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Research on Education
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Research on Education: An Introduction
Research
on
Education
Edited by
Marina-Stefania Giannakaki
Gregory T. Papanikos
Yiannis Pozios
John Kelvyn Richards
ATINER
2006
1
2
Athens Institute for Education and Research

2006
Edited by
Marina-Stefania Giannakaki
Gregory T. Papanikos
Yiannis Pozios
John Kelvyn Richards
Selected papers presented at the 8th International Conference

on Education, organized by the Education Research Unit of
ATINER, under the Auspices of the School of Pedagogical &
Technological Education of Greece
(ASPETE)
3
PUBLISHED BY ATHENS INSTITUTE FOR EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

14 Solomou Street, 10683 Athens, Greece
Tel. +30 210 36.34.210 Fax +30 210.36.34.209
Email: atiner@atiner.gr URL: www.atiner.gr
This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant
collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the
written permission of the Athens Institute for Education and Research.
First Published: 2006

ISBN: 960-6672-09-3
Typeset, printed and binding by Theta Co.
4
Table of Contents
1. Research on Education: An Introduction 1
Giannakaki, S.M., Papanikos, T.G., Pozios, Y. and Richards, K.J
Part 1: Family and Education
Pre School
2. An Investigation of the Social Behaviors of Children who Attend 15
Pre-School Institutions
Aral, N., Gursoy, F., Yildiz Bicakci, M. and Korukcu, O.
3. A Study on Anxiety Levels of Mothers with Mentally Retarded 25
Children
Aral, N., Butun Ayhan, A. and Aydogan, Y.
4. Understanding the School Readiness: A Study of Parent’s and 37
Preschool Teacher’s Views
Boz, M. and Ustun, E.
5. Research into the Impact of some Variables Relevant to 49
Children on Parents’ Choice of Preschool Education Institutions
Koksal Akyol, A. and Oguz, V.
6. The Influence of Different Training Methods on the 61
Development of thought Operations during the Seventh Year of
Life
Saule, R. and Bronislava, G.
7. The Opinions of the Parents Concerning Pre-School Children 73
Books in Pre-School Education
Durmusoglu, M.C. and Erdem, E.
8. Mothers’ Knowledge about Breast-Feeding Applications and 91
their Ability to put their Knowledge into Practice
Onay, D. and Aktas, N.
9. Computer Usage in Early Childhood: Parents’ Views on Early 103
Childhood Computer Usage
Unal, F.
10. A Study on Preschool Educators’ Application about Math 117
Activities in Kindergartens
Baran, G., Erdogan, S., Yildirim, R and Erten, S
Adolescents
11. Effects of Termination of Pregnancy on Adolescent Schoolgirls 129
in the Eastern Free State, South Africa
Dipane, H.
12. A Study on the Effects of Socio-Economic Level on the 137
Perception of Family Environment in Adolescents
Gursoy, F. and Yildiz Bicakci, M.
13. The Study on Empathic Skills of Adolescents 149
Koksal Akyol, A. and Butun Ayhan, A.
14. Study on the Types of Music Listened by the Second Year 155
Students of High Schools and their Assertiveness Levels
Gursoy, F. and Aydogan, Y.
5
15. Analysis of Anxiety Levels of Using Alcohol and Non-Using Alcohol 165
Adolescents
Gursoy, F. and Yildiz Bicakci, M.
Part 2: Pedagogy
Learning
16. The Attitudes of Turkish Cypriot Students towards Greek 179
Language Learning
Pehlivan, A. and Atamturk, H.
17. The Effects of Problem-Based Learning on the Elementary School 189
Students’ Understanding of Genetics
Araz, G. and Sungur, S.
18. Did Lessons in Environmental Education Lead to Different 195
Children Activities than Lessons in Natural and Social Studies?
Hus, V.
19. School Textbook Research: a New Method 203
Justin, J.
20. University Students at Work: Moulding Information-Seeking 215
Strategy
Wilkin, L., Brotcorne, P. and Faccin, I.
21. The Role of Simulation Learning in Higher Education 227
Pinheiro, M.
Teaching
22. Graphical Representations of Mathematical Ideas in Primary 247
School
Hodnik Cadez, T.
23. Historical Development of Geography Education in Turkey 261
Demiralp, N.
24. Teaching Children Basic Concepts of Geography and Map 271
Activities in Early Childhood Education through the Environment
and Literature
Gulec, H. and Metin, N.
25. The Place of Design Education in Handcraft Education in Turkey 279
and Contemporary Approaches
Alp, K.O. and Ozdemir, M.
26. The Importance of Education on Sustainability of Turkish 297
Handicrafts
Soylemezoglu, F., Ozkan Tagi, S. and Erdogan, Z.
27. Biotechnological Foods-Sustainable Development: Sustainable 303
Consumption Education
Ozdemir, O., Ozkan, Y. and Ozgen, O.
28. Media, Materialism and Socialization of Child Consumers 315
Ozgen, O., Demirci, A. and Tas, A.S.
29. A New Approach to Consumer Education in Secondary Schools in 323
Turkey
Purutcuoglu, E. and Bayraktar, M.
6
Assessment
30. Assessment of Student Performance and Complex Tasks for 333
Web Page Design
Alper, A. and Horzum, B.M.
31. Comparing Students’ Readiness for E-Examinations in 2004 341
and 2005
Jereb, E. and Bernik, I.
32. Democratisation of Grading Knowledge and the Extension of 349
Authentic Forms of Knowledge Assessment in Primary School
in Republic Slovenia
Milena, I.G. and Marija, J. K.
Part 3: Initial Teacher Training
33. Research into the Attitudes of Inservice and Preservice 361
Teachers of Early Childhood Education towards their
Profession and Professional Self-Esteem
Koksal Akyol, A. and Aslan, D.
34. Evaluation of Attitudes of Teachers to Attending a Certificate 371
Program towards Profession of Teaching
Erkan, S. and Ustun, E.
35. The Effects of Self-Efficacy and Epistemological World Views 377
on Preservice Science Teachers’ Epistemological Beliefs
Topcu, M.S. and Yilmaz-Tuzun, O.
36. An Analysis of Science Teacher Preparation in the United 387
States: Recommendations for a Research Agenda
Brunkhorst, H.K.
37. Narrative Knowing in the Preservice Development of Teachers 395
Hinchion, C.
38. The Relation of Literature Teachers in Training to Culture 405
and its Influence on their Relation to Literary Reading and on
the Development of the Subject-Reader
Emery-Bruneau, J.
39. Counselling, Energy, Movement 413
Geary, T. and Cremen, P.
Part 4: InService Education
40. A Research on Nutrition Knowledge Level of Nursery School 429
Teachers in Ankara, Turkey
Ozcelik, A.O. and Ormeci, F.O.
41. A Research on Nutrition Knowledge of Elementary School 441
Teachers: A Sample of Turkey
Sabbag, C., Surucuoglu, M.S., Ozcelik, A.O. and Akan, L.S.
42. Web-Based Tools for Teacher Education 453
McPherson, S.
7
43. Exploring Teachers’ Views on Opportunities to Learn in the 463

Workplace
Flores, M.A. and Simao, M.V.A.
44. Work-Based Learning within the PSNI 473
Nikolou-Walker, E.
45. Choreographing Research Ethics in Extended Educational Settings 483
Whitmarsh, J.
Part 5: Management
Educational Management
46. Affective Leadership in a Data Driven World: The Case for 497
Strengths-Based Training for Educational Leaders
Marcos, T.
47. Challenges Faced by New Principals in Urban High Schools 513
Clark, R. and Bordinaro, C.
48. Total Quality Management and the Governance of Educational 525
Institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case on Universities in
Uganda
Neema-Abooki, P.
49. The Principal’s Role in the Development Programmes for the 537
Teaching Staff in the Far North of the Limpopo Province
Milondzo, K.S.
50. Women in the Administrative Position 551
Silman, F. and Celikten, M.
51. From the Toolbox of Theory: Which Theoretical Tools are useful 559
for Understanding Inclusive Practice in Icelandic Schools?
Bjarnason, D.S.
52. Effects of Institutional Intervention on Assessment Practices in 573
Higher Education
Nordin, S., Hashim, H., Zubairi, A.M. and Nasir, N.
53. Trust and Shared Values: The Basis of a Sustained Educational 583
Partnership?
Dhillon, J.K.
54. The Pathology of Tehno-Infrastucture in Academia and its 595
Implications on Pedagogy and Curriculum in New Media Arts
Programs at Five Types of Institutions in the United States
Gotsis, M.
55. Globalization and the Responsibility of the ‘International’ 605
University
Stivachtis, Y.
8
Business Management
56. Managerial Education in Poland after 1990 619
Andrzejczak, A.
57. Management Education at Risk – Again? 631
Mithans, N.
Part 6: Initiatives and Futures
Early Years
58. Every Child Matters (Green Paper, 2003) and its Implications on 651
the Curriculum, on Pedagogy and Assessment … are we Moving
a Step Forward or are we Opening the Pandora’s Box?
Nasou, A.
59. Early Years Inclusion – Policy into Practice in Primary 3 661
Ross-Watt, F.
60. Competencies of Pre-School Teachers 673
Devjak, T. and Vogrinec, J.
61. The Development of Primary Catch-Up Curriculum 689
Babadogan, C.
62. The Permanence of Nutrition Education on the Knowledge and 701
Behaviour of Early Childhood
Aktas, N., Turan, E., Orcan, M., Bayrak, E., Celikoz, N. and Aktas, N.
63. A Study on the Pre-School Teachers’ Inclusion of Science and 711
Nature Activities in their Daily Educational Programmes in
Turkey
Koksal Akyol, A., Kocer Ciftcibasi, H. and Bulut Peduk, S.
Lifelong Learning
64. Population Ageing, Education and Mortality: The Case of 727
Slovenia
Cepar, Z. and Nada, T.S.
65. Validation of Non-Formal and Informal Learning at the Level of 741
Higher Education: Stimulating the Lifelong Learning
Gomezelj Omerzel, D., Fister, K. and Nada, T.S.
66. Chalk and Cheese or Bread and Butter? An Evaluation of 757
Methodological Issues Arising from Combining Quantitative and
Qualitative Research Methods in a Lifelong Learning Research
Project
Gaynard, S.
67. New Curriculum for Teachers’ Education 771
Misut, M.
Training and Education
68. Education, Jobs and Skills 783
du Toit, C., Steyn, S.C. and Wolhuter, C.C.
69. Pedagogics in Social Care 797
Cech, B.N.
9
70. Training Special Education Teachers to Work in Inclusive 805

