Zanskar Valley, the wintertime temperature hovers around − 20◦
Celsius. May marks the start of the summer season, and temperatures
rise pretty quickly. In comparison to other regions of Ladakh, the sum­
mer season lasts comparatively longer, till August. Heavy snowfall oc­
curs in the more northern and western mountains during the winter,
with moisture provided by mid-latitude westerlies (Owen and Benn,
2005). Although a good crop thrives in the broad valley of the Padam
area throughout the summer, the high slope lacks any tree cover.
There are a series of glaciers in Zanskar Valley that can be easily
mapped using satellite imagery. Two adjoining glaciers, Pensilungpa
and Durung Drung have been selected at the northwest corner of the
valley with longitudinal extensions from 76⁰12′E− 76⁰26′E and lat­
itudinal extensions from 33⁰41′N-33⁰51′N. Pensilungpa glacier is a small
glacier (area = 15 km2) with the majority of its ablation zone being
debris-covered (Table 1). The glacier is 8.34 km long which lies in an
average relief of 5178 m. River Suru originates from the snout (altitude
~ 4700 m) of this glacier. Drang Drung Glacier is a larger glacier (area =
71.5 km2) and is mostly debris-free (Table 1). The glacier is about 21 km
long which lies in an average relief of 5185 m. River Stod originates from
the snout (altitude ~ 4160 m) of this glacier and flows in the opposite
direction to the Suru River. Details on the morphometric parameters for
both glaciers were presented in Table 1.
3. Data and platforms
Landsat satellite data (resolution ~ 30 m) acquired from the United
States Geological Survey (USGS) Earth Explorer was used based on
satellite scene availability and clarity with reference to snow cover,
cloud, and shadow. Two-time period DEMs were also used. NASA-SRTM
Global DEM v003 (horizontal resolution ~ 30 m) for the year 2000 and
ASTER DEM (ASTER 14 DMO) of resolution 30 m for the year 2021 was
S. Bhattacharjee et al. Quaternary Science Advances 12 (2023) 100118

Fig. 1. Location map showing Pensilungpa and Drang Drung glaciers in Zanskar Valley, Ladakh, India.

4. Methodology
Table 1
Parameterization of selected glaciers.
4.1. Mass balance
Glaciers Area Perimeter Length Snout Average
(km2) (km) (km) Altitude Relief (m)
4.1.1. AAR method
(m)
In the present study, Landsat satellite images (Fig. 2) from the period
Pensilungpa 15.2 42.91 8.34 4700 5178 2000 to 2022 were used to delineate and map glacier boundaries. For
Drang 71.44 108.58 20.25 4160 5185
Drung
obtaining minimum snow cover and exposed glacier i.e. for the peak
ablation period, images from mid-July to early September were
preferred. Glacier boundaries have been mapped using a SWIR-red-
obtained from NASA Earth Data Explorer. Global air temperature data green band combination. Before mapping glacier boundaries, the
for the months of July and August from the National Centre for Atmo­ Normalized Difference Snow Index (NDSI) (equation (1)) was computed
spheric Research (NCAR) (resolution ~ 0.5 × 0.5◦ ) was used for tem­ using visible (high reflectance of snow) and SWIR (total absorption)
perature analysis. The datasets used in the present study, their bands for effective differentiation of snow from bright soil, rock, and
resolution, purpose, and sources were given in Table 2. clouds, etc. (Hall et al., 1995).

NDSI = (Green – SWIR) / (Green + SWIR) (1)

After obtaining the proper glacier boundary and respective atmo­

spheric corrections, the satellite image was draped over the DEM for

Table 2
Dataset procured in the present study.
Satellite data Resolutions Time Period Purpose Source

Landsat series (5 TM, 8 30 m 2000–2022 Glacier mapping, extraction of accumulation/ USGS Earth Explorer (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/)
OLI) ablation zones
SRTM DEM v003 30 m 2000 Reference DEM for elevation differencing USGS Earth Explorer
ASTER DEM (14 DMO) 30 m 2021 Associated DEM for elevation differencing NASA Earthdata (https://search.earthdata.nasa.gov/)
Air temperature 0.5 × 0.5◦ 2000–2022 Temperature variability National Centre for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) (https://rda.
ucar.edu/)

