MTHH22 – 18 HUMAN HISTOLOGY I LECTURE

MODULE 1: Introduction and Method of Study

2ND SEMESTER I S.Y 2021 – 2022
LECTURER: DR. AVELINDA CABRIDO

Definition of Histology
➢ Histology is the study of tissues. Tissues are
usually described as a network of both cellular
and non-cellular materials, intermingled filaments
and fibers provided with membranous linings.

➢ Human Histology may be defined as the study of

the microscopic structures of biological materials
derived from humans and the means by
which their individual components are
structurally and functionally related.

➢ Light microscopes, both simple and compound,

use visible light as their radiation. This has a
wavelength of about 400-700 nm (nanometer; 1
nanometer = 1 x 10-9 m). Light is focused with
the help of glass lenses. Since the light is in the
visible range, we can see images formed by a
light microscope with naked eyes.

➢ In contrast, the effective wavelength provided by

a beam of electrons is less than 1 nm. This beam
is focused with the help of electromagnets,
employing the negative charge on electrons.
Since we can’t ‘see’ a beam of electrons without
severely damaging our eyes, the image in
Comparison between Light electron microscopes is produced on an electron-
sensitive surface (often termed as ‘fluorescent
Compound Microscope and screen’ in diagrams).
Electron Microscope Transmission Electron Microscope
➢ The main difference between light and electron
microscopes is the radiation used to form an
image; the ‘light’ and ‘electron’ in the names refer
to the radiation being used. Using visible light as
a radiation has several limitations, which the
electron microscope lessens. However, light
microscopes are much more practical in general
use.
Purpose of Vacuum in Electron Microscope lenses are protected, the apparatus is quite
sturdy. In contrast, electron microscopes are
Purpose of vacuum : relatively larger, and need a specialized high-
➢ protect electron source against contamination, power source. This makes them a
vibrations, and noise. bit cumbersome. They are also much more
expensive than light microscopes.
➢ allows the user to acquire a high-resolution
image.

Preparation of Tissues for

➢ In both types, the radiation passing through Microscopic Study
the specimen is used to form an image. Light
passing through a specimen in a light microscope ➢ Study the video for the preparation of stained
scatters due to the properties of the various temporary mount of human cheek cells:
substances in the specimen. This light is then
a. study the material required
focused and magnified by the lenses in a
compound microscope. Simple light b. remember the steps to follow
microscopes, which are simply very strong
magnifying lenses, use the reflection of light, but ➢ Light Compound Microscope
this type is not popular in academic and scientific ➢ Review of the Light Compound Microscope
circles.
➢ Microscope parts and their functions
Resolution and Magnification
➢ How to use the microscope
➢ Light microscopes are typically capable of
providing a resolution of up to 200 nm. In ➢ Care of the microscope
practical terms, this means that substances
smaller than 200 nm won’t show up as a separate
entity, and will be merged with a larger shape.

➢ In the case of electron microscopes, the

resolution can drop down to less than 1 nm. This
means that objects that wouldn’t have been
visible on a light microscope are much clearer in
an electron microscope. This means that electron
microscopes are capable of providing as much as
400 times more detail than a light microscope.

➢ A light microscope provides a magnification of up

to 1500x, but 1000x is more common. Though
this is a significant amount of magnification, it is
dwarfed by the electron microscope’s ability to
achieve a magnification of up to 250,000x.

Color

➢ Since light microscopes use visible light, the

images can be seen in the normal visible color
range. Electron microscopes have nothing to do
with the wavelength of the radiation (thus the
phrase ‘effective wavelength’), and thus produce
grayscale (B/W) images. These images are often
given false colors for better clarity, especially if
the image is going to be released to the public.

Practical Concerns

➢ Due to their relatively simple mechanism, light

microscopes (even compound microscopes) are
very easy to carry and operate. As long as the
 MTHH22 – 18 HUMAN HISTOLOGY I LECTURE

MODULE 2: Cells
2ND SEMESTER I S.Y 2021 – 2022
LECTURER: DR. AVELINDA CABRIDO

Cell Structure
Cell Parts and their Functions
Parts of the Cell and their Functions

➢ A. Plasma Membrane

➢ B. Cytoplasm and its Organelles

➢ C. Nucleus

Mitosis and Meiosis

➢ Definition of Mitosis

- a type of cell division that results in two daughter

cells each having the same number and kind of
chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of
ordinary tissue growth.

➢ Definition of Meiosis

- a type of cell division that results in four

daughter cells each with half the number of
chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the
production of gametes and plant spores.

Significance of Mitosis and Meiosis

➢ Significance of Mitosis

➢ Significance of Meiosis
 MTHH22 – 18 HUMAN HISTOLOGY I LECTURE
MODULE 3: Epithelial Tissue
2ND SEMESTER I S.Y 2021 – 2022
LECTURER: DR. AVELINDA CABRIDO
TRANSCRIBED BY: MAY FORTES
Definition of Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue
One of the four types of tissue (epithelial, muscular,
connective, and nervous) in animals which consists of
closely aggregated polyhedral cells adhering firmly to one
another, forming cellular sheets that line the interior of
hollow organs and cover the body surface.
Consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, in either
single or multiple layers.
Characteristics of Epithelial
Tissue
1. Shape and Size:
➢ shapes and sizes of epithelial cells are variable,
ranging from tall columnar to cuboidal to low
squamous; cell’s size and morphology are
generally based on their function.
2. Polarity
➢ Epithelial cells generally show polarity, with
organelles and membrane proteins distributed
unevenly within the cell.
➢ The apical (free) surface of an epithelial cell is
present towards the body surface, the body
cavity, the lumen of an internal organ, or a gland
duct that receives cell secretions. Apical surfaces
may contain cilia or microvilli.
➢ The lateral surfaces of an epithelial cell, facing the
adjacent cells on either side, may contain
intercellular adhesion and other junctions.
➢ The basal surface of an epithelial cell adheres to
extracellular materials such as the basement
membrane, which is an inert connective tissue
made by the epithelial cells themselves.
3. Basement Membrane
➢ The basement membrane is a thin
extracellular layer that commonly consists of
two layers, the basal lamina, and the reticular
lamina.
➢ The basal lamina is closer to and secreted by
the epithelial cells and contains proteins like
laminin and collagen as well as some
glycoproteins and proteoglycans.
➢ The reticular lamina is closer to the
connective tissue, present underneath, and
contains collagen protein produced by
connective tissue cells called fibroblasts.
4. Intercellular Adhesion and Other
Junctions
➢ Several membrane-associated structures
provide adhesion and communication
between cells.
➢ Tight junctions, also called zonulae
occludens, are the most apical of the
junctions that form a band completely
encircling each cell.
➢ The second type of junction is the adherens
junction or zonula adherens, which also
encircles the epithelial cell, usually
immediately below the tight junction.
➢ Another anchoring junction is the
desmosome or macula adherens which are
disc-shaped structures at the surface of one
cell that matches with identical structures at
an adjacent cell surface.
➢ Gap junctions mediate intercellular
communication rather than adhesion or
occlusion between cells.
5. Avascular
➢ Epithelial tissue is avascular, relying on the
blood vessels of the adjacent connective
tissue to bring nutrients and remove wastes.
➢ The exchange of substances between
epithelial tissue and connective tissue occurs
by diffusion.
6. Innervated
➢ Epithelial tissue is innervated; that is, it has
its own nerve supply.
7. Renew and Repair
➢ Epithelial cells have a high rate of cell division
which allows the epithelial tissue to
continually renew and repair itself by
sloughing off dead or injured cells and
replacing them with new ones.
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
1. Protection
➢ One of the most critical functions of epithelial
tissue is protection. It protects the cells
present below against radiation, desiccation,
invasion by pathogens, toxins, and physical
trauma.
➢ The absence of blood vessels in the epithelial
tissue thus prevents bleeding in the tissue
during abrasion.
2. Transportation
➢ Epithelial tissue also functions in the
transportation of different molecules in and
out of the cells with different pumps present
in the epithelial tissue.
➢ Besides, in the digestive, respiratory, and
urinary system, it allows the exchange of
molecules between the underlying cells and
the body cavity, capillaries, and ducts.
3. Secretion
➢ Glandular epithelium secretes various
macromolecules like hormones responsible
for multiple bodily functions.
➢ Many endocrine and exocrine glands also
help maintain the body surfaces (skin) as well
as support the functions of various organs
(digestive system).
4. Absorption
➢ By the function of various specialized
structures like cilia and microvilli on the
surface of cells, epithelial tissue also aids in
the absorption of multiple molecules by
increasing the surface area.
➢ In the digestive system, columnar cells of the
small intestine help in the absorption of water
and various other nutrients.
5. Receptor function
➢ Some cells in the epithelial tissue are
specialized to perform sensory functions that
can detect the sensory information and
convert them into neural signals.
➢ Cells in epithelial tissue like the
pseudostratified columnar epithelium of the
olfactory mucosa contain apical cilia that
allow the sensation of odor.
Classification and Types of
Epithelia
1. Covering and lining epithelium, also called the
surface epithelium, that forms the outer covering
of the skin and some internal organs and also
forms the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts,
body cavities, and the inner lining of the
respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive
systems.
2. Glandular epithelium that makes up the
secreting portion of glands such as the thyroid
gland, adrenal glands, sweat glands, and
digestive glands.
Simple epithelium
➢ Simple epithelium is made up of a single layer
of identical cells, which are usually found on
secretory and absorptive surfaces, where the
single layer enhances these processes.
➢ Simple epithelium is divided into three main
types, and these are named according to the
shape of the cells, which differ based on their
functions.
Stratified epithelium
➢ A stratified epithelium consists of several
layers of cells of various shapes, and
basement membranes are usually absent.
➢ As basal cells divide, daughter cells arising
from cell divisions are pushed older cells
upward toward the apical layer.
➢ As they move toward the surface and away
from blood supply in underlying connective
tissue, they become dehydrated and less
metabolically active.
➢ Tough proteins predominate as cytoplasm is
reduced, and cells become tough, hard
structures that eventually die.
➢ At the apical layer, after dead cells lose cell
junctions, they are sloughed off, but they are
continuously replaced as new cells emerge
from basal cells.
➢ There are three main types of stratified
epithelium: stratified squamous, stratified
cuboidal, and stratified columnar epithelium.
Keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium
➢ This epithelium develops a tough layer of
keratin in the apical segment of cells and
several layers deep to it
 ➢ The relative amount of keratin increases in
cells as they move away from the nutritive
blood supply and the organelles eventually
die.
➢ The keratin forms a tough, relatively
waterproof protective layer that prevents
drying of the live cells present underneath.
➢ Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
forms a superficial layer of skin.
Non-keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium
➢ This epithelium does not contain large
amounts of keratin in the apical layer, and
several layers deep and is moistened
continuously by mucus from salivary and
mucous glands.
➢ Nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium lines wet surfaces (lining of mouth,
esophagus, part of the epiglottis, part of the
pharynx, and vagina) and covers the tongue.
Pseudostratified columnar
epithelium
➢ Pseudostratified epithelium appears to have
several layers because the nuclei of the cells
are present at various levels.
➢ Although all the cells are attached to the
basement membrane in a single layer, some
cells do not reach the apical surface.
➢ As a result of these features, it appears as a
multilayered tissue, but in fact, is the simple
epithelium.
➢ This epithelium lines epididymis, larger ducts
of many glands, and parts of male urethra
and airways of most of the upper respiratory
tract.
Transitional epithelium tissue
➢ Transitional epithelium (urothelium) has a
variable appearance (transitional).
➢ In a relaxed or unstretched state, looks like
stratified cuboidal epithelium, except apical
layer cells tend to be broad and rounded.
➢ As tissue is stretched, cells become flatter,
giving the appearance of stratified squamous
epithelium. Multiple layers and elasticity
make it ideal for lining hollow structures
(urinary bladder) subject to expansion from
within.
Glandular Epithelium
➢ Epithelial cells that function mainly to produce
and secrete various macromolecules may
occur in epithelia with other significant
functions or comprise specialized organs
called glands.
➢ Scattered secretory cells, sometimes called
unicellular glands, are common in simple
cuboidal, simple columnar, and
pseudostratified epithelia.
➢ Glands develop from covering epithelia in the
fetus by cell proliferation and growth into the
underlying connective tissue, followed by
further differentiation.
Endocrine glands
➢ The secretions of endocrine glands, called
hormones, enter the interstitial fluid and then
diffuse into the bloodstream without flowing
through a duct.
➢ Endocrine secretions have far-reaching
effects because they are distributed
throughout the body by the bloodstream.
➢ Examples of endocrine glands include
pituitary gland at the base of the brain, the
pineal gland in the brain, thyroid and
parathyroid glands near larynx (voice box),
adrenal glands superior to kidneys, pancreas
near the stomach, ovaries in the pelvic cavity,
testes in the scrotum, thymus in the thoracic
cavity.
Exocrine glands
➢ Exocrine glands secrete their products into
ducts that release the secretions onto the
surface of organs such as the skin surface or
the lumen of a hollow organ.
➢ The effects of exocrine gland secretions are
limited, and some of them would be harmful
if they entered the bloodstream.
➢ Sweat, oil, and earwax glands of the skin,
digestive glands such as salivary glands
(secrete into mouth cavity) and pancreas
(secretes into the small intestine) are the
examples of exocrine glands.

Modes of Transport
Exocytosis is the natural process of transporting
molecules from within a cell to the outside space. In this
process, the vesicles containing the fluid enclosed by a
lipid bilayer fuse with the plasma membrane to release
their contents outside the cell. The term ‘exocytosis’ was
proposed by De Duve in 1963.
Endocytosis is the process of actively transporting
molecules into the cell by engulfing it with its
membrane. Endocytosis and exocytosis are used by all
cells to transport molecules that cannot pass through the
membrane passively. Exocytosis provides the opposite
function and pushes molecules out of the cell.
Cell Renewal
Skin regeneration is the renewal of the surface of the skin.
Every day, the body produces new skin cells. They start
in the deep layer of the dermis and eventually move to the
epidermis, which is the surface of the skin. Over time, they
are shed and fall off. Skin cells can regenerate and move
to the surface layer within two weeks, but this is typically
only true for younger skin.
The skin never stops regenerating, but some factors can
slow this process down. As a person ages, the production
of collagen in the skin slows down. Collagen is
responsible for keeping the skin firm. Without it, cell
production slows down and the skin can become saggy
and more susceptible to wrinkling. Pollutants in the air can
also slow down the skin regeneration process.
Sunlight is healthy for the skin because it provides vitamin
D, but too much sunlight can damage the skin irreversibly.
This also slows down collagen production and causes the
skin to become dry. Moisture is needed for improved skin
regeneration, especially when it has been exposed to
excessive sunlight. Keeping the skin hydrated can reduce
wrinkling and speed up the regeneration process.
There are instances when the skin will simply not
regenerate. If the dermis or epidermis is severely injured,
it will not grow back. Skin grafts can be used to cover an
injury when it is too large to be sutured. An injury such as
a deep and wide cut that penetrates the dermis, or a burn
that destroys the upper layer or epidermis can also
produce scarred or uneven skin layers.
Skin Cell Renewal
 MTHH22 – 18 HUMAN HISTOLOGY I LECTURE

MODULE 4 - 8
2ND SEMESTER I S.Y 2021 – 2022
LECTURER: DR. AVELINDA CABRIDO

MODULE 4
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Types of Cells in the Connective Tissue
I. Fixed (Resident) Cells: fibrocytes/fibroblast,
reticular cell, mesenchymal cell, adipocyte,
chondroblast,/chondrocyte, and
osteoblast/osteocyte
II. Mobile (Wandering) Cells: macrophage, mast
cell, lymphocyte, and granulocyte
III. Melanocyte
I. Fixed(Resident) Cells: Fibroblasts
• Most numerous type of the connective tissue cell
found in all of our organs
• Has flattened, dark-staining nucleus and a sparse
cytoplasm
• Produces protein called collagen that forms thick,
tough fibers found around the fibroblasts.
• Collagen, very strong protein, provides a
structural support for softer portions of the body
Fibroblasts
• activated connective tissue cells characterized by
synthesis of proteins called collagens
• Fibroblasts are derived from the fibrocyte or
possibly from smooth muscle cells lining vessels
and glands.
• When tissue is injured, fibrocyte produces
fibroblasts
➢ Reticular Cell
• type of fibroblast that synthesizes collagen alpha-
1(III) and uses it to produce reticular fibers.
• surrounds the fibers with its cytoplasm, isolating
it from other tissue components and cells.
• provides structural support, since they produce
and maintain the thin networks of fibers that are a
framework for most lymphoid organs.

➢ Fibroblasts

Mesenchymal Cell

Fibrocyte vs Fibroblast

Fibrocyte

• inactive mesenchymal cell showing minimal

cytoplasm, limited amounts of rough endoplasmic
reticulum and lacks biochemical evidence of
protein synthesis.
➢ Adipocyte
• also known as lipocytes and fat cells, are the
cells that primarily compose adipose tissue,
specialized in storing energy as fat.[1]
• derived from mesenchymal stem cells which give
rise to adipocytes through adipogenesis.
• in cell culture, adipocytes can also form
osteoblasts, myocytes and other cell types.
• two types of adipose tissue, white adipose tissue
(WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT), which
are also known as white and brown fat,
respectively, and comprise two types of fat cells.
➢ Chondroblast/Chondrocyte
• cells (located in the perichondrium) that play an
important role in the development of cartilage.
• by producing extracellular matrix, chondroblasts
create the main component that provides
structure and strength to cartilage.
• mature into chondrocytes which make up the
cellular component of cartilage
• when cartilage tissue is damaged, chondrocytes
differentiate into chondroblasts to regenerate
cartilage.
• unregulated growth and stimulation of
chondroblasts can result in chondroblastomas
(benign tumor) or a chondrosarcoma (malignant
tumor).
➢ Osteoblasts/Osteocyte/Osteoclast
• Osteocytes are cells that form the bones
themselves
• Osteoblasts are responsible for the formation
of new osteocytes,
• Osteoclasts are responsible for the resorption of
old bone matter
• Three types of bone cells regulate the formation,
sustenance, and decay of bones.
II. Mobile (Wandering) Cells: Macrophage
type of white blood cell of the immune system that engulfs
and digests cellular debris, foreign substances, microbes,
cancer cells, and anything else that does not have the
type of proteins specific to healthy body cells on its
surface[2][3] in a process called phagocytosis, which is
intended to defend the host against infection and injury.[4]
➢ Macrophage
➢ Mast Cell
• mast cell (also known as a mastocyte or a
labrocyte) is a resident cell of connective tissue
that contains many granules rich in histamine and
heparin.
• type of granulocyte derived from the myeloid
stem cell that is a part of the immune and
neuroimmune systems.
• were discovered by Paul Ehrlich in 1877.
 • Although best known for their role in allergy and
anaphylaxis, mast cells play an important
protective role as well, being intimately involved
in wound healing, angiogenesis, immune
tolerance, defense against pathogens, and
vascular permeability in brain tumours
➢ Lymphocyte
• A type of immune cell that is made in the bone
marrow and is found in the blood and in lymph
tissue.
• The two main types of lymphocytes are B
lymphocytes and T lymphocytes.
Lymphocyte
➢ Granulocyte
• Granulocytes are a category of white blood cells
in the innate immune system characterized by the
presence of specific granules in their cytoplasm.[1]
• They are also called polymorphonuclear
leukocytes (PMN, PML, or PMNL) because of
the varying shape of the nucleus, which is usually
lobed into three segments.
• This distinguishes them from the mononuclear
agranulocytes.
• The term polymorphonuclear leukocyte often
refers specifically to "neutrophil granulocytes",[2]
the most abundant of the granulocytes;
• the other types (eosinophils, basophils, and mast
cells) have lower numbers of lobes.
• Granulocytes are produced via granulopoiesis in
the bone marrow.
III. Melanocyte
• Melanocytes are melanin-producing neural crest-
derived[3] cells located in the bottom layer (the stratum
basale) of the skin's epidermis, the middle layer of the
eye (the uvea),[4] the inner ear,[5] vaginal epithelium,[6]
meninges,[7] bones,[8] and heart.[9]
• Melanin is a dark pigment primarily responsible for
skin color. Once synthesized, melanin is contained in
special organelles called melanosomes which can be
transported to nearby keratinocytes to induce
pigmentation.
• Thus darker skin tones have more melanosomes
present than lighter skin tone
• Functionally, melanin serves as protection against UV
radiation. Melanocytes also have a role in the immune
system.
 Fibers of the Connective Tissue

1. Collagen
• Collagen is the main structural protein in the
extracellular matrix found in the body's various
connective tissues.
• As the main component of connective tissue, it is
the most abundant protein in mammals, making
up from 25% to 35% of the whole-body protein
content.
• Collagen consists of amino acids bound together
to form a triple helix of elongated fibril known as
a collagen helix.
• It is mostly found in connective tissue such as Ground Substance
cartilage, bones, tendons, ligaments, and skin. • intercellular material in which the cells and fibers of
connective tissue are embedded
• composed largely of glycosaminoglycans,
metabolites, water, and ions.

