NEURONS STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Group 9 Members
1. EGBE ESOSA UYI 190904057
2. JOHN GOODNEWS 190904058
3. KASALI EZEKIEL 190904059
4. GIWA, DAMILOLA 190904060
5. ENISEYIN FUNMILAYO 190904061
6. ONWUZULIKE JASMINE 190904063
7. ATAKPA MARIA 180804064
8. OLOWOKURE MOYOSOLAOLUWA 210904527
9. SALAMI IBRAHIM 180814065
NEURON STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION
The Neuron is the morphological and functional unit of the Nervous System. Each neuron has four
specialized structures that allow for the sending and receiving of information through electrical and
chemical codes: the cell body (soma), dendrites, axon and axon terminals.

Cell body/Soma: The portion of the cell that contains inclusions such as the nucleus, nissl bodies,
mitochondria and golgi apparatus. These inclusions perform the same functions as that of somatic cells.
The Nissl bodies are masses of rough endoplasmic reticulum for protein synthesis. Synthesised protein is
then distributed by the axoplasmic flow of the neuroplasm down the axon.

Dendrites: Short, branched processes that extend from the cell body. They have the cytoplasmic
organelles in the cell body and as such are true extensions of the cell body. They receive information,
through numerous receptors located in their membranes that bind to chemicals, called
neurotransmitters.

Axon: A large process that extends from the cell body at a point of origin-called the axon hillock. Unlike
the shorter dendrites, the axon can extend for more than a meter. This length as in m yelinated axons
are covered with myelin sheaths that coil and wrap their membranes around the outside of the axon for
electrical insulation and to speed up action potential propagation (nerve impulse transmission).
Unmyelinated axons do not have myelin sheath and thus have slower nerve impulse transmission.
Unmyelinated axons are common in grey matter and are greyish in colour when compared to the
whitish myelinated axons.

The Myelin Sheath This is elaborated by the neurolemma sheath as a segmented discontinuous layer,
interrupted at regular intervals by the nodes of Ranvier. The distance from one node to the next is an
internode, whose length is roughly proportional to the diameter of the fibre, the thicker the fibre, the
longer its internodes. The diameters and lengths of internodes of the various fibres are directly related
to the speed of conduction of the nerve impulse. Each internode is formed by and surrounded by one
neurolemma sheath (the plasma membrane of the schwann cell). Three features of the nodes are
important:

(1) Nerve fibres branch at a node.

(2) Concentrations of mitochondria in the axis cylinder at these sites suggest a local high metabolic
activity.

(3) The close proximity of extracellular fluids to the axon at each node is critical to saltatory conduction.

Microtubules are arranged inside the axon as parallel arrays of long strands that act as highways for the
movement of information between the soma and the synapse (the axon’s key function). Specialized
motor proteins "walk" along the microtubules, carrying material away from the soma (anterograde
transport) or back to the soma (retrograde transport). This system can move materials down the axon at
rates of 400mm/day.

Anterograde and Retrograde transport in an axon and key neuronal structures.

Axon terminals: The axon branches out into telodendria. Each telodendron terminates as a bouton with
a dendrite cell body complex to form a synapse.

Once an axon reaches a target, it terminates into multiple endings, called axon terminals. The axon
terminal is designed to convert the electrical signal into a chemical signal in a process called synaptic
transmission (further explained in the section "Physiology of the Neuron").

Most neurons are amitotic (lose their ability to divide). However, olfactory neurons (associated with
smell) and hippocampal regions of the brain are exceptions. Fortunately, lifespans of amitotic neurons
are near 100 years. Still, if a neuron is damaged or lost, it is not easily replaced. For this reason, there is
usually limited recovery from serious brain or spinal cord injuries. Perhaps the slow recovery rate or lack
of regeneration is to ensure that learned behavior and memories are preserved throughout life.

Neurons also have exceptionally high metabolic rates and subsequently require high levels of glucose
and oxygen. The body will go to great lengths to ensure that neurons are adequately fed; in fact, if for
some reason the brain detects that it is not receiving adequate amounts of nutrition, the body will shut
down immediately (i.e., faint).
Structural Classification of Neurons
Structural classification of neurons is based upon the number of processes that extend out from the cell
body. Three major groups arise from this classification: multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar neurons.

