JOINTS AND LIGAMENTS OF VERTEBRAE

Rahma Sajjad (2202788) and Maram Salama (2203133)

The university of Georgia

HUMAN BODY MD1110E 40001494

DOCTOR: Odzelashvilli Inga

18th June 2023

 VERTEBRAL COLUMN

The vertebral column, also known as the spinal column, is the central axis of the skeleton in all

vertebrates. The vertebral column provides attachments to muscles, supports the trunk, protects the spinal

cord and nerve roots and serves as a site for hemopoiesis. The vertebral column has several joints for

stability. These are present between its processes and vertebral body. Each vertebrae have six joints in

total, two are symphysis and four are synovial. Each vertebra is further stabilized by several ligaments

from anterior, posterior, lateral and medial sides.

FUNCTION OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN

The vertebral column supports the body’s physical structure and nervous system, enabling

movement and sensation. The vertebral column (spine) defines the animal subphylum Vertebra, or

vertebrates, of the phylum Chordata. In humans, it is composed of 33 vertebrae that include 7 cervical, 12

thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 4 coccygeal. Along with the skull, ribs, and sternum, these vertebrae

make up the axial skeletal system. The spinal canal, a central lumen within each vertebral body,

contains the spinal cord. Spinal nerves emerge from the main cord at each vertebral level to make up the

sympathetic trunk and splanchnic nerves. The diameter of the spinal canal changes in the different parts

of the vertebral column, larger in the cervical and lumbar regions and smaller in the thoracic region. The

spinal column forms the central axis of weight-bearing and supports the head as well as transfers the

weight of the trunk and abdomen to the legs. It has several functions such as unique jointed structure of

the spine allows rotation and bending, In the thoracic region the spine provides attachment sites for ribs,

The spine serves as the attachment site for multiple muscles. Intervertebral discs are cartilaginous

structures between adjacent vertebrae composed of annulus fibrosus and nucleus pulposus. The discs

comprise about 25% of the length of the vertebral column. They support the anterior and posterior

longitudinal ligament.

JOINTS OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN

The joints of the vertebral column include the joints of the vertebral bodies, the joints of the

vertebral arches, the craniovertebral joints, costovertebral joints, and the sacroiliac joints. These joints
bear the body weight when sitting or standing and give the flexibility. Each vertebrae have 6 joints, two

are symphysis and four are synovial joints.

SYMPHYSIS JOINT

The symphysis between the bodies of two adjacent vertebrae is called an intervertebral disk. It is

composed of two parts: a soft Centre (nucleus pulposus) and a tough flexible ring (anulus fibrosus)

around it. The Centre is a jellylike (mucoid) material containing a few cells derived from the precursor of

the spine (notochord) of the embryo. The ring consists of collagen fibers arranged in concentric layers

like those of an onion bulb. These fibers reach the adjacent parts of the vertebral bodies and are attached

firmly to them. There are 23 intervertebral disks, one between each pair of vertebrae below the first

cervical vertebra, or atlas, and above the second sacral vertebra (just above the tailbone). The lumbar

(lower back) disks are thickest, the thoracic (chest or upper back) are thinnest, and the cervical are of

intermediate size. These differences are associated with the function of the disks. In general, these disks

have two functions: to allow movement between pairs of vertebrae and to act as buffers against shock

caused by running, jumping, and other stresses applied to the spine. If an intervertebral disk were the only

joint between a pair of vertebrae, then one of these could move on the other in any direction. but each pair

of vertebrae with an intervertebral disk also has a pair of synovial joints, one on each side of the vertebral

(neural) arch. These joints limit the kinds of independent movement possible, so that the thoracic

vertebrae move in only two directions and the lumbar in only three; only the cervical vertebrae below the

atlas have full freedom of movement.

SYNOVIAL JOINT

Synovial membrane have certain essential parts. The synovial bursas are closed, thin-walled sacs,

lined with synovial membrane. Bursas are found between structures that glide upon each other, and all

motion at diarthroses entails some gliding, the amount varying from one joint to another. The bursal fluid,

exuded by the synovial membrane, is called synovia, hence the common name for this class of joints.