2. Reticular Fibers
• Reticular fibers, reticular fibers composed of type
III collagen secreted by reticular cells.
• Reticular fibers crosslink to form a fine meshwork
(reticulin).
• This network acts as a supporting mesh in soft
tissues such as liver, bone marrow, and the
tissues and organs of the lymphatic system.
Types of Connective Tissue

1. Connective Tissue Proper

2. Supporting Connective Tissue
3. Fluid Connective Tissue

CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER

1. Loose Connective Tissue

A. Areolar
B. Adipose
3. Elastic Fibers C. Reticular
• or yellow fibers, are an essential component of 2. Dense Connective Tissue
the extracellular matrix composed of bundles of
proteins (elastin) A. Regular
• produced by a number of different cell types B. Irregular
including fibroblasts, endothelial, smooth muscle, C. Elastic
and airway epithelial cells.[1]
• fibers are able to stretch many times their length,
and snap back to their original length when relaxed
without loss of energy.
• Elastic fibers include elastin, elaunin and oxytalan.
1. Loose Connective Tissue
• Loose connective tissue (LCT) is a loose,
multidirectional weave of extracellular fibers, cells,
and ground substance
• These tissues are responsible for binding the
epithelial (skin) cells to the underlying tissues, and
providing support for the blood vessels and nerves
that supply the subdermal layer.
• There are three types of LCT; areolar, adipose,
and reticular.
Areolar Loose Connective Tissue
2. Dense Connective Tissue
• Areolar Loose Connective Tissue contains
collagen fibers, reticular fibers and a few elastic
fibers embedded in a thin, almost fluid-like ground
substance
• The areolar connective tissue is a subtype of
loose connective tissue.
Adipose Tissue
Regular Dense Connective Tissue
• Adipose tissue is a lipid -storing type of loose
connective tissue.
• Also called fat tissue, adipose is composed
primarily of adipose cells or adipocytes.
• While adipose tissue can be found in a number of
places in the body, it is found primarily beneath
the skin.
Reticular Tissue
• Reticular connective tissue is a type of connective
tissue with a network of reticular fibers, made of
type III collagen ( reticulum = net or network)
• Reticular fibers are not unique to reticular
connective tissue, but only in this type are they
dominant.
• Dense connective tissue, also called dense
fibrous tissue, is a type of connective tissue with
fibers as its main matrix element.[1]
• The fibers are mainly composed of type I
collagen. Crowded between the collagen fibers
are rows of fibroblasts, fiber-forming cells, that
generate the fibers.
• Dense connective tissue forms strong, rope-like
structures such as tendons and ligaments.
Tendons attach skeletal muscles to bones;
ligaments connect bones to bones at joints.
Ligaments are more stretchy and contain more
elastic fibers than tendons.
• Dense connective tissue also make up the lower
layers of the skin (dermis), where it is arranged in
sheets.[2]
Types of Dense Connective Tissue
• composed of three main components: fiber
producing cells, fibers, and an extracellular fluid
matrix.
• Fibroblast cells are fiber-producing cells whose
role is to repair and produce the collagen and
elastin fibers of the tissue. They appear as having
long flat nuclei because they are literally squished
between the many layers of densely packed
fibers.
Types of Dense Connective Tissue

• Collagen fibers are one of two types of fibers that

compose the majority of the tissue. Collagen fibers SUPPORTIVE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
are very thick wide fibers that provide the tissue
Supporting/connective tissue is the term applied to
with a high degree of stretch.
tissues which provide general structure, mechanical
• It's actually these fibers that give this connective
strength, space filling (sculpting body shape), and
tissue its name; collagen fibers are densely
physical and metabolic support for more specialized
packed and arranged in a parallel, undulating,
tissues.
regular pattern - hence, dense regular connective
tissue. Types of Supporting Connective Tissue

1. Cartilage
Irregular Dense Connective Tissue A. Hyaline
B. Fibrocartilage
• Dense irregular connective tissue has fibers that
C. Elastic
are not arranged in parallel bundles as in dense
regular connective tissue. 2. Bone
• Dense irregular connective tissue consists of
mostly collagen fibers. It has less ground A. Compact
substance than loose connective tissue. B. Spongy

1. Cartilage
Hyaline

• Hyaline cartilage is the glass-like (hyaline) but

translucent cartilage found on many joint
surfaces.
• It is also most commonly found in the ribs, nose,
larynx, and trachea.
• Hyaline cartilage is pearl-grey in color, with a firm
consistency and has a considerable amount of
collagen.
Elastic Connective Tissue
• It contains no nerves or blood vessels, and its
• Elastic connective tissue is a modified dense structure is relatively simple.
connective tissue that contains numerous
elastic fibers in addition to collagen fibers,
which allows the tissue to return to its original
length after stretching.
• The lungs and arteries have a layer of elastic
connective tissue that allows the stretch and
recoil of these organs.
Fibrocartilage
• Fibrocartilage consists of a mixture of white
fibrous tissue and cartilaginous tissue in various
proportions.
• It owes its inflexibility and toughness to the former
of these constituents, and its elasticity to the
latter.
• It is the only type of cartilage that contains type I
collagen in addition to the normal type II.
Fibrocartilage – with fibers
Elastic Cartilage
• or yellow cartilage, contains elastic fiber networks
and collagen type II fibers. The principal protein
is elastin.
• present in the pinnae (auricles) of the ear giving it
shape, provides shape for the lateral region of the
external auditory meatus, medial part of the
auditory canal Eustachian tube, corniculate and
cuneiform laryneal cartilages, and the epiglottis.
2.Bone
• Bone, rigid body tissue consisting of cells
embedded in an abundant hard intercellular
material.
• Its two principle components are collagen and
calcium phosphate which distinguish bone from
such other hard tissues as chitin, enamel, and
shell.
• Bone tissue makes up the individual bones of the
human skeletal system and the skeletons of other
vertebrates.
Types of Bones
Compact bone
• also called cortical bone, dense bone in which the
bony matrix is solidly filled with organic ground
substance and inorganic salts, leaving only tiny
spaces (lacunae) that contain the osteocytes, or
bone cells.
• Compact bone makes up 80 percent of the human
skeleton
• Mature compact bone is lamellar, or layered, in
structure.
• is permeated by an elaborate system of
interconnecting vascular canals, the haversian
systems, which contain the blood supply for the
osteocytes.
• the bone is arranged in concentric layers around
those canals, forming structural units called
osteons.
• Immature compact bone does not contain osteons
and has a woven structure. It forms around a
framework of collagen fibers and is eventually
replaced by mature bone in a remodeling process of
bone resorption and new bone formation that
creates the osteons.
Spongy Bone
• or cancellous bone, which has a spongelike
appearance with numerous large spaces and is
found in the marrow space (medullary cavity) of a
bone.
• Both types, compact and spongy bones, are
found in most bones.
• Compact bone forms a shell around cancellous
bone and is the primary component of the long
bones of the arm and leg and other bones, where
its greater strength and rigidity are needed.
 Longitudinal Section of a Skeletal Muscle
MODULE 5
MUSCLE TISSUE
Definition of Muscle Tissue

 specialized tissue found in animals which

functions by contracting,
 consists of fibers of muscle cells connected
together in sheets and fibers
 control the movements of an organisms as well
as many other contractile functions.

Types of Muscle Tissues Structural Organization of Skeletal Muscle

1. Skeletal Muscle Tissue
2. Smooth Muscle Tissue
3. Cardiac Muscle Tissue

➢ Skeletal Muscle Tissue

 constitutes approximately 40% of body weight
 named because most of the muscles are
attached to the skeletal system
 called striated muscle because transverse bands,
or striations, can be seen in the muscle under the
microscope.

Cross Section of Skeletal Muscle

2. Smooth Muscle tissue
 contracts without conscious control,
 having the form of thin layers or sheets made up
of spindle-shaped, unstriated cells with single
nuclei
 found in the walls of the internal organs, such as
the stomach, intestine, bladder, and blood
vessels, excluding the heart.

Longitudinal Section of Smooth Muscle

Skeletal

3. Cardiac muscle
 also known as heart muscle, is the layer of
muscle tissue which lies between the
endocardium and epicardium.
 made from sheets of cardiac muscle cells which
are typically unicellular and connect to one
another through special intercalated discs.
  this specialized cell junction and the arrangement
of muscle cells enables cardiac muscle to
contract quickly and repeatedly, forcing blood
throughout the body.
Longitudinal Section of Cardiac Muscle
Muscle Contraction – Sliding Filament
Theory
 Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction
 Proposed by by H.E Huxley and J. Hanson, and
A. F. Huxley and R. Niedergerke in 1954.
 It is proposed that muscle contracts by the actin
and myosin filaments sliding past each other.
 As sarcomere is the unit of muscle contraction, its
length contracts resulting in whole muscle
contraction.
 During contraction, length of A-band (Dark band)
remains same whereas length of I-band (Light
band) and H-zone gets shorter.
Actin myofilament:
 An actin myofilament is made up of actin
molecule, tropomyosin and troponin complex.
Myosin myofilament:
 A myosin myofilament consists of two distinct
region, a long rod-shaped tail called myosin rod
and two globular intertwined myosin head.
Actin and Myosin (Two Protein Filaments)
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
 When the nerve impulse from brain and spinal
cord are carried along motor neuron to
neuromuscular junction, Ca++ ions are released
in the terminal axon.
 Increases calcium ion concentration stimulates
the release of neurotransmitter (Acetylcholine) in
the synaptic cleft.
 The neurotransmitter binds to the receptor on the
sarcolemma and depolarization and generate
action potential across muscle fiber for muscle
contraction.
 The action potential propagates over entire
muscle fiber and move to the adjacent fibers
along transverse tubules.
 The action potential in transverse tubules
causes the release of calcium ion from
sarcoplasmic reticulum, which stimulate for
muscle contraction.
 Muscle Tissue Regeneration
 Muscle regeneration is a complex process that
relies on satellite cell activation, differentiation,
and formation of new myofibers under the control
of myogenic regulatory program and mitogenic
factors released by inflammatory cells.
 Muscle regeneration occurs early in the healing
process.
 Most of the factors involved in muscle
development are activated during muscle
regeneration.
 Muscle regeneration occurs in five interrelated
and time-dependent phases, namely,
degeneration (necrosis), inflammation,
regeneration, remodeling, and
maturation/functional repair.
Steps in Muscle Regeneration
 The necrosis of muscle fibers activates a
transient muscle inflammation, which is
necessary for the removal of necrotic cellular
debris.
 Inflammation is followed by a regeneration phase
that is characterized by the activation of stem cell
populations (satellite cells and other nonmuscle
stem cells), which replace damaged myofibers.
 The fourth phase involves the remodeling of
extracellular matrix and angiogenesis.
 The muscle regeneration is completed by the
reinnervation of regenerating fibers.
MUSCLE 6
NERVOUS TISSUE
Definition of a Nervous Tissue
Nervous or Nerve tissue
• main tissue of our nervous system.
• monitors and regulates the functions of the body
• consists of two cells: nerve cells or neurons and
glial cells, which helps transmit nerve impulses
and also provides nutrients to neurons.
• Brain, Spinal Cord, and nerves are composed of
nervous tissue
• they are specialized for being stimulated to
transmit stimulus from one to another part of the
body rapidly.
What is a Neuron
• neuron or nerve cell is an electrically excitable cell
that communicates with other cells via
specialized connections called synapses
• main component of nervous tissue in all animals
except sponges and placozoa
Composition of a Neuron
Neuron Structure
A neuron varies in shape and size depending
upon their function and location. All neurons have
three different parts – dendrites, cell body and
axon.
Parts of Neuron
Following are the different parts of a neuron:
➢ Dendrites
These are branch-like structures that receive
messages from other neurons and allow the
transmission of messages to the cell body.
➢ Cell Body
Each neuron has a cell body with a nucleus, Golgi
body, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and
other components.
➢ Axon
Axon is a tube-like structure that carries electrical
impulse from the cell body to the axon terminals
that passes the impulse to another neuron.
➢ Synapse
It is the chemical junction between the terminal of
one neuron and dendrites of another neuron.
Structure of a Neuron
Types of Neurons based on Functions
In terms of function, scientists classify neurons into three
broad types: sensory, motor, and interneurons.
1. Sensory Neurons
• Sensory neurons help to taste, smell, hear, see
and feel things around you.
• Sensory neurons are triggered by physical and
chemical inputs from your environment. Sound,
touch, heat, and light are physical inputs. Smell
and taste are chemical inputs.
• For example, stepping on hot sand activates
sensory neurons in the soles of your feet. Those
neurons send a message to your brain, which
makes you aware of the heat.
2. Motor neurons
• Motor neurons play a role in movement, including
voluntary and involuntary movements. These
neurons allow the brain and spinal cord to
communicate with muscles, organs, and glands
all over the body.
• There are two types of motor neurons: lower and
upper. Lower motor neurons carry signals from
the spinal cord to the smooth muscles and the
skeletal muscles. Upper motor neurons carry
signals between your brain and spinal cord.
• When you eat, for instance, lower motor neurons
in your spinal cord send signals to the smooth
muscles in your esophagus, stomach, and
intestines. These muscles contract, which allows
food to move through your digestive tract.
3. Interneurons
• Interneurons are neural intermediaries found in
your brain and spinal cord.
• They’re the most common type of neuron.
• They pass signals from sensory neurons and
other interneurons to motor neurons and other
interneurons.
• Often, they form complex circuits that help you to
react to external stimuli.
• For instance, when you touch something hot,
sensory neurons in your fingertips send a signal
to interneurons in your spinal cord. Some
interneurons pass the signal on to motor neurons
in your hand, which allows you to move your hand
away. Other interneurons send a signal to the
pain center in your brain, and you experience
pain.
Types of Neurons based on Number of Processes
Structural classification of neurons is based upon the
number of processes that extend out from the cell body.
Three major groups arise from this classification:
multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar neurons.
1. Unipolar
• only one process, called a neurite, extends from
the cell body, neurite then branches to form
dendritic and axonal processes.
• most neurons in the central nervous systems of
invertebrates, including insects, are unipolar
2. bipolar neuron, or bipolar cell
• type of neuron that has two extensions (one axon
and one dendrite).
• Many bipolar cells are specialized sensory
neurons for the transmission of sense. As such,
they are part of the sensory pathways for smell,
sight, taste, hearing, touch, balance and
proprioception.
3. Multipolar neuron
• type of neuron that possesses a single axon and
many dendrites (and dendritic branches)
• allows integration of a great deal of information
from other neurons. These processes are
projections from the neuron cell body.
 Types of Neurons based on Number of Processes • provide protection and support to neurons,
exchanging nutrients and other important
chemicals.

• These processes connect with neurons, other

types of tissue such as blood vessels in the brain
or spine, or importantly, the blood brain barrier.
The blood brain barrier is a protective membrane
surrounding the spine and brain.

• The blood brain barrier allows small molecules

such as respiratory gases to pass through, while
blocking anything larger.

4. Oligodendrocytes

• wrap around the axons of CNS neurons to

provide electrical insulation called myelin
sheaths
Types of Neuroglia
• allows the signal to move quickly enough for
Neuroglia are categorized into six subtypes. Four of them proper functioning
are present in the CNS:
• in many neurodegenerative diseases, the myelin
• Astrocyte sheaths are damaged.
• Oligodendrocyte
• Microglia 5. Ependymal cells
• Ependymal cell
• line the empty cavities called ventricles in the
brain and have access to nearby blood vessels
Two of them are present in the PNS:
• filter some of the materials out of the vessels to
• Satellite cell
manufacture CSF and then use their cilia to
• Schwann cell
circulate it through the empty ventricles and into
the rest of the CNS.
1. Satellite cells
6. Microglia
• provide nutrients and protection to neurons in the
• like macrophages in the blood, they surround
PNS.
and digest damaged or invading cells
• wraps itself around the neuron’s cell body
• they are considered the immune cells of the CNS.
• cell body is a rounded section that contains the
nucleus and other key organelles common to
most somatic cells.

2. Schwann cells

• wrap themselves around the axons of neurons in

the PNS.

• forms a protective layer called the myelin sheath

– this operates like the insulated coating on
electrical wiring, without it, the electrical signal
can be disrupted, slowed or stopped altogether.

3. Astrocytes

• Astro is the Greek root word for “star.”, have many

cell extensions called processes, used for
chemical exchanges, that branch out like the
points of stars.
Definition of Nerve Impulse
Nerve impulse
• A signal driven by either electrical, chemical or
mechanical stimulus onward the segment of an
axon filament.
• It generates a change in potential gradient of
voltage-gated channels across the membrane,
resulted from ionic movement in and out of the
axolemma.
• A change in potential difference or the change in
phase of resting potential to the action
potential leads to the conduction of the signal
from one neuron to other.
• The transmission of nerve impulse generally
speeds at 0.1-100 m/s.
• Temperature, a diameter of axon, presence or
absence of myelin insulating layer influences the
rate of impulse transmission.
• All three factors accelerate the pace of signal
transmission.
Mechanism of Nerve Impulse Transmission
1. Continuous conduction
• Continuous nerve impulse conduction
occurs in non-myelinated axons
• The action potential travels along the entire
length of the axon
• Hence, more time is taken in generating and
then transmitting nerve impulses during an
action potential.
• Continuous conduction requires more
energy to transmit impulses and is a slower
process (approximately 0.1 m/s).
• It delays the process of conducting signals
because it uses a higher number of ion
channels to alter the resting state of the
neuron.
2. Saltatory Conduction
• Saltatory is faster than continuous
conduction and occurs in myelinated
neurons.
• Nerve impulse propagates by jumping from
one node of Ranvier to the next.
• This makes the process of nerve impulse
faster as the nerve impulse does not travel
the entire length of the axon ( this happens
in case of continuous conduction).
• The nerve impulse travels at a speed of 100
m/s in saltatory conduction.
What is a Neurotransmitter?
• a chemical substance that is released at the
end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve
impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or
junction, causes the transfer of the impulse to
another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other
structure.
• Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers in
the body. Their job is to transmit signals from
nerve cells to target cells. These target cells may
be in muscles, glands, or other nerves.
• Neurotransmitters relay their messages by
traveling between cells and attaching to specific
receptors on target cells.
• Each neurotransmitter attaches to a different
receptor — for example, dopamine molecules
attach to dopamine receptors. When they attach,
this triggers action in the target cells.
• After neurotransmitters deliver their messages,
the body breaks down or recycles them.
Neurotransmitters have different types of action:
• Excitatory neurotransmitters encourage a
target cell to take action.
• Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the
chances of the target cell taking action. In some
cases, these neurotransmitters have a relaxation-
like effect.
• Modulatory neurotransmitters can send
messages to many neurons at the same time.
They also communicate with other
neurotransmitters.
Other examples of neurotransmitters:
Acetylcholine
triggers muscle contractions, stimulates some
hormones, and controls the heartbeat. It also
plays an important role in brain function and
memory. It is an excitatory neurotransmitter
Dopamine
important for memory, learning, behavior, and
MODULE 7
movement coordination. Many people know
CARTILAGE
dopamine as a pleasure or reward
neurotransmitter. The brain releases dopamine
during pleasurable activities.
Definition of Cartilage
Endorphins
Cartilage
inhibit pain signals and create an energized,
euphoric feeling. They are also the body’s natural • semi-rigid but flexible avascular connective
pain relievers. tissue

Epinephrine • composed primarily of water, extremely tough

Also known as adrenaline, epinephrine is
involved in the body’s “fight or flight” response. It
is both a hormone and a neurotransmitter.
but flexible
• found throughout the human body in areas such
as the joints, nose, airway, intervertebral discs of
the spine, and the ear.

Composition of Cartilage

• consists of chondrocyte cells which produce an

extracellular matrix consisting of collagen fibers,
proteoglycan, and elastin fibers.

• different types of cartilage contain these

components in different proportions

• cartilage, unlike bones, does not contain blood

vessels.

Types of Cartilages
1. Hyaline Cartilage

• predominately collagen (yet with few collagen

fibers), and its name refers to its glassy
appearance

• found on many joint surfaces

2. Fibrocartilage

• lots of collagen fibers (Type I and Type II)

• only type of cartilage that contains type I

collagen in addition to the normal type II

• found in the knees and between the vertebrae,

pubic symphysis, the annulus fibrosus of
intervertebral discs, menisci, and the temporal
mandibular joint.

3. Elastic or yellow cartilage

• contains elastic fiber networks and collagen

fibers

• principal protein is elastin

• found in the ear, larynx and epiglottis.

 1. Long Bone

• presence of diaphysis and epiphyses

• diaphysis central part of the bone, much

longer than wide, made up of compact bone
tissue, its medullary cavity and other areas of
spongy bone tissue contain bone marrow.

• epiphyses are the ends of the long bones

• examples of long bones: humerus, tibia

and fibula

• make up most of the skeletal system of the

limbs, including the fingers

2. Short bones
Fibrocartilage
• shape of short bones is approximately cubic -that
is, none of their faces are much larger than the
others

• formed by spongy tissue covered by a thin layer

of compact bone

• two common examples of short bones in the

human body are the tarsus and carpus, the
main bones of the ankle and wrist, respectively.

3. Flat bones

• thin and generally curved

• made up of two parallel layers of compact bone

and an internal layer of spongy bone tissue
Elastic Cartilage
• examples : skull (frontal, occipital and
parietal, among others),ribs, sternum, scapula,
and coccyx

4. Sesamoid bones

• small, round bone that, as the name suggests, is

shaped like a sesame seed.

• joined to a tendon and has the function of

separating it from the joint, so it allows the
movement of the muscle.

• found in the foot and the hand

• patella or kneecap is another excellent example

of this type of bone.
Types of Bone Tissue According to Shape
5. Irregular Bones
Bones are divided into five types according to their
• do not fall into any other category, due to their
shape:
non-uniform shape
• long bones, short bones, flat bones,
• primarily consist of cancellous bone, with a thin
sesamoids and irregular bones (a category that
outer layer of compact bone.
includes any bone that does not fit with the criteria
that define the above). • good examples of these are the vertebrae,
sacrum, and mandible (lower jaw)
 • Lacunae: the spaces between lamellae which is
where bone cells, or osteocytes, reside

• Lamellae: created from mineral salts forming a

matrix of concentric rings that make bone hard

• Haversian canals: contain nerves and blood

vessels in a central tube surrounded by
alternating layers of lamellae, lacunae, and
canaliculi

Spongy Bone

• trabecular, cancellous, or spongy bone

• made up of an open structure that looks much like

a lattice

• spongy bone can be found at the end of a bone

and in joints.

Structure of Spongy Bone

• unlike compact bone, spongy bone is not made

up of osteons

• structure looks like a sponge, made of thin

columns called trabeculae that contain
canaliculi, lacunae, osteocytes, and lamellae

• red bone marrow fills the spaces between the

trabeculae which transports blood that nourishes
the bones.

• spongy bone is softer, lighter, and weaker than

Forms of the Bone Tissue compact bone but it contains more blood vessels
Compact bone Compact Bone
• also called cortical or lamellar bone (meaning
plate),

• made up of tightly packed plates wound into

tubular shapes called osteons

• each osteon contains a capillary that provides

blood flow through the central channel

• their stacked form creates a protective shell-like

membrane.