Multipolar neurons are defined as having three or more processes that extend out from the cell body.
They comprise more than 99% of the neurons in humans, and are the major neuron type found in the
CNS and the efferent division of the PNS.

Structural classification of neurons. 1) Bipolar; 2) Multipolar and 3) Unipolar.

Bipolar neurons have only two processes that extend in opposite directions from the cell body. One
process is called a dendrite, and another process is called the axon. Although rare, these are found in
the retina of the eye and the olfactory system.

Unipolar neurons have a single, short process that extends from the cell body and then branches into
two more processes that extend in opposite directions. The process that extends peripherally is known
as the peripheral process and is associated with sensory reception. The process that extends toward the
CNS is the central process. Unipolar neurons are found primarily in the afferent division of the PNS.

Functional Classification of Neurons

Neurons are classified functionally according to the direction in which the signal travels, in relation to
the CNS. This classification also results in three different types of neurons: sensory neurons, motor
neurons, and interneurons.

Sensory neurons, or afferent neurons transmit information from sensory receptors in the skin, or the
internal organs toward the CNS for processing. Almost all sensory neurons are unipolar.

Motor, or efferent neurons transmit information away from the CNS toward some type of effector.
Motor neurons are typically multipolar.
Interneurons are located between motor and sensory pathways and are highly involved in signal
integration. The vast majority of interneurons are confined within the CNS. They are mostly multipolar.

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NEURON

Axonal Transmission
Neurons propagate electrochemical signals along their axons in the form of action potentials, which is
how neurons communicate with other neurons or cells. The dendrites of the neuron are stimulated by
the activity of other neurons that communicate with it. This stimulation results in an electrical potential.
When this electrical potential builds up to a certain level, it causes the firing of an electrical impulse,
which travels from the cell body down the axon to the synaptic knobs. When the electrical impulse
reaches the synaptic knobs, it does not jump across to the next neuron. Instead, it causes the chemical
neurotransmitters in the synaptic vesicles to be released. These neurotransmitters then travel by
diffusion across the synaptic gap/cleft. Once across the synaptic gap, these neurotransmitters stimulate
the next neuron, and the process begins again.

Resting Neuron & Resting membrane potential: The resting neuron is a charged cell that is not
conducting an impulse. The cell (plasma) membrane of the neuron acts as a thin boundary (50 to 100 A
thick) between two fluids - the interstitial (extracellular) fluid outside, the neuron and the intracellular
fluid (neuroplasm) inside the neuron. Sodium (Na+) and Chloride (Cl-) ions are in higher concentration in
the interstitial fluid; potassium (K+) and protein (organic) ions are in higher concentration in the
intercellular fluid.

As a result of the unequal distribution of ions across the semipermeable and selectively permeable cell
membrane, the potential across the resting cell membrane is about-60 to 70mV (with the excess of
negative charge inside the cell). Because the particles inside and outside the cell are differentially
concentrated, there is a small electrical difference across the membrane at the resting state: the inside
is slightly more negative than the outside, and the cell is said to be polarized. These differential
concentrations of sodium (Na+) ions and potassium (K+) ions are produced and maintained by metabolic
activity of the neuron oxidative metabolism, ATP, and active transport).

The sodium-potassium pump; simultaneously the Na+ , which leaks into the neuron, is pumped out of
the cell, and the Cl-, which diffuses out, is pumped back into the neuron against both the chemical and
electrical gradient (positive and negative charges attract naturally). This active process results in a
concentration of K+ within the neuroplasm which is 10 or more times higher than that within the
interstitial (extracellular) fluid, and in concentrations of Na+ and Cl-, which are 10 times lower than
those within the interstitial fluid.
Action potential - all-or-none activity: A variety of stimuli can alter the permeability of the cell
membrane to certain ions and, in turn, bring about changes in the membrane potential. If a stimulus
applied to an axon lowers the resting membrane potential to a critical voltage level, usually by 10 to
15m V to the level of-30 to-50mV, an explosion like action results with the production of a brief electric
phenomenon called an action potential (spike, nerve impulse, all-or-non activity).

