Inquiry into Physics 8th Edition Ostdiek

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 CHAPTER 7

Electricity

CHAPTER OUTLINE
Chapter Introduction: iProducts—iPods, iPads, and iPhones
7.1 Electric Charge
Physics to Go 7.1
Physics to Go 7.2
LEARNING CHECK
7.2 Electric Force and Coulomb’s Law
Physics to Go 7.3
a.   Coulomb’s Law
Physics to Go 7.4
b.   The Electric Field
Physics to Go 7.5
LEARNING CHECK
Meteorological Applications: Electrifying Sights and Sounds: A Thunderstorm Primer
7.3 Electric Currents—Superconductivity
a. Electric Current
b. Resistance
c. Superconductivity
LEARNING CHECK
7.4 Electric Circuits and Ohm’s Law
a. Voltage and Ohm’s Law
b. Series and Parallel Circuits
LEARNING CHECK
Medical Applications: Electricity and the Human Body
7.5 Power and Energy in Electric Currents
LEARNING CHECK
7.6 AC and DC
Physics to Go 7.6
LEARNING CHECK
Profiles in Physics: Founders of Electrical Science
SUMMARY
IMPORTANT EQUATIONS
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website, in whole or in part.
 7-2

MAPPING IT OUT!
QUESTIONS
PROBLEMS
CHALLENGES

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
The iPod, iPhone and iPad, particularly their reliance on electric fields, are used to motivate
the study of electrostatics. The chapter begins by introducing electric charge and describing the
structure of atoms and ions. The force acting between charged objects, Coulomb’s law, and
electric fields are covered, followed by the flow of electric charge. Current and resistance are
presented along with the classification of materials as conductors, semiconductors, insulators,
and superconductors. The factors that determine the resistance of a conductor are described.
There is an interesting detailed section on superconductivity.
Voltage, Ohm’s law, and series and parallel circuits are presented. The standard comparison
of a simple DC circuit to the flow of water in a closed loop is given. Graphs of voltage versus
current for ohmic devices are given, followed by a real graph for a non-ohmic light bulb. Power
and energy in electric currents are the next topics. Three worked out examples are given. Ohmic
heating, fuses, and circuit breakers are also discussed. Alternating current and direct current are
described. The Profiles in Physics essay discusses some of the work of Gilbert, Galvani, Volta,
Franklin, and others. The two Applications are about lightning and electricity in human
physiology.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
A student who has mastered this material should be able to:
1. Relate a few examples of modern uses of semiconductor technology.
2. Attempt to define electric charge, explain positive vs. negative charge, and tell what a
coulomb is.
3. Explain the difference between neutral atoms and ions.
4. Explain how the electrostatic force between charges depends on their +/– signs,
magnitudes, and distance apart.
5. Relate some of Benjamin Franklin’s scientific work, especially his wrong guess about the
direction of current flow.
6. Explain how a charged object is able to attract an uncharged object.
7. Explain what an electric field is, and show how field lines are used to represent one.
8. Explain the mechanism behind “static electricity” sparks.
9. Tell how an electrostatic precipitator works.
10. Do some electrostatic experiments with Styrofoam cups.
11. Define electric current and the ampere.
©2018 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
 7-3

12. Compare properties of conductors, insulators, semiconductors and superconductors, and

give examples of each.
13. Define electrical resistance and the ohm.
14. Explain what superconductivity is, relate recent developments in the “high-Tc” field, and
list some applications.
15. Define voltage and the volt.
16. Make the analogy between electric circuits and water flowing in pipes.
17. Remember Ohm’s law and apply the relation V = IR in solving circuit problems.
18. Recognize series and parallel circuits and draw circuit diagrams.
19. Compute electric power from P = VI and explain ohmic heating.
20. Tell why commercial power distribution systems use very high voltages.
21. Explain what a kilowatt-hour measures.
22. Explain the difference between DC and AC and tell why home electric outlets provide AC.
23. Relate some early work and mistaken ideas of pioneers in the study of electricity.
24. Explain some of the mechanisms behind lightning flashes and thunderstorms.