Types of Bones

• Osteon, also known as the Haversian System

• is the basis of what bones are made of

• each Haversian System is made up of a four-part

cylindrical structure:

• Canaliculi: the tiny channels that provide

nutrients to osteocytes and remove waste
material
Forms of Bones

Compact Bone

Spongy Bone
 MODULE 8
BLOOD
Definition of Blood

Blood

 fluid that transports oxygen and nutrients to the

cells and carries away carbon dioxide and other
waste products

 technically, blood is a transport liquid pumped by

the heart (or an equivalent structure) to all parts
of the body, after which it is returned to the heart
to repeat the process

 it is a tissue because it is a collection of similar

specialized cells that serve particular functions

 these cells are suspended in a liquid matrix

(plasma), which makes the blood a fluid

 if blood flow ceases, death will occur within

minutes because of the effects of an
unfavourable environment on highly susceptible
cells.
Bone Formation

Ossification (or osteogenesis)

• process of laying down new bone material by

cells named osteoblasts

• synonymous with bone tissue formation

Two processes resulting in the formation of normal,

healthy bone tissue:

• a. intramembranous ossification - direct

laying down of bone into the primitive connective
tissue (mesenchyme),

• b. endochondral ossification - involves

cartilage as a precursor.
Definition of Hematopoiesis

Hematopoiesis

 production of all types of blood cells including

formation, development, and differentiation of
blood cells

 prenatally, hematopoiesis occurs in the yolk sack,

then in the liver, and lastly in the bone marrow

 In the normal situation, hematopoiesis in adults

occurs in the bone marrow and lymphatic tissues

 All types of blood cells are derived from primitive

cells (stem cells) that are pluripotent (they have
the potential to develop into all types of blood
cells).
 MTHH22 – 18 HUMAN HISTOLOGY I LECTURE
MODULE 9: SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES
2ND SEMESTER I S.Y 2021 – 2022
LECTURER: DR. AVELINDA CABRIDO
TRANSCRIBED BY: MAY FORTES
The skin is the largest organ of the body, with a total area
of about 20 square feet. The skin protects us from
microbes and the elements, helps regulate body
temperature, and permits the sensations of touch, heat,
and cold.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
SOURCE: Esteban & Gonzales 5th Edition
➢ The surface area of the skin in adults exceeds 1.5
m2. Its thickness ranges from 0.5 to 5.0 mm
depending on its location.
➢ It is the thinnest in eyelids and thickest over in
the soles of feet.
PROPERTIES OF THE SKIN
1. Semipermeable membrane
2. In the finger tips, the skin exhibits shallow
grooves and ridges (Finger prints), whose
patterns are unique for each person and use
for individual identification.
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
- Nail, hair and cutaneous glands (sweat and
sebaceous glands)
➢ The skin and its appendages are collectively
referred to us INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM.
LAYERS OF THE SKIN
➢ Epidermis – an epithelial coat derived from
ectoderm
➢ Dermis – made up of connective tissue
derived from mesoderm.
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN
➢ SENSATION
It has a variety of nerve endings which respond to
temperature, pressure and pain.
➢ PROTECTION
It is a layer that protects the body from external
pathogens.
➢ STORAGE
Water and lipids are stored in the skin
➢ THERMOREGULATION
Heat can be loss from dilation of blood vessels in the
skin and secretion of sweat from sweat glands. Heat
is preserved by constriction of blood vessels to keep
the warm blood away from the skin.
➢ METABOLIC
Cells of skin synthesize vitamin D3, needed in
calcium metabolism and proper bone formation,
through the local action of UV light on the vitamin’s
STRUCTURE OF SKIN
EPIDERMIS
Outermost layer of skin, it is the protective barrier. It is
stratified squamous epithelium consisting of basal and
suprabasal keratinocytes. There are no blood vessels in
the epidermis, so it’s cells are receiving nutrients via
Diffusion from the capillaries in dermis.
BASAL MEMBRANE
Layer between Epidermis and Dermis. The basement
membrane allows the transport of cells and molecules
between these two layers.
DERMIS
This layer consists of connective tissue that cushions
our body from stress. There are many nerve endings
here providing sense of touch and heat. This layer also
contains hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands,
apocrine glands, lymph and blood vessels.
SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER (HYPODERMIS)
This layer is not part of the skin but it is located under the
dermis. It attaches the skin to underlying bone and
muscle. It consist of elastin and loose connective tissue.
The cells in this layer are Fibrocytes, Macrophages and
Adipocytes. 50% of body fat is stored in this layer.
 TYPES OF SKIN
The designations “thick” and “thin” refer to the thickness
of the epidermal layer, which alone varies from 75 to 150
µm for thin skin and from 400 to 1400 µm (1.4 mm) for
thick skin.

THICK SKIN THIN SKIN

The dermal papillae are The dermal papillae are
longer than thin skin shorter

Contains sweat glands, Contains numerous sweat

hair follicles and glands but lack hair
sebaceous glands follicles and sebaceous
glands.

Has complete 5 layers Has only 3 Layers: basale,

spinosum, granulosum
and corneum

5 LAYERS OF EPIDERMIS
1. Stratum Basale
2. Stratum Spinosum
3. Stratum Granulosum
4. Stratum Lucidum
5. Stratum Corneum
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
(Source: Junquiera Book) ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Source: E & G 5th Ed.
These grooves and ridges and the intervening sulci form
distinctive patterns unique for each individual, appearing Cornified Layer – Stratum corneum and lucidum
as combinations of loops, arches, and whorls, called Stratum Malpighii – Stratum granulosum, spinosum,
dermatoglyphs, also known as fingerprints and footprints. basale

EPIDERMIS

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Source: Junquiera Book

The epidermis completely renewed every 20-30 days and
keratinocytes, the principal cells of the layers, are
responsible for the renewal process.

Keratinocytes comprise 85% - 95% of the cell population

of the epidermis. They are cells that are specialized to
produce keratin – an intermediate filament that is also
present but much lesser amount in other cells.

Source: Esteban & Gonzales 5th Ed.

There are also three much less abundant epidermal cell
types: pigment-producing melanocytes, antigen
presenting Langerhans cells, and tactile epithelial cells
called Merkel cells.
 ➢ Contains 3 to 5 flattened cell rows with increasing
concentration of keratin.
➢ Their cytoplasm is filled with intensely basophilic
masses called keratohyaline granules.
➢ Contains Lamellar granules (secretory
granules) that secretes wax that serves as
barrier to prevent water loss
➢ Can no longer divide and already a dead cells.

STRATUM LUCIDUM
(Clear Layer)
➢ Thin, clear layer of dead skin cells found in thick
skin such as palms and soles
➢ Appears translucent under microscope

STRATUM CORNEUM
(Horny Cell Layer)
The outermost epidermal layer, stratum corneum (horny
layer)

STRATUM BASALE ➢ Consist of dead cells

➢ Can be 20 to 30 cells thick
➢ Contain keratin
➢ Prevents water evaporation
➢ Absorbs water

Stratum Basale (Basal cell layer / Stratum germinativum)

OTHER CELL TYPES IN
➢ One-cell thick
EPIDERMIS
➢ Single layer of tall cuboidal keratinocytes Source: E & G 5th Ed. & Junquiera
that rest on the basement membrane in which
cells undergo mitosis MELANOCYTES
➢ Forms the dermal epidermal junctions or
Basement Membrane Eumelanins are brown or black pigments produced by
➢ Contains stem cells that divide continuously and the melanocyte, a specialized cell of the epidermis found
produces keratinocytes among the cells of the basal layer and in hair follicles. The
➢ Contains melanocytes similar pigment found in red hair is called pheomelanin.

Melanocytes are neural crest derivatives that migrate into

STRATUM SPINOSUM
(Prickle Cell Layer)
➢ Normally the thickest layer in epidermis
➢ Consist of several row of keratinocytes that
appears spiky under a microscope
➢ Consist desmosomes for intercellular bridges
which gives its spiky appearance, hence, the
name spinosum
STRATUM GRANULOSUM
(Granular Layer)
the embryonic epidermis’ stratum basale, where
eventually one melanocyte accumulates for every five or
six basal keratinocytes (600-1200/mm2 of skin).
Their cytoplasm contains a fair share of organelles and
many electron-dense, membrane bound organelles called
melanosomes. Melanin is produced within the
melanosomes
The neighboring keratinocytes take in the
melanosomes, and transport them by dynein toward
their nuclei. The melanosomes accumulate within
keratinocytes as a supra nuclear cap that prior to
keratinization absorbs and scatters sunlight, protecting
DNA of the living cells from the ionizing, mutagenic effects
of UV radiation.
Although melanocytes produce melanosomes, the
keratinocytes are the melanin depot and contain more
of this pigment than the cells that make it.
One melanocyte plus the keratinocytes into which it
transfers melanosomes make up an epidermal-
melanin unit.
LANGERHANS CELLS
Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) called Langerhans
cells, derived from monocytes, represent 2%-8% of the
cells in epidermis and are usually most clearly seen in the
spinous layer (stratum spinosum).
Microorganisms cannot penetrate the epidermis without
alerting these dendritic cells and triggering an immune
response. Langerhans cells, along with more scattered
epidermal lymphocytes and other APCs in the dermis,
comprise a major component of the skin’s adaptive
immunity.
Langerhans cells are derived from the bone marrow.
They colonize the skin as early as the 5th – 6th week of
embryonic life.
MERKEL CELLS
or epithelial tactile cells
A Merkel cell together with an axon termination of a
sensory neuron forms a Merkel disc - are sensitive
mechanical receptors essential for light touch sensation.
Least number among cells in epidermis but numerous in
palms and soles.
Appear as “clear cells” like Langerhans and melanocytes.
They are abundant in highly sensitive skin like that of
fingertips and at the bases of some hair follicles.
Merkel cells originate from the same stem cells as
keratinocytes and are characterized by small, Golgi-
derived dense-core neurosecretory granules containing
peptides.
DERMIS
Source: E & G 5th Ed. & Junquiera
The dermis is the layer of connective tissue that supports
the epidermis and binds it to the subcutaneous tissue
(hypodermis). The thickness of the dermis varies with the
region of the body and reaches its maximum of 4 mm on
the back. Its thickness ranges from 0.6 mm in eyelids
and 4.0 mm on the back
The surface of the dermis is very irregular and has many
projections (dermal papillae) that interdigitate with
projections (epidermal pegs or ridges) of the epidermis,
especially in skin subject to frequent pressure, where they
reinforce the dermal-epidermal junction.
It is composed of connective tissue that forms two
histologic layers: Papillary and Reticular
PAPILLARY LAYER
The thin papillary layer, which includes the dermal
papillae, consists of loose connective tissue, with
types I and III collagen fibers, fibroblasts and scattered
mast cells, dendritic cells, and leukocytes.
The bulk of connective tissue that comprises the papillary
layer form conical projections into the epidermis called
dermal papillae. Numerous in areas subjected to great
pressure (palms and soles).
RETICULAR LAYER
The underlying reticular layer is much thicker, consists
of dense irregular connective tissue (mainly bundles of
type I collagen), with more fibers and fewer cells than the
papillary layer.
It is responsible for the toughness and strength of the skin.
A network of elastic fibers is also present providing
elasticity to the skin. Between the collagen and elastic
fibers are abundant proteoglycans rich in dermatan
sulfate.
Sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and hair follicles
are embedded in the reticular layer. Smooth muscle
cells are also present in this layer.
 HYPODERMIS
Hypodermis refers to the loose connective tissue that
binds the dermis of the skin to the underlying structures,
that allows the skin to slide over the underlying structures.

NERVE ENDINGS OF THE SKIN

One of the main functions of the skin is to receive and
transmit sensory stimuli to the CNS. Hence, the skin has
a variety of sensory nerve endings.

The unencapsulated receptors include the following:

➢ The Merkel cells, each associated with expanded

nerve Endings, which function as tonic receptors for
sustained light touch and for sensing an object’s
texture.
➢ Free nerve endings in the papillary dermis and
extending into lower epidermal layers, which
respond primarily to high and low temperatures,
pain, and itching, but also function as tactile
receptors.
➢ Root hair plexuses, a web of sensory fibers
surrounding the bases of hair follicles in the reticular
dermis that detects movements of the hairs. The base of the hair bulb has a deep concavity that is
occupied by a hair papilla, which consist of connective
The encapsulated receptors are all phasic
tissue where capillaries that supply nutrients and oxygen
mechanoreceptors, responding rapidly to stimuli on the
are embedded.
skin. Four are recognized in human skin, although only
the first two are seen in routine preparations: The keratinocytes of the hair bulb are generally similar to
those in the basal and spinous layers of epidermis. They
➢ Meissner corpuscles are elliptical structures, 30-
divide rapidly in the region immediately around the dermal
75 μm by 50-150 μm, consisting of sensory axons
papilla and then undergo keratinization, melanin
winding among flattened Schwann cells arranged
accumulation, and terminal differentiation.
perpendicular to the epidermis in the dermal
papillae. The keratin of hair is harder and more compact than that
of the stratum corneum, maintaining its structure as the
hair shaft much longer.

APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
They have specific functions and are mostly confines to
the dermis. Consist of hair, nail and cutaneous glands,
namely the sebaceous and sweat glands
HAIR
Hairs are elongated keratinized structures that form within
epidermal invaginations, the hair follicles. A hair root and
its sheath comprise of hair follicle.
The growing hair follicle has a terminal dilation called a
hair bulb.
These cells form the matrix of the elongating hair root. The
part of a hair extending beyond the skin surface is the hair
shaft.
In most thick hairs, large, vacuolated, and moderately
keratinized cells form the central medulla of the hair root.
Heavily keratinized, densely packed cells make up the
cortex around the medulla. The most peripheral cells of
the hair root comprise the cuticle, a thin layer of heavily
keratinized, squamous cells covering the cortex.
The internal root sheath completely surrounds the initial
part of the hair root but degenerates above the level of the
attached sebaceous glands. The external root sheath
covers the internal sheath and extends all the way to the
epidermis, where it is continuous with the basal and
spinous layers.
The arrector pili muscle, a small bundle of smooth
muscle cells, extends from the midpoint of the fibrous
sheath to the dermal papillary layer. Contraction of these
muscles pulls the hair shafts to a more erect position,
usually when it is cold in an effort to trap a layer of warm
air near the skin. In regions where hair is fine, contraction
of arrector pili muscles is seen to produce tiny bumps on
the skin surface (“goose bumps”) where each
contracting muscle distorts the attached dermis.
Hair does not grow continuously. The hair growth cycle
has three major phases:
➢ A generally long period of mitotic activity and
growth or active growth period (anagen)
➢ A brief period of arrested growth and regression of
the hair bulb (catagen)
➢ A final long period of inactivity or rest period
(telogen) during which the hair may be shed
NAILS
A similar process of keratinization also produces the
nails, which are hard plates of keratin on the dorsal
surface of each distal phalanx.
The proximal part of the nail is the nail root and is
covered by a fold of skin, from which the epidermal
stratum corneum extends as the cuticle, or eponychium.
The nail plate is bound to a bed of epidermis, the nail
bed, which contains only the basal and spinous epidermal
layers.
The nail root forms from the nail matrix in which cells
divide, move distally, and become keratinized in a
process somewhat similar to hair formation but without
keratohyaline granules. The nail root matures and
hardens as the nail plate
The distal end of the plate becomes free of the nail bed at
the epidermal fold called the hyponychium.
SEBACEOUS GLANDS
Sebaceous glands are branched acinar glands with
several acini converging at a short duct that usually
empties into the upper portion of a hair follicle.
Generally absent in hairless skin such as palms and
soles.
A hair follicle and its associated sebaceous glands make
up a pilosebaceous unit.
They are holocrine glands and it means that their
secretory products consist not only of the secretion of MODULE 9: SKIN AND ITS
cells but also the cells that produce this secretion.
APPENDAGES
The secretory product of sebaceous gland is called SOURCE: Dr. Cabrido’s PPT
sebum.

SWEAT GLANDS Integumentary System

The integumentary system is composed of the
There are two types of sweat glands, eccrine and
apocrine, with distinct functions, distributions, and following parts:
structural details. • Skin
• Skin appendages
Eccrine Sweat Glands • Hairs
• Nails
Are widely distributed in the skin all over the body but • Sweat glands
most numerous on the palms and soles.
• Sebaceous glands
The sweat gland is simple coiled tubular gland. Its duct • Subcutaneous tissue and deep fascia
is lined by stratified cuboidal epithelium. • Mucocutaneous junctions
• Breasts
Sweat glands are merocrine glands whose primary
function is to help regulate body temperature. They do this
by producing a clear fluid called sweat that evaporates
and cools the skin surface. HUMAN SKIN
Active from childhood. o outer covering of the body
o largest organ of the integumentary system.
o has up to seven layers of ectodermal tissue
Apocrine Sweat Glands o guards the underlying muscles, bones, ligaments
and internal organs.
Found only in the axilla, around the anus, areola of the
o similar to most of the other mammals skin, very
breast and labia majora.
similar to pig skin.
Also, a coiled tubular gland but much larger (secretory
portion = 3-5 mm diameter) than the eccrine (0.4 mm
diameter). Layers of the Skin
Only become functional at puberty. Two Main Layers:
It is called apocrine because it was once thought that the ➢ Epidermis - made of closely packed epithelial
secretory cells loose their apical cytoplasm into their cells
secretions. Also, a merocrine gland. ➢ Dermis - made of dense, irregular connective
tissue that houses blood vessels, hair follicles,
sweat glands, and other structures.

Beneath the dermis lies the hypodermis, composed

mainly of loose connective and fatty tissues.
 EPIDERMIS
➢ outermost layer; waterproof barrier that gives skin
its tone, consists of 25–30 layers of dead cells
which are shed continuously
➢ 500 million skin cells shed each day
➢ new cells made in the lower layers of the
epidermis replace the dead cells as they are
shed, over the course of around 4 weeks
➢ Keratinocytes - most common cell type within
the epidermis; act as a barrier against bacteria,
parasites, fungi, viruses, heat, ultraviolet (UV)
rays from the sun, and water loss.
➢ no blood vessels.
➢ color produced by melanin produced by
melanocytes,
➢ protect the skin from UV rays
➢ between the epidermis and the dermis is a thin
sheet of fibers called the basement membrane.

The epidermis is subdivided into five layers:

• stratum corneum
• stratum lucidum
• stratum granulosum
• stratum spinosum
• stratum germinativum

Five Layers of the Epidermis

Functions of the Skin

• Protection: against pathogens. Langerhans
cells in the skin are part of the immune system.

• Storage: stores lipids (fats) and water.

• Sensation: nerve endings detect temperature,

pressure, vibration, touch, and injury.

• Control water loss: the skin prevents water

from escaping by evaporation.

• Water resistance: it prevents nutrients from

being washed from the skin

• Thermoregulation: by producing sweat and

dilating blood vessels, the skin helps keep the
body cool. “Goosebumps” and blood vessel
constriction, help us retain heat.
 SKIN DISEASE
1. Acne
- “Breakout” used to describe all types of acne.

- Attributed to clogged pores caused by: excess

production of oil (sebum), bacteria, hormones,
dead skin cells, and ingrown hair

- usually associated with hormonal fluctuations

experienced during teenage,

- adults can experience acne too

DERMIS

2. Melanoma
- abnormal moles may lead to melanoma, a
serious and life-threatening skin cancer.
- If moles have asymmetrical shapes, ragged
edges, uneven colors, or change in size, they
should be checked.
- Patients with melanoma may have surgery, or
undergo chemotherapy or radiation treatments.
3. Lupus
- Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE),
- also known simply as lupus,
- autoimmune disease in which the body's
immune system mistakenly attacks healthy
tissue in many parts of the body.
- symptoms vary between people and may be
mild to severe.
 MTHH22 – 18 HUMAN HISTOLOGY I LECTURE

MODULE 10: CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

2ND SEMESTER I S.Y 2021 – 2022
LECTURER: DR. AVELINDA CABRIDO
TRANSCRIBED BY: MAY FORTES

Left atrium
SOURCE: Junqueira Book and Reviewer from
TG Left atrioventricular valve (bicuspid valve; Mitral
valve)
Transports the oxygenated blood from the heart and lungs
all throughout the body thru the arteries, and then the Left Ventricle
oxygen depleted blood is returned to its origin thru the
FLOW OF BLOOD THROUGH THE HEART
help of the veins.

Helps in the coagulation process, regulates the body

temperature and assists the body in fighting diseases.

Two main components: the Cardiovascular system and

the Lymphatic system

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
HEART
➢ LOCATION: Central mediastinum of the thoracic
cavity
➢ FUNCTION: Pump that propels blood to the arteries
of both systemic and pulmonary circulations.

4 Chambers of the Heart

The atria occupy the superior part of the heart.
The ventricles occupy the inferior part.

Left Ventricle – pump of the systemic circulation

Right Ventricle – pump of pulmonary circulation

The chambers on the right side of the heart are separated

from those on the left by the interatrial septum
(superiorly, separates right and left atria), and by
interventricular septum (inferiorly, separates right
and left ventricle).

The chambers on the same side of the heart

communicate with each other through orifices that are
guarded by one-way valves.

Right atrium

Right atrioventricular valve (tricuspid valve)

Right Ventricle
PERICARDIUM MYOCARDIUM
The connective tissue that envelopes the heart. ➢ Lies external to the endocardium.
Consist of two pouches that are intimately bound to ➢ Thickest layer of the heart, but thickness varies
each other: in different parts of the organ. It is thickest in
ventricle and thinnest in atria.
1. Fibrous Pericardium ➢ Consist manly of cardiac muscle fibers (cells)
- More external
- Lines the central mediastinum
- Made up of dense connective tissue
EPICARDIUM
2. Serous Pericardium
➢ Synonymous with the visceral pericardium, forms
Has 2 layers: the outermost layer of the heart.
➢ Consist of loose connective tissue that is lined on
Parietal Pericardium – more external of the its external surface by mesothelium.
layers of the serous pericardium adheres to the
fibrous pericardium.

Visceral Pericardium (Epicardium) – more

internal layers adhere to the heart

➢ Pericardial Cavity – space between parietal and

visceral pericardia that contains a small amount of
fluid, pericardial fluid.

HISTOLOGIC LAYERS OF THE

HEART
ENDOCARDIUM
Thinnest layer of the heart. It lines all the internal surface
of the heart and is continuous with the innermost layer of
the greatest vessels that enter and exit the heart.

4 Histologic Layers

➢ Endothelium – simple squamous epithelium that

adjoins the cardiac lumen.
➢ Subendothelium – a very thin loose connective
tissue that is deeper in the endothelium
➢ Subendocardium – misnomer because the layer is
part of the endocardium.
- Contains may blood vessels and nerves
- Also, contains Purkinje fibers, impulse-
conducting system of the heart
- ENDOCARDIUM
 MODULE 10: Difference between Arteries and Veins
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
SOURCE: Dr. Cabrido’s PPT

Features of Circulatory System

➢ consists of blood, heart, blood vessels, and
lymph.
➢ circulates blood through two loops (double
circulation) – one for oxygenated blood, another
for deoxygenated blood.
➢ consists of four chambers – two ventricles and
two auricles.
➢ possesses a body-wide network of blood vessels:
arteries, veins, and capillaries.
➢ blood vessels transport oxygenated blood and
nutrients to all parts of the body, collect metabolic
wastes to be expelled from the body.
➢ theoretically, if the veins, arteries, and capillaries
of a human were laid out, end to end, it would
span a total distance of 1,000,000 kilometers (or
roughly eight times the diameter of the Earth).

Comparison between Arteries and Veins

COMPONENTS OF CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
Heart
o muscular organ pumping of blood in the body
o four chambers: right atrium, right ventricle, left
atrium and left ventricles
o atriums collect the blood in the heart
o ventricles pump it to different organs.