The action potential is the expression of a sudden reversal, known as depolarization of the Na+ /K+
selectivity of the cell membrane of the axon, in which for a few milliseconds a polarity reversal occurs
from the resting potential (-60 to 70mV) to the action potential (+ 3OmV, with an excess of negative
charge outside the neuron). The nerve fibre gains Na+ and loses K+ during the passage of the action
potential. The nerve impulse is propagated without decrement along all parts of the cell membrane of
the axon as a continuous spread. Each depolarized patch on the membrane produces a flow of current
(action potential), which sets off events to depolarize the adjacent patch, which, in turn, depolarizes the
resting-charged region further ahead. The action potential travels along the cell membrane as a chain
reaction and regenerates itself from point to point along the axon without loss of amplitude and at a
constant speed for that axon.

The axon possesses the energy for the action potential; the stimulus merely lowers the membrane
potential sufficiently to trigger the axon into action. The axon gives an all-or-none, on-off response.
Like a firecracker fuse, neurons fire at their full capacity, or not at all, depending upon whether they are
stimulated sufficiently to cause them to reach their firing threshold. This is known as the all or none
principle.

A given neuron will fire more often if it is stimulated by more neurons, but the size and speed of the
impulse will not increase as the number of stimulation neurons is increased. Firing always occurs in an
all-or-none fashion. The resting potential is restored within a millisecond or so after, the action potential
has passed by a site on the cell membrane.

The refractory period; This is a short period of time (a few thousandths of a second) after the firing of
an impulse when the cell becomes insensitive to stimulation and is temporarily incapable of firing.
The point of least excitability, called the absolute refractory period, occurs immediately after the cell's
initial firing. During this period, the cell is incapable of firing again no matter how strong the stimulation.
Gradually, sensitivity returns to the neuron. If the cell is stimulated during the latter part of its refractory
period, called the relative refractory period, the cell may fire, but only if the stimulus is strong. Some
neurons recover rapidly and are capable of firing as many as 1000 times per second. Others may be able
to face only a few times per second. This smooth, progressive movement of the action potential is the
presumed method of conduction in unmyelinated nerves.

In myelinated nerves, there is Saltatory conduction: The action potential is propagated by discontinuous
spread or saltatory (hop or jump) conduction, in which the nerve impulse (depolarization) hops along
the nerve fibre from node of Ranvier to node of Ranvier. The current spreads from an active node to the
next, inactive node. The nodes with their low thresholds are linked together by myelinated internodes
(Segmented insulating jackets) that act as positive conductors. Myelinated fibres are fast conductors of
the action potentials. The speed of conduction of an action potential is related to the thickness of the
myelin sheath and the lengths of the internodes of a nerve fibre. The thicker the myelin and the longer
the internodes of a fibre, the faster the conduction of an action potential. The myelin improves the
signaling efficiency of the axon without spreading electrical signals to other axons.

Synaptic Transmission
The synapse is the site of contact of one neuron with another. The axon of one neuron may terminate in
only a few synapses, or in many thousands of synapses. The neuron may receive synaptic contacts from
many different neurons. The communication that occurs between these cells is called synaptic
transmission (Brown and Wallace, 1980).

The synaptic cleft, which is about 200A exists between:

the bouton of one neuron and the cell body of another neuron, (an axosomatic synapse)

the bouton of one neuron and a dendrite of another neuron (an axodendritic synapse)

the bouton of one neuron and an axon of another neuron (an axoaxonic synapse).

The dendrite of one neuron and a dendrite of another neuron (a dendrodendritic synapse) e.g. in
olfactory bulls and retina.
The termination of a nerve fibre in a muscle cell (neuromuscular junction) or a glandular cell
(neuroglandular junction) is basically similar to the synapse between two neurons.

The synapse of each axon terminal of a motor neuron on a voluntary muscle cell is called a motor-end-
plate. The cell membrane of the axon at the synapse is the presynaptic membrane, and the cell
membrane of the soma, muscle or glandular cell is the postsynaptic membrane. The subsynaptic
membrane is the region of the postsynaptic membrane that is juxtaposed to the presynaptic membrane
at the synapse.

A concentration of mitochondria and small spherical vesicles called presynaptic vesicles (from 200 to
600 A0 in diameter) is present in the cytoplasm of the bouton; no such concentration is present in the
cytoplasm adjacent to the subsynaptic membrane. The vesicles contain the precursors of the active
neurotransmitter agents.

Structurally, two types of synapses are found in neurons: chemical and electrical. Electrical synapses
occur when membranes are linked together (gap junctions) via specialized proteins that allow the flow
of ions from one cell to another. Electrical synapses are found in heart muscle. Because electrical
synapses are rare in the nervous system, the remaining discussion will address the chemical synapse.