TEACHING SUGGESTIONS AND LECTURE HINTS

Show electrostatic attraction using a plastic rod rubbed with fur, attracting bits of paper or
Styrofoam ‘packing peanuts’. Even better is a black plastic golf club tube rubbed with an oven
roasting bag. Have some fun trying other materials. (I found some white plastic dinner plates at a
local catering shop that charged wonderfully well when rubbed with oven roasting bags. And we
found that photocopier transparency sheets charged oppositely when also rubbed with the oven
roasting bags.)
The life and work of Benjamin Franklin, briefly mentioned in Profiles in Physics, is an
interesting topic.
For Section 7.2 I usually compare and contrast the electrostatic force and the gravitational
force, and write down the law of universal gravitation next to Coulomb’s Law. The concept of
electric field is very abstract to students and must be presented carefully. I try to get them to
focus on the field itself in preparation for electromagnetic waves and other situations where an
electric field can exist even when there are no electric charges around.
It is a good idea to work out Challenges 1 and 2, or at least present the answers, because they
will tie in with material in Chapter 10.
Do the demonstrations described in the Physics to Go activities. You may wish to use a
plastic rod or something else in place of the Styrofoam cups. I point out that water is affected by
a charged object (Physics to Go 7.4—the deflection of a small stream trickling from a faucet) for
the same reason that microwaves can be used to heat it—because water molecules are polar.
Use an electroscope to illustrate electrostatic repulsion, motion of charges in metal, and
charging by induction.

©2018 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
 7-4

Use an electrostatic generator to make a student’s hair (or your own) stand on end. The
subject has to be well insulated from the floor, and make sure that they do not remove their hand
from the sphere while the machine is running. Once they are charged up they must be careful
how they go about discharging themselves. I usually discharge myself by taking my keys from
my pocket and holding them so the spark goes from the tip of one of my keys to ground. That
way, the tip of my finger doesn’t get zapped. I also learned not to ground the Van de Graaf while
the charged up student is still holding on to it. I did that a few years ago without thinking and the
student got a painful shock along his arm that rendered him speechless for a while.
DHP, pages E-3 to E-20, has many neat electrostatic demonstrations, many of them utilizing
a Wimshurst machine.
Pollution control with electrostatic precipitators and room air purifiers based on the same
principle are two possibilities for discussion and some telephone research.
For Section 7.3, the positive current convention is used and should be explained.
DHP, page E-25, item Eg-1, shows one mechanical model of resistance using a board
randomly pounded full of nails and a ball bearing rolled through the maze.
Wrap many turns of bare, very thin wire around a 1-inch cardboard tube or plastic pipe.
Connect the ends to a good digital ohmmeter and show that the resistance increases when you
heat the wire by gripping it with your hand.
If you have a high Tc superconductor and access to liquid nitrogen you can show the
Meissner effect now or wait until the discussion of magnetism in Chapter 8.
Semiconductor technology and its impact on society in recent decades, and superconductivity
are good topics. Discuss Challenge 3.
DHP, page E-25, shows two Ohm’s law demonstrations, the second one also illustrating the
temperature dependence of resistance.
Connect light bulbs in series and in parallel with a power supply. Disconnect one bulb in
each circuit to make the point shown in Section 7.4b. The PhET simulation can be used to build
virtual circuits.
The Medical Applications on electricity and the human body is fertile ground for discussion
topics. Talk about the scene in the movie Tango and Cash where Sylvester Stallone worries
about Kurt Russell’s claim that they can escape from a rooftop by sliding down a power line
without fear of being electrocuted. EEG’s, EKG’s, defibrillators, electric safety, and electric fish
are a few possibilities. I have had very interesting discussions and visits with hospital
technicians—all you need to do is make a few phone calls.
LAB EXERCISE. Do an Ohm’s law lab with a 0 to 30-volt DC power supply, voltmeter, and 0
to 20-milliamp ammeter. Have students take voltage and current data for an unmarked resistance
of around 1,000 ohms, tap water (use a piece of plastic to keep the leads from touching each
other in the water), and distilled water. Have them graph the data for the resistor and the tap
water. The unknown resistance can be computed by drawing a best fitting straight line and
©2018 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
 7-5

