Cyber Security Shree Medha Degree College, Ballari

Unit – 1
Introduction to Cyber Security
Cyberspace:
Cyberspace refers to the interconnected environment of computer systems, networks, and
digital communication. It is a virtual space where electronic data, information, and online activities
occur.
Cyberspace is like a vast, virtual world that exists on the internet. It's the environment where all
digital communication, information, and activities take place. Imagine it as a giant interconnected
space where people can interact, share data, and perform various tasks using computers and other
devices.
1. Nature: It is not a physical space but rather a conceptual space where digital communication,
information, and activities occur.
2. Components: Cyberspace includes the internet, websites, online platforms, social media, and
various digital technologies.
3. Interaction: In cyberspace, individuals and organizations can interact, share data, access
information, and perform various tasks using computers and other electronic devices.
4. Global Reach: Cyberspace has a global reach, allowing people from different parts of the
world to connect and communicate in real-time.
5. Importance: It plays a crucial role in modern communication, commerce, education,
entertainment, and social interactions.
6. Security Concerns: As cyberspace continues to evolve, there are concerns about
cybersecurity, including issues such as data breaches, hacking, and the protection of personal
information.
7. Technological Backbone: The infrastructure of cyberspace relies on the underlying
technology of computer networks, servers, routers, and various communication protocols.
8. Digital Economy: Cyberspace is a fundamental component of the digital economy,
facilitating online transactions, e-commerce, and the exchange of digital goods and services.
9. Challenges: Challenges in cyberspace include addressing cybersecurity threats, ensuring
online privacy, and navigating the complexities of digital governance and regulation.

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Advantages:
1. Global Connectivity: Cyberspace allows people from around the world to connect and
communicate in real-time. It has facilitated global collaboration, breaking down geographical
barriers.
2. Information Access: It provides instant access to a vast amount of information. Users can
quickly retrieve data, research topics, and stay informed about current events from virtually
anywhere.
3. Communication: Cyberspace enables various forms of communication, including emails,
instant messaging, video calls, and social media. It has revolutionized the way people interact
and stay connected.
4. E-Commerce: The rise of cyberspace has fueled the growth of e-commerce. Businesses and
consumers can engage in online transactions, making it convenient to buy and sell goods and
services globally.
5. Education and Learning: Cyberspace has transformed education by providing online learning
platforms, e-books, and educational resources. It allows students to access information and
courses from anywhere in the world.

Disadvantages:
1. Cybersecurity Threats: One of the most significant drawbacks of cyberspace is the constant
risk of cybersecurity threats. These include hacking, malware, phishing, and other malicious
activities that can compromise the confidentiality and integrity of information.
2. Privacy Concerns: Users often share personal information online, raising concerns about
privacy. Unauthorized access to personal data or surveillance can lead to identity theft,
stalking, and other privacy violations.
3. Cybercrime: The interconnected nature of cyberspace has given rise to various forms of
cybercrime, such as online fraud, scams, and cyberattacks. Criminals exploit vulnerabilities
to carry out illegal activities, causing financial and reputational damage.
4. Digital Divide: Not everyone has equal access to cyberspace, leading to a digital divide.
Socioeconomic factors, geographical location, and infrastructure limitations can create
disparities in internet access and digital literacy.

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5. Misinformation and Fake News: Cyberspace has become a breeding ground for
misinformation and fake news. False information spreads quickly through social media and
other online channels, influencing public opinion and creating confusion.
6. Addiction and Overdependence: Excessive use of the internet and online platforms can lead
to addiction and overdependence. This can have negative effects on mental health,
relationships, and overall well-being.
7. Online Harassment and Bullying: Cyberspace provides a platform for online harassment,
bullying, and cyberbullying. Individuals may face harassment, threats, or intimidation,
affecting their mental health and safety.
8. Data Breaches: Organizations storing large amounts of data online are susceptible to data
breaches. If sensitive information falls into the wrong hands, it can lead to financial losses,
reputational damage, and compromised privacy.
9. Disinformation Campaigns: Cyberspace is often used for disinformation campaigns,
influencing public opinion and political outcomes. This can have significant societal and
political implications.
10. Technology Dependence: Overreliance on technology in cyberspace can lead to a
dependence that may have negative consequences when systems fail or experience
disruptions. This dependence is especially critical in areas such as finance, healthcare, and
critical infrastructure.