Environments
Birnbaum, B.W. and Papoutsis Kritikos, E.
71. Integrating and Enhancing Mental Health Courses through 813
Services Learning: A Case Study
Silitsky, C. and Treadwell, L.
72. Collaborative Learning in Higher Education 829
Clarke, K.
73. Learners’ Perceptions towards the Innovative and Traditional 841
Learning Methods
Karababa, Z.C. and Celik, S.
10
List of Contributors
Peter Neema-Abooki, Lecturer, Makerere University, Uganda
Lale Sariye Akan, Research Assistant, Ankara University, Turkey
Nazan Aktas, Assistant Professor, Selcuk University, Turkey
Nevin Aktas, Professor, Ankara University, Turkey
Nevin Aktas, Vytautas Magnus University, Turkey
Aysel Koksal Akyol, Associate Professor, Ankara University, Turkey
Ozlem K. Alp, Assistant Professor, Gazi University, Turkey
Ayfer Alper, Instructor, Ankara University, Turkey
Aldona Andrzejczak, Professor, Poznan University of Economics, Poland
Neriman Aral, Professor, Ankara University, Turkey
Gulsum Araz, Research Assistant, Middle East Technical University
Durmus Aslan, Research Assistant, Cukurova University, Turkey
Hakan Atamturk, Manager, Near East University
Yasemin Aydogan, Assistant Professor, Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey
Aynur Butun Ayhan, Research, Ankara University, Turkey
Cem Babadogan, Assistant Professor and Vice Dean, Ankara University, Turkey
Gulen Baran, Ankara University, Turkey
Ebru Bayrak, Research Assistant, Selcuk University, Turkey
Meltem Bayraktar, Professor, University of Ankara, Turkey
Igor Bernik, Assistant Professor, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Mudriye Yildiz Bicakci, Research Assistant, Ankara University, Turkey
Barry W. Birnbaum, Associate Professor, Northeastern Illinois University, USA
Dora S. Bjarnason, Professor, Iceland University of Education, Iceland
Caroline Bordinaro, Library Instruction and Information Literacy Coordinator,
California State University, USA
Menekse Boz, PhD Student, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Grigaite Bronislava, Associate Professor, Vytautas Magnus University, Turkey
Perine Brotcorne, PhD Student, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium
Herbert K. Brunkhorst, Professor, California State University, USA
Judith Emery-Bruneau, PhD Student, Universite Laval, Canada
Tatjana Hodnik Cadez, Assistant Professor, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Berith Nyqvist Cech, Senior Lecturer, University of Karlstad, Sweden
Serkan Celik, Instructor, Ankara University, Turkey
Nadir Celikoz, Assistant Professor, Selcuk University, Turkey
Mustafa Celikten, Associate Professor, Erciyes University, Turkey
Ziga Cepar, Assistant, University of Primorska, Slovenia
Hale Kocer Ciftcibasi, Assistant Professor, Akdeniz University, Turkey
Karen Clarke, Cirriculum Director, University of Wolverhampton, UK
Robert Clark, Assosiate Professor, California State University, USA
Patricia Cremen, Lecturer and Core Trainer, University of Limerick, Ireland
Nurcan Demiralp, Research Assistant, Gazi University, Turkey
Aybala Demirci, Research Assistant, Gazi University, Turkey
Tatjana Devjak, Assistant Professor, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Jaswinder Kaur Dhillon, Principal Lecturer, University of Wolverhampton, UK
Hlalele Dipane, Senior Lecturer, University of the Free State, South Africa
11
Mine C. Durmusoglu, Lecturer, Hacettepe University, Turkey

Eda Erdem, Research Assistant, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Serap Erdogan, Ankara University, Turkey
Zeynep Erdogan, Associate Professor, University of Ankara, Turkey
Semra Erkan, Associate Professor, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Selda Erten, Ankara University, Turkey
Ilaria Faccin, Research, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium
Katarina Fister, Assistant, University of Primorska, Slovenia
Maria Assuncao Flores, Professor, University of Minho, Portugal
Sheila Gaynard, Lecturer, The University of Hull, UK
Tom Geary, Head, University of Limerick, Ireland
Marina-Stefania Giannakaki, Deputy Head, Education Research Unit, ATINER,
Greece
Marientina Gotsis, Media Lab Manager, University of Southern California, USA
Havise Gulec, Assistant Professor, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
Figen Gursoy, Associate Professor, Ankara University, Turkey
Hasnah Hashim, International Islamic University, Malysia
Carmel Hinchion, Lecturer, University of Limerick, Ireland
Baris M. Horzum, Research Assistant, Ankara University, Turkey
Vlasta Hus, Assistant Professor, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Eva Jereb, Assistant Professor, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Janez Justin, Professor, Educational Research Institute, Slovenia
Canan Z. Karababa, Assistant Professor, Ankara University, Turkey
Ozlem Korukcu, Doctor, Ankara University, Turkey
Javornik Krecic Marija, Assistant, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Effie Papoutsis Kritikos, Associate Professor, Northeastern Illinois University, USA
Teri Marcos, Director, Azusa Pacific University, USA
Sarah McPherson, Assistant Professor, New York Institute of Technology, USA
Nilgün Metin, Professor, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Ivanus Grmek Milena, Associate Professor, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Khazamula Samson Milondzo, Senior Lecturer, University of the Free State, South
Africa
Martin Misut, Head, Trnava University in Trnava, Slovakia
Natasa Mithans, Teaching Assistant, University of Primorska, Slovenia
Nora Nasir, International Islamic University, Malysia
Aikaterini Nasou, PhD Student, University of London, UK
Trunk Sirca Nada, Assistant Professor, University of Primorska, Slovenia
Sahari Nordin, Dean, International Islamic University, Malaysia
Vuslat Oguz, Science Expert, Ankara University, Turkey
Doris Gomezelj Omerzel, Lecturer, University of Primorska,Slovenia
Didem Onay, Research Assistant, Selcuk University, Turkey
Maide Orcan, Research Assistant, Selcuk University, Turkey
Fatma Ozgun Ormeci, Med Dr., Ankara University, Turkey
Ayse Ozfer Ozcelik, Associate Professor, Ankara University, Turkey
Melda Ozdemir, Instructor, Gazi University, Turkey
Oguz Ozdemir, Assistant Professor, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey
Ozlen Ozgen, Professor, Ankara University, Turkey
Yasemin Ozkan, Associate Professor, Ankara University, Turkey
Gregory T. Papanikos, Director, ATINER, Greece
Senay Bulut Peduk, Trakya University, Turkey
12
Ahmet Pehlivan, Associate Professor, International Cyprus University