Blood Vessels
1. Arteries
- carry blood away from the heart
- arteries in the systemic loop carry oxygenated
blood to different parts of the body Artery Vein Capillary
- arteries in the pulmonary loop carry Function Carry blood Carry blood Allows
deoxygenated blood to the lungs. away from the towards the diffusion of
2. Veins – carry deoxygenated blood from the body heart (usually heart (usually gases and
and oxygenated blood from the lungs into the oxygenated deoxygenated nutrients from
heart. blood, except blood, except blood into the
3. Capillaries for the for the body cells
- break down into a minuscule network of pulmonary pulmonary
artery vein
capillaries, smallest blood vessels and present in
Wall Thick, Thinner Very thin, one
the lungs and muscles,
muscular cell thick
- connect the two types of blood vessel and
molecules are exchanged between the blood and
the cells across their walls.
Lumen Small Large Very small,
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
only allows
blood to pass Pulmonary circulation moves blood between the heart
through one
and the lungs. It transports deoxygenated blood to
cell at a time
the lungs to absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide.
The oxygenated blood then flows back to the heart.
Systemic circulation moves blood between the heart and
Other Thick Contain valves Walls are
muscular walls to prevent made of semi- the rest of the body.
Features
to withstand back flow of permeable What is included in the pulmonary circuit?
blood flowing blood membrane to
at high allow transport ➢ The pulmonary circulation includes
pressure as it of gases and the pulmonary trunk (also called the “right
leaves the nutrients into ventricular outflow tract”), the right and left
heart; the and out of the main pulmonary arteries and their lobar
largest artery blood
branches, intrapulmonary arteries, large elastic
is the aorta
arteries, small muscular arteries, arterioles,
capillaries, venules, and large pulmonary veins.
Arteries Veins
Always carry blood away Always carry blood to the
from the heart heart
Difference between Systematic
Carry oxygenated blood,
except for the pulmonary
Always carry
deoxygenated blood,
Circuit and Pulmonary Circuit
artery except for the pulmonary
vein
Pulmonary Circuit Systemic Circuit
blood flows from the heart blood flows from the heart
Carry blood under high Carry blood under low or to lungs and back to body tissues and back
pressure negative pressure Pulmonary Circuit is shorter than Systemic Circuit, the
lungs and pulmonary trunk are about 6 inches apart.
Have thick muscular and Have thin walls - have carry deoxygenated carry oxygenated blood.
elastic walls to pump and less muscular tissue than blood,
accommodate blood arteries right side of the heart left side of the heart
receives blood from body receives blood from
A type of supporting Have less connective tissues and circulates it pulmonary veins and
tissue called connective tissue than arteries through lungs pumps to the aorta, which
tissue provides strength spreads the oxygenated
blood thought out the
The channel in the blood Have a wide lumen body.
vessel that carries blood - found mainly in the found in all over the body.
the lumen - is narrow abdominal cavity,
associated with lungs

SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the
left ventricle, through the arteries, to the capillaries in the
tissues of the body. From the tissue capillaries, the
deoxygenated blood returns through a system of veins to
the right atrium of the heart.

What are the components of the systemic circuit?

➢ In the systemic circulation, blood travels out of

the left ventricle, to the aorta, to every organ and
tissue in the body, and then back to the right
atrium. The arteries, capillaries, and veins of
the systemic circulatory system are the
channels through which this long journey takes
place.
 Presence of Valves in Veins
Components of Blood
Components of Blood
Blood
The main function of blood is to transport nutrients and
oxygen to the cells of the body.
Blood is made up of four components:
1. red blood cells – these transport oxygen around the
body
2. white blood cells - these fight infection
3. platelets - these clot to prevent blood loss during
injury
4. plasma - this is the liquid part of blood
- triggered by electrical impulses that travel down
a special pathway through your heart.
HEART BEAT
1. SA node (sinoatrial node)
- heart’s natural pace maker
- small bundle of specialized cells in the right atrium
- initiates electrical activity that travels through the
walls of atria and causes them to contract; forces blood
into the ventricles
- sets the rate and rhythm of the heartbeat
- normal heart rhythm called normal sinus rhythm,
the SA (sinus) node fires regularly
2. AV node (atrioventricular node)
- cluster of cells in the center of the heart between
the atria and ventricles
- acts like a gate that slow the electrical signal
before it enters the ventricles.
- this delay gives the atria time to contract before
the ventricles do.
 3. His-Purkinje Network
DISEASES OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR
- this pathway of fibers sends the impulse to the SYSTEM
muscular walls of the ventricles and causes them to 1. Hypertension
contract 2. Atherosclerosis
- forces blood out of the heart to the lungs and 3. Stroke and Heart Attack
body.

The SA node fires another impulse and the cycle

begins again.
- At rest, a normal heart beats around 50 to 99 times a
minute.
- Exercise, emotions, fever and some medications can
cause your heart to beat faster, sometimes to well over
100 beats per minute.
Hypertension
➢ also called high blood pressure
➢ condition that arises when the blood pressure is
abnormally high
➢ hypertension occurs when the body’s smaller
blood vessels (the arterioles) narrow, causing
the blood to exert excessive pressure against the
vessel walls and forcing the heart to work harder
to maintain the pressure.

Causes of Hypertension
Exact causes of high blood pressure are not known,
but several factors increase risk:

• High salt intake or salt sensitivity

• Smoking
• Overweight or obesity
• Lack of physical activity
• Too much of alcohol consumption
• Stress
• Age above 40
• Genetics

Atherosclerosis
BLOOD PRESSURE
➢ Narrowing of arteries due to plaque buildup on
➢ measure of the force that your heart uses to the artery walls.
pump blood around your body.
➢ measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) ➢ Plaque buildup happens gradually. Mild
and is given atherosclerosis may not have any symptoms.

as 2 figures: Symptoms of moderate to severe arteriosclerosis

depend on the arteries affected; moderate to severe
Systolic pressure – the pressure when your heart atherosclerosis symptoms include:
pushes blood out
Diastolic pressure – the pressure when your heart • Chest pain or angina
rests between beats • Pain in your leg, arm, and anywhere else that
has a blocked artery
For example, if your blood pressure is "140 over 90" or
• Shortness of breath
140/90mmHg, it means you have a systolic pressure of
• Fatigue
140mmHg and a diastolic pressure of 90mmHg.
• Confusion, which occurs if the blockage affects
As a general guide: circulation to your brain
• Muscle weakness in your legs from lack of blood
o ideal blood pressure is considered to be between circulation
90/60mmHg and 120/80mmHg
o high blood pressure is considered to be
140/90mmHg or higher
o low blood pressure is considered to be
90/60mmHg or lower
 Stroke
➢ a serious life-threatening medical condition that
happens when the blood supply to part of the
brain is cut off
➢ this deprives oxygen and nutrients supplied to
the brain, causing brain cells to die.
➢ a medical emergency and urgent treatment is
essential.

Stroke may be caused by the following:

• Ischemic stroke: The obstruction to blood flow

is usually due to a thrombus or an embolism
within the blood vessel
• Hemorrhagic stroke: Hemorrhagic stroke is a
type of stroke that follows bleeding in the brain
• Transient ischemic attack: TIA is caused by
same conditions that cause an ischemic stroke
like thrombosis, embolism, or other conditions
like arterial dissection, arteries or
hypercoagulable states. TIA does not leave
lasting symptoms because blockage is
temporary

Heart Attack
Death of heart muscle caused by a loss of blood supply

Symptoms:

• .Crushing chest pain

• Arms may feel heavy
• Shortness of breath
• Coughing
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Dizziness
• Face seeming grey in color
• Feeling clammy and sweaty

Causes:

➢ Heart attack occurs when one or more coronary

arteries get blocked.

➢ Over time, a coronary artery can narrow from the

build up of various substances, including
cholesterol (atherosclerosis).

➢ This condition is called coronary artery disease

➢ During a heart attack, one of these plaques can

rupture and spill cholesterol and other
substances into the bloodstream.

➢ A blood clot forms at the site of the rupture. If

large enough, the clot can completely block the
flow of blood through the coronary artery.
 MTHH22 – 18 HUMAN HISTOLOGY I LECTURE

MODULE 11: LYMPHOID SYSTEM

2ND SEMESTER I S.Y 2021 – 2022
LECTURER: DR. AVELINDA CABRIDO
TRANSCRIBED BY: PRETTY MAY FORTES

The lymphatic system, or lymphoid system, is an organ

system in vertebrates that is part of the circulatory
system and the immune system. It is made up of a large LYMPHOID SYSTEM COMPONENTS
network of lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,
lymphatic or lymphoid organs, and lymphoid tissues. The
vessels carry a clear fluid called lymph (the Latin LYMPHOID ORGANS
word lympha refers to the deity of fresh water,
"Lympha") towards the heart. The function of the
lymphatic system is to carry lymph throughout the body PRIMARY LYMPHOID ORGANS
that contains infection-fighting white blood cells. (sites where immune cells are generated
developed)
DEFINITION OF TERMS:

➢ Lymphatic System – the body’s own version of a BONE MARROW

sewer system for removing unwanted toxins, waste
and excess water from the body. Made up of millions
of little vessels that branched all around our body that
are much finer and carries a colorless fluid, lymph.
1. It contains lymphocytes which are used to fight
infection
2. It acts as one-way drainage system transporting
fluid from body tissues into the blood circulation
3. It gets rid of waste products produced by cells
• Primary site of hematopoiesis and lymphopoiesis
in adults.
• Hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow
generate and replenish all blood cell types.
• Maturation of all myeloid and lymphoid cells
begins in the bone marrow.

➢ Organ System – a biological system that consist of

group of organs that work together to perform one or
more function.

➢ Lymphatic Vessels - are thin-walled vessels

(tubes), structured like blood vessels, that
carry lymph. Lymph vessels are lined
by endothelial cells, and have a thin layer
of smooth muscle, and adventitia that binds the
lymph vessels to the surrounding tissue.

Lymph capillaries are slightly bigger than their

counterpart capillaries of the vascular system.
Lymph vessels that carry lymph to a lymph Red Marrow – site of the most active generation of
node are called afferent lymph vessels, and blood cells.
those that carry it from a lymph node are called
Yellow Marrow – marrow that has become infiltrated
efferent lymph vessels, from where the lymph
with fat.
may travel to another lymph node, may be returned
to a vein, or may travel to a larger lymph duct.

➢ Lymph - colorless fluid that circulates throughout the

lymphatic system.

NOTE:
Hematopoiesis begins from a hematopoietic stem cells
or the mesenchymal stem cells (MSC). And these cells
develop into 2 major lineages in the bone marrow:
Lymphoid lineage and Myeloid lineage.
THYMUS
• Located behind the sternum and superior to the
heart.
• Primary site of T cell maturation and selection
after bone marrow
• Plays a major role in preventing autoimmunity
(immune tolerance)
Autoimmunity – the immune response is against
its own healthy cells.
• Most functionally active in children – slowly
atrophies over lifespan
Atrophy – wasting away or reduction in size of a
part of the body, ultimately decreasing in
function.
SECONDARY LYMPHOID ORGANS
(sites where immune cells go to complete their
development to interact to other immune cells and
to generate the adaptive immune response)
SPLEEN
• Located below the diaphragm and under the ribs
on the left
• Very large lymphoid tissue
• Primary site where B cells complete maturation
after leaving the bone marrow
• Consists of ‘white pulp’ and ‘red pulp’
Red Pulp – serves as the infiltration unit to clear
the blood of damaged cells.
White Pulp – sites where all the lymphoid cells
reside and interact with the spleen
• Serves as a major filtration unit to clear blood of
damaged erythrocytes, bacteria, etc.
Note:
3 Major Constituents of Lymph
Interstitial Fluid (fluid between the tissues)
Fluid that leaves the vascular space and bathes the
tissues. Similar in composition to plasma but generally
lower in proteins.
White Blood Cells
Chyle
Made up of chylomicrons (lipoprotein complexes)
absorbed into the lymph from digested foods in the gut.
LYMPHOID VESSELS
• Blind-ended lymphatic capillaries intertwine with
vascular arterioles, capillaries and venules in the
tissue to collect interstitial fluid and immune cells.
• Valves in the lymphatic system that assures
unidirectional lymph flow (back to the main
circulation)
• Lymph filters through lymph nodes en route.
LYMPH NODES MUCOSA-ASSOCIATED LYMPHATIC
TISSUE

• Made up of aggregates of lymphoid tissue

(lymphoid follicles) at various location along the
mucosa (pharynx, gut, bronchi)
• Provides immune defense at sites of recurrent
exposure to pathogens, foreign proteins like food,
• Integrated into the lymphatic vasculature bacteria and bacterial products.
• Contain multiple lymphoid follicles that consist of
a B Cell Zone and T Cell Zone.
• small structures that work as filters for harmful
substances. They contain immune cells that can LYMPH
help fight infection by attacking and destroying
germs that are carried in through the lymph fluid

NOTE:

Allows the lymph to come into the lymph node to circulate

in the lymphoid follicles (aggregated lymphocytes). Sites
at which B and T cells interact where T cells help B cells
to undergo in immunoglobulin class-switching and to
develop adaptive immune responses.

TONSILS / ADENOIDS
• Located at the back of oropharynx (tonsils) and
nasopharynx (adenoids).
• Part of the Mucosa-Associate Lymphoid Tissue
(MALT) system
• Together form the Waldeyer’s ring
• Cellular structure similar to lymph nodes with
germinal centers (where B cells are dealing with
pathogens)
The walls of capillaries in our blood vessels have basically
small holes, and due to the pressure supplied by the
heart, some of the plasma and some proteins in the blood
does ooze out outside the capillaries, whereas RBCs
stayed inside since they are big enough to fit in the holes.
That colorless fluid is what we called the “LYMPH”, that
flows between the cells.
Wherever the capillaries are present, the plasma will ooze
out forming the Lymph. Since the capillaries are present TYPES OF BODY’S DEFENSE SYSTEMS
all over our body, then as well as the lymph.

We have lymph vessels that help out to drained the lymph

in the body tissue to prevent swelling. The big one are
called lymph vessels while the smaller ones are lymph
capillaries.

The blood capillaries connect blood vessels whereas

lymph capillaries are close end.

HOW DOES THE LYMPH ENTERS THE LYMPH

CAPILARRIES WHEN IT IS CLOSE ENDED?

The walls of lymph has an overlapping structure that is

when they are surrounded by fluids, the fluids starting
pressing the walls that causes the walls to open up to
enter the capillary. And that is how the lymph capillaries
clear all the lymph in the tissues.

WHERE WILL THE LYMPH VESSEL CARRY THE

LYMPH AFTER DRAINING OUT?
Aside from the valves, the smooth muscle tissue
Eventually, the lymph vessel connects to a vein that is
comprising the walls of the lymph capillaries help to
somewhere near in the heart with low pressure and then
ensure the backflow of the lymph.
it reenters the circulatory system.

INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE

LYMPH VESSELS 4 CHANGES IN LOCAL BLOOD VESSELS

FILTRATION – bulk flow of fluid and other particles out

of the arterial ends of true capillaries into the interstitium
due to blood hydrostatic pressure.

Only 85% of the fluid is reabsorbed directly into the

venous end of the capillary. The other 15% is reabsorbed
into the lymphatic capillaries.

Chronic failure to reabsorb this excess fluid causes 1. The heat and redness during inflammation is the
condition called edema. result of an increase in vascular diameter that
results in slower blood flow.

2. There is an increase in vascular permeability. The

endothelial cells that line the blood vessels are
usually packed tightly together, but during
inflammation, they have gaps between them. This
results in fluid from the blood exiting and
accumulating in local tissues that results in
edema and pain. The fluid contains plasma,
proteins and mannose binding lectin, which aid in
 fighting against pathogens.
3. Endothelial cells are activated during
inflammation. That is, endothelial cells express
cell-adhesion molecules that promote the binding
of circulating leukocytes.
4. There is clotting in the micro vessels at the site of
infection, which prevents pathogens from
spreading through the blood.
PURPOSE OF INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
2 Cytokines important to the Inflammatory
C5a
1. Allows the body to defend itself from invading
microorganisms. The increase in vascular diameter,
along with the activation of endothelial cells, allows
the leukocyte to attach in the endothelium and then
migrates in the tissues where they can attack
pathogens. This process of leukocyte leaving the
bloodstream and entering the tissue is called
EXTRAVASATION.
In addition, injury to blood vessels triggers 2
Enzyme Cascade:
2. Induces local blood clotting. It creates a physical
barrier preventing the infection from spreading in the
bloodstream.
3. Promotes the repair of injured tissue.
WHAT TRIGGERS THE
INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE?
Tissues are physically damaged or WBCs recognized a
pathogen.
Release of inflammatory mediators which cause the
inflammatory response.
➢ Macrophages and neutrophils secrete
prostaglandins, leukotrienes and platelet-
activating factor (PAF), which are lipid
mediators of inflammation.
➢ Then, the macrophages secret cytokines, a
substance released by the immune cells that
affect the other cells.
➢ One kind of cytokine are chemokines, which act
as chemoattractants.
➢ Chemokines cause the directed chemotaxis.
CHEMOTAXIS – movement of cells or part of
cells in a direction corresponding to a gradient
of increasing or decreasing concentration of
substance.
➢ In the case of chemokines, they directed
phagocytes to move towards the source of
chemokines, where they are needed.
Response:
➢ Stimulates respiratory/oxidative burst, which is the
rapid release of reactive oxygen.
➢ Attracts neutrophil and monocyte to prepared them
for battle when the pathogens arrive.
➢ Increase Vascular Permeability
➢ Increase expression of certain adhesion molecules
on the endothelium, causing mast cells to release
granules containing histamine and TNF- α
Tumor Necrosis Factor – α (TNF - α)
➢ This is produced rapidly by macrophages upon
pathogen detection and is a potent activator of
endothelial cells.
Kinin Cascade + Coagulation Cascade
➢ The kinin system consist of plasma proteases (an
enzyme which breaks proteins and peptides). A
protease cascade features enzymes that are initially
inactive. Activation of one enzyme triggers cleavage
and activation of the next enzyme in the cascade
 and so on. The result of this cascade is the
activation of several inflammatory mediator link
Bradykinin, a vasoactive peptide that increases
vascular permeability and causes pain.
➢ The coagulation system is another proteases
cascade which activation leads to formation of a
fibrin clot. This prevent blood lost in case there is a
blood vessel damage and blocks the pathway of
pathogens.
There are only two types of cells in the adaptive immune
response, T and B cells. They come from stem cells
located in the bone marrow, and they are both classified
as lymphocytes, which means they are the primary cell in
the lymph.
Although it is effective, it is slower to respond than the
innate immune response due to it needing to identify the
antigen before responding. This immune response splits
into two types – humoral and cellular immunity.

IMMUNE RESPONSE TYPE OF IMMUNITY

The immune response is how an organism responds after
being infected with a pathogen. A pathogen can be
bacteria, viruses, or toxins. The immune response
consists of both innate and adaptive immune
responses.

INNATE IMMUNE RESPONSE

(non-specific immune response)
Defends the body against non-specific pathogens and is
considered the first line of defense. It is very fast – it is
established within about 4 hours – but is non-specific and
has no memory, so it is not strong enough to effectively
tackle an infection on its own.

Various other cells are involved in the innate immune

response as they carry out 'cell eating' – phagocytosis.

➢ Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white

blood cell and are the first to fight back against a
pathogen. They can do this by releasing enzymes
that digest and kill pathogens.
➢ Macrophages are another type of white blood cell
made in the bone marrow. These macrophages
play a role in inflammation by releasing
cytokines – small proteins that help with
inflammation and act as messengers between
other cells.
➢ Monocytes are another type of white blood cell
and can turn into macrophages. They also play a
role in the adaptive immune system.
Humoral Immunity / Antibody-mediated
Immunity (HMI)
Humoral immunity, or antibody-mediated immunity, is
mediated by B cells. B cells move through the lymphatic
system, where they encounter an antigen. Suppose the
antigen matches the specific antibody on their cell
surface, they either split into a memory B cell, or an
effector B cell occurs when plasma cells produce
antibodies and allow them to move throughout the body.

What are primary and secondary immune

ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSE
(specific immunity)
While the innate immune system remains the same from
birth, the adaptive immune system can learn over
time. The adaptive immune response works to fight off
pathogens and is especially effective against those it has
destroyed before. Each time it encounters a pathogen, it
will remember it in its memory, and it will be faster to
defeat each time it sees it.
responses?
Primary immune responses occur when the body
encounters a pathogen for the first time. These immune
responses use the naive B and T cells. As the B and T
cells have not transformed into their effector and memory
cells, they are slow to respond to the threat to the point
where it takes several days to react.
Secondary immune response uses the memory forms
of the B and T cells. Therefore, they respond in about half
the time the primary response takes. They also produce
higher levels of antibodies compared to the primary
immune response.
VACCINATION: It bypass the primary immune response.
The first time you see a pathogen is the 2nd time our
immune system has seen it.
MECHANISM OF HUMORAL IMMUNE REPONSE
➢ Produced in bone marrow and complete their
maturation in the spleen.
➢ Like T-cell, B – cell have many variations, each
carrying a unique surface protein, called B- cell
receptor (BCR). They also learned not to react with
body’s own antigen.
➢ The majority of mature B-cells (Follicular B-cells),
circulates to secondary lymphoid organs where they
expect to encounter pathogens. Within this organs,
B and T cells have separated zones.
➢ Invading pathogen will bind to certain variation of B-
cell and that cell, where pathogen are bind, can be
activated to produce antibodies.
➢ Our body doesn’t make large amount of antibodies
from the very beginning. Instead, presence of
pathogen selectively activates the binding B-cell,
which then multiply and produce huge amount of
particular antibodies.
Structure of Antibody
Antibody is made up pf protein, which consist of
constant and variable region.
The variable regions give the antibody its uniqueness.
This is where it binds to a specific antigen. Like a lock and
key model.
There are several classes of antibodies with different
constant region. Different antibody classes engage
different mechanism to neutralize the antigen.
The surface receptors on B-cells or BSC are IgM and
IgD molecules.
The invading pathogen binds in several receptor of B-cell,
where in endocytosis happen. The pathogen will be
ingested and displays them on MHC-II (major
histocompatibility complex) molecules on their surfaces.
Thus, B-cells now become APC (antigen presenting
cell), but are not yet activated. They will be activated with
the help of T-helper cells.
Nearby the T-cell zone, T-helper cells are activated by
dendritic cells carrying antigens of the same pathogens,
and become effector T-helper cells or follicles T-helper
cells.
The follicles T-helper cells migrate to T-cell and B-cell
border and bind to the antigen presented cells (B-cell).
This interaction triggers T-cells to produce helper factors,
which activate B-cells.
The activated B-cell undergo in proliferation and
differentiation giving rise to 1st batch of plasma cells
producing antibodies and cells committed to become
memory B-cells.
They produce 2nd batch of plasma that produce better
antibodies and lives longer than the antibodies produced
in 1st batch.
Cellular Immunity / Cell-Mediated Immunity Through this connection, the macrophage will respond by
(CMI) secreting cytokines. The cytokines can bind to the surface
of T-cells. The antigen receptor connection along with the
Cellular immunity involves the activation of lymphocytes secretion of cytokines can help in the activation of T-cells.
upon encountering a 'non-self' material and is mediated This process is called CO-STIMULATION.
by T cells. T cells are created in the bone marrow but
travel to the thymus and get transformed into T cells. In
the thymus, they develop T cell receptors where they will
Helper T-cells have CD4 (cluster of differentiation
get a T cell receptor named CD4 or CD8. The different
number 4) in cell membrane. The cytokines from this cell
receptors allow the cells to perform different tasks.
help to activate other T-cells and B-cells.
Therefore, there are three types of T cells. Their jobs
depend on what T cell receptor they receive. The Helper
T cells have CD4 and helper B cells and other cells found
in the immune response. Cytotoxic T cells have CD8 and
destroy pathogens plus infected self cells.

MECHANISM OF CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY

T-cells include Cytotoxic T-cell, Helper T-cell and
Suppressor T-cell.

Cytotoxins T-cells have CD8 in cell protein. The

cytokines secreted by this cell destroys pathogens.

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) While the Suppressor T-cells help to control immune
response by suppressing other immune cells.
– the area where the antigen is displayed in the
surface of the cells.

MHC Class I – displays antigens made inside of the cell.

MHC Class II – displays antigens from pathogens.