Overview of computer
Computer definition
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has
the ability to store, retrieve, and process the data and to perform multiple tasks
given by the users.
• The title "Father of the Computer" is often attributed to Charles Babbage, a 19th-century
mathematician and inventor. . Invented the computer in the year 1822.
• Two things all computers have in common: hardware and software.
• Hardware is any part of your computer that has a physical structure, such as the keyboard
or mouse. It also includes all the computer's internal parts, like Motherboard, Optical drive
and many more.

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Cyber Security Shree Medha Degree College, Ballari
• Software is any set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do and how to do it.
Examples of software include web browsers, games, and word processors.
History of computer
• 2500 BC-The Abacus- It is considered as the first computer which is originated in China. It is
used to make some calculation by sliding of beads it is arranged on the frame.
• 1614 AD-Napier bones-In the year 1550 to 1617 a Scottish mathematician named an John
Napier invented Napier bones. It consists of bones and it is marked with numbers which is
used to perform multiplication.
• 1642 AD-In the year 1642 Pascal invented “Pascaline”. It is first adding machine which is
used to perform addition.
• 1834 - Charles Babbage invents the analytical engine, which improved upon mechanized
calculation technology and allowed for more general-purpose calculation
• 1887 - Herman Hollerith develops a tabulating system that uses punch cards to speed up
processing for the 1890 U.S. Census. This technology set the foundation for later
developments in computing.
• 1911 - Herman Hollerith's Tabulating Machine Company merges with two other companies
to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company, which is now called IBM.
• 1945 - University of Pennsylvania professors John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert develop the
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC), an early digital computer. The
ENIAC used punch cards and was designed to help Army gunners aim their weapons with
accuracy.
• 1947 - Bell Labs scientists develop the first transistor, a solid state electronic device with three
terminals that can be used to control electric current and voltage flow between terminals. The
transistor is an important component in nearly all electronics used today.
• 1958 - The integrated circuit debuts. Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce designed the integrated
circuit, which is also known as the computer chip. Kilby received a Nobel Prize in Physics
for his efforts.
• 1971 - Intel introduces the first microprocessor, the Intel 4004. This microprocessor combined
all the necessary chips onto one chip and made the PC possible.

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Different parts of computer
1. Monitor
• A computer monitor is an electronic device that shows pictures for
computers. Monitors often look like smaller televisions.
• The primary use of a monitor is to display images, text, video, and graphics information
generated by the computer. It can be referred to as the main output device of a computer
device.
2. Mouse
• The mouse is a small, movable device, mouse have two buttons, and some
will have a wheel in between.
• An important function of a computer mouse is to move the cursor from place to place, open
an icon, close open an application, select a folder, a text file, or drag-and-drop.
3. CPU
• The CPU is the brain of a computer, containing all the circuitry needed to
process input, store data, and output results.
• The CPU is constantly following instructions of computer programs that tell it which data to
process and how to process it. Without a CPU, we could not run programs on a computer.
4. Computer case
• The computer case is the metal and plastic box that contains the main
components of the computer, including the motherboard, central processing
unit (CPU), and power supply.
• The desktop computer case helps protect the components from electrical interference,
physical damage, and intrusive foreign objects.
5. Keyboard
• A computer keyboard is an input device used to enter characters
and functions into the computer system by pressing buttons, or
keys.
• The main purpose of a keyboard is to provide a way for users to interact with the computer
and input information.

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6. Motherboard
• The motherboard is a computer's central communications backbone
connectivity point, through which all components and external
peripherals connect.
• Without it, none of the computer pieces, such as the CPU, GPU, or hard drive, could interact.
Total motherboard functionality is necessary for a computer to work well.
7. RAM
• RAM stands for random-access memory. RAM is a temporary memory
bank where your computer stores data it needs to retrieve quickly.
• It is where the data is stored that your computer processor needs to run your applications
and open your files.
8. Hard Disk Drive
• An HDD is a “non-volatile” storage drive, which means it can retain the
stored data even when no power is supplied to the device.
• Your documents, pictures, music, videos, programs, application preferences, and operating
system represent digital content stored on a hard drive. Hard drives can be external or
internal.
9. Optical Disk Drive
• An optical disk drive (ODD) uses a laser light to read data from or write
data to an optical disc. This allows you to play music or watch movies
using pre-recorded discs.
• The back end of the optical drive contains a port for a cable that connects to the motherboard.
10. Power supply unit
• A power supply unit (PSU) is a hardware device that converts AC electricity
into DC electricity and then distributes it to the rest of the computer.
• A power supply unit is used to provide stable electricity.