Margarida Pinheiro, Assistant Professor, University of Aveiro, Portugal
Yiannis Pozios, Assistant Professor, TEI Athens, Greece
Eda Purutcuoglu, Research Assistant, University of Ankara, Turkey
John Kelvyn Richards, Academic Member, ATINER, Greece
Frances Ross -Watt, Lecturer, University of Strathclyde, UK
Cigdem Sabbag, Professor, Private Kecioren Hospital, Turkey
Raiziene Saule, Associate Professor,Vytautas Magnus University, Turkey
Cindy Silitsky, Assistant Professor, St. Thomas University, USA
Fatos Silman, Assistant Professor, Near East University, Turkey
Ana Margarida Veiga Simao, Professor, University of Lisbon, Portugal
Sofia Catherina Steyn, Professor, North-West University, South Africa
Yannis A. Stivachtis, Assistant Professor, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State
University, USA
Semra Sungur, Assistant Professor, Middle East Technical University
Metin Saip Surucuoglu, Professor, Ankara University, Turkey
Feryal Soylemezoglu, Assistant Professor, University of Ankara, Turkey
Sema Ozkan Tagi, Research Assistant, University of Ankara, Turkey
Ayse Sezen Tas, Research Assistant, Ankara University, Turkey
Charlene du Toit, Lecturer, North-West University, South Africa
Mustafa Sami Topcu, Research Assistant, Yuzuncu Yil University, Turkey
Larry Treadwell, Assistant Professor, St. Thomas University, USA
Esra Turan, Research Assistant, Selcuk University, Turkey
Ozgul Yilmaz-Tuzun, Assistant Professor, Middle East Technical University, Turkey
Fatma Unal, Akdeniz University, Turkey
Elif Ustun, Associate Professor, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Janez Vogrinec, Assistant Professor, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia.
Elda Nikolou–Walker, Head, Queen’s University, UK
Luc Wilkin, Professor, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium
Judy Whitmarsh, Senior Lecturer, University of Wolverhampton, UK
Charste Coetzee Wolhuter, Professor, North-West University, South Africa
Rezzan Yildirim, Ankara University, Turkey
Ainol M. Zubairi, International Islamic University, Malysia
13
1
Marina-Stefania Giannakaki, Deputy Head, Education Research
Unit, ATINER
&
Gregory T. Papanikos, Director, ATINER
&
Yiannis Pozios, TEI Athens
&
John Kelvin Richards, Academic Member, ATINER
T his book is based on papers presented in the 2006 education conference of the
Athens Institute for Education and Research. The papers have been grouped
into six parts. In this introduction the papers are presented as they fit into these
six broad education themes.
Family and Education
This section consists of 14 papers, which are grouped in two subsections: pre-
school and adolescence. A main feature of these studies is the interest in the influence
of the family, and especially that of parents, on children’s education and development
more generally.
The first subsection includes a collection of nine studies in the area of psychology
of pre-school children, five of which have preschool education as their context. Eight
of these studies have been carried out in Turkey. With the exception of one, which is
based on mixed methods, the studies apply quantitative methods using questionnaires
for data generation, large sample sizes and inferential statistics for the analysis of the
data.
In the paper of Aral et al. entitled ‘An Investigation of the Social Behaviors of
Children who Attend Pre-School Institutions’ the authors aim to identify whether a
number of variables, such as age, sex, having a working mother, the total duration of
time spent in pre-school, and the education level of parents affect the social behaviors
of four and five-year-old children who attend pre-school institutions in Ankara. The
second paper by Aral et al. turns the focus to an examination of the anxiety levels of
mothers whose children have been diagnosed with mental disabilities between the
1
ages of 4-18 and the factors that may affect them. The study has been carried out in
Ankara and the variables tested include the child’s gender, age, the date of first
diagnosis, age of starting special education, as well as the mother’s age and
educational level. The third paper by Boz and Ustun reports findings from a study that
investigates the views of Turkish parents and preschool teachers on school readiness
and makes recommendations on how to promote it and facilitate the adjustment of
children in school. The fourth paper by Akyol and Vuslat is a research into the impact
of variables, such as the child’s gender, the number of siblings, and the birth order, on
parents’ choice of preschool institutions in Ankara. Recommendations are made on
how parents can make informed choices of preschool institution for their children.
The paper by Saule and Bronislava draws on Vygotsky’s work and reports on an
experimental study carried out in Lithuania that investigates whether the training in
the development of two thought operations in seven-year-olds (classificaiton and
seriation) leads to the same cognitive changes as the training in written language. The
sixth paper by Durmusoglu and Erdem explores, among other things, the opinions of
pre-school children’s parents in Ankara on why children should read books, the
criteria they apply when buying books, the activities they carry out while and after
reading books with their children, and their views about the advantages and
disadvantages of existing pre-school education books. The seventh paper by Onay and
Aktas evaluates Turkish mothers’ knowledge about breast-feeding applications and
their ability to put their knowledge into practice. Among the variables examined for
their effect on the breast-feeding behaviours of mothers are the mother’s age,
educational level, number of children, and sequence of birth. The paper by Unal
reports on a study conducted in Antalya to determine the use of computers by children
aged 3-6 years and their parents’ perception of their children’s using computers. The
relation between the children’s gender and age on the one hand and their computer
usage on the other, are also examined. The final paper in this section by Baran et al.
presents results from a questionnaire survey, which explored the implementation of
maths activities by teachers in preschool education institutions in Ankara. The study
investigates, among other things, the teaching methods used (inc. individualised
instruction techniques), their frequency of application, and the involvement of parents
in such activities.
The subsection on adolescence includes five papers, four of which are based on
quantitative research that makes use of questionnaires for data generation and which is
carried out in Turkey. As an exception, the first paper reports on a study conducted by
Dipane in South Africa and investigating the effects on adolescent schoolgirls of a
progressive pregnancy termination legislation (TOP) introduced in 1997. This is a
qualitative study based on interviews with educators of female adolescents and
focusing on effects, such as health risk and psychological/behavioural effects. The
second paper by Gursoy and Bicakci explores whether the socio-economic level, the
number of siblings, the mother’s education level, and the relationships with family and
friends create any differences in the perception of the family environment among
adolescents in Ankara. The paper by Akyol and Ayhan entitled ‘The Study on
Empathic Skills of Adolescents’ presents results from a study carried out in Ankara to
determine the empathic skills of adolescents attending high school and to find out
differences on the basis of factors, such as socioeconomic level, gender, and parental
education. The paper by Gursoy and Aydogan explores the effects of sex, age, family
income, parental education, the type of music listened, and the frequency of listening
to music on the assertiveness levels of high school students. The last paper in this
section by Gursoy and Bicakci reports on a study that analyses the anxiety levels of
2
using alcohol and non-using alcohol adolescents and examines whether the variables
of gender, socioeconomic level, and parental education create any variation.
Pedagogy
This section consists of 17 papers, which are grouped in three subsections:

learning, teaching, and assessment. The majority of these papers present studies
carried out in Turkey and in Slovenia. A common characteristic of these studies is that
they have been conducted in the context of formal education and examine aspects of
the learning/instructional process.
The first subsection, on learning, includes a collection of papers with a variety of
methodologies. The first paper by Pehlivan and Atamturk reports on a quantitative
survey carried out in Cyprus that explores the attitudes of Turkish Cypriot student
teachers towards learning Greek and the Greek culture. The next paper by Araz and
Sungur is based on an experimental study carried out in Turkey and investigating the
effects of problem-based learning on elementary pupils’ understanding of genetics.
The third paper by Hus presents findings from a study carried out in Slovenia, which
examines whether the pupils’ activities that promote learning differ between
environmental education on the one hand, and early science and social studies on the
other. The study is based on systematic observation in the first grade of four
elementary schools. The paper by Justin entitled ‘School Textbook Research: A New
Method’ discusses the so-called ‘relevance theory’ in textbook research, focusing on
the cognitive and epistemic effects that history textbooks in Slovenia can have on
students through communicating implicit meanings.
The two last papers in this subsection present research carried out in higher
education. The paper by Wilkin et al. from Belgium examines the ways information
technologies (especially the Internet) are incorporated into students’ academic day-to-
day information-seeking activities. The paper applies mixed methodology and also
examines whether students’ information-seeking behaviours are patterned by
academic disciplines and year of study. The paper by Pinheiro from Portugal analyses
the role played by simulation in the learning processes of vocational higher education.
The paper is a case study on the impact of a course that employs this methodology at a
University in Portugal, involving the perspectives of employers, academic staff,
students and graduates.
The second subsection, on teaching, starts with a paper by Cadez from Slovenia
that investigates how successful primary school pupils are in interpreting graphical
representations of addition/subtraction. The study uses both quantitative data
generated with the help of mathematical tests and qualitative data generated through
interviews with pupils. The next two papers examine the teaching of geography. The
paper by Demiralp entitled ‘Historical Development of Geography Education in
Turkey’ discusses modern geography in education in Turkey and in particular, the
stages it has been through until today, the position it is in now, the problems it faces,
as well as some possible solutions. The paper by Gulec and Metin presents results
from a study that recorded the methods of teaching the basic concepts of geography to
children between 4 and 6 years with the view to assessing their effectiveness.
Two more papers in this section examine the teaching of handcrafts education in
Turkey. The paper by Alp and Ozdemir investigates the teaching programmes of
handcrafts education taken by young students following four-year diploma courses in
Turkish universities. The paper by Soylemezoglu et al. discusses the role of education
3
in transferring the culture of Turkish handicrafts to the next generations and in raising
people’s ability of producing high-quality products. The situation of handicrafts
education in Turkey and existing teaching systems are explained.
The last three papers in this subsection have consumer education in Turkey as
their subject. The paper by Ozdemir et al. discusses the increasing consumption of
biotechnological foods and proposes a model for sustainable consumption education.
The paper by Ozgen et al. entitled ‘Media, Materialism and Socialization of Child
Consumers’ reports on a study that examines questions concerning consumer
socialisation in relation to materialistic values and mass media (especially television
commercials) and provides detailed knowledge for parents, consumer educators and
public policy-makers. The paper by Purutcuoglu and Bayraktar focuses on consumer
education in Turkish secondary schools concerned with the skills, attitudes,
knowledge and understanding needed by individuals, such that they can make full use
of the consumer opportunities present in the marketplace. Opportunities to teach
consumer education in other areas of the curriculum, such as home economics,
religion, culture, and moral education are also discussed.
The third subsection, on assessment, starts with a paper by Alper and Baris from
Turkey dealing with the assessment of student performance in Web page design and in
particular, exploring the reliability and validity of rubrics, i.e. tools used for assessing
complex performance in a way that gives input and feedback to improve such
performance. The paper by Jereb and Bernik entitled ‘Comparing Students’ Readiness
for E-examinations in 2004 and 2005’ is about taking electronic exams and
investigates the readiness of students for taking such exams through a questionnaire
survey. The paper by Milena and Marija from Slovenia outlines results from an
empirical, questionnaire-based, research that examines the degree of democratisation
of grading knowledge (assessment) during Slovene and mathematics lessons and
compares the views of teachers and pupils in the primary school.
Initial Teacher Training
This section consists of seven papers on the initial training of teachers. The first
three papers focus on teacher professionalism and self-efficacy/self-esteem. They
present findings from quantitative research carried out in Turkey, using questionnaire-
generated data that have been analysed with appropriate statistical methods. The paper
by Akyol and Aslan reports on a research into the attitudes of inservice and preservice
teachers of early childhood education towards their profession and the level of their
professional self-esteem. Among other things, the authors examine whether some
variables, such as the reasons for choosing the teaching profession, professional
seniority, and whether a teacher works full- or part-time, have an influence on his/her
attitudes towards the profession and their professional self-esteem. The paper by Ercan
and Üstün examines the attitudes of trainee teachers attending an English Certificate
Programme towards the profession of teaching. The paper by Topcu and Yilmaz-
Tuzun reports results from a study on the effects of self-efficacy beliefs and
epistemological worldviews on preservice science teachers’ epistemological beliefs.
Turning the focus to Anglo-Saxon research, the paper by Brunkhorst discusses a
research agenda for Science Teacher Preparation in the United States. The paper by
Hinchion explores the place of narrative in the pre-service training of teachers at the
University of Limerick, Ireland. It explores, especially, the area of autobiographical
narrative, as a symbolic action for reflective practice with students of teaching. The
4
paper by Emery Bruneau from Canada examines the relation of literature teachers in
training to culture and its influence on their relation to literary reading and on the
development of the subject-reader. This paper draws on a doctoral dissertation of
which parts of theory and methodology are presented. Finally, in the paper by Cremen
and Cremen from Ireland entitled ‘Counselling, Energy, Movement’ the authors
present findings from a study in which they integrated movement, energy and
bodywork with an interpersonal and intrapersonal focus into the learning environment
of three university modules on student teachers’ personal development and
counselling. A phenomenological approach to research was adopted and findings
include a broad spectrum of vignettes from the evaluations, observations and student
feedback.
InService Education
This section includes six papers on inservice education, four of which have
teachers as their target group. The first two papers examine the nutrition knowledge of
teachers in Ankara, Turkey. The paper by Ozcelik and Ormeci assesses the nutrition
knowledge of nursery teachers using questionnaires for data generation. The effects of
factors such as age, education status, marital status, duration of teaching, and nutrition
classes attended, are explored. The paper by Sabbag et al. investigates the nutrition
knowledge of elementary school teachers using both interview techniques and
questionnaires for data generation.
The third paper by McPherson entitled ‘Web-Based Tools for Teacher Education’
describes the use of web-based tools at the New York Institute of Technology, School
of Education (which covers a wide geographical area) to perform administrative and
instructional/assessment tasks and to teach students from various sites in the same
section of a course. The fourth paper by Flores and Simão presents findings from a
research carried out in Portugal, which investigates the ways in which teachers learn in
the workplace (and how they feel about it) and the factors that hinder or facilitate their
professional growth. Data are generated through questionnaires and semi-structured
interviews. The paper by Nikolou-Walker reviews, as a case study, the introduction of
a work-based and experiential learning paradigm within the police service. As
opposed to the traditional organisational training processes, this paradigm aims to
create an open environment that promotes informal learning. The last paper in this
section by Whitmarsh discusses ethical principles and codes of practice in cross-
disciplinary research with children and young people in the UK. The paper relates to
the need for educational researchers to create cross-disciplinary ethical spaces that will
enhance future studies.
Management
This section includes 12 papers grouped in two subsections: educational