The macrophage has displayed an antigen on MHC

Protein. Then, the T-cell can bind in the antigen via
antigen receptor.
 MODULE 11: LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
SOURCE: Dr. Cabrido’s PPT

LESSON 1 INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CIRCULATORY AND LYNPHATIC
SYSTEM
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The lymphatic system is a network of tissues, vessels and
organs that work together to move a colorless, watery fluid
called lymph back into your circulatory system (your
bloodstream).

LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES
➢ Lymph or lymphatic capillaries are tiny thin-walled
vessels, closed at one end and located in the spaces
between cells throughout the body, except in the
central nervous system and non-vascular tissues.
➢ Lymphatic veins are slightly larger in diameter and
have greater osmotic pressure than blood capillaries

LYMPHATIC VESSELS
➢ The lymphatic vessels (or lymph The lymphatic system is an open transport system that
vessels or lymphatics) are thin- works in conjunction with the circulatory
walled vessels (tubes) structured like blood vessels, system. Lymphatic vessels collect intercellular fluid
that carry lymph. As part of (tissue fluid), kill foreign organisms, and return it to
the lymphatic system, lymph vessels are the circulatory system. The lymphatic system also
complementary to the cardiovascular system. prevents tissue fluid from accumulating in the tissue
spaces.

While the lymphatic system is part of the circulatory

system, comprising a network of conduits
called lymphatic vessels. Rather than blood the lymph
systems carries a clear fluid called lymph (from Latin
lympha, meaning “water goddess”) unidirectionally
towards the heart.

LYMPHOID ORGANS:
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ORGANDS
Because of their roles in the production of B and T cells,
the thymus and bone marrow are considered primary
lymphoid organs. Secondary lymphoid organs include
lymph nodes and spleen, which filter lymph and blood,
respectively, and where naïve B and T cells are
introduced to antigens.
 LESSON 2
TYPES OF IMMUNE DEFENSE
1. INNATE IMMUNE DEFENSE
A. Physical and chemical barriers
B. Inflammatory Response
C. Phagocytes and natural killers
D. Protective proteins
The first line of defense (or outside defense system)
includes physical and chemical barriers that are always
ready and prepared to defend the body from infection.
These include your skin, tears, mucus, cilia, stomach
acid, urine flow, 'friendly' bacteria and white blood cells
called neutrophils.
INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
➢ The inflammatory response (inflammation) occurs
when tissues are injured by bacteria, trauma, toxins,
heat, or any other cause. The damaged cells release
chemicals including histamine, bradykinin, and
prostaglandins. These chemicals cause blood
vessels to leak fluid into the tissues, causing swelling
➢ Phagocytes act by migrating to infected areas and by
ingesting and killing micro-organisms. NATURAL
KILLER CELLS induce APOPTOSIS in virus-infected
or tumour cells. MACROPHAGES remove apoptotic
and aged cells.
Protective proteins
Antibody, also called immunoglobulin, a protective protein
produced by the immune system in response to the
presence of a foreign substance, called an antigen.
Antibodies recognize and latch onto antigens in order to
remove them from the body.
3. ADAPTIVE IMMUNE DEFENSE
A. B cells and antibody-mediated immunity
B. T cells and cell-mediated immunity
A. B cells and antibody-mediated
immunity
Antibody-mediated immunity involves the activation of
B cells and secretion of antibodies when in contact with
a pathogen. Antibodies can inactivate or destroy the
antigen through a variety of mechanisms. For
example, antibodies can bind to their antigenic targets
and form antigen-antibody complexes.
B. T Cells and Cell-Mediated
Immunity
Cell-mediated immunity: T cells promote the killing
of cells that have ingested microorganisms and
present foreign antigens on their surface. ... Another
class of T cells called regulatory T cells function to
inhibit immune response and resolve inflammation.
2. ACTIVE VERSUS PASSIVE
IMMUNITY
A prominent difference between active and passive
immunity is that active immunity is developed due to
the production of antibodies in one's own body,
while passive immunity is developed by antibodies that
are produced outside and then introduced into the body.
LESSON 3
DISORDERS OF THE IMMUNE
SYSTEM
➢ Immunodeficiency
Also known as immunocompromisation, is a state
in which the immune system's ability to fight infectious
diseases and cancer is compromised or entirely
absent. Most cases are acquired ("secondary") due to
extrinsic factors that affect the patient's immune
system.
➢ Allergy
Is an immune system response to a foreign substance
that's not typically harmful to your body. These foreign
substances are called allergens. They can include
certain foods, pollen, or pet dander. Your immune
system's job is to keep you healthy by fighting harmful
pathogens.
➢ Autoimmune disease
Is a condition in which your immune system
mistakenly attacks your body. The immune system
normally guards against germs like bacteria and
viruses. When it senses these foreign invaders, it
sends out an army of fighter cells to attack them.
 MTHH22 – 18 HUMAN HISTOLOGY I LECTURE

MODULE 12: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

2ND SEMESTER I S.Y 2021 – 2022
LECTURER: DR. AVELINDA CABRIDO
TRANSCRIBED BY: PRETTY MAY FORTES
SOURCE: VLE Vids
LARNYX (VOICE BOX)
RESPIRATORY ORGANS
➢ It is found in front of the neck and is responsible
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM for vocals as well as aiding respiration.

The respiratory system is a network of organs and tissues

that help one breathe. This system helps the body absorb TRACHEA (WINDPIPE)
oxygen from the air so the organs can work. It also cleans
waste gases, such as carbon dioxide, from the blood.

The primary function of this system is to introduce oxygen

into the body and expel carbon dioxide from the body.

RESPIRATION
Exchange of oxygen from the environment for the carbon
dioxide from the body’s cells.
INHALATION - The process of breathing air in
EXHALATION - The process of breathing air out or
exhaling air out.
NOSE
➢ The air enters through our NOSTRILS, then passes
through our NASAL CAVITY. This is where the air
is filtered by CILIA - tiny hair follicles that cover the
interior lining of nostrils act as the body’s first line of
defense against foreign pathogens.
➢ The cells in nasal cavity secrets mucus and helps in
trapping dust particles and blocking to move ahead,
moistens the air and provides warmth.
➢ Nasal cavity also have sensory cells that are
sensitive in smell and odors, making it a sense
organ.
PHARYNX (THROAT)
➢ Carries air from the nasal cavity through our
voice box or the larynx.
➢ A common passage for air and food. It has a flap-
like structure called EPIGLOTTIS that closes the
windpipe when we are swallowing food to prevent
from entering to the lungs.
➢ The epiglottis is an elastic cartilage, which serves
as a switch between the larynx and the esophagus
by allowing the passage of air into the lungs, and
food in the gastrointestinal tract.
➢ A four-inch-long tube -like structure. There are
many cartilaginous rings presents in trachea
that prevents it from collapsing.
BRONCHI (BRONCHIOLES)
➢ The trachea splits into two tubes called bronchi,
one for each lung.
➢ It branches again into a secondary and tertiary
bronchiole.
➢ And it further branches out into small air-sacs
called the ALVEOLI. The alveoli are single-celled
tiny air sacs with thin walls. It facilitates the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
molecules into or away from the bloodstream.
LUNGS
➢ Lungs are the primary organs of respiration in
humans and other vertebrates. They are located
on either side of the heart, in the thoracic cavity
of the chest.
➢ The primary function of the lungs is to facilitate
the exchange of gases between the blood and the
air.
➢ Interestingly, the right lung is quite bigger and
heavier than the left lung since it provides
space for the heart.
 MODULE 12: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
SOURCE: Dr. Cabrido’s PPT
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
➢ consists of the nose and nasal cavity, the pharynx,
and the larynx
➢ these structures allow us to breathe and speak
➢ they warm and clean the air we inhale
➢ mucous membranes lining upper respiratory
structures trap some foreign particles, including
smoke and other pollutants, before the air travels
down to the lungs.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
➢ consists of the trachea, the bronchi and
bronchioles, and the alveoli, which make up the
lungs
➢ these structures pull in air from the upper
respiratory system, absorb the oxygen, and
release carbon dioxide in exchange.
RESPIRATION
Definition of Respiration:
- set of chemical reactions that break down nutrient
molecules in living cells to release energy
- release of energy from food substance, and goes
on in all living cells
- involves the action of enzymes in cells
PROCESS OF INSPIRATION
Inspiration is the phase of ventilation in which air enters
the lungs. It is initiated by contraction of the inspiratory
muscles:
o Diaphragm – flattens, extending the
superior/inferior dimension of the thoracic cavity.
o External intercostal muscles – elevates the ribs
and sternum, extending the anterior/posterior
dimension of the thoracic cavity.
Process of Inspiration
➢ The action of the inspiratory muscles results in an
increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity. As
the lungs are held against the inner thoracic wall
by the pleural seal, they also undergo an increase
in volume.
➢ As per Boyle’s law, an increase in lung volume
results in a decrease in the pressure within the
lungs. The pressure of the environment external to
the lungs is now greater than the environment
within the lungs, meaning air moves into the lungs
down the pressure gradient.
PROCESS OF PASSIVE
EXPIRATION
Expiration is the phase of ventilation in which air is
expelled from the lungs. It is initiated by relaxation of the
inspiratory muscles:
o Diaphragm – relaxes to return to its resting
position, reducing the superior/inferior dimension
of the thoracic cavity.
o External intercostal muscles – relax to
depress the ribs and sternum, reducing the
anterior/posterior dimension of the thoracic
cavity.
Process of Expiration
➢ The relaxation of the inspiratory muscles results
in a decrease in the volume of the thoracic cavity.
The elastic recoil of the previously expanded lung
tissue allows them to return to their original size.
➢ As per Boyle’s law, a decrease in lung volume
results in an increase in the pressure within the
lungs. The pressure inside the lungs is now
greater than in the external environment,
meaning air moves out of the lungs down the
pressure gradient.
PATHWAY OF OXYGEN
TRANSPORT
The path that oxygen takes through the respiratory
system is identified below in a flowchart format:
Mouth or Nostrils of the Nose
Nasopharynx
Oral Pharynx
Glottis
Trachea
Lungs
Right and Left Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli
Gas exchange occurs between the alveoli sacs and small
capillaries of the circulatory system. Via this exchange,
oxygen is delivered from the lungs to the bloodstream.
The oxygen attaches to the hemoglobin of red blood cells.
The red blood cells then transport the oxygen to cells,
such as those located in your muscles.
The oxygen is used by the mitochondria of eukaryotic
cells in the process that is known as cellular respiration.
During cellular respiration, oxygen gas and the sugar
glucose are converted into water, carbon dioxide gas, and
an energy source called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT:
Common Cold & Strep Throat
Common Cold
The common cold is an upper respiratory tract infection
caused by many different viruses.
The common cold is transmitted by virus-infected airborne
droplets or by direct contact with infected secretions.
Typical common cold symptoms include
o cough,
o sore throat,
o coughing,
o sneezing, and a runny nose.
➢ Being in cold weather does not cause the common
cold, but cold weather promotes close contact.
➢ Over-the-counter medications may be used for the
treatment of the common cold.
➢ Antibiotics are not necessary for the common cold.
➢ The common cold is a self-limited disease that can
generally be managed at home.
➢ Most people with a common cold recovered in about
7 to 10 days.
➢ The common cold has no cure, and there is no
available vaccine.
Strep Throat
▪ infection of the throat and tonsils
▪ caused by a bacteria called group A
streptococcus , also known as Streptococcus
pyogenes
▪ this bacteria lives in the nose and throat.
▪ you can get the infection from someone who is
sick with strep A bacteria or is a carrier of it.
Sore Throat
Symptoms:
 1. Strep Throat Symptoms
- sore throat is the main sign you or your child has
strep.
- colds and other viruses can also cause a sore
throat
- one way to tell the difference is that a virus will
often cause a runny nose too.
 2. Other symptoms:
- fever of 101 F or higher
- red, swollen tonsils
- pain when you swallow
- swollen and/or tender lymph nodes at the front
of your neck

LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT:
Asthma, Pneumonia, Pulmonary
Tuberculosis, Emphysema and Lung Cancer
Asthma
o long-term disease of the lungs
o causes your airways to get inflamed and narrow,
and it makes it hard to breathe
Symptoms:
There are three major signs of asthma:
➢ Airway blockage. When you breathe as usual,
the bands of muscle around your airways are
relaxed, and air moves freely. But when you have
asthma, the muscles tighten. It’s harder for air to
pass through.
➢ Inflammation . Asthma causes red, swollen
bronchial tubes in your lungs. This inflammation
can damage your lungs. Treating this is key to
managing asthma in the long run.
➢ Airway irritability. People with asthma have
sensitive airways that tend to overreact and
narrow when they come into contact with even
slight triggers.
These problems may cause symptoms such as:
• Coughing, especially at night or in the morning
• Wheezing, a whistling sound when you breathe
• Shortness of breath
• Tightness, pain, or pressure in your chest
• Trouble sleeping because of breathing problems
Pneumonia
o an inflammatory condition of the lung affecting
primarily the small air sacs known as alveoli
o symptoms include some combination of
productive or dry cough, chest pain, fever, and
trouble breathing.
o caused by infection with viruses or bacteria and
less commonly by other microorganisms, certain
medications and conditions such as autoimmune
diseases
o severity is variable
Pulmonary Tuberculosis
o a contagious bacterial infection that involves the
lungs
o may spread to other organs
o caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium
tuberculosis (M tuberculosis)
o contagious, bacteria is easily spread from an
infected person to someone else
Symptoms :
➢ Persistent cough (which lasts for more than
2 - 3 weeks)
➢ Cough with blood in sputum
➢ Fever for more than 2 -3 weeks
➢ Sudden weight loss
➢ Night sweats
➢ Loss of appetite
Emphysema
o chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
o lung tissue loses elasticity and the air sacs and
alveoli in the lungs become larger.
o walls of the air sacs break down or are destroyed,
narrowed, collapsed, stretched, or over-inflated
o means that there is a smaller surface area for the
lungs to take oxygen into the blood and remove
carbon dioxide from the body.
o damage is permanent and irreversible, but there
are ways of managing the condition.
The key symptoms of emphysema include:
➢ shortness of breath, or dyspnea
➢ a chronic cough that produces mucus
➢ wheezing and a whistling or squeaky sound
when breathing
➢ tightness in the chest
In most cases, emphysema and COPD result from
cigarette smoking. However, up to 25% of people with
COPD have never smoked.
Other causes appear to be genetic factors, such as an
alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, and exposure to
environmental irritants, including secondhand smoke,
workplace pollutants, air pollution, and biomass fuels.
People with small airways in proportion to their lung size
may be more at risk than those with wider airways,
according to a 2020 study.
In addition, not all people who smoke develop
emphysema. It may be that genetic factors make some
people more susceptible to the condition.
Emphysema is not contagious. One person cannot catch
it from another.
Lung Cancer
o also known as lung carcinoma
o malignant lung tumor characterized by
uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung
o growth can spread beyond the lung by the
process of metastasis into nearby tissue or other
parts of the body
o leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide.
o people who smoke have the greatest risk of lung
cancer

o can also occur in people who have never smoked

o risk of lung cancer increases with the length of

time and number of cigarettes you've smoked

o if you quit smoking, even after smoking for many

years, you can significantly reduce your chances
of developing lung cancer.
NOTES

It is important to transmit lymph in the heart in order to

reach the lungs and become oxygenated.

It is also important to maintain the blood volume of the

body.

Inspiration

When the diaphragm and external intercoastal contracts,

the volume increases while pressure decreases.

IMPORTANT: The air will travel into the gradient of high

to lower concentration

Expiration

The diaphragm relaxes and EI muscle, the volume

decreases and the pressure increase.

INTRAMEMBRANOUS – starts in mesenchymal stem

cells. contributes in bone thickening

ENDOCHONDRAL – for bone lengthening

Osteoid – the hard matrix, unmineralized.

Interstitial – lengthening of the bone

Appositional – thickening of the bone

 MTHH22 – 18 HUMAN HISTOLOGY I LECTURE

MODULE 13: DIGESTIVE TRACT

2ND SEMESTER I S.Y 2021 – 2022
LECTURER: DR. AVELINDA CABRIDO
TRANSCRIBED BY: MAY FORTES

Source: Esteban & Gonzales 5th Ed & Junqueira

The digestive tract (or gastrointestinal tract or
alimentary canal) is a long twisting tube that starts at the
mouth and ends at the anus. It is made up of a series of
muscles that coordinate the movement of food and other
cells that produce enzymes and hormones to aid in the
breakdown of food.

Absorption of digested substances, and excretion of

undigested substances are the function of digestive
system. It consists of digestive tract (oral cavity,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine)
and digestive or associated glands (salivary glands,
pancreas, liver and gallbladder).

Digestion involves mechanical action of digestive tract

and chemical action of substances and enzymes that
are secreted by the digestive glands.

Its function is to obtain from ingested food the molecules

necessary for the maintenance, growth, and energy
needs of the body.

Small intestine – break down first the proteins, complex

carbohydrates, nucleic acid into small molecule and then
absorbed it. GENERAL STRUCTURE OF
Large intestine – absorbed water and electrolytes. DIGESTIVE TRACT

MUCOSA
Structures within the digestive tract allow the (Tunica Mucosa; Mucous Membrane)
following:
➢ Ingestion, or introduction of food and liquid into the Has 3 Components:
oral cavity, 1. Epithelium
➢ Mastication, or chewing, which divides solid food into ➢ Lines the laminal surface of the entire DT
digestible pieces, (digestive tract)
➢ Motility, muscular movements of materials through ➢ Varies from segment to segment
the tract,
➢ Secretion of lubricating and protective mucus, 2. Lamina propria
digestive enzymes, acidic and alkaline fluids, and bile, ➢ Refers to the loose connective tissue that
➢ Hormone release for local control of motility and underlies the epithelium.
➢ secretion, ➢ Where blood, blood vessels and MALT (GALT)
➢ Chemical digestion or enzymatic degradation of are confined.
large macromolecules in food to smaller molecules
and their subunits, 3. Muscularis mucosae
➢ Absorption of the small molecules and water into the ➢ A thin sheet of smooth muscle tissue that forms
blood and lymph, the outermost layer of the mucosa.
➢ Elimination of indigestible, unabsorbed components
of food.
SUBMUCOSA
(Tunica submucosa)

➢ Lies external to the muscularis mucosae and

made up of LCT.
➢ Loose CT is denser, more abundant and more
vascular than lamina propria
➢ Well-supplied with GALT/MALT (Mucous-
Associated Lymphoid Tissue)
➢ Contains submucous plexus (Meissner) of
autonomic nerve

MUSCULARIS
(Muscularis externa; Tunica muscularis)

➢ Has 2 types of muscle fiber

➢ Inner Layer – fibers are circularly-
oriented
➢ Outer Layer – fibers are longitudinally-
oriented
➢ Mainly responsible for the mechanical digestion DIGESTIVE TRACT ORGANS
of food.
➢ Contraction of smooth muscle fibers mixes,
squeezes and propels food through the digestive ORAL CAVITY (MOUTH)
tract.
➢ Contains Interstitial Cells of Cajal (ICC), located
between autonomic nervous system and smooth The oral cavity is divided into 2 regions:
muscle cells. Acts as pacemaker for the
➢ Vestibule - region anterior to the mouth and
contraction of smooth muscles.
gums (gingivae)
➢ Where myenteric plexus (of Auerbach) can be
➢ Oral Cavity Proper - the rest of the mouth except
found and like submucous plexus (of Meissner),
vesti bule
composed of ganglionated autonomic neurons.
➢ Myenteric plexus (of Auerbach) and submucous The oral cavity is continuous with the pharynx at the
plexus (of Meissner) comprised the ENTERIC faucial isthmus (opening at the back of the mouth into
NERVOUS SYSTEM. It regulates many digestive the throat)
tract activities and functions autonomously.
Mechanical and chemical digestion of the food starts in
the oral cavity.
SEROSA/ADVENTITIA
(Tunica Serosa/Adventitia) STRUCTURE

➢ The outer histologic layer of digestive tract
➢ Made up of loose connective tissue
➢ Some areas of digestive tract covered by
peritoneum, lined externally by a connective
tissue (mesothelium), this referred as the
SEROSA.
➢ Areas with no peritoneal covering, called as
ADVENTITIA
The interface between the epithelium and lamina propria
are similar to those features in the epidermis and dermis.
The flattened cells of oral epithelium undergo continuous
desquamation but the shed cells of the nonkeratinized
oral epithelium retain their nucleus.
Mucosa: Nonkeratinized stratifies squamous
epithelium, with keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium (in harf palate and gingiva)

Mucosa and Submucosa of Oral Cavity

The mucosal epithelium in internal surface of the lips,

cheek, soft palate, tongue is nonkeratinized stratified
squamous. The submucosa contains some small,
mucus-secreting glands (labial and buccal glands)
While the mucosal epithelium in hard palate and gums is Adventitia
keratinized stratified epithelium. No submucosa in
middle part of hard palate. In the rest of hard palate, it ➢ Subcutaneous tissue
contains mucus-secreting, palatine glands ➢ Binds the muscularis to the overlying skin.

Throughout the oral cavity, the epithelium contains

transient antigen-presenting cells and rich sensory
innervation.

Tongue
The tongue is a mass of striated muscle covered by
mucosa, which manipulates ingested material during
mastication and swallowing.

The muscle fibers are oriented in all directions, allowing a

high level of mobility.

The dorsal surface is irregular, having hundreds of small

protruding papillae of various types.

The papillary and tonsillar areas of the lingual surface are

separated by a V-shaped groove called the sulcus
terminalis.

Ventral Surface of the Tongue

- Smooth
- Has small protrusions called lingual papillae

Dorsal Surface of the Tongue

- Rough
- Forms lumps due to the presence of lingual
tonsils.

Lingual Papillae

Consist of a core of connective tissue from lamina propria

that is lined with keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.

Classified into four (4) types:

Filiform Papillae

➢ Most numerous of the lingual papillae

➢ Elongated conical shape
➢ Heavily keratinized
➢ Provide a rough surface that facilitates movement
of food during chewing.
➢ Only lingual papillae that doesn’t have epithelial
Muscularis Externa and Adventitia of Oral Cavity
taste buds, gustatory cells, supporting cells and
Muscularis Externa taste pore.