Advantages of Computer
1. High Speed: One of the reasons for the improvement in the quality of life is the personal
computer's speed. The modern computer offers great speed, helping us to do our tasks within a
matter of seconds. They can handle the most complex calculations with ease and give error-free
answers.

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Cyber Security Shree Medha Degree College, Ballari
2. Accuracy: Humans make errors. Hence, while performing complex calculations, we check once
with the calculator. The fact that computers are extremely accurate makes them quite reliable. You
will trust the information or answer that a calculator gives, just due to its accuracy.
3. Automation: A lot of tasks can be automated saving a lot of time. For example, instead of
manually calculating some values like the mean or median of a large dataset, we just use Excel. This
saves a lot of time ensuring 100% accuracy.
4. Storage: The storage capacity of computers is usually in Gigabytes (GBs) or more.
Storage devices such as flash drives and hard disks are a fundamental component of most digital
devices since they allow users to preserve all kinds of information such as videos, documents,
pictures, and raw data.
5. Ease of Access: Let us say we must search for a book in a library and we don't know anything
except the name of the book. It would be an arduous task. But, on a computer, just type the name of
the file, and voila! This ease of access provided by our personal computer contributes towards
saving our time and efforts.
6. Multitasking: Multitasking means working on multiple tasks simultaneously. Suppose you read
an article online and you need to write down the meanings of the words that are unfamiliar. You
can search on Google, note down the meaning on a Word file, and continue reading the article. This
is one example of multitasking offered by computers.
7. Better understanding of data: A computer supports a lot of tools for data analysis and mining.
Organizations make use of the benefit of computers to support data analysis and visualization
helpful for decision making.
8. Reliability of Computer: The results produced by the computer system are reliable, but this can
only be true when the input data given by the user is correct and authentic.
9.Data Security: Today data is wealth, and computers play an important role in restoring this
wealth. Protecting digital data is the most vital role played by the computer. The computer protects
the data from breaches and helps the user restore data whenever needed.
10. Reduces Workload: As any technological invention is made, it helps humans reduce their
workload, as does the computer. At the same time, the computer's information is accessed by more
than one person without any duplication of work.

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Disadvantages of Computer
1. Virus and Hacking Attacks: As the technologies are developing, some other technologies try to
find loopholes in their working through various means. A virus can go to the computer systems
through email attachments, and through a removable device like a USB, etc. Further, hacking is also
unauthorized access over a computer for a few illicit purposes.
2. Fake News: Computers enable a wide array of data-sharing options. But, this becomes a medium
for the spread of spurious news. Many cases are there when fake news is shared among people
using messaging apps.
3. Lack of Concentration and Irritation: Multitasking makes our lives easier, but it comes with its
disadvantages. We try to focus on multiple tasks and notifications. This leads to a decrease in
attention span and a lack of concentration on one particular task. Also, addictive games played on
the computer contribute to irritability when not allowed to play.
4. Health Problems: Prolonged use of computers to work leads to various health problems. Working
for long hours with a computer may affect the sitting posture of the user and sometimes irritates
the eyes.
5. Increases Waste and Impacts the Environment: As technology advancements are made, there is
also updating made in particular devices. For example, mobile phones are replaced with their
updated latest versions. And with the speed at which computers and other electronic devices
replace older devices, electronic waste increases which are adversely affecting the environment.

Characteristics of Computer
1. The Diligence of Computer: The Computer is not human, so it is free from tiredness, lack of
concentration, and several other human errors. And due to this feature, it overpowered human
beings on several occasions and performed continuous operations for a long time without any
physical or mental error.
2. The Versatility of Computers: In today's world, versatility is very important, as human beings
have to perform different functions at the same time, and computers have to perform different types
of tasks and operations at the same time with full accuracy and efficiency. And today Computer is
not just a calculating machine anymore.

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3. Automation in Computer: Another important function of a computer is the automation of tasks
or routine with the help of the computer's features, such as launching a specific application or
software, sending an email, scanning for viruses, and many other maintenance tasks.
4. Storage Capacity of Computer: Computers are used to store vast amounts of data. As the
advancement in technology is increasing, computers increased their storage capacity compared to
earlier times because now computers have to store more data.
5. Task Completer: The Computer performs those task or operation which is almost impossible for
humans to complete. The computer is a task completer as it produces an output of any task which
is impossible for a human.
6. Reduces Workload: As any technological invention is made, it helps humans reduce their
workload, as does the computer. At the same time, the computer's information is accessed by more
than one person without any duplication of work.
7. Consistency of Computer: And the Computer is so consistent that it can perform trillions of
processes without errors. It means that a computer can work for 24 hours a day or 365 days
continuously. Also, it provides consistent results for the same set of data. It means that if the same
set of data is provided multiple times, it will give the same result each time.
8. The Memory of Computer: The Computer's memory is one of the most useful features of the
computer system. Computer memory stores a tremendous amount of data and makes it available
when the need arises. Computer memory is built-in memory, and it has two types Random Access
Memory and primary memory.