management and business management.
The first subsection, on educational management, starts with two American
studies. The first study by Marcos entitled ‘Affective Leadership in a Data Driven
World: The case for Strengths-Based Training for Educational Leaders’ examines the
perceptions of public and private school leaders on the effects their top five identified
strengths have on their leadership skills, using questionnaire-generated, quantitative,
5
data. The second study by Clark and Bordinaro from California State University is a
mixed-methods study of the challenges faced by first year high school principals in
urban areas.
The next two papers report on studies carried out in Sub-Saharan Africa. The
paper by Neema-Abooki focuses on total quality management and the governance
structures of universities in Uganda. The study is a cross-sectional survey based on a
large sample of respondents, which concludes that the governance of universities in
the region, though basically bureaucratic, incorporates elements of subsidiarity and
that the institutions are disposed to a total quality, people-based, management culture.
The next paper by Milonzo looks critically into the principal’s role in the development
of programmes for the teaching staff in the far north of the Limpopo province, South
Africa. The study analyses responses from a number of questionnaires given to school
principals and teachers.
The paper by Silman and Celikten examines what difficulties women principals at
the state schools in Kayseri, Turkey, experience throughout their administrative
careers in terms of their family life, responsibilities, personal qualities and what role
gender plays in their experiences. A qualitative research method is used based on data
generated through an interview schedule. The paper by Bjarnason reports on a mixed-
methods research carried out at the Iceland University of Education in cooperation
with parent and professional associations of all Icelandic students labelled with
intellectual disabilities. The findings demonstrate both strengths and weaknesses in
inclusive schooling practice with regard to the structural organisation of schools,
pedagogical practices, and the social relationships between disabled and non-disabled
learners.
The paper by Nordin et al. examines the effects of an internally-initiated
assessment policy in a Malasian university on the faculty’s acceptance, expectation, as
well as curriculum and assessment planning. The effects of the intervention are being
assessed on the basis of workshops conducted for the faculty to self-evaluate the new
practice and through individual interviews and presentations of group work, among
other things. The paper by Dhillon outlines findings from a study into partnership
working in the field of post-compulsory education in England. Drawing on a
qualitative case study of a sub-regional partnership of providers of education and
training, the discussion focuses on the role of trust and shared norms and values in
sustaining a partnership. The study tracked the lifecourse of the partnership over five
years and used multiple methods for data generation, such as observation, analysis of
documents, and semi-structured interviews.
The paper by Gotsis describes how information technology policies and
infrastructure affect curriculum and pedagogy in new media arts programmes at five
types of American educational institutions. The essay examines problematic policies
and infrastructure as they apply to each new media arts programme in each type of
school, and discusses how they affect the effectiveness of curriculum and teaching
from different points of view (student, faculty and staff). The last paper in this
subsection by Stivachtis from Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University
entitled ‘Globalization and the Responsibility of the ‘International’ University’
discusses the effects of globalisation on universities and how the latter can deal
effectively with the pressures of internationalisation.
The second subsection, on business management, consists of two papers from East
Europe. The first paper by Andrzejczak entitled ‘Managerial Education in Poland after
1990’ presents the main direction of quantitative and qualitative changes that took
place in managerial education in the 1990s in Poland and determines the extent to
6
which they satisfy the requirements of managers’ labour market. The second paper by
Mithans from Slovenia discusses critiques from the business world and the academia
that management studies lack scientific rigour and that are not of much use to
practitioners. The paper shows that although business schools have reacted to these
critiques by amending their curricula and adding subjects that would make business
studies more relevant, the core curriculum and ideology have stayed unchanged.
Consequently, the critiques have remained the same.
Initiatives and Futures
This section includes 16 papers that elaborate on new policy initiatives

implemented within the educational systems of various countries. The papers are
grouped in three subsections: early years; lifelong learning; and training and
education.
The first subsection, on early years, starts with two papers from the UK. The first
one by Nasou explores how the Green Paper ‘Every Child Matters’ is implemented in
her school and its implications on Curriculum, Pedagogy and Assessment. Starting
from the specific, in this case her school, and moving to the more general elements of
curriculum, pedagogy and assessment the author attempts to find out influences,
positive or negative, outcomes and ways of the Green Paper’s application. The next
paper by Ross-Watt entitled ‘Inclusion in the Early Years: Policy into Practice in
Primary 3’ recounts the third stage of an on-going case study into the experiences of
Heather, a girl with Spina Bifida, who requires assistance to meet her additional
support needs. The setting is a mainstream Scottish primary school, identified as
embodying good inclusive practice. The paper seeks to provide a better understanding
of the complex relationship which exists between policy determined nationally,
practice implemented at classroom level and the experience of the child herself.
The third paper by Devjak and Vogrinec from Slovenia shows different points-of-
view of experts about the importance of graduate pre-school teachers’ competencies.
The authors' argument is that the competencies acquired at university are both
insufficient and unsatisfying for pre-school teachers, as well as their employers, who
participated in an empirical research with the intention to establish what kind of
competencies determine the university qualification and what is the relation between
the actual and the desired qualifications of pre-school teachers. The research was
based on questionnaire-generated, quantitative, data.
The last three papers in this subsection present studies from Turkey. The paper by
Babadogan discusses the primary school ‘catch-up curriculum’, a transition
programme provided to children aged between 10-14 who either quit elementary
school or never enrolled before, in order to catch-up with their peers through an
intensive, individualised curriculum and to come back to formal education. The paper
evaluates the most basic outcomes during its implementation period. The paper by
Aktas et al. examines the permanence of the effect of applied nutrition education on
pupils’ nutritional knowledge and behavior 10 months after a programme. The
permanence of pupils’ nutritional knowledge is determined via a standardised test,
while their nutritional habits are determined through a questionnaire. Pupils’
anthropometric measurements are also taken. The last paper in this subsection by
Akyol et al. studies preschool teachers’ inclusion practices of science and nature
activities in their daily educational programmes in Turkey, using a large sample of
female preschool teachers. The data are generated through a questionnaire.
7
The second subsection, on lifelong learning, starts with two papers from Slovenia.
The first paper by Cepar and Trunk entitled ‘Population Ageing, Education and
Mortality: The Case of Slovenia’ analyses the implications of an ageing society for the
education demand and supply side and the consequences for the educational labour
market in the country. The authors use statistical data from official national databases,
as well as data from surveys conducted particularly for the purposes of this research.
The potential benefits and other consequences of Europass are also examined. The
second paper by Gomezelj Omerzel et al. discusses the system of validation of non-
formal and informal learning (NIL). It presents the results of empirical research, aimed
at investigating 1) the existing practice of NIL applied by five Slovenian employers
and their motivation to co-operate in the system for validation of NIL, and 2) the
number of competencies that employees from five Slovenian employers developed
through NIL.
The third paper in this subsection by Gaynard presents the methodological issues
surrounding a research project concerned with mature graduate women’s perceptions
of their lives and educational experiences. The research uses a combination of
quantitative (questionnaire) and qualitative (lifelines and interviews) methods, and is
carried out in the UK. The fourth paper by Misut from Slovak Republic focuses on an
educational reform that transformed the administration and financing of regional
schools in the country. The reform forms part of the overall decentralisation of public
administration and focuses on the redistribution of powers between the State and the
local government. The paper makes recommendations about how the Faculty of
Education of Trnava University (FoE), as an institution preparing future teachers for
pre-primary, primary and secondary schools, should reflect the changes connected to
the reform at all education levels.
The third subsection, on training and education, starts with a paper by Du Toit et
al. entitled ‘Education, Jobs and Skills’, which discusses the existence of a gap
between the labour market’s changing requirements in South Africa and the education
system’s way of preparing the country’s youth for a career. The next paper by Cech is
based on some pedagogical work carried out in Social Care together with persons with
learning difficulties. The aim is, together with the person with learning difficulties, to
view their knowledge, and based on their own life experiences, to work for their
empowerment. During a period of ten years, four to six persons with learning
difficulties have, together with the researcher, and through interactive talks with each
other, reflected over the knowledge they have gained from their own life experiences.
The third paper by Birnbaum and Papoutsis Kritikos presents a partnership
between Northeastern Illinois University and the Chicago Public Schools (CPS) that
addresses the shortage of special education teachers in CPS and in the city of Chicago,
through an innovative field-based programme. In this project, individuals with B.S.
degrees outside of education work as full-time interns in CPS, serving students with
disabilities, as they complete Illinois teacher certification requirements and M.A.
degrees in special education. The next paper by Silitsky presents a case study that
illustrates how service learning was successfully incorporated into a graduate
counseling course: Group Therapies. Excerpts reflecting student perceptions of the
projects, client evaluations, agency/community feedback, and descriptions of course
assignments are provided.
The paper by Clarke presents a study that evolved from a small-scale piece of
research where small groups of five or six students participated in some research
involving discussion and close textual analysis of an article that was relevant for a
particular assignment. What emerged as a ‘spin-off’ from the intended research was
8
the fact that the students were much more willing to share information and exchange
ideas in smaller groups. The concept of competitiveness had disappeared and an ethos
of collaboration prevailed. The last paper in this section by Karababa and Celik aims
to explore learners’ perceptions (opinions) towards teacher and learner-centered
learning approaches in terms of in-class interaction in a language teaching
environment. Including randomly assigned experiment and control groups, the study
gathers data from the freshmen students taking a Turkish syntax lecture via a
questionnaire and an interview. Both groups involved in the study are asked about
their feelings, disappointments, recommendations, and criticisms about the teaching.
Treatment is completed in five weeks and the data are analysed by statistical
techniques.
So far, we presented a general overview of the papers included in this volume. It is
particularly encouraging that the 2006 education conference of the Athens Institute for
Education and Research brought together presentations of research work from a broad
spectrum of countries. The studies reported here have been carried out in East and
Western Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America. By reading these papers, one can
identify the main issues that preoccupy educationists in the respective countries.
Among the fields of study, common across countries, are early years education
(mainly with regard to the social and cognitive development of the child), adolescence
psychology, and inclusive education for people with special educational needs. There
is also international interest in the use of e-technology in educational practice. In the
context of formal education (from primary through to higher education) the focus is
mainly on learning and teaching methodologies, as well as in assessment techniques.
Policy-related research is still in the forefront of the government agenda in many
countries of the world and mainly focuses on early years and post-secondary
education. A main concern of the researchers is the translation of their findings into
policy and practice. There is an issue of the existence of a gap between policy
initiatives and the actual experiences of those at the receiving end of education, i.e.
teachers and pupils.
In terms of methodology, there is a predominance of quantitative research that
includes large scale questionnaire surveys, experiments, and systematic observations.
Such studies are mainly carried out in East Europe (e.g. Slovenia and Turkey). The
factors most frequently examined for their effect on educational outcomes are
demographic and socioeconomic variables. Qualitative methods, such as ethnographic
research or case studies applying, among others, in-depth interviews have a more
limited application. They are preferred by researchers in Western Europe and North
America (e.g. England, Scotland, Ireland and the United States). In most cases,
qualitative methods are applied as part of mixed methods designs, in combination with
quantitative techniques.
We hope that the international conferences on education organised by the Athens
Institute for Education and Research will continue to attract researchers from an
increasing number of countries and will remain truly international. We also hope that
the conferences will offer an attractive environment for sharing and discussing
research findings, exchanging thoughts and ideas, identifying issues for further
investigation, developing new research questions, and overall, furthering the study in
the field of education. At the same time, it is our aspiration to create a multicultural
environment of friendship and enjoyable social encounters.
9
10
Part 1
Family
and
Education
11
12
Pre School
13
14
An Investigation of the Social Behaviors of Children who Attend
2
An Investigation of the Social Behaviors of
Children who Attend Pre-School Institutions
Neriman Aral, Ankara University
&
Figen Gursoy, Ankara University
&
Mudriye Yildiz Bicakci, Ankara University
&
Ozlem Korukcu, Ankara University
S
ocialization is defined as a basic process by which individuals learn the culture
of their society, understand their own roles and thus become initiated into
society (Aral et al. 2000). This process starts at birth and lasts a lifetime.
However, the majority of social behaviors are shaped during early childhood
(Gander and Gandiner, 1998). It is thanks to the education received during this period
that children learn how to interact with others, adopt positive social behaviors such as
sharing and cooperation, and control negative ones such as aggression and violence
(Munoz et al. 2004). Imitation plays a major role in such learning. Therefore, in the
pre-school period, the parents, the teachers, and other adults need to perform as
positive role models. Such modeling by the teacher and the use of appropriate
educational programs help children develop positive social behaviors (Farmer-Dougan
et al. 1999; Bain, 2005). In their study about social relations, Cassidy et al. (2003)
found that pre-school teachers and peers were influential in the social behaviors
adopted prior to starting school. Likewise, Noel et al. (2000) concluded that activities
which encourage linguistic development have a positive effect on the social
development of linguistically impaired children. In addition to these, parent modeling
and parental attitudes affect children’s social behaviors. Therefore, children raised in a
democratic environment have more opportunities for social development (Utay and
Utay, 2005).
The environment, personality of the child and the playing of games are also
important for the socialization of children. Games teach children turn-taking, sharing,
helping, cooperation and caring for others’ wishes (Başaran, 2000). Phillipsen et al.
15
(1999) found in their study that the social behaviors of children are positively affected
by games.
The social behaviors adopted during early childhood determine children’s future
interaction patterns and identify their attitudes towards social events (Cimen, 2000),
thus giving a critical role to pre-school education in the social development of
children. Owing to these, it is important to identify pre-school children’s social
development, discover the factors that may influence their social behaviors and offer
sound suggestions to families and teachers. To this end, the present study aims to
identify the factors that may affect pre-school children’s cooperation and social
relationships, and to make practical suggestions to families and educationists so as to
encourage pre-school children’s social development.
Materials and Methods
The study has been designed to determine whether age, sex, having a working
mother, the duration of time spent at pre-school and the education level of parents
affect four- and five-year-old pre-school children’s social behaviors. The study is a
cross hatching model.
The Population and Sample
The research was carried out with four- and five-year-old children attending the
Ministry of Health kindergarten, daycare and crèche in Ankara city center. 138
children selected through random sampling were included in the study.
Data Collection Tools
General information form: This form was developed by the researchers with the
aim of obtaining information about the children and their families. The form consists
of questions about the children’s age, sex, whether their mothers are working, how
long they have been attending pre-school, and the education level of their parents.
Behavior assessment scale: This scale was designed by Cagdas (1997) in order to
determine the social development levels of four- and five-year-old children.
Consisting of the sub-categories of cooperation and social relationships, the scale has
40 items focusing on typical behaviors observed at pre-schools. Twenty of these items
focus on cooperation, and the other twenty on social relationships. Behaviors related
to cooperation and social relationships are listed, and each behavior is rated as ‘well-
developed (5 points)’, ‘above average (4 points)’, ‘average (3 points)’, ‘below average
(2 points)’, ‘not developed at all (1 point)’. The seventh and thirteenth items in the
cooperation sub-category, and the thirteenth item in the social relationships sub-
category are reversely scored. In the present study, the scale was completed by the
teachers. The highest score possible is 92 in the cooperation sub-category, and 96 in
the social relationships sub-category. Higher scores imply more socially developed
children (Cagdas, 1997).
16
Data Analysis
T-test was used for independent samples in order to determine whether there is a
meaningful difference in children’s social behaviors based on a personal variable in
the two sub-categories (for example, age, sex, having a working mother), and One-
Way ANOVA was used to discover whether there was a meaningful difference based
on a personal variable consisting of three or more sub-groups (time spent at pre-
school, education level of parents). Whenever One-Way ANOVA analysis indicated a
meaningful difference, the Scheefe Test was used to discover the group that caused the
difference (Büyüköztürk, 2002).
Findings
Of all the children included in the study, 52.9% were girls and 47.1% were boys;
52.2% were four years old and 47.8% were five; 69.5% had working mothers, and
30.5% had stay-at-home mothers; 14.5% had been at pre-school for 6 months or less,
34% had been there between seven and twelve months, 17.5% between thirteen and
eighteen months and 34% for 9 months or more; 12.5% had literate or primary school
graduate mothers, 24% had junior high or high school graduate mothers and 63.5%
had college or university graduate mothers; 4% had literate or primary school graduate
fathers, 22% had junior high or high school graduate fathers and 74% had college or
university graduate fathers.
Table 1. The Social Behavior Point Averages, Standard Deviations and T-Test
Results of Subjects by Sex
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Sex N Cooperation Social relations
Mean Standard Mean Standard

Deviation Deviation
Girls 72 83.22 9.47 83.38 8.63
Boys 66 79.51 10.54 80.96 9.91
RESULTS of t df p t df p
T -TEST 2.166 136 .03 1.523 136 .13
p<.05
As seen in Table 1, girls scored higher than boys both in cooperation ( X =83.22)
and social relationships ( X =83.38). The t-test results revealed that the difference
between the cooperation point averages was significant (t(136)=2.166, p<.05) whereas
the difference in social relationships point averages was not (t(136)=1.523, p> .05).
Similarly, several other studies about children’s social behavior report that girls
display more positive social development (Cimen,2000; Gizir, 2002). This may be due
to a stronger willingness on the part of girls to establish communication, observe
social rules and use society-related subjects in their games.
17
Table 2. The Social Behavior Point Averages, Standard Deviations and T-Test Results
of Subjects by Age
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Age N Cooperation Social relations

Deviation Deviation
Four 73 79.02 10.62 80.23 9.81
Five 65 84.16 8.86 84.47 8.22
t- TEST 3.091 136 .00 2.735 136 .00
p<.01
Table 2 suggests that the cooperation point averages of five-year-olds ( X =84.16)

is higher than those of four-year-olds ( X = 79.02). The same is true for the social
relationships point averages. Additionally, the t-test scores revealed that age was
influential in both cooperation (t(136)=3.091,p<.01) and social relationships point
averages (t(136)=2.735, p<.01).
It is natural for five-year-old children to display more positive social development
than four-year-olds since social behaviors are formed and shaped around four years of
age and they become more distinctive at five. Once they are five years old, children
trust the people around them and establish better friend relationships. They also
develop protective behaviors for younger and weaker peers and siblings, and start to
become independent in their daily life (Yavuzer, 2001). Additionally, increased
linguistic development that comes with age also supports socialization. Astington and
Jeckins (1995) have emphasized that children’s understanding and social skills are
improved as they become older and start to display better linguistic skills.
Table 3 The Social Behavior Point Averages, Standard Deviations and T-Test Results
of Subjects According to the Work Status of their Mother
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Working N Cooperation Social relations
mothers
Deviation Deviation
Yes 96 80.53 10.21 81.71 .97
No 42 74.19 9.36 74.61 1.56
RESULTS of t- t df p t df p
TEST 3.559 136 .00 3.852 136 .00
p<.01
Table 3 shows that children with working mothers had higher cooperation
( X =80.53) and social relationships ( X =81.71) point averages than children whose
mothers do not work (cooperation X = 74.19; social relationships X = 74.61). The t-
test results suggested that having a working mother caused a statistically meaningful
difference in both cooperation (t(136)=3.559,p<.01) and social relationships
(t(136)=3.852, p<.01) point averages.
Working outside the home makes mothers strive for order at home and it also
demands that family members share household responsibilities. This contributes
greatly to the social development of children (Yıldız Bıcakcı & Gursoy, 2004). Most
working mothers feel that they do not spend enough time with their children and
18
therefore endeavor to make best use of the time they can afford to spend with them.
This affects children’s development in a positive way. Studies have also shown that
working has positive effects not only on women’s own personality development but
their children’s as well (Gokdogan 1996; Yıldız Bıcakcı & Gursoy, 2004). As a result,
it may be argued that having a working mother is advantageous to all areas of child
development.
Table 4. The Social Behavior Point Averages, Standard Deviations and Variance
Analysis Results of Subjects According to Duration of Time Spent At Pre-School
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Duration of Cooperation Social relations
time spent at N
pre-school
Deviation Deviatio
n
0-6 months 1 20 74.55 11.91 76.20 12.50
7-12 months 2 48 79.45 9.12 80.22 9.12
13-18 months 3 22 74.95 8.58 76.68 8.58
19 and more 4 48 81.10 10.88 81.60 10.88
GENERAL 138 78.60 10.35 79.55 10.35
VARIANCE of
ANALYSIS Mean F Meaningful Mean F
RESULTS df Square difference Square
Between 3 3.145 3.113 1-2, 1-4 2.154 2.041
groups
Within 134 102.45 3-2, 3-4 102.895
groups
Total 137
**p<.05
As shown in Table 4, the cooperation point averages of children who had spent six
months or less at pre-school was 76.20±12.50, those of children who had spent seven
to twelve months was 80.22±9.39, those of children who had spent thirteen to
eighteen months was 74.95±8.58, and those of children who had spent nineteen
months or more was 81.10±10.88. When it comes to social relationships, the averages
were 76.20±12.50, 80.22±9.39, 76.68±8.67, and 81.60±10.4, respectively. The
analysis of variance revealed that while there was a meaningful difference between the
total time spent at pre-school and cooperation point averages (F(3-134)=3.113, p<.05),
there was no such relationship between the total time spent at pre-school and social
relationships point averages (F(3-134)=2.041, p>.05). In order to determine the source of
this meaningful difference, the Scheefe test was administered and the results showed
that the grade point averages of children who had spent less than six months at pre-
school were caused by the difference between the point averages of children who had
spent between seven to twelve months and those who had spent nineteen months or
more at pre-school. Similarly, the averages of children who had spent thirteen to
eighteen months were caused by the difference between the point averages of children
who had been at pre-school between seven to twelve months and those who had been
at pre-school for nineteen months or more.
Schools as social institutions turn children’s social behaviors into habits. Pre-
school education is important in the sense that it allows children to discover a world
different to the one at home and to establish positive social relationships.
19
Additionally, pre-school education helps decrease negative behaviors and encourages

the adoption of new and positive ones. Studies have also shown that children who
receive pre-school education are considerably different from others when it comes to
social behaviors such as self-confidence, curiosity, having an outgoing personality,
independence, establishing good relationships with others, taking responsibility and
leadership (Avcı, 1995; Walker et al.2005). Additionally, it is also important that pre-
school education gives children the opportunity to be together with other children.
Establishing friendships helps to teach children satisfactory relationships,
cooperation, leadership, competition, self-sacrificing and altruism (Meurling et al.
1999). Further, pre-school educational programs also contribute to children’s social
development. Black et al. (1999) designed a study in which they supported children’s
social behaviors with illustrated story books. The results showed that these children
helped others more. Consequently, it may be said that the total time spent at pre-
school institutions affects social behaviors.
According to Table 5, children whose mothers are college or university graduates
had higher cooperation and social relationship point averages. The analysis of variance
showed that both cooperation (F(2-135)=5.164, p<.01) and social relationship (F(2-
135)=5.364, p<.01) point averages displayed a meaningful difference depending on the
education level of mothers. The Scheefe test revealed that the difference between the
educational level of mothers and both cooperation and social relationships was caused
by the difference in the point averages of those whose mothers are junior high or high
school graduates and those whose mothers are college or university graduates.
Analysis Results of Subjects by Mother’s Education
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Mother’s Cooperation Social relations
Education N Mean Standart Mean Standart
Level Deviation Deviation
Literate or 17 76.58 9.04 76.58 10.17
primary
school
graduates 1
Junior high 33 74.27 11.94 75.54 12.11
school or high
school
graduates 2
College or 88 80.61 9.45 81.63 8.97
university
graduates 3
GENERAL 138 78.60 10.35 79.55 10.35
VARIANCE of Mean F Meaningful Mean F Meaningful
ANALYSIS Square difference Square difference
RESULTS df
Between 2 521.77 5.164 2-3 530.68 5.364 2-3
groups 6 7
Within 135 101.04 98.687
groups 8
Total 137
**p<.01
20
Table 6 shows that children whose fathers are college or university graduates also
had higher cooperation and social relationships point averages. The analysis of
variance revealed that there was a meaningful difference between the children’s
cooperation point averages according to fathers’ level of education (F(2-135)=3.495,
p<.05) whereas there was no such difference between children’s social relationship
point averages (F(2-135)=1.802,p>.05). The Scheefe test results indicated that the
difference was caused by the difference between the grade point averages of children
whose fathers are junior high or high school graduates and those whose fathers are
college or university graduates.
It is known that the structure of the family and the way they educate their children
are among the most important factors that shape children’s socialization and the
development of social behavior models. During the pre-school period, children remain
under the influence of their parents and, through association, they adopt both positive
and negative behaviors that they observe in their parents. These behaviors may
continue for a lifetime (Gizir, 2002). Therefore, the educational level of parents, the
cultural structure of the society and the cultural level of the family play an important
role in the social behaviors of children. It was emphasized in a study about social
behaviors that culture is a determining factor in the development of these behaviors
(Anonymous, 2006). As parents with more education interact with their children more
consciously, it may be argued that the education level of parents is critical in the
development of children’s social behaviors. In their studies about the effects of the
relationship between mother and children on children’s talents and development,
Weinfield et al. (2002) and Lipson & Callanan (2003) stated that the quality of
communication between the mother and child determines the latter’s talents and
development.
Analysis Results of Subjects According to the Education Level of Their Father
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Education Cooperation Social relations
Level of N
Father Mean Standard Mean Standard
Deviation Deviation
Literate or 6 76.80 10.23 76.00 6.44
primary school
graduates 1
Junior high 30 74.40 10.36 76.86 11.28
school or high
school
graduates 2
College or 103 79.91 10.11 80.51 9.99
university
graduates 3
GENERAL 138 78.60 10.35 79.55 10.35
VARIANCE of
ANALYSIS RESULTS F Mean Meaningful F Mean
df Square difference Square
Between 2 3.495 361.433 2-3 1.082 187.421