➢ Present only in lips and cheeks

➢ Contains skeletal muscle
➢ Responsible for mastication and some facial
expressions.
Fungiform Papillae
➢ Much less numerous that filiform
➢ Lightly keratinized
➢ Broader than, and scattered among filiform.
➢ Appear as pinhead-sized red dots and mushroom
heads.
➢ Where taste buds can be found.
Circumvallate Papillae
➢ The largest (1-3 mm in diameter) but are the
fewest (6 – 14) of the lingual papillae
➢ Arranged in a single file along in sulcus terminalis
➢ There are 200-300 taste buds embedded in the
epithelium of each circumvallate papillae.
Foliate Papillae
➢ Consist of several parallel ridges on each side of
the tongue
Taste Buds
• Ovoid structures within the stratified epithelium on
the tongue’s surface.
• 50 – 80 um tall and 30 – 5- um wide.
• Consist 50-150 densely-packed fusiform cells whose
apices converge on the small opening on the surface
of the epithelium called Taste Pore.
There are 3 types of Cells in Taste Buds:
Sustentacular (Supporting Cells) and Neuroepithelial
(Gustatory Cells) have a lot of similarities.
➢ Both slender and spindled shaped cells whose
free surface are covered with microvilli.
➢ But, Sustentacular Cells differ since it is darker-
staining that neuroepithelial
Basal Cells
➢ Round cells, located at the base of the taste bud
Taste buds detect at least five broad categories of
tastants:
➢ sodium ions (salty)
➢ hydrogen ions from acids (sour)
➢ sugars and related compounds (sweet)
➢ alkaloids and certain toxins (bitter)
 ➢ and amino acids such as glutamate and
aspartate (umami; Jap. umami, savory).
Teeth
There are normally 32 permanent teeth, arranged in two
bilaterally symmetric arches in the maxillary and
mandibular bones.
Each quadrant has eight teeth:
➢ 2 incisors
➢ 1 canine
➢ 2 premolars
➢ 3 permanent molars
Each tooth has:
• a crown exposed above the gingiva
• a constricted neck at the gum
• and one or more roots that fit firmly into bony
sockets in the jaws called dental alveoli
The crown is covered by very hard, acellular enamel and
the roots by a bone-like tissue called cementum. These
two coverings meet at the neck of the tooth. The bulk of a
tooth is composed of another calcified material, dentin,
which surrounds an internal pulp cavity.
Dental pulp is highly vascular and well-innervated and
consists largely of loose, mesenchymal connective tissue
with much ground substance, thin collagen fibers,
fibroblasts, and mesenchymal stem cells. The pulp
cavity narrows in each root as the root canal, which
extends to an opening (apical foramen) at the tip of each
root for the blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves of the
pulp cavity.
The periodontal ligaments are fibrous connective tissue
bundles of collagen fibers inserted into both the
cementum and the alveolar bone.
Dentin
Dentin is a calcified tissue harder than bone, consisting
of 70% hydroxyapatite. The organic matrix contains
type I collagen and proteoglycans secreted from the
apical ends of odontoblasts, tall polarized cells derived
from the cranial neural crest that line the tooth’s pulp
cavity. Predentin is secreted as elongated dentinal
tubules from tall odontoblasts that line the pulp cavity
and persist in the fully formed tooth
Enamel
Enamel is the hardest component of the human body,
consisting of 96% calcium hydroxyapatite and only 2%-
3% organic material including very few proteins and no
collagen. In a developing tooth bud, the matrix for the
enamel rods is secreted by tall, polarized cells, the
ameloblasts. Protein amelogenin, the main structural
protein of developing enamel.
Ameloblasts are derived from the ectodermal lining of
the embryonic oral cavity, while odontoblasts and
most tissues of the pulp cavity develop from neural
crest cells and mesoderm, respectively.
Periodontium Muscularis and Adventitia of Esophagus

➢ Responsible for maintaining the teeth in
mandibular and maxillary.
➢ Includes cementum, periodontal ligaments,
alveolar bone and associated gingiva.
Cementum
The composition of the muscularis of the esophagus is
atypical:
Upper Third: consist of skeletal muscle fibers (striated)
Middle Third: both skeletal and smooth muscle fibers
Lower Third: Smooth Muscle fibers

➢ Covers the dentin of the root The outermost layer of esophagus is adventitia.
➢ Avascular
➢ Thickest around the root tip where
cementocytes reside in the lacuna

Periodontal Ligament

➢ Fibrous connective tissue with bundled

collagen fibers (Sharpey fibers) binding the
cementum and the alveolar bone.
➢ It is highly cellular and has a rich supply of
blood vessels and nerves
➢ Provides sensory and nutritive functions in
addition to its role in supporting the tooth.

Alveolar Bone

➢ Has osteoblasts and osteocytes engaging in

continuous remodeling of the bony matrix.
➢ It is surrounded by the periodontal ligament,
which serves as its periosteum.
PHARNYX
➢ Funnel-shaped, fibromuscular tube
➢ Common to both digestive and respiratory
STOMACH
➢ J-shaped hollow organ located in the left upper
quadrant of the abdomen. It presents a greater
and lesser curvature, anterior and posterior
surface.
➢ Has the capacity of 1.5 liters.
➢ Mucosa: Tall Simple Columnar Epithelium
➢ Covered with Serosa

FUNCTION OF THE STOMACH

ESOPHAGUS
➢ muscular tube, about 25-cm long in adults
➢ transports swallowed material from the pharynx
to the stomach.
➢ The four layers of the GI tract first become well-
established and clearly seen in the esophagus.
Mucosa and Submucosa of Esophagus
➢ The esophageal mucosa has nonkeratinized
stratified squamous epithelium
➢ The submucosa contains small mucus-secreting
glands, the esophageal glands, which lubricate
and protect the mucosa
➢ In the basal area of esophagus epithelium are
Langerhans Cells, antigen-presenting cells
(APC).
➢ To digest carbohydrates initiated by the salivary
glands, amylase.
➢ To digest triglycerides/lipids by a secreted,
lipase
➢ To digest proteins with the enzyme pepsin.
➢ To add an acidic fluid to the ingested food and
mixing its contents into a viscous mass called
chyme by the churning activity of the muscularis,
CHYME
Chyme, a thick acidic semifluid mixture of food and
gastric juices that is formed in the stomach and
intestine during digestion.
4 Major Regions of the Stomach

Cardia Pylorus

➢ Narrow transitional zone, 1.5 – 3 cm ➢ Funnel-shaped region that opens into the small
➢ Opening where esophagus and stomach intestine (duodenum).
communicate
MUCOSA
Fundus
The mucosa and submucosa
➢ Dome-shaped portion of the organ above the forms longitudinal direct
horizontal plane of esophageal orifices folds called rugae.
➢ Similar with the body, where they are both sites
of gastric glands releasing acid gastric juice. The surface epithelium is
made up of TALL SIMPLE
Body COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
that invaginates into the
➢ Continuation of fundus inferiorly and comprises
lamina propria to form
the bulk of the organ.
furrows called gastric
foveolae or pits. (2-4 mm
apart)
GLANDS OF THE STOMACH
• Mucous Neck Cells
Gastric Glands (Glands of the Stomach)
- Confined in the neck of the fundic
➢ Confined in lamina propria glands
➢ Simple branched tubular glands, opens at the - Slightly basophilic and contains
bottom of the gastric pits numerous secretory granules that
have mucin.
Has 3 Types According to Location
• Enteroendocrine Cells
1. Fundic Glands
- Hormone-producing cells that are
➢ Principal gastric glands
scattered singly.
➢ Can be found in fundus and the body
- Columnar, ovoid or pyramidal and
➢ Most numerous and longest glands of the stomach
contain secretory cytoplasmic
granules.

Types of Enteroendocrine Cells in the

Stomach

1. G-Cells, secrete gastrin

2. EC-Cells, secrete serotonin
3. D-Cells, secrete somatostatin
4. Enterochromaffin-like Cells
(ELC), secrete histamine

• Stem Cells
- Found in the upper region of fundic
glands
- Has large nucleolus
- Intensely basophilic due to the
presence of ribosomes
- Plays in renewing the epithelium of
the stomach
5 TYPES OF CELLS

• Parietal Cell (Oxyntic)

➢ Pyramidal in shape and has an oval nucleus
➢ Most easily identifiable cell in fundic glands
➢ It stands out because the eosinophilic cytoplasm
contrasts sharply with the basophilic cytoplasm of the
cells that surround it due to high density of
mitochondria.
➢ Produces Hydrochloric Acid (HCl), responsible for
the acidity of gastric juices, and intrinsic factor
(glycoprotein), required of uptake of Vitamin B12 in
the small intestine.

• Zymogenic Cells (Chief)

- Numerous in the basal region of the
glands
- Numerous in the body than in fundus
- Seen as low columnar cells that
possess strongly basophilic
cytoplasm.
- The granules contain lipase and 2. Cardiac Glands
pepsinogen (inactive enzyme), ➢ Can be found in cardia
precursor which are converted in the ➢ Least numerous among the gastric glands
acid environment of the stomach into ➢ Cells present here are almost the same in fundic
pepsin (active enzyme) glands but more on mucus-secreting cells.
➢ Consist of columnar mucous cells ➢ GP is deep
➢ The glands occupy just a narrow area of the
mucosa.

ADDITONAL INFORMATION:

The resting pH of the stomach is 4-5. Pepsin works best

in highly acidic environment, that’s why, parietal cells will
secrete HCl to lower the pH of the stomach to 1-2. After
the pepsin, acted on the proteins, the stomach pH will
back to its resting pH

The stomach has GASTRIC MUCOSAL BARRIES to

prevent HCL and gastric enzymes from damaging our
stomach.

3. Pyloric Glands
SMALL INTESTINE
➢ Can be found in pylorus
➢ Shorter but more coiled than fundic and cardiac ➢ The small intestine is the site where the digestive
glands. processes are completed and where the nutrients
➢ Also contains cells that are mucus-secreting (products of digestion) are absorbed by cells of the
➢ Consist of columnar cells epithelial lining.
➢ The small intestine is relatively long—approximately
5m
➢ Surface epithelium: Simple Columnar
➢ Consists of three segments:
Duodenum
➢ first 25 cm of small intestine
➢ where chyme is introduced through Pyloric
Sphincter (strong ring of smooth muscle at the end
of pyloric canal)
➢ has large mucous gland in the submucosa called
duodenum gland
Jejunum
➢ two-fifths of the small intestine
Ileum.
➢ Three-fifths of the remainder of the organ
➢ Has submucosal that consist Peyer’s patches

Horizontal Mucosal Folds (Plicae Circulares)

➢ Are crescentic or circular horizontal creases that

consist of a core of submucosa and overlying
Gastric Pits
mucosa.
Fundus and Body ➢ Most developed in jejunum

➢ GP is shallow
➢ Mucosa are mostly occupied by glands

Cardiac

➢ GP takes same amount of space in the mucosa as

the glands.

Pyloric
Intestinal Villi
➢ Finger-like projections
➢ Consist of a core of lamina propria that is
enveloped by enterocytes.
➢ The lamina propria in the core contains few
longitudinally-oriented smooth muscle cells,
blood and lymphatic capillaries is called
LACTEALS.
Microvilli
➢ a cylindrical protrusion of the apical cytoplasm
approximately 1-μm tall and 0.1 μm in diameter
containing actin filaments and enclosed by the cell
membrane.
Microvilli, villi, and the plicae circulares all greatly increase
the mucosal surface area in contact with nutrients in the
lumen, which is an important feature in an organ
specialized for nutrient absorption.
Epithelium of the Small Intestine
All 4 types has microvilli in their laminal surfaces
1. Enterocytes
➢ Majority of the cells
➢ Tall columnar cells which nucleus are located in the
basal part
➢ Absorptive cells, responsible for taking up nutrients
and transporting in the lamina propria
2. Goblet Cells
➢ Interspersed among the enterocytes
3. Enteroendocrine Cells
➢ Present in the entire surface epithelium
➢ Few and far between
4. M-cells (Membranous; Microfold Cells)
➢ Present only in areas of great GALT concentration,
such as ileum.
➢ Large cells with few microvilli
➢ Antigen-presenting cells (APC)
5. Paneth Cells
➢ Present only in Crypts of Lieberkuhn
➢ Exocrine cells with large, eosinophilic secretory
granules in their apical cytoplasm.
➢ Releases defensins, responsible in binding and
breaking down microorganism
➢ Important role in innate immunity and regulating the
microenvironment of intestinal crypts.
Lamina propria is where the intestinal glands or crypts
of Lieberkuhn are embedded
Crypts of Lieberkuhn
➢ Simple tubular glands
➢ Secrete variety of digestive enzyme
➢ Span the thickness of the entire lamina propria
➢ Openings are found between the villi
➢ 5 types of cells that comprise the crypts:
1) Stem Cells
2) Enterocytes
3) Goblet Cells
4) Paneth Cells
5) Enteroendocrine cells
➢ The large intestine or bowel, which absorbs water and
electrolytes and forms indigestible material into feces.
LARGE INTESTINE
➢ 5 feet in length
➢ Consist several segments: the short cecum
(receives undigested materials from the small
intestine), the vermiform appendix, the ascending
colon, transverse colon, descending colon,
sigmoid colon and the rectum and anal canal.
➢ Large intestine’s wall forms pouches called
sacculations or haustrae.
➢ Small sacs of fat-filled peritoneum called appendices
epiploicae, dangle from the external surface of its
walls.
➢ Fibers of the outer layer gathered in three separate
longitudinal bands called taeniae coli
Mucosa of the Large Intestine
➢ The Transverse Rectal Folds are 2-3 folds of
mucosa, present in proximal portion of the rectum.
➢ The Rectal Columns of Morgagni are longitudinal
mucosal folds, present in anal canal.
➢ No villi in LI but has crypts of Lieberkuhn.
➢ Surface Epithelium: Simple Columnar
➢ The Lamina propria is rich in GALT and contains
many aggregates of lymph nodules (Peyer’s Patch)
➢ Has simple tubular intestinal glands
Submucosa of the Large Intestine
➢ Thick and richly supplied with GALT
➢ No glands
Muscularis Externa of the Large Intestine
➢ Atypical, because of the outer layer is
longitudinally-arranged smooth muscle fibers do not
surround the organ evenly.
➢ Instead, some of the muscle fibers form three
grossly visible, narrow (abt 1 cm width each)
longitudinal bands, taenia coli, that are equidistant
from each other. It acts in the peristaltic movement
of feces in the rectum.
Serosa/Adventitia of the Large Intestine
➢ Outermost part of large intestine is coated with
serosa because the greater part of large intestine
is covered by peritonium.
➢ In ascending and descending colons, it is
adventitia.
Anal Canal – simple columnar epithelium lining the
rectum
Anus – stratified squamous epithelium
 MTHH22 – 18 HUMAN HISTOLOGY I LECTURE

MODULE 14: ACCESSORY ORGANS OF DIGESTIVE TRACT

2ND SEMESTER I S.Y 2021 – 2022
LECTURER: DR. AVELINDA CABRIDO
TRANSCRIBED BY: MAY FORTES
Source: Module 14 VLE Videos
➢ Bolus – ball of food
➢ There are 2 esophageal sphincters:
o Upper Esophageal Sphincter (UES) –
can be controlled voluntarily
o Lower Esophageal Sphincter (LES) -
involuntarily
SALIVARY GLANDS
➢ Small, directly embedded in the mucosa of the
mouth
➢ Function is to produce saliva, contains slippery
lubricating fluids that allow the food to slip down
the esophagus without getting stuck
➢ But there are also very large gland, Parotid
3 Major Salivary Glands:
PAROTID GLAND
➢ Found just anterior and inferior to the ears
➢ Very large gland outside the mouth
➢ On the side of the jaw under the ear
➢ Connected in the parotid duct into the mouth
KEY COMPONENTS OF SALIVA
1. Proteins / Enzymes
➢ Salivary Amylase (digestion of starch)
➢ Lingual Lipase
➢ Lysozyme (kills bacteria)
➢ Immunoglobulin (antibodies)
2. Ions (activate amylase and maintain pH 6.5)
➢ Chloride
➢ Bicarbonate
➢ phosphate
PANCREAS
➢ Both endocrine and exocrine glands
➢ Produces lots of enzymes and buffering solution then
dumps them in duodenum.
Ex.
The endocrine portion (Islets of
Langerhans) produces insulin and
glucagon and releases in the blood
The exocrine portion (Acinar Cells)
secrets digestive enzymes in the
pancreatic duct directly to the
duodenum.

SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND

➢ Found on the floor of the mouth

➢ Underneath the jaw
➢ Connected in submandibular duct

SUBLINGUAL GLAND

➢ Directly under the tongue

➢ Superior to the submandibular glands
➢ Connected in the mouth through several sublingual
duct
 LIVER
➢ Largest organ in the body

STRUCTURE OF LIVER

1. Hepatocytes - Major cell of the liver. Specialized

epithelial cells are arranged and complex 3D
arrangements called hepatic laminate.
2. Laminae are surrounded by endothelium-lined
vasculature spaces called hepatic sinusoids
3. Grooves in-between hepatocyte provide spaces
for canaliculi, into which hepatocyte secrete bile
4. Bile canaliculi collect the bile from the
hepatocytes and delivered them into bile duct
system
5. Hepatic sinusoids or highly permeable blood
capillaries that line the rows of hepatocytes and
received deoxygenated nutrient rich blood from
the branches of the hepatic portal vein. They
deliver this blood to the central vein, which feeds
the hepatic vein
6. Also present within the sinusoids are stellate
reticuloendothelial cells, or Kupffer Cells –
macrophages that destroy worn out WBCs,
RBCs, bacteria and debris.

GALLBLADDER
➢ Collects and concentrates bile from the liver
➢ Removes water from it by absorbing ions and water
in the epithelium. Bile is concentrated up to 10x.

CONTENTS OF BILE

➢ Yellow / Brown / Green liquid

➢ pH – 8 (Basic)
➢ Contains:
COMPOSITION OF PANCREATIC JUICE Water
Bile Salts (emulsifier)
1. Bicarbonate – buffers juice (make it slightly
Cholesterol
basic)
Lecithin (emulsifier)
2. Pancreatic Amylase – breaks down starch
Bile Pigments (bilirubin, biliverdin,
3. Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase,
stercobilin)
Elastase – breaks down protein
Ions
4. Pancreatic Lipase – breaks down lipids
5. Ribonuclease and Deoxyribonuclease – break
down RNA and DNA
 MAJOR SALIVARY GLANDS
➢ Secrete only in response of sensory stimuli
➢ Are all Compound tubuloalveolar glands
➢ STROMA:
o Made up of collagenous connective
tissue
o Consist Capsule (envelopes the gland)
Septa (divide the glands into
lobes and into lobules)
CT that supports the acini and
ducts within the lobules.
➢ PARENCHYMA:
o Consist glandular epithelium
o Forms the secretory unit: Acini (alveoli)
and secretory tubules.
▪ Secretory unit: Simple cuboidal
➢ Primarily exocrine glands
Source: Esteban & Gonzales 5th Ed. and Junqueira
➢ The acinar cells of MSG
o Secretes Epidermal Growth Factor
ACCESSORY GLANDS OF THE (EGF), hormone produced by the
Brunner’s gland in the Duodenum.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM o Function of EGF – stimulate cell growth,
proliferation and differentiation and
Digestive glands produce products facilitate transport
inhibiting HCl secretion
and digestion of food within the gastrointestinal tract.

SALIVARY GLANDS
3 Types of Epithelial Cells in Salivary Secretory
➢ Salivary glands is the collective name for digestive Unit
glands whose ducts open in the oral cavity.
➢ FUNCTION: The main functions of the salivary glands • Serous Cells
are to moisten and lubricate ingested food and the ➢ Polarized-protein secreting cells
oral mucosa, to initiate the digestion of carbohydrates ➢ pyramidal in shape
and lipids with amylase and lipase, and to secrete ➢ round nuclei, well-stained RER, and apical secretory
innate immune components such as lysozyme and granules
lactoferrin. ➢ form a somewhat spherical unit called an acinus
➢ Classified into:
o Minor Salivary Glands – small glands • Mucus Cells
embedded in the submucosa and lamina ➢ more columnar in shape, with more compressed
propria of the oral cavity. basal nuclei
o Major Salivary Glands – located outside ➢ mucus-secreting cells
the oral cavity but their ducts empty into the ➢ contain apical granules with hydrophilic mucins that
mouth provide lubricating properties in saliva
➢ most often organized as cylindrical tubules rather
SALIVA than acini
➢ The collective exocrine secretion of the salivary
glands
➢ 1.5 liters of saliva per day
➢ pH of 6.5 – 6. 9
➢ has an important buffering function and in some
species is also important for evaporative cooling
➢ Contains 2 digestive enzyme: lingual lipase and
salivary amylase
 • Myoepithelial Cells
➢ Flattened stellate cells associated with secretory
units.
➢ Contractile cells
➢ Have long cytoplasmic processes that hug the
secretory unit and the wall of intercalated and
striated ducts
➢ Help eject the secretion of the acini into the ducts
Ducts of Major Salivary Glands
Have 2 well-developed duct system:
PAROTID GLAND
➢ Largest of the salivary glands
➢ located in each cheek near the ear
➢ purely serous glands, formed exclusively by
serous cells
➢ Serous cells of parotid glands secrete abundant α-
amylase that initiates hydrolysis of carbohydrates
and proteins with antimicrobial.
➢ Stensen’s Duct – main duct of parotid and opens
into the vestibule

Intralobular Ducts – located within the lobules

➢ Intercalated
- Segment of duct system
- Directly drain an acinus or a secretory tubules
- Narrow lumen
- Walls is composed of Simple cuboidal.
- Serve as stem cells for acinar and ductal cells

➢ Striated
- Formed by a union of intercalated disc
- Diameter is bigger than ID
- Walls consist of Simple columnar
- Exhibit intense cytoplasmic eosinophilia (due to SUBMANDIBULAR GLANDS
the presence of numerous mitochondria) and basal (SUBMAXILLARY)
striation (due to infoldings of basal plasmalemma)
➢ produce two-thirds of all saliva
Excretory Ducts – located outside the lobules ➢ are branched tubuloacinar glands
➢ mixed serous and mucous gland (serous cells
➢ Interlobular
predominate)
-Initial segment (Stratified cuboidal) and Proximal
➢ assume a crescent-shaped arrangement called
segment (stratified columnar)
a serous demilune (of Giannuzzi)
➢ Lobar
➢ serous cells of the submandibular gland secrete
- Stratified columnar epithelium
lysozyme for hydrolysis of bacterial walls.
➢ Main Excretory
➢ Wharton’s Duct – main excretory duct
- Wall of main excretory duct is enveloped
externally by dense connective tissue
that is supplied with blood vessel and
nerves.
- Generally stratified columnar, but
sometimes, pseudostratified columnar.
 ➢ The stroma of pancreas consists:
1) Capsule
(thin connective tissue that envelopes the
gland)
2) Septa
(thin connective tissue that divides the organ
and serve as passageway for blood etc.)
3) Reticular Tissue
(support the structures within the lobules)
➢ The Parenchyma consist:
1) Islets of Langerhans
(comprise the endocrine portion)
(small aggregates of pale-staining cells)
(Only 2% of the volume)
2) Secretory Units & Intralobular Ducts
(comprise the exocrine portion)
(accounts 98%)
(compound tubuloacinar serous gland)
(secretes pancreatic juice, 1.2 liters a day)

SUBLINGUAL GLAND STROMA

➢ Smallest of the major glands supportive tissue of an epithelial organ,
➢ Branched tubuloacinar glands consisting of connective tissues and blood
➢ Almond-shaped vessels
➢ Mixed gland but mucous cells predominate and the
main product of the gland is mucus
➢ Its serous cells are embedded in the mucous acini
that forms the serous demilunes.