Chemical synapses occur when neural membranes are very close together, but remain distinct, leaving a
space. Chemical synapses use chemicals called neurotransmitters to communicate the messages
between cells.
Below are five steps in chemical neurotransmission :

1.) The action potential invades the region of the axon terminal, causing; 2.) the release of the
neurotransmitter from vesicles in the presynaptic terminal by exocytosis; 3.) the transmitter
diffuses across the synaptic cleft; 4.) it binds with a receptor molecule located on the membrane
of the postsynaptic neuron; and 5.) the neurotransmitter is removed from the region of the
synapse by either chemical degradation or a reuptake mechanism that returns it to the
presynaptic neuron vesicles.

Depending on the type of ion, the effect on the postsynaptic cell may be depolarizing
(excitatory) or hyperpolarizing (inhibitory).
Norepinephrine-Norepinephrine (formerly called adrenaline) is important in the coding of memory and
in the reward system of the brain. It is activated in pleasurable moments. The pathway connects the
outer brain stem to the cortex. Norepinephrine exists outside the brain in the ANS.

Dopamine - The dopamine pathway connects the limbic system to the cortex. It also participates in the
brain's reward system and in the control of motor activity. Parkinson's disease is one in which the
sufferer exhibits severe motor tremors. It is caused by a lack of dopamine and can be aided by the
administration of the drug L-dopa, transformed by the brain into dopamine.

Serotonin - The serotonin pathways are widespread in the brain. They connect the brainstem and the
RAS to the cortex and to the limbic system at the hypothalamus and hippocampus. Serotonin controls
sleep and many activities associated with - sleep. Loss of serotonin causes insomnia.

The table below is a comprehensive view of major neurotransmitters and their

hypothesized effects:

Neurotransmitters Molecule Effect

Acetylcholine (Ach) Excitatory at the neuromuscular junction;
excitatory in autonomic ganglia and in the brain;
both excitatory and inhibitory in the end organs of
the parasympathetic nervous system.

Norepinephrine (NE) Inhibitory in - brain; both excitatory and inhibitory

in ANS.

Dopamine (DA Inhibitory in the brain

Serotonin Inhibitory in the brain

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) Inhibitory in the brain

Glycine Inhibitory in spinal cord interneurons

Glutamic acid Excitatory in the brain and spinal sensory neurons

An excitatory response is called an EPSP which is the abbreviation for an "excitatory postsynaptic
potential," here, there is a flow of positively-charged ions into the postsynaptic cell so depolarization
occurs and the cell is positively charged. In this case, the neurotransmitter increases the probability of
the next neuron firing because the cell body membrane potential is brought closer to threshold. This
aims at introducing an action potential.

As for an inhibitory response, it is called an IPSP or "inhibitory postsynaptic potential." Here, there is a
flow of negatively-charged ions into the postsynaptic cell so hyperpolarization and the cell is negatively
charged. Here, the neurotransmitter reduces the chance of firing as the cell body membrane potential is
brought further away from threshold. This aims at preventing an action potential.

The net effect of all the EPSPs and IPSPs is experienced at the axon hillock. If threshold is reached, then
an action potential will continue down the axon. Each EPSP or IPSP lasts a few milliseconds and then the
membrane returns to the original resting membrane potentials. In many cases, a single EPSP is not
sufficient to cause an action potential. Therefore, many EPSPs from multiple synapses can combine at
the soma, which results in a much larger voltage change that can exceed threshold and cause and action
potential. This phenomenon is called spatial summation. EPSPs from the same synapse can also
combine if they arrive in rapid succession; this phenomenon is called temporal summation. Requiring
multiple EPSPs to fire an action potential are ways that neurons increase sensitivity and accuracy.
Summation
A response as an EPSP or an IPSP will depend on the type of neurotransmitter/receptor combination
present in the synapse. There are over a hundred known neurotransmitters, and many of them have
unique receptors. Receptors can be divided into two broad groups: chemically gated ion channels and
second messenger systems.

When chemically gated ion channels are activated, certain ions are allowed to flow across the
membrane. The ion type will determine whether the result is an EPSP or an IPSP. When a second
messenger system is activated, it results in a cascade of molecular interactions within the target or
postsynaptic cell. The type of cascade that is elicited will result in the response being either excitatory or
inhibitory.