3
S. Bhattacharjee et al.
Fig. 2. Methodological flowchart for the present study.
understanding the topographic variability.
Indices like NDSI and band ratio (NIR/SWIR) have been used to
distinguish accumulation from ablation zone. To minimize the effect of
errors, digital image processing techniques such as adaptive (for
detecting edges), crisp (for enhancing slope variability), and morpho­
logical (for smoothening) filters have been used. Unsupervised classifi­
cation has also been performed for segregating accumulation with
ablation areas. Earlier studies have used a single day per year AAR value
for computing mass balance which can induce a lot of error due to the
variability of snow cover (Kulkarni et al., 2004; Poddar and Pandey,
2014). For addressing this issue, AAR values were computed for all the
cloud-free images between mid-July to early September and then
averaged for discarding this single-day-per-year induced error. Calcu­
lation of accumulation area ratio was performed using the expression
(equation (2)):
AAR = (Accumulation area) / (Total area)
Kulkarni et al. (2004) developed a regression relationship (equation
(3)) between in-situ-based mass balance data and AAR estimates for
Shaune Garang and Gor Garang glaciers in the western Himalayas,
yielding a correlation of 0.8.
Specific Mass balance (in cm.w.e) = 243.01*AAR-120.187
According to equation (3), there should be a neutral or almost zero
mass balance when AAR equals 0.5, for the western Himalayas. Hence
due to similar climatic patterns of the western Himalayas, the same
equation was used to compute the long-term mass balance of both the
adjoining glaciers of Zanskar Valley, as the field-based long-term mass
balance is not available for the region.
4.1.2. DEM differencing method
Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat) altimetry data
downloaded from National Snow and Ice Data Centre (NSIDC) for the
same area was used for penetration bias correction. Generally, SRTM C-
band penetrates through the medium which introduces penetration
biases (Nuth and Kaab, 2011). Non-glaciated terrain is stable and cannot
move. Thus, stable terrain was selected with the help of the slope. Over
the stable terrain, SRTM elevation values were extracted into the ICESat
Quaternary Science Advances 12 (2023) 100118
points for computing absolute accuracy and discarding the penetration
biases. The precision of the product produced by DEM differencing is
hampered by the horizontal and vertical offsets associated with both
DEMs as a result of their capture at different times by different satellites
in distinct datums. Therefore, elevation-dependent bias was discarded
after co-registering both DEMs to eliminate registration-oriented errors
(Nuth and Kaab, 2011). First, non-stable topography (i.e. glaciers) was
removed from both DEMs. Then, using the universal co-registration
model (equation (4)), which considers terrain slope and aspect, the
planimetric adjustment/co-registration of both DEMs for stable (non-­
glacierized) terrain was carried out (Nuth and Kaab, 2011).
dh = a.cos(b - ᴪ).tan.α + dH (4)
Where dh is the independent elevation difference, α is the terrain slope,
and ᴪ is the terrain aspect.
The cosine function’s (a, b, and dH) parameters stand for shifts in the
horizontal direction of the dh, a directional shift vector, and an overall
elevation bias. These parameters were solved using the least-squares
approach. The shift in the orientations of the horizontal (a) and direc­
tional vector (b) are negligible because both DEMs had the same spatial
resolution (30 m), while the bias in elevation (dH) was adjusted using
equation (4). In this scenario, three iterations were completed before the
bias in elevation was close to zero.
Elevation-dependent biases result from the spatially asymmetric
distribution of GCPs in 3-D coordinate planes. The height-dependent
bias was eliminated using a second-order polynomial correlation
(equation (5)) provided by Nuth and Kaab (2011) that depicts the link
between elevation and elevation difference over terrain without gla­
ciers. Agarwal et al. (2017) also employed this trend correction.
dh = Σ kn.Zn + τ (5)
Where dh is the elevation difference, Z is the elevation, k, and τ are
regression parameters and the order of the polynomial is represented by
n (in this case 2). Some points in the stable terrain were collected and
uncertainty in elevation difference was ascertained by computing Mean
Absolute Deviation (MAD) (Xu et al., 2022).
By subtracting the elevation of the years 2021 and 2000, the eleva­
tion change was calculated. Equation (6) (Cogley, 2011) was used to
determine the glacier mass balance utilizing elevation change, glacier
area, and glacial ice density:
ΔV ρ
B= . (6)
S ρwater
(2)
Where S is the mean glacier area for years 2000 and 2021, B is the glacier
mass balance in m. w.e., ΔV is the change in glacier volume (calculated
using elevation change), and ρ and ρwater are the densities of the ice
(~850 kg/m3) and water (~997 kg/m3).
Uncertainty in mass balance has been carried out using equation (7)
which is obtained by differentiating equation (6):
(3)
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2 ( )2 ( )2
dB
=
dΔV
+
dρ
+
dS
(7)
B ΔV ρ S
Uncertainty in the volume change can be obtained by using un­
certainties in the ice thickness change and glacier boundary area. Un­
certainty in the ice density was taken as ±60 kg/m3 and uncertainty in
the mean glacier area can be computed using the method suggested by
Pfeffer et al. (2014).
5. Results & discussions
5.1. Mass balance
5.1.1. AAR method
Mapping of both Pensilungpa and Drang Drung glaciers was
4
S. Bhattacharjee et al. Quaternary Science Advances 12 (2023) 100118