finding its slope. Skin resistance can be measured by gripping a bare lead in each hand and
squeezing hard while measuring the voltage and current. Don’t do this if there are scratches or
other breaks in the skin.
Connect a very thin steel wire to a Variac and gradually increase the current to make the wire
glow brighter and brighter until it burns through. If you also connect a voltmeter and an
ammeter, show that just after an increase in voltage the current rises and then drops a bit as the
heating increases the resistance.
The information following Example 7.6 can lead to a discussion of how inexpensive
electrical energy is. (See also Challenge 8.) Ask the class what would have to be done if a law
was passed that banned lethal voltages (over, say, 30 volts) in our society.
LAB EXERCISE. DHP, page E-27, item Eh-3, shows a setup for measuring the conversion of
electrical energy into heat.

The following websites contain valuable simulations you can use for physics exercises:
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/category/physics
http://www.physicslessons.com/iphysics.htm
http://physics-animations.com/Physics/English/index.htm
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/vlab/
http://www.physicslessons.com/iphysics.htm

Links to Specific Animations:

http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/charges-and-fields/charges-and-fields_en.html
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/signal-circuit
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/resistance-in-a-wire
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/battery-resistor-circuit
http://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/IYearLab/Intros/DCI/Flash/WaterAnalogy.html

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS
Some people put up quite a fuss over confusion of Ohm’s law and the definition of
resistance. Even though I think most people using the phrase “Ohm’s law” are making a
reference to the equation V = IR, this relationship is not Ohm’s law in the strict sense. Ohm’s law
is this equation together with the fact that the resistance R does not depend upon V or I. For
materials that obey Ohm’s law the voltage and current are directly proportional—graphs of V vs.
I are straight lines as in Figure 7.22. Devices like diodes or the light bulb of Figure 7.23 which
have nonlinear V–I graphs do not obey Ohm’s law because the resistance is different at different
applied voltages.
©2018 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
 7-6

It’s too bad Benjamin Franklin guessed wrong about the sign of charge carriers in
conductors, for it forces us to do damage control. As discussed in Section 7.3 & 7.4, the usual
solution is to pretend that the current is going the way he guessed, from plus to minus, even
though it really isn’t. This is “conventional current” as opposed to “electron current.” It does not
matter which way you view things, really, as long as you are consistent. But as usual when there
are two ways to do things, trouble lies ahead. Alert your students to the potential for confusion.
Students often say things like “the voltage through the resistor…”, which does not make
sense. It’s the current that goes through a resistor. The voltage is like a pressure difference
applied from one end of the resistor to the other—the voltage is across the resistor. Emphasize
the voltage–pressure analogy and be alert to subtle clues to student misunderstanding like this in
their speaking and writing.
Students have to spend some time with the idea of electric field lines to comprehend their
true meaning. Just like the concept of rays in Chapter 5, they are abstractions and students might
attach an unwarranted reality to them. Make sure they realize the field exists in between the field
lines even though no field lines are drawn there. The three-dimensional nature of the field could
be explored, too.