Generations of Computer
First Generation (1940s-1950s):
1. Characterized by vacuum tubes and punched cards.
2. These computers were very heavy and large.
3. They used low-level programming language and used no OS.
4. They were too bulky; Punch cards were used for improving the information for external
storage. Magnetic card used.
5. Examples of the first-generation computer are IBM 650, IBM 701, ENIAC, UNIVAC1, etc.

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Second Generation (1956-1963)
1. Second-generation computers used the technology of transistors rather than bulky vacuum
tubes.
2. The programming language was shifted from low level to high level programming language
and made programming comparatively a simple task for programmers.
3. Languages used for programming during this era were FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1958),
and COBOL (1959).
4. Examples of the second-generation computer are PDP-8, IBM1400 series, IBM 7090 and 7094,
UNIVAC 1107, CDC 3600, etc.
Third Generation (1964-1971)
1. During the third generation, technology envisaged a shift from huge transistors to integrated
circuits, also referred to as IC.
2. The value size was reduced and memory space and dealing efficiency were increased during
this generation.
3. Programming was now wiped-out Higher-level languages like BASIC (Beginners All-
purpose Symbolic Instruction Code).
4. Examples of the third-generation computer are IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, NCR 395, B6500,
UNIVAC 1108, etc.
Fourth Generation Computers (1971-Present)
1. In 1971 First microprocessors were used, the large-scale of integration LSI circuits built on
one chip called microprocessors.
2. Input/output devices used are pointing devices, optical scanning, keyboard, monitor,
printer, etc.
3. Technologies like multiprocessing, multiprogramming, time-sharing, operating speed, and
virtual memory made it a more user-friendly and customary device.
4. Examples of the fourth-generation computer are IBM PC, STAR 1000, APPLE II, Apple
Macintosh, Alter 8800, etc.
Fifth generation Computers (Present and Beyond)
1. Main electronic component based on artificial intelligence, uses the Ultra Large-Scale
Integration (ULSI) technology and parallel processing method (ULSI has millions of

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Cyber Security Shree Medha Degree College, Ballari
transistors on a single microchip and the Parallel processing method use two or more
microprocessors to run tasks simultaneously).
2. Input /output devices used are Trackpad (or touchpad), touchscreen, pen, speech input
(recognize voice/speech), light scanner, printer, keyboard, monitor, mouse, etc.
3. Examples of fifth generation computer are Desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, etc.

Different types of Computers

1. Desktop Computer
A desktop computer is a personal computing device designed to fit on top of a
typical office desk. It houses the physical hardware that makes a computer run
and connects to input devices such as the monitor, keyboard and mouse users
interact with.
2. Micro Computer
A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer having a central
processing unit (CPU) made from a microprocessor.[2] The computer also
includes memory and input/output (I/O) circuitry together mounted on a
printed circuit board (PCB)
3. Smart Phone
A smartphone (or simply a phone) is a portable computer device that combines mobile
telephone functions and personal computing functions into one unit.
4. Mainframe Computer
A mainframe computer, informally called a mainframe or big iron, is a computer
used primarily by large organizations for critical applications like bulk data
processing for tasks such as censuses, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise
resource planning, and large-scale transaction processing.
5. Analog Computer
An analog computer is a computer which is used to process analog data. Analog
computers store data in a continuous form of physical quantities and perform
calculations with the help of measures.

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6. Digital Computer
Digital computer, any of a class of devices capable of solving problems by
processing information in discrete form. It operates on data, including magnitudes,
letters, and symbols, that are expressed in binary code—i.e., using only the two digits 0 and 1.
7. Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer is a computer intended to provide functions and features in both
analog and digital computers. Developing a combined or hybrid computer model
aims to produce a functional device that incorporates the most beneficial aspects of both computer
systems.
8. Ultrabook
An Ultrabook is a specific type of ultramobile notebook, defined by Intel.
Ultrabook’s are thin, lightweight and offer longer battery life by utilizing new
low-power CPUs integrated with instant-on capability, all without compromising performance.