performed for the period 2000–2022. After obtaining accumulation Table 3

areas of both glaciers (using the methodology detailed in Section 4), the Comparison of computed mass balance data with field-based data.
study found that Pensilungpa glacier (Fig. 3a) observed 7 years of pos­ Years Chhota Shigri glacier (Field Pensilungpa glacier Drang Drung
itive and 16 years of negative mass balance. The years 2003–2005 and based mass balance in m.w. (in m.w.e.) glacier (in m.w.
2011 to 2016 were depicted with negative mass balance with the highest e.) e.)
value up to − 75.23-cm water equivalent (cm.w.e.) for the year 2015. 2008 − 0.93 − 0.813 − 0.172
Additionally, the consistency of negative mass balance from the year 2009 0.13 0.499 0.305
2020–2022 was also witnessed. The year 2008 shows a higher negative 2010 0.33 0.038 0.123

mass balance value up to 80 cm. w. e. Between positive mass balance

years 2006, 2007, 2009, and 2010. Drang Drung glacier (Fig. 3b) shows
12 years of positive and 11 years of negative mass balance. The years
2002–2004 and 2009 to 2012 were depicted with positive mass balance
with the highest value up to 30.5 cm. w. e. Except, for the years
2009–2012 (areal increment ~ 2.65 km2), years 2013–2015 showed a
negative mass balance with negligible areal fluctuations However, the
consistency of negative mass balance from the year 2020–2022 was
observed as was for the Pensilungpa Glacier.
Both glaciers witnessed similar mass balance patterns for some of the
same years viz. 2000–2001, 2006–2007, 2013–2015, and 2020–2022
due to snowfall variability in the peak ablation period. After converting
the specific mass balance from cm. w.e. To m. w.e., the results have been
validated with field-based mass balance data of the Chotta Shigri glacier
(Table 3) of Himachal Pradesh in Western Himalaya computed by
Wagnon et al. (2007); JNU-SAC (2008); JNU-IFCPAR (2009); Jnu Dst
(2011) for years 2008, 2009 and 2010.
5.1.2. DEM differencing method
The elevation difference map (Fig. 4) was generated from temporal
DEMs along with the corresponding mass balance estimates. High
elevation difference indicates an increase in elevation at that particular
pixel due to snowfall, or avalanche. Over that time period, whereas
negative elevation difference indicates a decrease in height due to
melting, and deformation. Therefore, a positive elevation difference
indicates positive mass balance and a negative elevation difference
represents negative mass balance. The study revealed that the glacier
elevation differences ranged from < − 40 to 46 m. Average elevation
changes for Pensilungpa glacier lay in the range from − 11 to 15 m.

Fig. 3. Mass balance of (a) Pensilungpa (b) Drang Drung glaciers during 2000–2022.