PANCREAS

➢ mixed exocrine-endocrine gland

➢ soft, pinkish organ and 12-15 cm long, 60-140 g in
weight
➢ elongated retroperitoneal organ (located behind the
peritonium)
➢ Consist of:
1) Head (related to the duodenum)
2) Body (spans the posterior abdominal wall)
3) Tail (related to the hilus of the spleen)
Each pancreatic acinar cell is pyramidal, with secretory
(zymogen) granules in the narrow apical end and Golgi
complexes, much rough ER, and a large nucleus at the
basal end.
Intercalated ducts draining pancreatic acini, including
their initial centroacinar cells that insert into the acinar
lumen, secrete bicarbonate ions (HCO3−) to neutralize
chyme entering the duodenum from the stomach.
DUCTS OF THE PANCREAS
Secretion of pancreatic acini drain into intercalated ducts
whose wall is simple squamous or simple low cuboidal
epithelium.
The epithelial cells of the intercalated ducts are pale-
staining cells (Centroacinar cells) that are unique in
pancreas
LIVER
➢ largest internal organ
➢ 1.5 kg or 2% of the body weight.
➢ Located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen
just below the diaphragm
➢ Divided into several lobes of unequal size: right,
left, quadrate and caudate.
➢ Both exocrine and endocrine gland
The main digestive function of the liver is production of
bile, a complex substance required for the emulsification,
hydrolysis, and uptake of fats in the duodenum.
➢ The liver secretes hormone too: thrombopoietin and
erythropoietin.

FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
• Synthesis and endocrine secretion into the blood of
the major plasma proteins, including albumins,
fibrinogen, apolipoproteins, transferrin, and many
others
• Conversion of amino acids into glucose
(gluconeogenesis);
• Breakdown (detoxification) and conjugation of
ingested toxins, including many drugs;
• Amino acid deamination, producing urea removed
from blood in kidneys;
• Storage of glucose in glycogen granules and
triglycerides in small lipid droplets;
• Storage of vitamin A (in hepatic stellate cells) and
other fat-soluble vitamins;
• Removal of effete erythrocytes (by specialized
macrophages, or Kupffer cells);
• Storage of iron in complexes with the protein ferritin.
HEPATIC LOBULE
➢ Polygonal structure, 0.7 mm to 2.0 mm in diameter
➢ Well-delineated from other hepatic lobules
➢ Portal Area – a triangular area if interlobular
connective tissue that contains a Portal Triad.
➢ Portal Triad – refers to
Branch of Hepatic Artery – supplies O2 in the
lobule
Hepatic Portal Vein – supplies blood that is rich in
nutrients but low O2
Bile Duct – where bile flows into gallbladder
➢ Hepatocytes are arranged in 1-2 layers called
Hepatic Plates (Hepatic Cords), supported by a
delicate stroma of reticulin fibers
➢ The hepatic plates are arranged around the vein,
Central Vein (Terminal Hepatic Venule), located at
the center of the lobule.
About 75% of the blood entering the liver is nutrient-rich
(but O2-poor) blood from the portal vein arising from the
stomach, intestines, and spleen; the other 25% comes Lymph Formation and Lymphatic Vessels in the
Liver
from the hepatic artery and supplies the organ’s O2.
➢ Liver is the main source of the lymph.
➢ Lymph is formed through the diffusion of plasma
Hepatocytes (Liver Cells) into the Space of Disse.
➢ Space of Disse
➢ Hepatocytes, the key cells of this organ, are among - Narrow gap that exists between the
the most functionally diverse cells of the body. hepatic plates and hepatic sinusoids.
➢ Are large cuboidal or polyhedral epithelial cells, with - It contains Perisinusoidal Cells (of Ito),
large, round central nuclei and eosinophilic sometime called Lipocytes, Interstitial
cytoplasm rich in mitochondria. Cells or Stellate Cells.
➢ Contain single nucleus but some have two. ➢ Perisinusoidal Cells (of Ito)
➢ Has 2 Surfaces: Lateral Surfaces and Sinusoidal - Have numerous droplets in their
Surfaces. cytoplasm which contains dissolved
➢ The surfaces of the hepatocytes are provided with Vitamin A
microvilli, but only numerous in sinusoidal surface. - Body’s main storage for Vitamin A
➢ Hepatocytes have many functions, including
endocrine (plasma protein secretion), exocrine
(bile secretion), glucose storage (glycogen
granules), and detoxification (using SER and
peroxisomes).
➢ The lateral surface of adjacent hepatocytes forms
the Bile Canaliculi.
- The bile canaliculi form a complex
anastomosing network of channels
through the hepatocyte plates that end
near the portal tracts

Hepatic Sinusoids

➢ Hepatic Sinusoids (Sinusoidal Capillaries) is the
space between the hepatic plates, that drain into the
central vein.
➢ Contains 2 Types of Cells:
1) Endothelial Cells
- Comprise the fenestrated endothelial cells
- They are flattened cells with centrally
located oval nucleus and scant cytoplasm.
In summary, lymph is formed by diffusion of plasma in the
Space of Disse, it then flows in the Space of Mall (narrow
gap that separates the tissue in the portal area) before it
gets finally collected by the lymphatic capillaries in the
interlobular septa.
Bile Passages

2) Kupffer Cells (liver macrophage) ➢ Bile is synthesized by the hepatocytes and

- Like all macrophage, derived from secreted into the bile canaliculi (very small tube;
monocytes 0.5 to 1.5 um in diameter; interconnected with
- Appear as stellate cells that possess each other)
cytoplasmic process ➢ Bile Canaliculi discharge their bile at the
- Its cytoplasm is filled with clear vacuoles, periphery of hepatic lobule into cholangioles that
phagocytosed material and lysosomes. drain into the interlobular ducts then finally into
- Antigen-presenting cell Bile Ducts.
- FUNCTION: Phagocytose bacteria and
particulate material present in sinusoidal
blood. They also remove worn out RBCs
from circulation and free their iron content
for recycling.
Into the canaliculi hepatocytes continuously secrete bile,
a mixture of bile acids (organic acids such as cholic acid),
bile salts (the deprotonated forms of bile acids),
electrolytes, fatty acids, phospholipids, cholesterol,
and bilirubin.
Bile acids/salts have an important function in emulsifying
the lipids in the duodenum, promoting their digestion and
absorption.
Bilirubin is a pigmented breakdown product of heme that
is released from splenic macrophages primarily, but also
from Kupffer cells, and carried to hepatocytes bound to
albumen. Released into the duodenum with bile, bilirubin
is converted by intestinal bacteria into other pigmented
products, some of which are absorbed in the intestinal
mucosa to be processed and excreted again in the liver
or excreted into urine by the kidneys.
3 WAYS OF LOOKING AT THE STRUCTURE OF
LIVER
1) Classic Hepatic Lobule - with blood flowing past
hepatocytes from the portal areas to a central venule,
emphasizes the endocrine function of the structure
producing factors for uptake by plasma.
2) Portal Lobule - more useful when considering the
exocrine function of these cells, that is, bile
secretion. The portal area has the bile ductule at the
center, and bile, moving in the opposite direction as
the blood, flows toward it from all the surrounding
hepatocytes.
3) Hepatic Acini - Emphasizes the nature of the blood
supply to the hepatocytes and the oxygen gradient
from the hepatic artery branch to the central vein
➢ Zone I in the Acinus - get the most oxygen and
nutrients and can most readily carry out functions
requiring oxidative metabolism such as protein
synthesis
➢ Zone II - hepatocytes have an intermediate range
of metabolic functions between those in zones I
and III.
➢ Zone III - near the central vein, get the least
oxygen and nutrients. They are the preferential
sites of glycolysis, lipid formation, and drug
biotransformations and are the first hepatocytes
to undergo fatty accumulation and ischemic
necrosis.
 GALLBLADDER
Contraction of smooth muscle cells of the gallbladder is
induced by the hormone, cholecytoskinin, produced by
➢ Pear-shaped, hollow pouch that lies in a shallow the enteroendocrine cells of small intestine. When the
depression (gallbladder fossa) on the right edge smooth muscle cell contracts, the sphincter of Oddi reacts
of visceral surface of the liver. by relaxing and bile flows into the duodenum. Release of
➢ capable of storing 30-50 mL of bile CCK is, in turn, stimulated by the presence of ingested
➢ Bile is first brought in the gallbladder, where it is fats in the small intestine.
concentrated, acidified and temporarily stored,
then releasing it in duodenum
➢ MUCOSA: Only epithelium and lamina propria
- Epithelium: Simple Tall Columnar
- Lamina Propria: Loose CT, forms Simple
tubuloalveolar glands that’s secretes
mucus
➢ MUSCULARIS: Bundles of smooth muscle cells
oriented longitudinally, circularly and obliquely.
➢ OUTERMOST: Organ’s posterior and inferior
surfaces (serosa) and over the surface of the
organ, that is related to the liver (Adventitia)
 MODULE 13 & 14: DIGESTIVESY SYSTEM
DR. CABRIDO’S PPT

Lesson 1 – Components of the

Digestive System
The function of the digestive system is digestion
and absorption. Digestion is the breakdown of food into
small molecules, which are then absorbed into the body.
The digestive system is divided into two major parts: The
digestive tract (alimentary canal) is a continuous tube with
two openings: the mouth and the anus; and accessory
glands.

1. Mouth

2. Pharynx and the Esophagus

3. Stomach

4. Small Intestine

5. Large Intestine

6. Three Accessory Organs: pancreas, liver, and

gallbladder

Lesson 2 – Digestive Enzymes

1. Salivary amylase
2. Pepsin
3. Pancreatic amylase
4. Trypsin
5. Maltase
6. Peptidase
7. Lipase
 Diseases arising from consuming poor diet:

Obesity, Type 2 diabetes, and Cardiovascular disease.

1. Obesity is a complex disease involving an

Lesson 3 – Nutrition and Human
Health
1. Components of a balanced diet: carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, vitamins and minerals.
2. Diseases arising from consuming poor diet:
obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular
disease.
excessive amount of body fat. Obesity isn't just a
cosmetic concern. It is a medical problem that
increases your risk of other diseases and health
problems, such as heart disease, diabetes, high
blood pressure and certain cancers.
Obesity is generally caused by eating too much
and moving too little. If you consume high
amounts of energy, particularly fat and sugars,
but do not burn off the energy through exercise
and physical activity, much of the surplus energy
will be stored by the body as fat

2. Type 2 diabetes

Type 2 diabetes is an impairment in the way the

body regulates and uses sugar (glucose) as a
fuel. This long-term (chronic) condition results in
too much sugar circulating in the bloodstream.
Eventually, high blood sugar levels can lead to
disorders of the circulatory, nervous and immune
systems.

Differences between Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes

 People with type 1 diabetes don't produce

insulin. You can think of it as not having a key.
People with type 2 diabetes don't respond to
insulin as well as they should and later in
the disease often don't make enough insulin. You
can think of it as having a broken key.

3. Cardiovascular Diseases

Hypertension
Stroke
Heart Attack
Atherosclerosis
 MTHH22 – 18 HUMAN HISTOLOGY I LECTURE

MODULE 15: URINARY SYSTEM

2ND SEMESTER I S.Y 2021 – 2022
LECTURER: DR. AVELINDA CABRIDO
TRANSCRIBED BY: MAY FORTES

WHAT IS EXCRETORY SYSTEM? FOUR ORGANS OF EXCRETORY

 The excretory system is the system of an
organism’s body that performs the functions of
excretion, the bodily process of discharging
wastes.
 The system of organs that regulates the amount
of water in the body and filters and eliminates
from the blood the wastes produced by
metabolism.
FUNCTIONS:
➢ Homeostasis – maintenance of body’s internal
environment (acid-base balance, water and
electrolyte concentrations) within normal limits
through excretion of waste products and excess
water through urine,
➢ Production of Hormones – Renin Erythropoietin
and thrombopoietin
➢ Also produce, kinins and calcitrol (Vitamin A)
Kidney synthesizes:
SYSTEM
KIDNEY
They filter wastes and poisons out of the blood. It
performs four main functions to produce urine, filtration,
reabsorption and secretion.
URETERS
It carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Muscles
in the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing
urine downward, away from the kidneys.
URINARY BLADDER
This triangle-shaped hollow organ is located in lower
abdomen. It is held in place by ligaments that are attached
to other organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder’s walls
relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten
to empty urine through the urethra

➢ Almost all renin in the body

➢ 90% of erythropoietin
➢ Small amount of thrombopoietin
Parts of Excretory System:
✓ Pairs of kidneys
✓ Ureters
✓ Urinary Bladder
✓ Urethra
URETHRA
This tube allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain
signals the bladder muscles to tighten, which squeezes
urine out of the bladder.
Functions and Structure of Nephron

➢ Functional unit of the kidney.

➢ Over 1 million per kidney.
➢ It regulates water and soluble substances in the
blood by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is
needed, and excreting the rest as urine
 Loop of the Nephron (Loop of Henle)
➢ U-shaped tube that consists of a descending limb
and an ascending limb.
➢ Begins in the cortex, receiving filtrate from the
PCT, extends into the medulla and then returns
to the cortex to empty into the distal convoluted
tubule (DCT.)
➢ Its primary role is to reabsorb water and sodium
chloride from the filtrate.

Distal Convulated Tubule

➢ A portion of kidney nephron between the loop of
nephron and the collecting duct system.
Different Parts of Nephron ➢ It plays a key role in regulating extracellular fluid
volume and electrolyte homeostasis

Collecting Duct
➢ Empties into calyces.
➢ Carry fluid from cortex through medulla.
➢ The kidneys filter unwanted substances from the
blood and produce urine to excrete them.

THREE – STEP PROCESS OF URINE

FORMATION

Glomerular Filtration
➢ A separation of smaller substances in the
plasma such as glucose, amino acids, ions, and
Glomerular Capsule water from larger substance in plasma such as
platelets, white blood cells, red blood cells, and
➢ Also known as Bowman’s capsule.
proteins.
➢ A sac that encloses glomerulus.
➢ This process occurs at the renal corpuscles.
➢ Transfers filtrate from the glomerulus to the
The substances here are delivered to the
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT.)
nephron via afferent arteriole and into the
glomerulus.
➢ Smaller substances are easily diffuse across
Proximal Convulated Tubule the membrane of Bowman’s Capsule leaving
➢ A thick, constantly active segment of the behind the larger substances in the glomerulus.
nephron. The smaller substances in Bowman’s Capsule,
➢ That reabsorbs most of the useful substances of now called filtrate, will move through the kidney
the filtrate sodium (65%), water (65%), tubules.
bicarbonate (90%), chloride (50%), glucose
(nearly 100%).
➢ The primary site for secretion of waste, drugs,
hydrogen ions.
Tubular Reabsorption
➢ A movement of substances from the tubules of
nephron into the peritubular capillaries.
➢ After Bowman’s Capsule, the filtrate moves into
the Proximal Convoluted Tubule.
➢ Substances such as water, glucose, amino
acids, ions are reabsorbed back into the body via
the peritubular capillaries.
➢ From the Proximal Convoluted tubule, the
substance moves into the U-shaped structure,
called Loop of Henle.
➢ Descending Limb & Ascending Limb.
Tubular Secretion
➢ A movement of substances from peritubular
capillaries into the tubules of the nephron.
➢ After the Loop of Henle, the reigning substances
enter the distal convoluted tubules.
➢ From there, we can see the Tubular Secretion of
ammonia hydrogen ions, potassium ions, and
drugs.
➢ Finally, the Distal Convoluted Tubules, the
substances are now called Urine.
➢ It will then enter the collecting duct and there, the
last tubular reabsorption of water. This is where
the dilution or concentration of urine occurs.
ROLE OF KIDNEY IN HOMEOSTASIS
Maintaining Acid-Base Balance:
➢ Acid-Base Balance refers to the degree of
acidity or alkalinity in the human body and it is
measured by the pH scale.
The Role of the Kidneys in Acid-Base Balance:
➢ The kidney’s main role in acid-base balance is
through the excretion of acid in the form of
hydrogen (H+) ions.
What is pH scale?
➢ It is the negative logarithm of concentration of
solution.
Who proposed pH scale?
➢ Soren Sorensen
➢ Normal arterial blood pH is approximately 7.40
and the normal range is tightly regulated to stay
between 7.35 and 7.45
TYPES OF ACID-BASE DISORDERS
Acidosis (Fall in pH)
➢ Acidosis Is a condition of having a lower pH than
the normal pH of the blood.
➢ The pH value of acidosis is less than or below
7.35.
➢ Occurs when your kidneys and lungs can’t keep
your body’s pH in balance.
➢ Acidosis leads to CNS depression and coma.
➢ Death occurs when pH is below 7.0.
Types of Acidosis OEDEMA
➢ Respiratory Acidosis
A condition whereby a prolonged decreased
breathing rate causes the blood’s pH to fall.

➢ Metabolic Acidosis
A condition whereby increased hydrogen ion, or
decreased bicarbonate concentration occurs in
the body

Alkalosis (Rise in pH)

➢ Alkalosis is the condition of having a higher
pH than the normal pH of the blood.
➢ The pH value of alkalosis is more than 7.45.
➢ Death occurs when the pH is above 7.6.

Types of Alkalosis
➢ Respiratory Alkalosis
A condition whereby a prolonged increased
KIDNEY STONE
breathing rate causes the blood’s pH to rise

➢ Metabolic Alkalosis
A process where upon
decreased ion, or increased
bicarbonate concentrations
occur in the body.
UREMIA NEPHRITIS
 MTHH22 – 18 HUMAN HISTOLOGY I LECTURE

MODULE 16: MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

2ND SEMESTER I S.Y 2021 – 2022
LECTURER: DR. AVELINDA CABRIDO
TRANSCRIBED BY: MAY FORTES

MALE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT

TESTES EPIDYDIMIS

➢ The testes are oval organs about the size of very

large olives that lie in the scrotum, secured at either end
➢ The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests on the
by a structure called the spermatic cord.
backside of each testicle. It carries and stores sperm
➢ Most men have two testes. The testes are
cells that are created in the testes.
responsible for making testosterone, the primary male
➢ It’s also the job of the epididymis to bring the sperm to
sex hormone, and for producing sperm.
maturity — the sperm that emerge from the testes are
➢ Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes
called seminiferous tubules. These tubules are immature and incapable of fertilization.
responsible for producing the sperm cells through a ➢ During sexual arousal, contractions force the sperm into
process called spermatogenesis. the vas deferens.
 VAS DEFERENS
➢ The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that
travels from the epididymis into the pelvic cavity, to just
behind the bladder.
➢ The vas deferens transports mature sperm to the
urethra in preparation for ejaculation.
SEMINAL VESICLE
➢ The seminal vesicles make a sugar-rich fluid
(fructose) that provides sperm with a source of
energy and helps with the sperms’ ability to move
(motility).
➢ The fluid of the seminal vesicles makes up most of the
volume of your ejaculatory fluid, or ejaculate.
PROSTATE GLANDS
➢ The prostate gland is a walnut-sized structure
that’s located below the urinary bladder in front of the
rectum.
➢ The prostate gland contributes additional fluid
to the ejaculate. Prostate fluids also help to nourish
the sperm.
➢ The urethra, which carries the ejaculate to be
expelled during orgasm, runs through the center of the
prostate gland.
URETHRA
➢ The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the
bladder to outside of your body. In males, it has
the additional function of expelling (ejaculating)
semen when you reach orgasm.
➢ When the penis is erect during sex, the flow of urine
is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be
ejaculated at orgasm
➢ There is a sphincter muscle between urinary bladder
and urethra
 loose and elastic, allowing for changes in penis size
BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS during an erection.
 The glans: This is the cone-shaped end of the penis.
The glans, which is also called the head of the penis,
is covered with a loose layer of skin called foreskin.
This skin is sometimes removed in a procedure
called circumcision.
 The opening of the urethra — the tube that
transports both semen and urine out of the body —
is located at the tip of the glans penis. The penis also
contains many sensitive nerve endings.

Semen, which contains sperm, is expelled (ejaculated)

through the end of the penis when a man reaches sexual
climax (orgasm). When the penis is erect, the flow of urine
is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be
➢ The bulbourethral glands, or Cowper’s glands, are ejaculated at orgasm.
pea-sized structures located on the sides of the
urethra, just below the prostate gland. These glands
produce a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly
into the urethra. This fluid serves to lubricate the SCROTUM
urethra and to neutralize any acidity that may be
present due to residual drops of urine in the urethra

PENIS

It is the thick-skinned sac that surrounds and protects

the testes. The scrotum also acts as a climate-control
system for the testes because they need to be slightly
The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse. It has
cooler than body temperature for normal sperm
three parts:
development. The cremaster muscles in the wall of the
 The root: This is the part of the penis that attaches scrotum relax to allow the testes to hang farther from the
to the wall of your abdomen. body to cool or contract to pull the testes closer to the
 The body or shaft: Shaped like a tube or cylinder, body for warmth or protection.
the body of the penis is made up of three internal
chambers. Inside these chambers there’s a special, 34 degrees centigrade is the temperature inside the
sponge-like erectile tissue that contains thousands scrotum.
of large spaces that fill with blood when you’re
sexually aroused. As the penis fills with blood, it
becomes rigid and erect, which allows for
penetration during sex. The skin of the penis is

EJACULATORY DUCTS
These are formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and
the seminal vesicles. The ejaculatory ducts empty into
the urethra.
DIFFERENT STAGES IN SPERM
PRODUCTION
Spermatogenesis
➢ is the process of sperm cell development. Rounded
immature sperm cells undergo successive mitotic
and meiotic divisions (spermatocytogenesis) and a
metamorphic change (spermiogenesis) to produce
spermatozoa.
Mitosis and Meiosis
➢ Mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is the process of cell
duplication - two daughter cells are formed with
exactly the same DNA and chromosomal content of
the original diploid (2N) mother cell. Human cells
contain 46 chromosomes - 22 pairs of homologous
autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.
➢ Mitosis (M) encompasses just one step in the
eukaryotic cell cycle: G1 > S > G2 > M > C. Cells
grow during the dominant G1 phase. Replication of
chromosomes occurs in the S phase. Preparation for
mitosis takes place during G2 - replication of
organelles and synthesis of microtubules. Interphase
includes the combined stages G1, S, and G2.
➢ During mitosis: chromosomes condense, the nuclear
envelope disappears, and spindle fibers begin to
form from microtubules (prophase); centromeres of
duplicate sister chromatids align along the spindle
equator (metaphase); chromatids separate and
migrate toward opposite poles (anaphase); the
mitotic apparatus is disassembled, autonomous
nuclear envelopes are established, and the
chromosomes uncoil (telophase). The final stage of
the cell cycle, when cell division actually occurs, is
called cytokinesis (C).
➢ Meiosis is a special process of reductional cell
division; it results in the formation of four gametes
containing half (1N) the number of chromosomes
found in somatic cells. Haploid gametes unite at
fertilization to create a diploid zygote. Remember that
in mammals the heterogametic male (XY)
determines the sex of the embryo. Approximately
one-half of spermatozoa contain either an X or Y
chromosome (the sex chromosomal complement of
mammalian females is XX, and therefore, ova can
only contribute an X chromosome to the offspring).
Genes carried on the X chromosome that inhibit
spermatogenesis are inactivated in XY somatic cells.
➢ Meiosis differs from mitosis in two critical respects.
During prophase of meiosis I, chromosomes pair
along their length and come in contact in discrete
areas of synapsis (chiasmata). Chromatids can
exchange base pairs by crossing-over. The
recombination of segments of chromosomes allows
for continual generation of genetic variability (ie.,
rapid evolutionary progress) and provides a
mechanism for correcting damage in the DNA helix.
Secondly, nonidentical sister chromatids do not
replicate between serial nuclear divisions. Meiosis II
is essentially mitotic.
➢
(An unusual natural circumstance exists in the
creeping vole - males normally have OY gametes;
the X chromosome is eliminated from the cell line by
nondisjunction and the companion XXY cell
presumably does not complete meiosis [in most
mammals OY is lethal]).
Spermacytogenesis
➢ During spermatocytogenesis primitive cells called
spermatogonia proliferate by mitosis. Several
different types of spermatogonia have been identified
(A-0 through A-4, intermediate [IN], and B). Only the
discriminating anatomist can actually distinguish
among types of spermatogonia. Mitosis ends when a
B spermatogonium yields two primary
spermatocytes.