Web Technology:
Web technology refers to the tools, software, protocols, and languages used to create, manage, and
access content on the internet.
• HTML: HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) is the standard language used to create and
structure web pages on the internet.
• CSS: CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is a stylesheet language used to describe how HTML elements
are displayed on a web page.
• JavaScript: JavaScript is a programming language commonly used in web development to add
interactivity, functionality, and dynamic features to websites.
• HTTP: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is a set of rules that allows web browsers and servers
to communicate with each other.
• URL: A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the web address that specifies the location of a
resource on the internet.
• Webpage: A webpage is a single document or file on the internet that can contain text, images,
videos, and other multimedia elements.
• Website: A website is a collection of related webpages that are typically accessed through a
single domain name.

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• Web Server: A web server is a computer system or software that stores, processes, and delivers
web content to users over the internet.
• WWW: The World Wide Web (WWW) is a network of interconnected webpages and digital
content accessible over the internet.
• Web Browser: A web browser is a software application that allows users to access, view, and
interact with information on the World Wide Web.

Internet
• The Internet is a vast global network that connects millions of computers and devices
worldwide.
• The internet is like a global library where computers and devices connect to share information,
letting people from anywhere explore, learn, and communicate with each other easily.
• The internet is a global network of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate with each other.
• Internet is a vast collection of private, public, business, academic and government networks that
facilitate communication and data services.
• The internet enables global communication, providing access to vast information and resources.
It facilitates online transactions, entertainment, and learning across various platforms and
devices.
• The internet is a gateway to boundless possibilities, shaping societies, economies, and cultures,
while constantly evolving to redefine how we interact, learn, work, and perceive the world.

Advantages Of Internet:
1. Information Access: Provides instant access to a vast amount of information, facilitating
research, learning, and staying updated on various topics.
2. Communication: Facilitates easy and quick communication globally through emails,
messaging, video calls, and social media platforms.
3. Commerce and Business: Supports e-commerce, allowing businesses to reach a wider
audience.
4. Entertainment: Provides a wide range of entertainment options like streaming movies,
music, gaming, social media, and creative content.

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5. Convenience: Enables online shopping, banking, and accessing various services from home,
saving time and effort.
6. Education: Allows access to online courses, educational resources, and tutorials, fostering
learning opportunities for students, professionals.
7. News and Media Consumption: People rely on the internet for accessing news articles,
online publications, blogs, and multimedia content from around the world.
8. Social Networking: It facilitates connections with friends, family, and colleagues through
social networking platforms like Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and Instagram.
9. Research and Information Gathering: Professionals, students, and individuals use the
internet extensively for research, gathering information, and accessing databases for various
purposes.
10. Innovation: Serves as a platform for innovation, fostering the development of new
technologies and solutions across various industries.

Disadvantages Of Internet:
1. Cybersecurity Risks: Cybersecurity threats such as hacking, identity theft, malware,
phishing, and data breaches can compromise personal information and privacy.
2. Misinformation: The internet can spread false or misleading information quickly,
contributing to misinformation, conspiracy theories, and fake news.
3. Cyberbullying: Online platforms can be used for harassment, cyberbullying, and negative
interactions, causing emotional distress and mental health issues.
4. Addiction and Distraction: Excessive use of the internet, social media, and online
entertainment can lead to addiction, distraction, and reduced productivity.
5. Online Scams: Exposure to various fraudulent schemes and scams online.
6. Privacy Concerns: Sharing personal information online can lead to privacy concerns, as data
collected by companies may be used or sold without users' explicit consent.
7. Impact on Mental Health: Excessive internet use can contribute to anxiety, depression, and
low self-esteem, especially in vulnerable individuals.
8. Social Isolation: Overreliance on online interactions might reduce face-to-face social
interactions, leading to feelings of isolation and social disconnect.
9. Dependency on Technology: Overdependence on the internet for daily tasks can result in
difficulty functioning without it during outages or disruptions.

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10. Health Concerns: Prolonged screen time can lead to health issues such as eye strain, sleep
disturbances, and a sedentary lifestyle.