CONSIDER THIS—
Since electrostatic forces are so strong, you can perform some impressive demos with objects
much more massive than bits of paper. One of my favorites is rotating a long board or 2 × 4
balanced on a pivot using only electrostatic attraction (see item E-085 in The Dick and Rae
Physics Demo Notebook, DICK and RAE, Inc., Lexington, Virginia 24450-0304, 1993). After
charging up a golf tube with an oven roasting bag, use it to tip over a stack of pop cans (just 3 or
4 will work) with only the electrostatic force. This is more impressive than a comb attracting bits
of paper (see Figure 7.8), but it happens for the same reason.
When doing Physics to Go 7.6, listen to the fluorescent lights as well. The 120-Hz hum is
very obvious. I discovered that some music students made use of this in their “ear-training”
classes—the hum is pretty close to a B-flat, so they could get a good pitch reference from it.
After talking about fuses you could discuss (and research) ground fault interrupters, which
are a common bathroom circuit safety feature.
Transformers are mentioned (and discussed in detail in section 8.3) and it is said that they are
the motivation for using AC electricity and that “there is no counterpart of the transformer for
DC.” However, switching power supplies come close to playing this role. They are described in
Horowitz and Hill’s The Art of Electronics, 2nd ed., starting on page 355. The laptop computer I
used to use was powered by a switching power supply.

ANSWERS TO MAPPING IT OUT!

©2018 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Mutta niinkauvan, kun hän jaksoi istua, sai rohdin kuontalokin
kulkea hänen koukistuneitten sormiensa läpi rullalle ja sitä tietä ne
menivät pappilan ruustinnan karvamattolangatkin. —

Pahemmin ei voinut kukaan loukata Miinaa, kun puhumalla

hänelle vaivaishoidon avusta. —

"Häpeäisit!" sanoi hän vihaisesti.

"Ota itse, jos haluat, — mie ennen vaikka kuolen…"

Ja niin kai hän olisi tehnytkin, säästöjensä loputtua, jos ei

tyttärensä olisi saanut häntä houkutelluksi luokseen, nähdessään
että vanhuksen oli mahdoton tulla toimeen yksinäisessä
tupasessaan.

Mutta ei hän sieltä sittenkään aivan mielisuosiolla lähtenyt. —

Pettymyksiä.

Kaarlo heitti pallon huimaavan korkealle ilmaan.

Suuren lapsijoukon käsivarret kohosivat kuin jännitetyt jouset, ne

tempoilivat ja värähtelivät malttamattomuudesta sillä itsekukin oli
mielestään juuri se, jonka käsiin pallon oli määrä pudota… Ja
huudot: minä, minä, minä, raikuivat kilvan puutarhan nurmikolla!

Pojat, jotka luonto on varustanut vahvemmilla käsivarsilla,

rynnistivät etualalle, työntäen kilpailussa heikommat tytöt syrjään.
Mutta yksi niistä — pienin ehkä — vilkas ja vikkelä kuin orava,
pujottausi vikkelästi joukon läpi, ennätti edelle ja ojensi itsepäisesti
pienet, valkoisen pitsin verhoamat käsivartensa ylös, kohti putoavaa
palloa, joka kiisi kuin nuoli suoraan ja empimättä pieniin, pehmoisiin
tytön käsiin.

"Minä!" kajahti riemuhuuto lapsen suusta ja ylpeänä voitostaan

keikautti hän valkohiuksista päätänsä.

Pojat katselivat vähän nyrpeissään sivu suun mennyttä voittoa ja

sieltä täältä kuului ääniä, jotka sanoivat:

"Eihän se Elli olisi voittanut, jos —"

"Eikähän se Elli oikeastaan olisi saanut —" mutta lauseitten

loppuosat haipuivat jostakin syystä niin hiljaisiksi että ainoastaan
vierustoveri saattoi kuulla ne.

Vaan kun Ellin suurien silmien voitonriemu kävi aivan

sietämättömäksi, sanoi suurin pojista kuuluvammalla äänellä: "Eikä
tämä peli oikeastaan tytöille ollutkaan!"

Kun pallopeli alkoi ikävystyttää, heittäytyivät tytöt piiritanssiin

pihamaalle ja pojat lähtivät kiipeilemään leveitä tikapuita ylös
rakennuksen katolle.

"Hei vaan, kuinka kauvas täällä näkee!" huusi kehoittavasti se,

joka ensinnä perille ehti ja sen kuultuaan nekin jotka vielä tikapuitten
juurella seisoivat kapusivat kilvassa ylös. "Ai ihmettä!" kuului
reippaasti ylhäältä.