➢ The diploid number of primary spermatocytes is
halved during meiosis. A primary spermatocyte is
transformed into two secondary spermatocytes
during meiosis I - these cells then in turn are
converted into (1N) spermatids during meiosis II. The
second meiotic division is rapid (and therefore very
few secondary spermatocytes can be identified in
histological sections). Spermatocytes and
spermatids tend to be larger than their ancestral
spermatogonia.
➢ Males have an almost unlimited capacity to produce
germ cells; this is accomplished by replenishment of
A spermatogonia early in mitosis. Although the
mechanics of renewal are not totally understood, it
appears that a stem cell (A-0) divides into an A-1
spermatogonia and an operative copy of itself. The
A-1 cell becomes dedicated to spermatocytogenesis
and the A-0 cell is kept in reserve for future divisions.
➢ Endogenous damage to the the genetic material
(eg., base deamination, depurination, methylation,
oxidative insult) is inevitable in proliferative cells - a
battery of repair mechanisms assure that the DNA
fidelity of gametes is sustained.
Spermiogenesis
➢ Throughout spermatocytogenesis cells retain a
rounded configuration. Spermatids undergo a
dramatic change in form during spermiogenesis - into
the streamline spermatozoa adapted for fertilization.
Spermiogenesis involves nuclear condensation,
formation of the acrosomal cap, and development of
a tail.
➢ The acrosome is derived from the Golgi apparatus.
Centrioles (points of organization of spindle fibers)
migrate to a post nuclear region after the completion
of meiosis. The distal centriole provides a template
for accretion of cytoskeletal elements comprising the
contractile lattice of the tail. Mitochondria become
concentrated into the sheath of the middle piece.
➢ Cells do not divide during spermiogenesis.
HORMONE REGULATION OF
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Gonadotrophin – Releasing
Hormone
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is a tiny peptide
that stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to produce
luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone
Gonadotrophic Hormone
The pituitary gland in the brain produces and secretes the
hormones luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-
stimulating hormone in response to gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (FSH). These hormones cause the
testicles to produce testosterone in men. They cause the
ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone in women.
Follicle – Stimulating Hormones
Follicle Stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the
pituitary gland increases the rate of LH receptor synthesis
in ovary cells
Luteinizing Hormones
Luteinizing hormone is a hormone produced by
gonadotropic cells in the anterior pituitary gland.
Testosterone
Testosterone is a hormone produced by the human
body. It's mainly produced in men by the testicles.
Testosterone affects a man's appearance and sexual
development. It stimulates sperm
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED
DISEASE
Causes
➢ Bacteria. Gonorrhea, syphilis and chlamydia are
examples of STIs that are caused by bacteria.
Parasites. Trichomoniasis is an STI caused by a
parasite. Viruses. STIs causes by viruses include
HPV, genital herpes and HIV. Other kinds of
 infections — hepatitis A, B and C viruses, shigella
infection and giardia infection — can be spread
through sexual activity, but it's possible to be infected
without sexual contact.

Risk Factors

➢ Having sexual contact with multiple partners. The

more people you have sexual contact with, the
greater your risk. Having a history of STIs. Having
one STI makes it much easier for another STI to take
hold.

➢ Being forced to engage in sexual activity. Dealing

with rape or assault is difficult, but it's important to
see a doctor as soon as possible to receive
screening, treatment and emotional support.

➢ Pelvic pain
➢ Pregnancy complications
➢ Eye inflammation
➢ Arthritis
➢ Pelvic inflammatory disease
➢ Infertility Heart disease
➢ Certain cancers, such as HPV-associated cervical
and rectal cancers

SPERM have acrosomal cap that is attached in the

nucleus of the egg cell.
 MTHH22 – 18 HUMAN HISTOLOGY I LECTURE
MODULE 17: FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
2ND SEMESTER I S.Y 2021 – 2022
LECTURER: DR. AVELINDA CABRIDO
TRANSCRIBED BY: MAY FORTES
Source: Module 17 VLE Videos, Esteban & Gonzales 5th
Ed., Junquiera
The female reproductive system is composed of a pair of
ovaries along with oviducts, vagina, cervix, uterus, and
the external genitalia that are located in the pelvic region.
These parts along with a pair of mammary glands that are
integrated both functionally and structurally also support
the process of ovulation, fertilization, birth and finally the
child care.
Internal Genitalia: Ovaries, Oviducts (Uterine Tubes),
Uterus and Vagina
External Genitalia: Clitoris, Labia majora and minora and
Mammary Glands (not included in the system but takes
part in the process.)
Responsible in producing the female gametes (oocytes),
provides the environment for fertilization, and holds the
embryo during its complete development through the fetal
stage until birth.
OVARY
➢ Slightly flattened, almond-shaped, ovoid organs
➢ SIZE: 3-cm long, 1.5-cm wide, and 1-cm thick
➢ Sites of oogenesis and they produce few
hormones.
➢ Each ovary is covered by a simple cuboidal
epithelium, the Germinal epithelium. Beneath
this epithelium, is a dense irregular connective
tissue, the tunica albuginea, which forms the
capsule around the ovary.
➢ Contains Cortex and Medulla:
Cortex
- thick peripheral zone that surrounds the
medulla
- region with a stroma (collagenous CT)
- contains many ovarian follicles varying
greatly in size after menarche (first
menstruation)
Medulla
- Internal part of the ovary
- A loose CT rich with blood vessels
Early Development of the Ovary
1st Month of Embryonic Life
Small population of primordial germ cells migrates
from the yolk sac to the gonadal primordia. There the
cells divide and differentiate as oogonia.
3rd Month
Oogonia begin to enter the prophase of the first meiotic
division but arrest after completing synapsis and
recombination, without progressing to later stages of
meiosis. These cells arrested in meiosis are called
primary oocyte. Each primary oocyte becomes
surrounded by flattened support cells called follicular
cells to form an ovarian follicle.
7th Month
Most oogonia have transformed into primary oocytes
within follicles but many primary oocytes, are lost through
a slow, continuous degenerative process called atresia.
Ovarian Follicles;
Follicular Growth and
Development
Ovarian follicle consists of an oocyte surrounded by
one or more layers of epithelial cells within a basal
lamina. Can be found in the cortex of the ovary.
The Follicular Growth involves growth of the oocyte,
proliferation and changes in the follicular cells, as well as
proliferation and differentiation of the stromal fibroblasts
around each follicle.
Primordial Follicles
consist of a primary oocyte enveloped by a single layer of
the flattened follicular cells or granulosa cells and basal
lamina.
➢ Primary Oocyte
- 15 – 30 um in diameter and the whole
follicle is 40 um
- Has large, eccentrically placed, vesicular
nucleus with a large nucleolus
➢ Granulosa Cells
- Flattened and supporting cells
 - Provides nutrients and oxygen for the
developing gametes.
Primary Follicles
➢ Granulosa Cells
- The flattened follicular cells increase in
size and become several layers of
granulosa cells
- Follicular Fluid (Liquor folliculi) –
starts to appear between the granulosa
cells
➢ Oocyte
- Gradually increase in size
- When already twice its original size, a
zona pellucida will develop around oocyte
- Zona pellucida is a thick, deep-staining,
glycoprotein membrane
The stroma immediately surrounds the ovarian follicle
then become organized to form a sheath, Theca folliculi,
that envelops the follicle
Theca Folliculi
- Richly supplied with capillaries
- Under the influence of Luteinizing
hormone (LH), theca will secrete
androstenedione, then transformed into
estrogen, with the help of aromatase
(enzyme under FSH)
- Then, estrogen diffuse into the capillaries
to be carried in the blood.
Secondary Follicles (Antral Follicle)
➢ The primary follicle increases in size
➢ The follicular fluid between the granulosa cells,
forms a single cresentic, fluid-filled cavity called
antrum and when developed is antral follicle
 ➢ Cumulus oophorus - thickening of granulosa Graafian Follicle (Mature Follicle)
cells on one pole ➢ Final stage in differentiation of an ovarian follicle
➢ Ready to expel its ovum or secondary oocyte
Follicular Liquid ➢ Reaches 1.5 to 2.5 cm in diameter and occupies
Follicular fluid contains the large GAG hyaluronic acid, the whole thickness of the ovarian cortex. Then it
growth factors, plasminogen, fibrinogen, the will bulge out of the free surface of the organ.
anticoagulant heparan sulfate proteoglycan, and high ➢ Takes 14 days for ovarian follicle to matures
concentrations of steroids (progesterone,
androstenedione, and estrogens) with binding proteins. Many ovarian follicles developed but only one
reaches maturity (dominant follicle) and undergoes
ovulation.

Follicular Atresia
Most ovarian follicles undergo the degenerative process
called atresia, in which follicular cells and oocytes die and
are disposed of by phagocytic cells.
Atresia involves apoptosis and detachment of the
granulosa cells, autolysis of the oocyte, and collapse of
the zona pellucida.
Macrophages invade the degenerating follicle and
phagocytose the apoptotic material and other debris
Ovulation and Its Hormonal
Regulation
Before ovulation the oocyte completes the first meiotic
division, which it began and arrested in prophase. The
chromosomes are equally divided between the two
haploid daughter cells, but one of these retains almost all
of the cytoplasm. That cell is now the secondary oocyte
and the other becomes the first polar body (contains
minimal amount of cytoplasm) and is consigned in the
perivitelline space
Immediately after expulsion of the first polar body, the
nucleus of the oocyte begins the second meiotic
division but arrests at metaphase and never completes
meiosis unless fertilization occurs.
Ovulation
➢ Ovulation is the hormone-stimulated process by
which the oocyte is released from the ovary.
➢ Ovulation normally occurs in the 14th day of a
typical 28-day cycle.
➢ Ovum find its way through the oviduct
➢ When the ovum is released, it carries the zona
pellucida and several layers of granulosa cells,
called corona radiata.
The mature dominant follicle bulging against the tunica
albuginea develops a whitish or translucent ischemic
area, the stigma, in which tissue compaction has blocked
blood flow
Fertilization
➢ Ovum is viable only for about 24 hours after
being ovulated.
➢ But it takes 3-4 days to travel from the abdominal
cavity to the uterus through the oviduct.
Spermatozoa that are deposited in the vagina still need
to undergo Capacitation within the female genitalia tract.
Capacitation is a biochemical process that involves
changes on the surface of the spermatozoa
During fertilization, the acrosome of the capacitated
spermatozoa breaks down - by a process called
acrosomal reaction – and releases its hydrolytic
enzyme.
 Corpus Luteum
After ovulation, the granulosa cells and theca
interna of the ovulated follicle reorganize to form a
larger temporary endocrine gland, the corpus
luteum.

The cells of corpus luteum that are derived from

granulosum layer are known as granulosa lutein
cells, while those derived from theca interna are
called theca lutein cells.

Granulosa lutein cells

- Comprise 80% of the substance
of corpus luteum
- Lighter-staining and larger than
theca lutein cells
- Main source of Progesterone
- PROGESTERONE: Hormone
necessary in preparing the
mucosa of the endometrium.

Theca lutein cells

- Secrete testosterone precursor

and transformed into estrogen.

Corpus luteum degenerates if pregnancy did not

occur. The corpus luteum that persists for part of
only one menstrual cycle is called a corpus
luteum of menstruation

If pregnancy occur, the corpus luteum becomes bigger UTERUS

and remains functional and known as corpus luteum of
pregnancy. This is because of the hormone, Human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which maintain and
develop the corpus luteum.

Corpus luteum secrete another hormone, Relaxin.

Secreted by granulosa lutein cells, and helps to maintain
pregnancy by inhibiting the contractions of myometrial
muscle fibers.

UTERINE TUBE (FALLOPIAN)

➢ Size: 10 cm
➢ Lie with the broad ligaments (mesosalpinx)
➢ Transport secondary oocyte or fertilized ovum
Source: PPT from Dr. Cabrids

PARTS OF THE FEMALE (How do the sperm reach the egg cell in the
Fallopian Tube?)
REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
▪ It occurs during sexual intercourse and the sperm
coming from the male reproductive system
travels to the fallopian tube to fertilize the egg cell.
After the fertilization, the uterus is then prepared
for the nurturing of the fertilized egg.

➢ Ovaries
small paired organs located near the lateral walls of
the pelvic cavity; contains the premature egg cells
➢ Oviduct
unites into an elastic bag like structure known as
uterus
➢ Uterus
also known as the womb and it is where the
implantation and development of a baby takes
place; it is considered as the body
➢ Vagina
the birth canal; the passage where the sperms are
deposited by the penis of male reproductive system
during sexual intercourse
➢ Fallopian Tube
receives the ovulated oocyte and provides a site for
fertilization

PRODUCTION OF FEMALE
GAMETES Ovulation and the journey of egg

(When do girls start producing reproductive egg?)

▪ The ovaries of a female contain egg cells since
birth, and it will only start to mature once the
female enters puberty.
▪ Every month, one egg is released and then
moves to the fallopian tube where fertilization
occurs.
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE

A series of events that occur in the female body to

prepares it for a possible pregnancy. It takes an average
of 28 days cycle but it varies from every women (22-32
days).

Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis

It controls many hormonal glands in our body and is found
• ANTRUM – part of that follicle; in which in the
at the base of the brain
middle of an antrum, a cumulus oophorus is
formed.
• In the development of the dominant follicle, the
OVARIAN CYCLE cumulus oophorus and the egg separate together
➢ The process of producing egg cells on a monthly from the wall of the follicle and float in the middle
basis by the ovaries. of the antrum.
➢ It results to a secondary oocyte that can be
fertilized by a sperm cell to result into a • Eventually, the dominant follicle will start to push
pregnancy; and can also result to menstrual out against the edge of the ovary and the
cycle. enzymes within the follicle will break down the
wall between the ovary and the follicle and finally,
the egg pops out. The follicle that it was in
According to the Video provided in VLE collapses and forms a structure called corpus
luteum.
THREE PHASE
THE OVARIAN CYCLE • If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum
1. Follicular Phase – ovarian follicles mature and reaches a maximum size in 10 days. Now, it
➢ Pituitary
ready gland/hypophysis
an egg for release secrets FSH
undergoes apoptosis (process of self-
which stimulates the
2. Ovulation – release of this eggdevelopment of primary
destructing that cells do).
follicles
3. Luteal Phasein the ovary.of the corpus luteum
– formation • However, if the egg is fertilized, the corpus luteum
➢
and Developing follicles
either pregnancy will secrete
or luteolysis estrogen to
(degredation keeps on living and produces estrogen and
of corpus luteum)
thickened the uterine wall. progesterone which prepares the lining of the
➢ Pituitary gland starts to secrete LH which uterus for implantation where the egg is going to
• Day – ovulation
Firstcauses the eggs to develop
occurintoin 14 follicles
th and
day of the be developed.
startcycle.
off as primordial. And for the first 13 days, • The ovarian cycle gradually stops at the age of 50
the number of hormones secreted by the
➢ The remains of the Graafian follicle (mature or less and this is called menopause (the result
granulosa cells grow each day and affects the of ovarian failure).
follicle) will develop into a corpus luteum
hormone levels of blood.
• When whichthe will secrete progesterone
pre-antral follicle is formed, to thickened
the
the uterine
granulosa cells wall.
proliferate and the hormone it
➢ Progesterone
produced will inhibitinto
will be converted theestrogen
production andof
FSHit to the
release stopblood.
the production of another follicle.
• ➢
As the
Whencycle goes, lots of
fertilization follicles
does are formed
not take place,but
the
onlycorpus
one egg gets ovulated
luteum will start and it is called the
to degenerate and
dominant follicle.
stop secreting progesterone.
➢ Pituitary gland is no longer inhibited and FSH
is secreted again to cause a development of
a new follicle.
 UTERINE CYCLE

According to the Video provided in VLE

THE UTERINE CYCLE
➢ From Day 1-14, estrogen produced by the
developing follicle will cause the initial thickened
of the uterine wall or endometrium.
➢ Progesterone produced by the corpus luteum
continues to thicken the endometrium for a
possible pregnancy.
➢ If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum
will degenerate and will stop secreting
progesterone and the thick endometrium is not
maintained.
➢ Menstruation occurs – discharge of blood and
mucosal tissue from the uterine wall through the
vagina.
➢ Estrogen is secreted again by a new follicle. ➢ The uterine cycle is where the uterine goes
through a cyclical developmental pattern to be
ready for implantation and support of an embryo.
➢ The said cycle is under the control of ovarian
hormones.
➢ The three phases of uterine cycle are Menstrual
phase, Proliferative phase, and Secretory
phase.

THREE (3) PHASES OF UTERINE

CYCLE:
1. MENSTRUAL PHASE
➢ The beginning of the menstrual cycle is
considered to be the first day of menstrual flow.
➢ Changes in the endometrium are triggered by
changes in levels of ovarian hormones.
➢ Declining progesterone levels lead to the
reduction of blood supply to the endometrium.
➢ This results in the shedding of the stratum
functionalis layer of the uterine wall.

2. PROLIFERATIVE PHASE
➢ Estrogen secreted from the developing follicles
in the ovaries stimulate the regeneration of the
stratum functionalis
➢ The proliferation of cell repairs and begins to
thicken the endometrium.

3. SECRETORY PHASE
➢ Following ovulation, the stratum functionalis
reaches maximum preparedness for
implantation.
➢ Under the influence of rising levels of ovarian
hormone – the endometrium continues to
thicken, endometrial glands secrete glycogen.
 FETUS IN THE UTERUS
DURING SECRETORY PHASE:
If the egg is fertilized: PLACENTA
• Implantation of embryo occurs; the new embryo Interface between the mother and the developing fetus. It
is nutritionally maintained by the endometrium. attaches the uterus to the uterine wall, provided nutrients
If fertilization does not occur: to the fetus and allows the fetus to transfer waste product
• The corpus luteum disintegrates. to the mother’s blood via umbilical cord.
• Levels of progesterone and estrogen drop.
• The stratum functionalis of the uterine will
sloughs off during menstruation.
AMNIOTIC FLUID
Protect the fetus. This is the fluid that cushions the baby
Endometrial Change from outside pressure and acts as shock absorber.
▪ Additional information:
▪ During Proliferative phase which is the phase of UTERINE WALL
menstrual cycle right after menstruation under the Contracts to cause the cervix to dilate pushing the baby
influence of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) to the outside.
from the pituitary, the ovary produces increasing
amount of estrogen which causes the lining of the
uterus to become dense and richly vascularized.
The formation of endometrial glands starts to
become nice, round and robust.

OVULATION. FERTILIZATION,
IMPLANTATION

OVULATION
Refers to the release of an egg/ovum outside the ovary
and usually occurs in the 14th day of the cycle

FERTILIZATION
Fusion of the male and female gamete to form a zygote.
It happens in the fallopian tube.

IMPLANTATION MENOPAUSE
Attachment of the fertilized egg in the uterine
wall/endometrium approximately 6-7 days after • Menopause is the time in a woman’s life when
fertilization. her period stops. It usually occurs naturally, most
often after age 45.
• It happens because the woman’s ovaries stop
producing the hormones estrogen and
progesterone.

MENSTRUATION: WHAT TO
EXPECT?
• Menstruation is one of the changes during
puberty that a person with a uterus will
experience, and this is getting their period as part
of menstrual cycle. And this normally happens
between the ages of 8 and 13, and for some
people, even older.
• Generally, occurs every 21 to 35 days, and lasts
from 2 to 7 days.
 CERVIX
Opening that connects the vagina from the uterus. This
also measures where you are in your fertility cycle
VAGINA
The vagina is a fibromuscular tube with anterior and
posterior walls – these are normally collapsed and thus in
contact with one another.
The shape of the vagina is not a round tunnel. In the
transverse plane it is more like an “H” lying on the side. At
the upper ending, the vagina surrounds the cervix,
creating two domes (fornices or vaults): an anterior and a
(deeper) posterior one.
The posterior fornix is important as it acts like a natural
reservoir for semen after intravaginal ejaculation. The
semen retained in the fornix liquefies in the next 20-30
mins, allowing for easier permeation through the cervical
canal.
The vagina connects the uterus to the outside world. The
vulva and labia form the entrance, and the cervix of the
uterus protrudes into the vagina, forming the interior end.
The vagina receives the penis during sexual intercourse
and also serves as a conduit for menstrual flow from the
uterus.
EXTERNAL GENITALIA
(VULVA)
MONS PUBIS
➢ Fatty area overlying the public symphysis
➢ Covered with pubic hair after puberty
LABIA
➢ Two main sets of skin folds
➢ Labia Majora - which make up the outer margins
of the vulva and are surrounded by pubic hair
➢ Labia Minora - which are closest to the vaginal
entrance and lack hair; and larger folds
CLITORIS
➢ a small, rounded structure located at the top of
where the labia minora join together and is
actually covered by extensions of the minora that
form the prepuce (or hood) of the clitoris.
➢ Composed of sensitive Erectile tissue.
➢ Posterior to the clitoris, the urethra,
vagina, paraurethral glands and greater
vestibular glands open into the vestibule.
MAMMARY GLANDS
➢ Accessory of sex organs
➢ Associated with the breast
➢ Breast – collection of subcutaneous tissue as
well as the actual mammary glands
BREAST EXTERNAL
STRUCTURE
NIPPLE
➢ Openings of the lactiferous ducts
➢ Where the secretion or ejection of milk will
actually occur
AREOLA
➢ Darkened area of skin
➢ Rough appearance because deep to the skin is
the sebaceous glands (oil)
COOPER’S LIGAMENTS OR
SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS
➢ Provides protection, without this, the breast will
droop down
➢ Attached to the anterior portion of the breast
back towards the pectoral fascia
MAMMARY GLANDS
➢ Modified sudoriferous glands (sweat glands)
➢ Function: Lactation (synthesis, secretion,
and ejection of milk)
 HORMONES
Prolactin – responsible for milk production
Oxytocin – ejection of milk
Estrogen – a sex hormone responsible for the
development of female reproductive system and
secondary sexual characteristics.
Movement of Milk
Alveoli – Secondary Tubules – Mammary Ducts –
Lactiferous Duct – Lactiferous sinus - Nipple

COVERSAGE

TYPES OF TISSUE TO FEMALE/MALE

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM