Problem 1: Exponentially Expanding Flat Universe

1. Consider a flat (i.e., a k = 0, or a Euclidean) universe with scale factor given by

χ𝑡
𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑎0𝑒

Where 𝑎0 and χ are constants.

(a) Consider two galaxies which at some time 𝑡1 are separated by a physical distance ℓp. At this time
one galaxy emits a pulse of light in the direction of the other. If the light pulse is received at the
second galaxy at time 𝑡2, what is the redshift 𝑧? (Recall that 1 + 𝑧 is the factor by which the
wavelength or the period of the light wave is increased.) Your answer can depend on any or all of
the quantities 𝑎0, χ, 𝑐, 𝑡1, 𝑡2, and ℓp.
(b) At what time 𝑡2 does the second galaxy receive the light pulse? Your answer should depend only
on one or more of the quantities 𝑐, 𝑎0, χ, ℓp, and 𝑡1, but not on 𝑧.
(c) Is it possible for ℓp to be so large that the light pulse is never received by the second galaxy? If
so, how large must ℓp be for this to happen?
(d) At what time 𝑡𝑒𝑞 is the light ray equidistant between the two galaxies?
(e) If the light pulse has duration ∆𝑡 when it is emitted, as measured by observers on the emitting
galaxy, what is the duration measured by observers on the receiving galaxy? (Assume that ∆𝑡 is
−1
small compared to cosmological time scales, such as 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 or χ .) The answer can depend on
any or all of 𝑎0, χ, 𝑐, 𝑡1, 𝑡2, ℓp, 𝑧, or ∆𝑡.
 Problem 2: Time Evolution of a Universe

2. Suppose that a model universe is filled with a peculiar form of matter for which

1
𝑝∝ 5
𝑎 (𝑡)

Assume that the model universe is flat.

(a) Find how 𝑎 scales with 𝑡.

(b) Find the value of the Hubble parameter 𝐻(𝑡), as a function of 𝑡.
(c) Find the physical horizon distance, ℓp, horizon(𝑡)
(d) Find the mass density ρ(𝑡).
 Problem 3: Angular Size and Flux of the Universe

3. Suppose that we observe a distant galaxy that currently has a physical (proper) distance ℓp = a(t0) ℓc,
where t0 as usual denotes the current time, and a(t) is the scale factor. Treat the galaxy as a sphere, which
had (physical) radius R1 at the time of emission, and R0 today. Suppose that we do not know the form of
the function a(t), but we do know the redshift z with which the radiation is received.
(a) In terms of some or all of the quantities c, t0, R0, R1, ℓp, and z, what is the angle θ that the distant
galaxy subtends in our view. You should assume that θ >>1.

(b) Suppose that the galaxy has luminosity L at the time of emission, and assume that the luminosity
was radiated uniformly in all directions. What is the radiation energy flux from this galaxy at the
Earth today? Energy flux is defined as the energy per unit area per unit time striking a surface
that is orthogonal to the direction of energy flow. Express your answer in terms of some or all of
the quantities c, t0, R0, R1, ℓp, z, and L.