Excitatory Synapses: Most excitatory synapses in the brain use glutamate or aspartate as the
neurotransmitter. These neurotransmitters bind to non-selective cationic channels that allow for Na+
and K+ to pass. As mentioned earlier, it takes many EPSPs from these kinds of synapses to depolarize a
postsynaptic neuron enough to reach the threshold and trigger an action potential.

A very important subset of synapses in the brain includes a group capable of forming memories by
persistent strengthening of synapses that leads to a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between
neurons. This process is called long-term potentiation. Long-term potentiation at the synapse, uses the
neurotransmitter, glutamate and the receptor known as the NMDA receptor. The NMDA receptor is
unique in that it is both ligand and voltage regulated. When activated by ligands, it becomes permeable
to Na+, but if the charge difference is sufficient, the channel becomes permeable to Ca++ as well. Ca++
can initiate a second messenger cascade that results in an increase in the number of glutamate
receptors, thereby increasing the strength of the synapse. The change in strength can last for weeks,
months, or even years depending on whether or not the synapse is continually used.

Inhibitory Synapses: It may seem somewhat of a paradox to have inhibitory synapses, but the
excitability of neurons is essentially governed by a balance between excitation and inhibition. The main
inhibitory neurotransmitters are GABA and glycine. Both bind to receptors that result in an increase
conductance of Cl-. Because of the negative charge of Cl- and the fact that it usually moves into the cell,
the effect is to oppose depolarization and cause the membrane to move away from threshold.

Modulatory synapses: These are synapses that can be "primed" by neuromodulators so that they are
able to respond more powerfully to other inputs. An example of a priming neuromodulator is
norepinephrine. By itself, norepinephrine has little effect on synaptic transmission, but when a cell is
exposed to norepinephrine first, it will react more powerfully to glutamate.

GLIAL CELLS
Unlike neurons, glial cells can be replaced if they are damaged. They compose half of the volume of the
brain and are much more numerous than neurons. They provide support, nutrition, insulation and signal
transmission within the nervous system.

Glial Cells of the Central Nervous System:

The Astrocyte: The most abundant and versatile glial cells. They anchor neurons to their blood supply
using their numerous processes that wrap around blood vessels and neurons. They govern the exchange
of materials between neurons and capillaries. Most of the functions of the astrocyte are attributed to
controlling the neurons external environment.

The Oligodendroctye: This cell wraps around neurons and produces the insulating myelin sheaths
around axons. In addition to myelination, oligodendrocytes also play key roles in pH regulation of the
CNS. There are many diseases that selectively damage or destroy myelin; the most common
demyelinating disease in the CNS is Multiple sclerosis (MS), an autoimmune disease that results in the
selective destruction of oligodendrocytes, resulting in a reduction of myelin. This severely decreases the
conduction velocity and duration of action potentials in the affected neuron. This can result in loss of
sensory perception and motor control. The cause of MS is currently unknown, but the disease is twice as
common in women as in men.

The Ependymal Cell: Ependymal cells line the cavities of the CNS. They create, secrete and circulate
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) and are important barriers between the cerebral spinal fluid and the brain
extracellular space. These cells beat their cilia to help circulate the cerebrospinal fluid.

The Microglial Cell: Microglial cells are rapidly activated in the CNS in response to injury. Injury causes
these cells to proliferate, change shape, and become phagocytic. These cells are also very important in
presenting antigens to lymphocytes in response to infection. However, it is believed that their activity is
also toxic to neurons and can result in long term damage. For this reason, medical intervention in
response to brain injury often involves factors that inhibit microglial activity.
The images depict the Glial Cells of the NS.

Glial Cells of the Peripheral Nervous System

The Schwann Cell: The schwann cell is the myelinating cell of the PNS. In contrast to the oligodendrocyte
of the CNS, which uses multiple processes to myelinate multiple segments of axons, a schwann cell
provides myelin for a single segment of an axon. Still, the appearance and function of myelin in the PNS
is exactly the same as the CNS.

The Satellite Cell: Satellite glial cells help regulate the external chemical environment around neurons of
the PNS. In this way they are very similar to the astrocyte of the CNS, but in addition are highly sensitive
to injury and inflammation.