Architecture Of Cyberspace
The architecture of cyberspace refers to the structure or design of the interconnected digital
world where information, communication, and online activities take place. In simple words, it's like
the blueprint or layout of the internet and related technologies.
Imagine cyberspace as a vast city. The architecture outlines how different buildings
(websites, servers, devices) are connected through roads and pathways (networks and
communication protocols). There are specific rules and systems (internet standards and protocols)
that govern how traffic (data) moves between these buildings. Just as a city has different
neighbourhoods, cyberspace has various sections for websites, social media, emails, and more.
The architecture involves hardware (physical devices like servers and routers) and software
(programs and protocols) working together to enable the flow of information. Security measures,
like gates and locks in a city, are also part of the architecture to protect against cyber threats.
In essence, the architecture of cyberspace is the organized structure that allows digital
communication and activities to happen smoothly and securely in the vast virtual world of the
internet.
Architecture of cyberspace:
1. End Systems:
• User Devices: These include computers, smartphones, tablets, and other devices that
individuals use to access cyberspace.
• Servers: Specialized computers that host and serve content, applications, and services to
users. They respond to user requests and facilitate data storage and processing.
2. Communication Networks:
• Internet Backbone: High-capacity, long-distance communication networks that form the
core infrastructure of the internet. They interconnect major data centers and network hubs
globally.
• Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs): Networks that connect
devices within a limited geographic area (LAN) or over a larger geographical area
(WAN), such as a city or country.

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3. Protocols and Standards:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP): Fundamental protocols
that enable communication between devices on the internet.
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and HTTPS: Protocols for transferring and accessing
web content.
• Domain Name System (DNS): Translates human-readable domain names into IP
addresses, facilitating the identification of devices on the internet.
4. Data Centres:
• Centralized Facilities: Large-scale facilities that house servers, storage systems, and
networking equipment. They store and process massive amounts of data, providing
services to end-users.
5. Cloud Computing:
• Virtualization: Technology that allows the creation of virtual instances of computing
resources, such as servers and storage, enabling flexibility and scalability.
• Service Models (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS): Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service
(PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS) models that define the level of control users have
over computing resources.
6. Software Layers:
• Operating Systems: The software that manages hardware resources and provides a
platform for other software applications.
• Applications and Services: Software programs and services that users interact with, such
as web browsers, email clients, social media platforms, and online applications.
7. Cybersecurity Layers:
• Firewalls and Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS): Security mechanisms that protect
networks by monitoring and controlling incoming and outgoing traffic.
• Encryption: Techniques used to secure data in transit and at rest, ensuring privacy and
confidentiality.
• Authentication and Authorization: Processes that verify the identity of users and
determine their access rights to resources.

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8. Regulatory and Governance Frameworks:
• Laws and Regulations: Legal frameworks that govern online activities, data protection,
and cybersecurity.
• Internet Governance Bodies: Organizations and entities responsible for coordinating and
overseeing the development and maintenance of internet standards and policies.

Communication and web technology

Communication and web technology are closely interlinked, as web technology serves as the
foundation for various forms of digital communication. Web technology enables the creation,
transmission and reception of information and message over the Internet, transforming how
individual businesses and organisations communicate.
1. Email: Email is a fundamental form of digital communication that relies on web technology.
Web servers and email clients use protocols like SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) to send, receive, and manage email messages. Web-
based email services like Gmail operate entirely within a web technology framework,
allowing users to access their emails from anywhere with an internet connection.
2. Instant Messaging and Chat: Instant messaging applications and chat platforms, such as
WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, and Slack, are web-based and utilize web technology to
enable real-time communication. These platforms operate through web browsers and
dedicated applications that leverage web protocols.
3. VoIP and Video Calls: Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and video conferencing services,
such as Skype, Zoom, and Microsoft Teams, rely on web technology for communication.
These services use web-based protocols for audio and video transmission over the internet.
4. Social Media: Social media networks like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are built on web
technology. They allow users to share text, images, videos, and links, and engage in online
conversations through web-based interfaces.
5. Web Conferencing and Webinars: Web conferencing tools like Webex and GoToMeeting, as
well as webinar platforms, enable remote meetings and presentations. These technologies
use web-based communication protocols to facilitate collaboration and information sharing.
6. Blogs and Forums: Blogging platforms and online forums enable users to engage in
discussions and share information. These platforms are web-based and use web technology
to publish and access content.

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7. Social Networking Sites: platforms like LinkedIn and professional networking sites enable
users to connect with others, share professional information, and communicate with peers
and colleagues using web technology.
8. News and Media: News websites, online publications, and multimedia content providers
use web technology to distribute news articles, videos, and multimedia content to a global
audience.
9. Web Forms and Surveys: Web forms and survey tools facilitate data collection and feedback
gathering through web-based interfaces.
10. Online Collaboration: Collaborative tools, including project management software and
document sharing services, rely on web technology for communication and real-time
collaboration among team members.