5
S. Bhattacharjee et al.
Fig. 4. Elevation difference and mass balance estimation between 2000 and 2021.
Negative changes at the junction of the tributary glacier to the main
glacier represent thinning and which leads to fragmentation of the
glacier (Vijay and Braun, 2018). Drang Drung glacier (average elevation
changes ~ − 18 to 17 m) depicted the dominance of positive elevation
changes with negative changes near the snout region reflecting glacia­
tion of the snout zone. Radiation absorption by clean ice and the higher
temperature at lower altitudes seemed to be the possible reason for the
maximum thinning at the terminus of the Drang Drung Glacier (Vijay
and Braun, 2018). These elevation differences were validated by the
results obtained for the Pensilungpa glacier shown by Pandey et al.
(2012). They used the Survey of India (SOI) toposheet and ASTER DEM
during the study period (1962–2007) which revealed an increment of
30–90 m of glacier elevation in the accumulation zone and a similar
decrement in the ablation zone was witnessed.
5.1.3. Comparison of mass balance estimates
Average values of mass balance over accumulation and ablation
zones were extracted and compared with the calculated mass balance
using the AAR method. AAR-based mass balance has given average
values of − 0.09 and 0.16 m. w.e. For Pensilungpa and Drang Drung
glaciers. Average values of mass balance over the glaciers obtained from
the DEM differencing method have shown − 0.03 m. w.e. For Pensi­
lungpa and 0.09 m. w.e. For Durung Drung glacier holding a good cor­
relation with the values obtained by the AAR method. These results are
validated by the mass balance results of glaciers of the Pamir mountains
in central Asia shown by Zhou et al. (2019) using KH-9 imagery and
SRTM DEM during the study period (1975–1999) which revealed values
of − 0.03 ± 0.24 m. w.e. Per annum. The results are also validated by the
elevation difference of the glaciers in the Zanskar region shown by Vijay
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Quaternary Science Advances 12 (2023) 100118
and Braun (2018) using interferometric SRTM and bistatic TanDEM-X
DEMs during the study period (2000–2012) which revealed values of
− 0.19 ± 0.22 m/yr.
The study also revealed that while computing height difference,
some traces of a major height gap is observed in the range of − 40 to − 25
m in the lower accumulation reaches of Pensilungpa glacier and nearby
snout areas of Drang Drung glacier which represents the development of
longitudinal crevasses and supraglacial erosional features (Dobreva
et al., 2017; Vijay and Braun, 2018). The crevasses can be considered an
indicator of glacial deformation and future glacial lake formation.
5.2. Glacial dynamics
Pensilungpa glacier area (Fig. 5a) increased during 2005 (~15.6
km2), 2006 (~15.58 km2), 2016 (~15.15 km2), and 2017 (~15.2 km2)
and was mostly stable from 2000 to 2003 (~14.65 km2), 2007 to 2015
(~14.7 km2), and from 2018 to 2020 (~14.57 km2). During the years
2000–2005, area change ranged between 0 and 0.6 km2 with snout
fluctuation of 1 m/yr. The snout retreated up to 4.3 m/yr with a net areal
retreat of 1 km2 between the years 2005 and 2019. The area change for
Drang Drung Glacier (Fig. 5b) is small and varied between 71.8 and 71.2
km2. Glacier was stable from the year 2000–2009 (71.75–71.85 km2)
with the snout retreating up to 2.8 m/yr. A net areal fluctuation of 0.6
km2 with an increased snout shift of 6 m/yr was observed between the
years 2009 and 2019.
During the years 2000–2003, the Pensilungpa Glacier area was
stagnant and the mass balance increased a little. The mass balance
increased incredibly in the year 2002 (~22.32 cm. w.e.) due to the
snowfall in the acquisition month of the satellite (Ghosh and Pandey,
S. Bhattacharjee et al. Quaternary Science Advances 12 (2023) 100118

Fig. 5. Glacier area changes (a) Pensilungpa (b) Drang Drung glaciers during 2000–2022.

2013). Glacier area increased during the period 2004–2006 and so did
the mass balance (− 40.5 to 21.42 cm. w.e.). Mass balance decreased
rapidly between 2006 and 2008 (21.42 to − 79.55 cm. w.e.) which was
due to the rapid rate of glacier areal thinning. The year 2009 depicted a
rapid rise in mass balance (~36.22 cm. w.e.) due to the snowfall in the
acquisition month of the satellite. During the years 2009–2011, the
Pensilungpa Glacier area decreased so did the mass balance (36.22 to
− 3.42 cm. w.e.). An increasing-decreasing behavior in glacier area and
mass balance was observed between the years 2011–2015. The mass
balance increased incredibly between 2015 and 2017 (− 72.42 to 9.92
cm. w.e.) due to the rapid rate of glacier areal increment. Glacier area
decreased during the period 2017–2018 and so did the mass balance
(9.92 to − 70.62 cm. w.e.). Continuous series of negative mass balances
were observed during the years 2020–2022 (− 54.33 to − 44.32 cm. w.e.)
due to glacier areal thinning. The study by Rana et al. (2023) for Par­
kachik Glacier, Zanskar Valley also observed a major glacial retreat after
the year 2015.
During the years 2000–2006, the Drang Drung Glacier area was
stagnant and the mass balance increased (− 43.42 to 29.67 cm. w.e.). A
similar pattern of areal fluctuations and mass balance was observed
between the period 2006–2009. Glacier area decreased rapidly during
the period 2009–2013 but the glacier maintained a stagnant mass bal­
ance (~15.96 cm. w.e.) during 2009–2012 and further decreased (~–
17.42 cm. w.e.) in the year 2013. The glacier area was stagnant during
the period 2013–2015 and so did the mass balance (− 17.42 to − 18.76
cm. w.e.). The mass balance increased incredibly between 2015 and
2017 (− 21.47 to 19.97 cm. w.e.) due to the rapid rate of glacier areal
increment. An increasing-decreasing behavior in glacier area and mass
balance was observed between the years 2017–2020. Years between
2020 and 2022 were depicted with an area decrement but the mass
balance increased (− 33.33 to − 8.48 cm. w.e.). There was a decrement in
the glacier mass balance after the year 2009 which is possibly linked
with the areal shrinkage of the glacier.
The linkages between glacial dynamics and mass balance indicated a
direct relationship. Meanwhile, Pensilungpa Glacier due to its smaller
size was more sensitive to glacier areal fluctuations. The sensitivity of
small glaciers of Zanskar Valley to areal fluctuations was also observed
by Rana et al. (2023). As Pensilungpa Glacier is partially debris-covered,
hence the reason can also be attributed to the fact that glacier melting is
also triggered by variable debris thickness (Mehta et al., 2021, 2023).
5.3. Air temperature
Temperature conditions over both the glaciers (Fig. 6) in the lower
ablation zone or glacier snout were analyzed, for the period of study
(2000–2022) in the month of August. A temperature of around − 6 ◦ C
was recorded in the years 2001, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2013, 2015,
2016, and 2020. An average temperature of − 2 ◦ C was mostly recorded
during the study period and the years 2003 and 2017 recorded high-
temperature up to 2 ◦ C. The years 2003 and 2017 witnessed a sudden
increase in temperature from − 6 ◦ C to 2 ◦ C and then between the years
2003–2005, the temperature further decreased to − 7 ◦ C. The years
2020–2022 depicted a rise in temperature.
During the years 2000–2002, the air temperature decreased and the
mass balance of the glaciers increased. The temperature increased from
2002 to 2004 but both glaciers have shown variable behavior. The
Pensilungpa Glacier was depicted with a negative mass balance whereas
Drang Drung Glacier was stagnant during 2002–2004. The years