"Kuinka kaunista!" — "Kuinka hauskaa!" — "Melkein päätä

pyörryttää!" Pääskysparven lailla viserteli poikalauma räystäällä ja
uteliaina, ihaillen korottivat tytöt kaulojansa, silmääräpäyttämättä
seuraten toverien liikkeitä.

"Kiivetkäämme mekin sinne! Yks', kaks', kolme!" huudahti Elli ja

silmänräpäyksessä oli hän jo puolitiessä portailla.

"Ei, ei Elli!" huusivat silloin isä, äiti ja kaikki muut aikaihmiset

verannalta, kauhistunein liikkein vaatien yltiöpäätä heti
laskeutumaan alas. Mutta yritteliä vitkasteli… Siitäkin — puolitiestä
— näki hän jo laajenneen, loistavan maiseman, joka tältä
korkeammalta asteelta katsottuna näytti tuhat kertaa
ihmeellisemmältä, viehättävämmältä, kun esimerkiksi verannan
kaidepuun takaa, taikkapa kellarin katoltakin, — mihinkä joskus
luvallakin oli saanut kiivetä.

"Tule alas! Kuuletko, hetipaikalla alas, sinä pahankurinen lapsi!" Ja

pahankurinen lapsi totteli, tullen alas vaikka verkkaan ja nyrpeän
näköisenä.

"Miks'en minä saa mennä sinne, yhtähyvin kun pojatkin?" nurkui

hän.

"Siksi että se ei sovi tytöille — muista se!" —

Elli painui verannan alimmalle rappuselle istumaan. Äsken niin

iloinen, toiminnanhaluinen lapsensielu oli sumennettu ja
sulkeutuneena mietti se arvoitusta: miksi en minä yhtähyvin kun
pojatkin…

*****

"Se on siis päätetty", sanoi isä tyytyväisesti. "Ja minä toivon

kaikesta sydämestäni, että menestyt lääkäriurallasi Kaarloseni! —
Mutta entäs Esko? On jo aika sinunkin vakiintua siitä, miksi aijot
maailmassa."

"Siitä olen jo kauvan ollut selvillä, isä. Kun poikasena kerran tein
huvihuoneen piirustukset, sanoit sinä että näyttää siltä kun Eskolla
olisi tulevaisuutta tällä alalla ja sitä minulla varmasti onkin! Saat
uskoa, isä, että minä kerran vien arkkitehtuuriamme loistavan
askeleen eteenpäin."

Isä hymyili. "Hyvä, olen siis selvillä ja tyytyväinen lasteni

tulevaisuudesta."

"Mutta minuthan sinä aivan syrjäytät, isä", muistutti Elli "vai eikö
sinua ollenkaan huvita tietää miksi minä aijon?

"Ah sinä! Noo — sinusta kaiketi tulee kunnianarvoisa pikku rouva,

kunhan ennättää — ellet juuri vanhaksi piiaksi aijo", nauroi isä.

Ellin raikkaat kasvot peittyivät synkkiin pilviin ja silmissään loukattu

ihmisarvo salamoi…

"Niin, tuomari Arvolahan on sinuun pahoin pikeytynyt. Ja,

luullakseni, on hänen kainalossaan tulevaisuutesi turvattu", täydensi
Kaarlo.

"Oi, kuinka te olette ilkeitä!" huudahti Elli. "Sekö se siis on tyttöjen

päämäärä ja siihenkö heillä vaan on lupa pyrkiä? 'Tulevaisuus
turvattu'… on se sekin yks' rääsyinen sana! Ikäänkuin meillä ei olisi
oikeutta, niinhyvin kuin velvollisuuttakin, itse, omintakeisesti turvata
tulevaisuuttamme!"

"Sillä tavallahan se asia kuitenkin tavallisesti tässä Jumalan

luomassa maailmassa menee —"
 "Tässä miesten muokkaamassa maailmassa — niin olemme
epäilemättä lähempänä totuutta. Vai luuletteko, uskallatteko luulla
Jumalasta jotain niin alhaista, äärimmäisen ilkeämielistä, että hän
olisi sysännyt naisen siihen alennustilaan, missä tämä vuosituhansia
on saanut värjötellä?"

"Elli, Elli — elä pidä noin suurta suuta. Ehkäpä ne vuosituhannet

juuri kumoavat väitteesi —"

"Mahdollisesti, jos naisasia olisi vieläkin siinä pisteessä, missä se

Aabrahamin aikoina oli — mutta Jumalan kiitos, ne samaiset
vuostuhannet ovat kuitenkin olleet kehityksen, vapautuksen aikoja ja
kieltämättä me olemme matkalla oikeutta, täydellistä tasa-arvoa
kohden, olkoonpa tämä matkamme viimeinen virstapylväs vielä
kuinka kaukana tahansa."

"Sinä olet oikea naisasian agitaattori, Elli!" pisti Kaarlo väliin,

hymyillen ainaista ylimielistä hymyänsä.

"Minulla on kunnia olla! Mutta elä sinä yhtään tuolla tavalla

hymyile… Kuuleppas, se aika on onneksi mennyt, jolloin naisasialle
voitiin vaan hymyillä ja etäällä, etäällä — vaikka tulevassa — on
sekin, jolloin sille enään vaan tarvitaan hymyillä. Nyt on toiminnan,
työn ja taistelun aika!"

"Kiitä Luojaa, lapseni, että elät ajassa, joka sallii sinun nauttia työsi
hedelmiä", lausui äiti. "Minun nuoruudessani saimme tyytyä — ah
emmehän kaikkea uskaltaneet uneksiakaan — mitä te nyt saatte
todellisuudessa omistaa ja nauttia…"

"Ja kuitenkaan, äiti, ei vielä meilläkään ole läheskään kaikkea,

mitä pitäisi olla! — No niin, isä, minä olen päättänyt lukea lääkäriksi
kuten Kaarlokin." —

"Vai päättänyt? Sehän kuuluu erittäin juhlalliselta… Mutta minulta

ei totisesti riitä rahoja siihen, — saan luvan ilmoittaa."

"Vai niin, isä rukka! Olet siis ikuisessa kiitollisuuden velassa

kohtalolle, joka salli kolmannen lapsesi syntyä tytöksi, säästääkseen
kukkaroasi ja estääkseen sen julmuuden tapahtumasta, mikä olisi
ollut välttämätön, jos se kolmaskin olisi ollut poika!"

Isä näytti harmistuneelta, eikä löytänyt pitkään aikaan sanoja

vastineeksi.

"Et sinä toki henno särkeä Ellin tulevaisuutta", sanoi viimein äiti
pyytävän hellästi niinkuin ainakin.

"Te naiset olette niin hiton itsepäisiä toisinaan…"

"Ei isä, kyllä sinulta pitää riittää rahoja Ellillekin, Kaarlon ja minun
on elettävä sitä myöten. Muuten minäkin olen aivan onneton",
lämpeni Esko. "Sehän olisi muuten samaa, kuin jos riistettäisiin Elliltä
vaatteet meille pojille — ja hän työnnettäisiin alastomana pakkaseen!
Se ei saa tapahtua, isä!" —

"Voi tuota Eskoa, sehän on itse olennoitu oikeus ja hyvyys!"

riemuitsi Elli. — "Enkös olekin aina sanonut, että Esko se on, joka
meidän kotimme piirissä edustaa tulevaisuuden herttaista, ylevää,
täydellistynyttä miestä. Tuollaisesta veljestä kannattaa ylpeilläkin!"

Mutta isä vääntelihe nyrpeänä tuolissaan. Hän muistutti suurta

mehiläistä, joka on lentänyt kärpäspaperille ja koettaa turhaan
irroittautua siitä…
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