WWW
• Stands for the "World Wide Web."
• The World Wide Web (WWW or simply the Web) is a subset of the Internet consisting of Website
and Webpage that are accessible via a Web Browser. It is also known simply as "the Web."
• The Web was invented by English computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee while at CERN in 1989
and opened to the public in 1991.
• The World Wide Web -- also known as the web, WWW or W3 -- refers to all the public websites
or pages that users can access on their local computers and other devices through the internet.
These pages and documents are interconnected by means of hyperlinks that users click on for
information. This information can be in different formats, including text, images, audio, and
video.
• Viewing a web page on the World Wide Web normally begins either by typing the URL
(Uniform Resource Locator) of the page into a web browser or by following a hyperlink to that
page or resource. The web browser then initiates a series of background communication
messages to fetch and display the requested page.
• Uniform Resource Locator (URL):URL provide the hypertext links between one document and
another. These links can access a variety of protocols (e.g., FTP) on different machines on your
own machine.

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Advent Of Internet
The advent of the internet marked a revolutionary turning point in the way humanity
communicates, accesses information, conducts business, and interacts with the world. The origins
of the internet can be traced back to various developments and milestones:
1. Early Concepts (1960s): The concept of a global network of computers was envisioned in the
early 1960s. J.C.R Licklider, an MIT scientist, conceived the idea of an “Intergalactic Network”
of computers.
2. Arpanet (1969): The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was the first
wide- area packet-switched network with distributed control and one of the first computer
networks to implement the TCP/IP protocol suite. Both technologies became the technical
foundation of the Internet. The ARPANET was established by the Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA) of the United States Department of Defense.
3. Email and File Sharing (1970s): Ray Tomlinson sent the first networked email in 1971, using the
“@” symbol to allow sending messages between users on different machines. File Transfer
Protocol (FTP) was introduced in 1971 for efficient file sharing. FTP stands for File Transfer
Protocol, and it is used to upload files to your website. Websites are hosted on computers called
servers, so these servers hold the files for your website. When a visitor to your site visits your
website, their computer asks the server for the files.
4. TCP/IP Protocol (1970s): The development of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Internet Protocol (IP) by Vinton Cerf and Bob Kahn in the 1970s was a crucial step towards the
unification of various networks into a single global network of networks, forming the basis of
the modern internet.
5. Ethernet and Local Area Networks (LAN) (1970s): Ethernet, developed by Robert Metcalfe,
allowed multiple computers to communicate on a local network. This technology laid the
foundation for local area networks (LANs) and facilitated the growth of interconnected
networks.
6. DNS (1983): Domain Name System (DNS) is the system that converts website domain names
(hostnames) into numerical values (IP address) so they can be found and loaded into your web
browser. Domain Name System was introduced to convert human-readable domain names into
numerical IP addresses, making it easier to access websites.

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7. World Wide Web (1991): Tim Berners-Lee, while working at CERN, proposed the World Wide
Web (WWW), introducing HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language), HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol), and the first web browser. This marked the birth of the user-friendly internet we are
familiar with today.
8. Commercialization and Expansion (Mid-1990s): The National Science Foundation (NSF) lifted
restrictions on the commercial use of the internet, leading to a surge in internet service providers
(ISPs) and a rapid increase in internet in internet usage globally.
9. Dot-Com Bubble (Late 1990s): The late 1990s saw a massive rise in internet-based companies,
leading to the dot-com bubble, where stock prices of internet companies soared before
dramatically crashing in the early 2000s.
10. Broadband and High-Speed Internet (2000s): The 2000s saw a widespread rollout of broadband
internet, significantly improving internet speed and enabling new possibilities such as streaming
media and online gaming.
11. Mobile Internet (2000s onwards): The proliferation of smartphones and mobile devices brought
internet access to a wider audience, revolutionizing communication, entertainment, and
commerce.
12. Web 2.0 and Social Media (2000s onwards): The advent of Web 2.0, characterized by user-
generated content and interactive web applications, led to the rise of social media platforms like
Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and others, transforming how people connect and share
information.