7
S. Bhattacharjee et al.
Fig. 6. Specific mass balance Vs Average Air Temperature.
2004–2007 have shown a similar pattern as the years 2000–2002 viz. A
decrement in air temperature and an increment in mass balance of both
the glaciers. But the increment was more prominent for Drang Drung
Glacier as compared to Pensilungpa Glacier. It is interesting to note that
between the years 2008–2012, the temperature shows increasing-
decreasing behavior. Drang Drung Glacier mainly showed near posi­
tive mass balance between the years 2009–2012 and Pensilungpa
Glacier showed negative mass balance between 2010 and 2012. Be­
tween the years 2012–2016, the temperature was depicted with an
increasing-decreasing pattern but the variability in mass balance during
the period for Pensilungpa Glacier was more negative as compared to
Drang Drung Glacier. A cumulative increment in air temperature was
observed between 2016 and 2020 but both glaciers have shown an
increasing-decreasing behavior. But again, the increment in mass bal­
ance was more prominent for Drang Drung Glacier as compared to
Pensilungpa Glacier. Between the years 2020–2022, the temperature
rose continuously but the variability in mass balance during the period
for Pensilungpa Glacier was more negative as compared to Drang Drung
Glacier.
The linkages between air temperature and mass balance mostly
indicated an inverse relationship. Meanwhile, Pensilungpa Glacier was
more sensitive to climate forcing. The sensitivity of small glaciers of
Zanskar Valley to areal and temperature fluctuations was also observed
by Ghosh and Pandey (2013).
Possible limitations of the study are the absence of high-resolution
DEMs for recent years, cloud hindrance issues for optical remote
sensing images, resolution of the Landsat imagery (which hindered
detailed glacier mapping) and air temperature dataset, and lack of field-
based measurements for validations. Some possible recommendations
and future aspects could be using Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) im­
ages for resolving the resolution and cloud cover constrain, and a
detailed relationship of estimated mass balance with climate factors
(temperature, precipitation/snowfall, etc). Exploring energy balance
models for computing mass can also form future scope to check the
accountability of radiation budgets of the glaciers.
6. Conclusions
The present study demonstrates a methodology for comparative
assessment of glacier mass balance using satellite data-based techniques
suited for areas where in-situ data is not available. Mass balance results
indicates the contrasting relationship between smaller and larger gla­
ciers in the Zanskar Valley, Ladakh, India. Pensilungpa Glacier was
depicted with more negative mass balane years as compared to Drang
Drung Glacier. DEM differencing method indicates its reliability in
elevation change aspects. These elevation changes uncover long-term
glacier thinning, mass changes, and the evolution of glacial erosional
landforms. Relationship with areal fluctuations and air temperature
proves higher sensitivity of small glaciers to glacial dynamics and
climate forcing.
8
Quaternary Science Advances 12 (2023) 100118
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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