groups
Within 135 103.424 104.424
groups
Total 137
**p<.05
21
Conclusions and Suggestions
The results of the study suggest that age, having working mothers, and their
educational level lead to a significant difference (p<.01) in both cooperation and social
relationship point averages of children whereas sex, the total time spent at pre-school
and the education level of fathers are only influential in cooperation point averages
(p<.05).
Families, educationists and other members of the society are all responsible for
supporting pre-school children’s social behaviors. It is crucial that adults act as role
models in displaying positive behaviors. Teachers ought to encourage children by
creating the right environment in the classroom and so that they may experience
positive behaviors such as sharing, cooperation, helping and supporting others. When
designing the curriculum, educationists should cover the development of social
behaviors in educational objectives and plan appropriate learning activities.
Furthermore, teachers should be in close contact with parents so that they encourage
them to become positive role models at home and to reinforce the positive behaviors
adopted in the classroom. Besides these, visits to the homes of children in care and
elderly people give children further opportunity to express positive behaviors. Finally,
the importance of pre-school education in supporting social behaviors and
development should be emphasized and social awareness should be raised.
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23
24
A Study on Anxiety Levels of Mothers with
Mentally Retarded Chıldren
3
A Study on Anxiety Levels of Mothers With
Neriman Aral, Ankara University
&
Aynur Butun Ayhan, Ankara University
&
Yasemin Aydogan, Abant Izzet Baysal University
A new baby leads not only to happiness, but also to the need for family
members to consider their famial roles. Such consideration seems to be
more extensively observed in mothers since their responsibilities are much
more than others (daily care,meeting emotional needs, etc.). If newly born baby has
special needs, mothers will experience such emotions as anxiety, surprise and anger.
Additionally, they can not know what to do in this new situation (Padeliadu 1998).
Disabled or ill children with acute illness may cause significant changes in the
functioning of family, its structure and familial roles. Such children may become
stressors for the family members, affecting their views and thoughts in a negative way
(Icoz & Baran 2002). Parents may experience different emotions gradually and such
emotions may include shock, denial, extensive sadness and depression, anger, guilt,
rejection, compromise and acceptance (Ersoy 1997). Families must cope with stress
because of having a disabled child. Such families also experience anxiety regarding
the education of the child (Metin 1999). Parents with disabled children experience
similar emotions and similar stages. However, those families with mentally retarded
children seem to experience more intense stress because such children need
continuous special care and education and they have lower intellectual functions. Also
mentally – retarded children exhibit adaptation problems to learning and social
environments (Aral et. al. 2000) and need life-long care by the family (Kim et. al.
2003).
Duvdevany & Abboud (2003) argue that although mentally retarded individuals
lead to continuous stress in family, each family may experience stress because of
different reasons. One of the reasons for parents’ stress is their recognition of the
child’s disability (Glidden & Schoolcraft, 2003). Olsson & Hwang (2001) found that
families of mentally retarded children experience higher levels of stress in contrast to
those of children with normal development pattern. Emerson (2003) states that
25
families with mentally retarded children are disadvantaged in terms of socioeconomic

situations.
Research indicates that mothers of mentally retarded children have higher levels
of anxiety in contrast to those of normally developed children. It is also reported that
such mother’s self-esteem is lower (Argyrakouli & Zafiropoulou, 2003), and they
have much more difficulties both socially and psychologically (Emerson, 2003).
Quality support from family members is said to be effective in lowering the stress
level of the parents (Beck et. al. 2004). It is reported that the quality of services
provided by society and state to disabled children and their families make it easier for
them to cope with the problems (Ahmetoğlu & Aral, 2005). Research suggest that
family education is the most effective method in educating the children with
behavioral problems (Mccleary 2002; Hartman et. al. 2003). It is also emphasized that
family education leads to positive effects regarding more effective ways to cope with
the children and to communicate with them (Power et. al. 2002). Therefore, it is clear
that social support is very significant for families with handicapped children in terms
of coping with stress and education. The aims of the study are to determine the anxiety
levels of mothers with mentally retarded children and to identify the effects of such
variables as gender of the child, his age, time of the first diagnosis, the beginning date
of special education, the age of the mother and her educational level on the anxiety
level of mothers.
Method
The sample of the study includes 100 volunteer mothers of disabled children who
are ranging from four and eighteen years – old children; are attending special
education centers and schools in Ankara. The mothers included do not have any
disability.
In order to collect data two tools were used. The first one developed by the
authors is general information form to gather data about the child and his family
members. The seconds one, “Questionnaire on Resources and Stress” is developed by
Holroyd and translated into Turkish and analyzed in terms of its validity and
reliability by Akkök (1989).
Questionnaire on Resources and Stress is made up of eleven sub – dimensions:
dependency and self–management, cognitive disorder, limitations on the familial life,
life – long care, dissonance in family, lack of individual rewards, continuous illness
anxiety, physical limitations financial anxiety, preference of institutional care, its
difficulty for family; and a total of sixty – six items. It requires family members to
provide answers to the items about the child and home environment. The scale
provides scores for eleven sub – dimensions. Total of the sub dimensions scores gives
the general score of anxiety. Maximum score for each sub dimension is six, that for
general anxiety level is sixty – six. Higher the scores, higher the level of anxiety.
Questionnaire on Resources and Stress was individually administered to the
sample. In order to identify the effects of the variables (gender of the child, his age,
time of the first diagnose, the beginning date of special education , the age of the
mother and her educational level on the anxiety level of mothers), t-test when there are
two groups and ANOVA when there are more than two groups were used. The Sheffe
test was employed to determine the source of variance.
26
Findings and Discussion
The data about the effects of the variables (gender of the child, his age, time of the
first diagnose, the beginning date of special education , the age of the mother and her
educational level on the anxiety level of mothers) are given in tables and the findings
are discussed using the related studies.
It is found that 32 % of the mothers have daughters, and 68 % have sons.
Regarding the age group of the children, the following groups are found: 32 % four –
eight age group; 38% nine – thirteen age group; 30 %fourteen –eighteen age group.
11% of the children were diagnosed as disabled in the first month and 32 % of them
were diagnosed as disabled in the second – twelfth month. The rate of children
diagnosed as disabled in the thirteenth – thirty – sixth months is found to be 42 %. 15
% of the children were identified as handicapped later (thirty seventh – seventy second
month). Regarding the beginning of the special education period of the children the
following findings were found: 13 % in the first year: 22 % between in the twenty
fourth and thirty – sixth month: 28 % between thirty – seventh and seventy – second
month: 37 % in the seventy – third month or later. Of the mothers sampled, 22 % are
thirty years old or younger and 57 % are between twenty one and thirty; the rate of
those who are forty years – old or older is 21%. Regarding the educational background
of the mothers, the following findings are found: 64 % have primary school education:
28 % are graduated from junior high schools. Only eight percent of the mothers are
graduated from higher education institutions.
Table 1 shows that the gender of the child does not produce variance in the level
of anxiety of mothers (t(98)=1.78, p>.05). It is also seen in the sub-dimensions
(p>.05). Therefore the gender of the child does not produce statistically significant
differences in the mothers’ level of anxiety. It is known that having a child with
disability leads to anxiety since the child can not be independent during his life time
and he needs life-long care. Therefore, the gender of the child does not lead to
variance in the anxiety levels of mothers since both male and female disabled children
lead to similar responsibilities and anxiety about their future. İçöz & Baran (2002)
also found that the gender of the child does not lead to statistically significant
difference in the anxiety levels of mothers with mentally-retarded children.
27
Table 1. Mothers’ Level of Anxiety Depending on their Children’s Gender, Standard

Deviations (SD), Means ( Χ ) and t – Test Results
Gender
Girl (N=32) Boy
Sub – dimensions Χ ± SD (N=68) df t p
Χ ± SD
Dependency and self

3.71±1.08 3.70±0.82 98 0.05 .953
management
Cognitive disorder 3.15±1.48 3.42±1.39 98 0.86 .390
Limitations on the familial
2.93±1.98 2.52±1.91 98 0.97 .336
life
Life – long care 5.56±0.80 5.07±1.96 98 1.76 .081
Dissonance in family 4.31±0.96 3.92±0.98 98 1.85 .068
Lack of individual rewards 4.84±1.41 5.01±1.94 98 0.49 .620
Continuous illness anxiety 3.68±0.93 3.29±1.35 98 1.69 .094
Physical limitations 2.15±0.80 2.10±0.96 98 0.28 .774
Financial anxiety 2.87±0.90 2.83±1.52 98 0.15 .881
Preference of institutional
4.28±0.99 3.86±1.14 98 1.85 .069
care
Difficulties for family 3.78±1.00 3.51±1.34 98 1.10 .273
General anxiety 41.31±4.31 39.29±6.88 98 1.78 .078
Table 2. Mothers’ Level of Anxiety Depending on their Children’s Age, Means( Χ )