Internet Infrastructure for Data Transfer and Governance

The internet’s infrastructure for data transfer and governance is a complex system of interconnected
components and protocols that enable the transmission, exchange, and management of data
globally. It encompasses both the physical and logical elements that facilitate data movement and
the policies, standards, and organizations that govern its usage.
1. Physical Infrastructure
2. Data Transmission Protocols
3. Open Standards and Protocols
1. Physical Infrastructure:
The physical infrastructure of the internet comprises the tangible components that enable the
transmission of data and the functioning of digital communication. These components include

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cables, data centers, network devices, and other hardware that make up the foundation of the
internet. Here are the key elements of the Physical Infrastructure:
• Submarine Cables: Fiber-optic cables laid on the ocean floor that connect continents and
regions, the primary backbone of international internet connectivity.
• Terrestrial Cables: Fiber-optic or copper cables that traverse land, connecting cities, towns,
and regions. These cables form the backbone of national and regional internet networks.
• Data Centers: Facilities that house network servers and other computing equipment. Data
centers are critical for storing, processing, and managing vast amounts of data and services.
• Network Servers: High-powered computers within data centers that store and serve data
and applications to users across the internet.
• Switches and Routers: Network devices that direct data packets to their intended
destinations within a network or across networks. Routers operate at the network layer,
making routing decisions based on IP addresses.
• Firewalls and Security Appliances: Hardware devices that provide security by monitoring
and controlling incoming and outgoing network traffic, protecting against unauthorized
access and cyber threats.
• Modems and Routers in Homes and Businesses: Devices used to connect end- user’s devices
(computers, smartphones, IoT devices) to the internet via wired or wireless connections.
• Satellite Communication Systems: Ground stations and satellites that facilitate internet
connectivity in remote or geographically challenging areas where traditional infrastructure
is impractical.
Types Of Physical Infrastructure
a) Network Backbone: High-speed, long-distance fiber optic cables and satellite links form the
backbone of the internet, connecting continents and regions.
b) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): ISPs manage the last-mile connectivity to homes and
businesses through wired (DSL, fiber, cable) and wireless (Wi-Fi, mobile networks)
technologies.
2. Data Transmission Protocols:
Data transmission protocols are a set of rules and conventions that govern the format, timing,
sequencing, and error control during the exchange of data between devices over a network. These

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protocols ensure that data can be sent and received accurately and efficiently. Here are some
important data transmission protocols:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that provides
reliable, ordered, and error- checked delivery of data between devices. It establishes a
connection, maintains flow control, and retransmits lost packets.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a connectionless protocol that offers a faster but less
reliable way to send data. It does not establish a connection and does not guarantee delivery,
making it suitable for real-time applications like video streaming and online gaming.
• Internet Protocol (IP): IP is a network layer protocol responsible for routing packets across a
network. IPv4 and I Pv6 are the most common versions of IP. IPv6 has been developed to
address the limitations of IPv4, primarily the limited number of unique addresses.
• HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is the foundation of data communication on the
World Wide Web. It defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and how web
servers and browsers should respond to different commands.
• HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is the secure version of HTTP,
providing encrypted communication by using Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer
Security (TLS) protocols.
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP is a standard network protocol used to transfer files from
one host to another over a TCP-based network like the internet.
• SMTP: is used for sending emails between servers. It defines the message format and how
the messages should be relayed between mail servers.
• POP: Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) and Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP),
POP3 and IMAP are used by email clients to retrieve messages from a mail server. POP3
usually downloads and deletes the messages, while IMAP keeps the messages on the server.
3. Open Standards and Protocols:
Development and adherence to open, consensus-based standards and protocols by
organizations like the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and World Wide web Consortium
(W3C).
Open standards and protocols are universally agreed-upon rules, conventions, and formats that
enable interoperability, compatibility, and consistency in the functioning of systems, devices,
and applications. These standards are openly available, transparent, and not owned by any

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specific entity, encouraging collaboration and innovation. Here are important open standards
and protocols in the realm of information technology:
• Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP): The foundation of the internet TCP/IP is a suite of
protocols governing communication over networks. It includes protocols like TCP, UDP, IP,
ICMP, and more.
• HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and HTTPS: HTTP is the fundamental protocol for
transferring data on the Worldwide. HTTPS is the secure, encrypted version of HTTP,
providing secure communication.
• SMTP: is a standard for email transmission, specifying how emails are sent received
between mail servers.
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP is a standard protocol for transferring files between a client
and a server on a network.
• Domain Name System (DNS): DNS is an essential standard for translating domain names
into IP addresses, making internet resources accessible using human-readable names.
• Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Secure Socket Layer (SSL): TLS and SSL are
cryptographic protocols that provide secure communication over a computer network. They
are widely used to secure web browsing, email, and other internet-based applications.
• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): SNMP is a standard protocol used for
network management and monitoring of devices like routers, switches, and servers.

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