77 T Tee e TIT SESSION- 2023-2024 WORK NAME : Aishwary Parashar CLASS : XII ROLL NO. : $ : : : ‘ $ ; $ ‘ $ : : : $ : : : . . . : : q PHYSICS PROJECT q : . . xu af u ‘ $ : $ $ $ : . ‘ . : : ‘ : : : : eesigrererrrsere? ACKNOWLEDGEMENT : ? . 2 ? ; ¢ | would like to express my special thanks of ? gratitude to my teacher who gave me this ‘ golden opportunity to do this wonderful ; project on the topic “ To q study the variations in current flowing in a circuit # containing an LDR" which also helped ¢ me doing a lot of research and I came to % know about so many new things, | am 5 really thankful to her. q Secondly, I would also like to thank my @ parent’ sand friends who helped me lot in ¢ finalizing this project within the limited time 2 frame. 2 . . : 77ers ers tert? 2 2 3 3 : 2 $ : ¢ 2 : 2 : : ? i: : : ¢ q : . ¢ 2 :sererserererss? Chk EG aa t This is to Certify that Aishwary Parasha of class XII has successfully completed the Physics Investigatory project on the topic " ‘o study the variations in current flowing in a circuit containing an LDR” as prescribed by the CBSE Board for the Academic Year 2023-24. It is further certified that the project is Individual Work of the Candidate. Internal's Signature -: Principal's Signature -: : $ ? 3 : . ? 2 ? : 2 ? : $ . : ? : . . . . . . . External's Signature -: ? : . , . . i" . i. , a . : ? : ? : 2 ’ ? : . . : coe eesees et estes estse TIN DIE S CONTENTS PAGE | REMARKS 41 | COVER PAGE 1 2 | CERTIFICATE 2 3 | ACKNOWLEDGMENT | 3 4 | INDEX 6 | APPLICATIONS “I AIM & APPARATUS |7 THEORY 8-11 © PROCEDURE 12 44 | RESULT & CONCLUSION SOURCES OF ERROR | 14 = SB 13 | BIBLIOGRAPHY +@+@76+6+6>676+6>6>6+6+6+6+6+6+6+6;6+6>6>6+6+6+6+46 : . : $ : : : 3 3 ! 3 : 8 | INTRODUCTION 5 q ? : PTET EPA r ates ater rer intrt) as e ry i> INTRODUCTION = 48 a8 iy e je The general purpose photoconductive cell is also > ¢@ known as LDR - light dependent resistor. Itis a type j@ «© of semiconductor and its conductivity changes with «proportional change in the intensity of light. gs «8 There are two common types of materials used to «S$ manufacture the photoconductive cells. They ‘are Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) and Cadmium Selenide ‘\ ‘= (CdSe). ic Extrinsic devices have impurities added, which have ic {© aground state energy closer to the conduction band- > is since the electrons don't have as far to jump, lower (< «energy photons (i.e. longer wavelengths and lower «8 frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. Two «8 «of its earliest applications were as part of smoke and 8. «8 fire detection systems and camera light meters. The to structure is covered with glass sheet to protect it from ‘> ‘= moisture and dust and allows only light to fall on it. Se ‘> fo « « og glass - 48 metalplastic as eo oar coer Vics " Fy ne ne we es ry ry z z nc ‘ ne & Moalat” US teminas * a & for connection a me 7 «& w e 1 e Poe Neb nh me HG HS nS A SS nt Se ne hegh gh gh gd gh gh gh gh gh gh gh gh gh gh gh gh gh gh gh gh gh gh gh gh re eo Applications te Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRsi* are used for the mid infrared spectral, region. GeCu photoconductors are among the best far-", infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy. S re Analog Applications e - Camera Exposure Control e : Auto Slide Focus - dual cell & - Photocopy Machines - density of toner « - Colorimetric Test Equipment ibe - Densitometer ro - Electronic Scales - dual cell ‘= - Automatic Gain Control — modulated light source ic - Automated Rear View Mirror ig e Digital Applications « - Automatic Headlight Dimmer & - Night Light Control e - Oil Burner Flame Out oe - Street Light Control oe - Position Sensor _ ne *LDR has a disadvantage that when its temperature changes, its resistance ® changes drastically for a particular light intensity. te ¢ eiS & e a e re ts AIM & APPARATUS te & : « ze AIM: a i eae & - To study the variations, in current flowing in a circuit e {containing a LDR, because of a variation:- ze i 7 ¢ ¢® (a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to/< @® ‘illuminate’ the LDR. (Keeping all the lamps at a fixed ?e «S distance). gs ne as as ee « (b) In the distance of a incandescent lamp, (of fixed’* me ear ; ne « power), used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR. ws no ne as a8 e . fe APPARATUS: e ¢@ Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) i f© Connecting Wires ry (© Source of different power rating (bulbs) re ne ~ «& Bulb Holder as no ne «Metre scale Ly «8 Multi Meter Lb « « ic Battery ie me ne te ® « 2 P ie & ee eo . e ne ne e « a , & me ne Sena nate seca a sere ene ce ene eee are eral eae eeee e ec = device decreases. Thus the LDR or photo- -conductive'.~ >= transducer has the resistance which is the inverse r= {@ function of radiation intensity. e oe 1 «8 as no 1 « a he e e ® ®& © er e no ne «8. X0 = threshold wavelength, in meters * q§e@ = charge on one electron, in Coulombs qs ig Ew = work function of the metal used, in Ev e ;» Here we must note that any radiation with wavelength :— & x» greater than the value obtained in above equation’= ge CANNOT PRODUCE any change in the resistance of this; ns je device. ic ‘ eae A > te Characteristics of photoconductive cells to ¢ ‘ «8 Now when the device is kept in darkness, its resistancet®, «8 is called as dark resistance. This resistance is typically’, «Sof the order of 10? ohms. When light falls on it, its‘ resistance decreases up to several kilo ohms or even’ te x hundreds of ohms, depending on the intensity of light, $= fe falling on it. = ‘The spectral response characteristics of two commercial’: < s« cells were compared in our laboratory. And we found:~ s« that there is almost no response to the radiation of aie {@ wavelength which was shorter than 300nm. /t was very;* (© interesting to note that the Cadmium Sulphide cell has as i peak response nearer or within the green color of thege «8 spectrum within a range of 520nm. Thus it can be usedi= «8 nearer to the infra-red region up to 750nm. It was found’ ‘\ that the maximum response of Cadmium, ‘S” Sulphoselenide is in the yellow-orange range at 615nm‘\, x« and also it can be used in the infra-red region up toss 4% « about 970nm. ee o ry o . e . < < e 2 e * ae a eo re < < ae eThe sensitivity of a photo detector is the relationship between the light falling on the device and the Se resulting output signal. In the case of a photocell, ° one is dealing with the relationship between the - incident light and the corresponding resistance of e the cell. ee Resistance (k $2) 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 10,000 ¢ Lux polKECCKKCCKE CELT KEKT ETE CTT EOE « « a te ‘> Spectral Response wo s ° “Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a ‘\ ‘= photoconductive cell is dependent on the {= < rials : e = wavelength (color) of the incident light. Each ° {© photoconductor material type has its own unique > (© spectral response curve or plot of the relative (> (© response of the photocell versus wavelength of light. = ry rs mo ~ 48 a8 ne ae Sm © as ak e 90% ° no ne y e ie 80% te « 70% e no ne es 3 a . : 60% < ‘. 2 is fo & or oo « 2 * “ 40% ge z « e 30% e a un z eo rs eo 10% . 7° : * a 0% PEt E ee rh) 950 400 460 500 540 580 620 660 700 740 780 820 870 920 10068 rs Wavelangth (nm) ny eo e me 7 «& w ce 7 e Pat Neb nh me HG HRS SO A nS nS HH Se nN he nSte 2.) luminous flux variation: < < Considering the source to be a point radiating in all © & directions; consider a steradian (or even a simple & a sphere), take a small element r) from the « ® source, consider the same area element dA, it ® e comprises a much smaller part of energy radiated « & Es) < « [aE; > dEe]. ® & It varies inversely as the square of the distance. e& a8 ry re ie PROCEDURE e . e ee Choose a specific position for the source and mount it . ? using a holder, make sure it is stable. e — Select the bulb with the lowest power rating and connect it e ns to the holder as shown in the figure. r= ©... Connect the LDR, battery(6V) and the multimeter in ye series. oe a + Set the multimeter to ohm section and select suitable iL ec range and measure the resistance with a bulb on. ene «S. Similarly switch to current section and move to micro bE « ampere in the multimeter. This gives the value of the * bE current. ibe « . Repeat these steps with different power sources at as es different distances and note down observations. iCMP RMARCARPAAAARAARRARAAARAARE ~ ne 48 ae eo eo ye CONCLUSION & RESULT ie ne ne S a os of «S. The LDR resistance decreases with increase in io a intensity of light and hence there is an increase in & ‘the flow of current. a a ae * i i i So + There is an increase in the current as the oo te distance from the source decreases. ‘> = & {+ The intensity decreases as the distance from the Zz {@ source increases i & Att ae & (©. The error lies within the experimental limit. re & c « & ne ne te : qv a e re < & « & ne ne a i ie < te x 48 a ry e c « ne « & me me fy ay te 12 we Ona oth ne te ni oe Her ne He eo AN rh Hee Hk €¥ Gh Gh Gh Gh Gh Gh Gh Gh Gy Gh Gy Gh Gh Gh Gh gs gh gh gh Gh Ge gh Gh Gk GhCREEK TEETER TTT STE TTT T ES TE 48 ae eo eo je SOURCES OF ERROR 3 7 mc * oy os of ‘ The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source. a“ e n ‘. Connections may be faulty. a te & «\. The experiment should be conducted in a dark ms {S room. ne a 2 ry & (© Measurements should be taken accurately. e & & - io i = fe ol « «& ne ne te : ~ io - a * * “ e « & Si < te x te & a oh e * & & e e < a a ue aCREEK TEETER TTT STE TTT T ES TE 48 ae e e ze BIBLIOGRAPHY ie as os * oy os of te NCERT physics class XII s es a ‘Art of Electronics by paul worowitz a te & “ www.wikipedia.com/ Lb @ a e eo (=_www.electronics2000.co.uk/links/education-hobby/ e e & (*_www.ecelab.com/ eo casas SRESERERES! no - io i = oe mS i _ te : ~ io - a * * ee s 48 ee e e © « te & e oh oS a & & re e © & a ue a