Two or more parts of the bursal wall become cartilage (chondrify) during prenatal life. These are the parts
of the bursa that are attached to the articulating bones, and they constitute the articular cartilage of the

bones. A synovial joint consists of a wall enclosing a joint cavity that is wholly filled with synovial fluid.

The wall consists of two layers: an outer complete fibrous layer and an inner incomplete synovial

layer. Parts of the outer layer are either chondrified as articular cartilages or partly ossified as sesamoid

bones (small, flat bones developed in tendons that move over bony surfaces). Parts of the synovial layer

project into the cavity to form fatty pads. In a few diarthroses the fibrous layer also projects inward to

become intra-articular disks, or menisci. The fibrous layer is composed of collagen. The part that is

visible in an unopened joint cavity is referred to as the investing ligament or joint capsule. At the point

where it reaches the articulating bones, it attaches to the periosteum lining the outer surface of the cortex.

Articular cartilage (cartilage that covers the articulating part of a bone) is of the type

called hyaline (glasslike) because thin sections of it are translucent, even transparent. Unlike bone, it is

easily cut by a sharp knife. It is deformable but elastic, and it recovers its shape quickly when the

deforming stress is removed. These properties are important for its function. The surface of articular

cartilage is smooth to the finger, like that of a billiard ball. Images obtained by a scanning electron

microscope have shown, however, that the surface is actually irregular, more like that of a golf ball. The

part of the cartilage nearest to the bone is impregnated with calcium salts. This calcified layer appears to

be a barrier to the passage of oxygen and nutrients to the cartilage from the bone, such that the cartilage is

largely dependent upon the synovial fluid for its nourishment. These joints are formed between the

superior and the inferior articular processes (zygapophyses) of adjoining vertebrae.

LIGAMENTS OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Ligaments often connect two bones together, particularly in the joints: Like strong, firmly

attached straps or ropes, they stabilize the joint or hold the ends of two bones together. Ligaments

are made out of connective tissue that has a lot of strong collagen fibers in it. They are found in different

shapes and sizes in the body. Some look like pieces of string, others look like narrow or wide bands.

There are arch-shaped ligaments, too. The three major ligaments of the spine are the ligamentum flavum,
anterior longitudinal ligament (ALL), and posterior longitudinal ligament. These also include interspinous

and supraspinous ligaments.

The anterior longitudinal ligament is a vertical structure that attaches to the anterior portion of

each vertebra. The posterior longitudinal ligament is a vertical structure that attaches to the posterior

portions of each vertebra. The anterior longitudinal ligament (ALL) is fundamental in constraining

motions especially in the sagittal plane. The ALL also confines the intervertebral discs, preventing

herniation. The posterior longitudinal ligament connects and stabilizes the bones of the spinal column. It

runs almost the entire length of the spine, from the 2nd vertebra in the cervical spine (neck) all the way

down to the sacrum (end of the spine). The ligament is adjacent to the spinal cord.

The ligament flavum is a short but thick ligament that connects the laminae of adjacent vertebrae

from C2 to S1 and is considered a medial ward continuation of the fact joint. It consists of 80% elastin

fibers and 20% collagen fibers. The function of the ligamentum flavum is to maintain upright posture. It

helps to preserve the normal curvature of the spine and to straighten the column after it has been flexed.

However, the elasticity of the ligamentum flavum decreases with age, and this may be associated with

hypertrophy and buckling.

Both the supraspinous ligament (SSL) and interspinous ligament (ISL) form part of the posterior

ligamentous complex, which is believed to play an integral role in the stability of the thoracolumbar

spine.

ligamentum nuchae was studied by gross dissection in ten embalmed human adult cadavers and

was found to be comprised of two structures: a dorsal raphe and a midline fascial septum. The dorsal

raphe was formed by the interweaving of the right and left upper trapezius, splenius capitis, and rhomboid

minor. It stretches during flexion and its elasticity helps bring the head back to an upright position.
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