Standard Deviations (SD) and Results of ANOVA
Age Groups
4-8 age 9-13 age 14-18age
Sub – (N=32) (N=38) (N=30) df F p Meaningful
dimensions Χ ± SD Χ ± SD Χ ± SD difference
Dependency and 1-3
4.00±0.84 3.68±0.84 3.43±1.00 99-2 3.13 0.048*
self management
Cognitive 1-2
2.53±1.45 3.63±1.19 3.83±1.31 99-2 9.03 0.000**
disorder 1-3
Limitations on
2.81±1.92 2.44±2.02 2.76±1.86 99-2 0.37 0.692
the familial life
Life – long care 5.40±1.01 4.76±1.77 5.63±2.04 99-2 2.54 0.084
Dissonance in
3.93±1.13 4.18±0.98 4.00±0.83 99-2 0.59 0.556
family
Lack of
individual 4.87±1.47 4.86±1.31 5.16+2.50 99-2 0.28 0.754
rewards
Continuous
3.59±1.21 3.13±1.21 3.60±1.27 99-2 1.67 0.192
illness anxiety
Physical
2.00±1.19 2.10±0.64 2.26±0.86 99-2 0.66 0.517
limitations
Financial anxiety 2.81±0.89 2.73±1.03 3.03±1.99 99-2 0.41 0.660
Preference of
4.25±1.07 3.84±1.15 3.93±1.08 99-2 1.25 0.289
institutional care
Difficulties for
3.53±1.04 3.73±1.32 3.50±1.35 99-2 0.36 0.692
family
General anxiety 39.75±6.10 39.13±5.42 41.16±7.24 99-2 0.91 0.404
*p<0.05
**p<0.001
28
Table 2 shows that like the gender of the disabled child, age of the child does not
produce statistically significant difference in the mothers’s score of general anxiety
(F(99-2)=0.91; p>0.05). This finding is in parallel to those found in other related studies
(İçöz & Baran, 2002; Ahmetoğlu & Aral 2005).
However, it is seen that the age of the handicapped children produce statistically
significant variance in two sub-dimensions: dependency and self management (F(99-
2)=3.13; p<0.05), and cognitive disorder (F(99-2)=9.03; p<0.01). Regarding the
dimension of dependency and self management, the results of the Scheffe test indicate
that the scores of the mothers with four-eight years old disabled children are found to
be statistically significant from those of the mothers with fourteen- eighteen years-old
disabled children. It is possible to argue that the reason for the mothers of four-eight
years old disabled children have higher anxiety scores related to the fact that these
children need more parental support since they are younger. In relation to cognitive
disorder: statistically significant variance was found among three groups of mothers
according to the results of the Scheffe test: mothers of four-eight years old disabled
children, those of nine-thirteen years old and fourteen-eighteen years old disabled
children. Mean scores of cognitive disorder vary among these three groups. The
highest score is found in mothers of fourteen-eighteen years old disabled children
(3.83±1.31). The second highest score is that of mothers with nine-thirteen years old
disabled children (3.63±1.19). The other group’s mean score is found to be
(2.53±1.45). It is seen that increase in the age of the handicapped children leads to
higher levels of anxiety in their mothers.
Mean scores indicate that in the cognitive disorder dimension, when the child gets
older, their mothers’ level anxiety also increases. It may be a result of the fact that
although the child gets older he still needs the adult care and mothers seem to have
anxiety about their children’s future.
It is found that time of the first diagnose makes no statistically significant
difference in the mothers’ level of anxiety (F (99-3)=1.14, p>.05). However, it leads to
statistically significant differences in the level of anxiety in the mothers regarding two
sub-dimensions, namely cognitive disorder (F(99-3)=4.58; p<0.01) and preferrence of
institutional care (F(99-3)=4.73; p<0.01). According to the results of the Scheffe test the
variance is observed across the scores of three groups: Mothers whose child was
diagnosed as mentally retarted in the first month or in the the first year and those
whose child was diagnosed as mentally retarded between thirty seventh months and
seventy second months. It is seen that the levels of anxiety become higher in parallel
to increase in the child’s age. Late diagnose leads to delay in special education. It is
possible to argue that late beginning to education increase the mothers’ level of
anxiety. According to the Scheffe test results, regarding the preference of institutional
care the scores vary between the mothers whose child was diagnosed as disabled in the
first year and those whose child was diagnosed as disabled in between thirty seventh
month and seventy second month. Of these two groups, the mean scores of the latter
group is lower than those of the former one (0-1month; 4.72±0.90, 2-12 month;
4.09±0.99, 13-36 month; 4.02±1.07, respectively). Accepting the early diagnosis is
very hard for mothers. It is possible to argue that mothers’ anxiety levels become high
when they think in an early period that their child may need institutional care.
29
Table 3. Mothers’ Level of Anxiety Depending on the Time of the First Diagnosis,
Means ( Χ ), Standard Deviations(SD) And Results Of ANOVA
Time of The First Diagnosis
0-1 2-12 month 13-36 37-72
Sub – month (N=32) month month sd F p Meani
dimensions (N=11) Χ ± SD (N=42) (N=15) n-
Χ ± SD Χ ± SD Χ ± SD gful
differe
nce
Dependency
3.90±1.2 3.73±0.8 3.73±0.9 99-
and self 3.59±0.83 0.35 .785
2 8 6 3
management
Cognitive 2.54±1.6 3.42±1.3 4.33±0.8 99- .005 1-4,
3.03±1.44 4.58
disorder 9 0 9 3 * 2-4
Limitations
2.18±1.7 2.73±2.0 1.86±1.8 99-
on the 3.09±1.80 1.65 .182
2 7 0 3
familial life
Life – long 5.00±1.6 5.16±1.4 4.73±3.2 99-
5.62±0.60 1.10 .352
care 7 4 6 3
Dissonance 3.81±0.7 4.07±0.9 4.06±1.3 99-
4.09±0.89 0.22 .879
in family 5 7 8 3
Lack of
5.54±0.8 4.71+1.4 4.60+1.3 99-
individual 5.25±2.47 1.14 .334
2 1 5 3
rewards
Continuous
3.45±1.0 3.54±1.2 2.86±1.5 99-
illness 3.50±1.04 1.19 .315
3 7 9 3
anxiety
Physical 2.27±1.1 2.23±0.8 2.06±0.8 99-
1.93±0.94 0.77 .511
limitations 0 5 8 3
Financial 3.27±0.9 2.73±1.0 2.46±0.9 99-
3.03±1.87 1.05 .374
anxiety 0 6 1 3
Preference of
4.72±0.9 4.02±1.0 3.20±1.2 99- .004
institutional 4.09±0.99 4.73 1-4
0 7 0 3 *
care
Difficulties 3.18±0.9 3.76±1.3 3.40±1.4 99-
3.62±1.07 0.77 .510
for family 8 5 5 3
General 39.90±3. 40.16±5. 37.33±8. 99-
40.87±6.12 1.14 .337
anxiety 67 87 43 3
p<0.05
Table 4 indicates that the beginning date of special education has no effect on the
mothers’ general score of anxiety (F(99-3)=1.11; p>0.05). However, it produces
statistically significant variance in the scores of mothers in four sub-dimensions:
cognitive disorder (F(99-3)=5.36; p<0.05), lack of individual rewards (F(99-3)=6.13;
p<0.05), financial anxiety (F(99-3)=4.08; p<0.05) and preferrence of institutional care
(F(99-3)=2.80; p<0.05). The results of the Scheffe test indicate that scores of two
groups is found to be different regarding cognitive disorders: mothers whose children
began special education between 24 th month and 36 th month and whose children
started special education in the seventy third month or later. This finding suggest that
when special education begins late, the level of mothers’ anxiety increases. The
Scheffe test indicate that regarding the sub-dimensions, lack of individual rewards, it
is found that scores of three groups are different (those whose children began to
receive special education in the first year, those whose children began to receive
special education between 24 th month and 36 th month, those whose children began
to receive special education between 37 th month and 72 nd month and those whose
30
children began to receive special education between 73 rd month and later). Scores of
preference of institutional care are found to be different between those whose children
began to receive special education in the first year and those whose children began to
receive special education between 73rd month and later. It is seen that mothers whose
children began to receive special education between 24 th month and 36 th month
have higher scores in the three sub-dimensions: lack of individual rewards, financial
anxiety and preference of institutional care. It suggests that mothers become
responsible for their children early and they can not continue social activities. And
these factors lead to higher levels of stress in these mothers. Support provided to the
mothers in this period will faciliate their acceptance of their children’s disability and
decrease their level of anxiety. Duvdevany & Abboud (2003) conclude that social
support given to the mothers of mentally retarded children decreases the level of
stress.
Table 4. Mothers’ Level of Anxiety Depending on the Beginning Date of Special

Education, Means( Χ ), Standard Deviations (SD) and Results of ANOVA
Beginning date of special education
24-36 37-72 73 month
Sub – 0-24 month Meani
month month and later
dimensions (N=13) sd F p ngful
(N=22 (N=28) (N=37)
Χ ± SD differe
Χ ±SD Χ ±SD Χ ±SD
nce
Dependency
3.63±1.1 3.60±0.8
and self 3.69±0.75 3.83±0.89 99-3 0.40 0.752
3 3
management
Cognitive 2.45±1.3 3.46±1.2 2-4
3.07±1.60 3.86±1.31 99-3 5.36 0.002*
disorder 3 3
Limitations on
2.36±1.9 3.07±1.7
the familial 2.15±1.90 2.70±2.03 99-3 0.89 0.447
8 6
life
Life – long 5.45±0.8 5.28±1.5
5.15±0.98 5.08±2.30 99-3 0.23 0.870
care 0 6
Dissonance in 3.77±1.0 4.03+0.8
4.15±0.55 4.18+1.17 99-3 0.86 0.461
family 2 3
Lack of 1-3
5.36±1.0 4.85±1.5
individual 6.46±2.93 4.27±1.42 99-3 6.13 0.001* 1-4
4 5
rewards
Continuous 3.50±0.9 3.46±1.2
3.61±1.19 3.27±1.40 99-3 0.32 0.809
illness anxiety 6 6
Physical 1.90±1.1 2.21±0.6
2.23±0.92 2.13±0.94 99-3 0.55 0.649
limitations 5 2
Financial 1-3
3.00±1.0 2.67±0.8
3.92±2.56 2.51±1.04 99-3 4.08 0.009* 1-4
anxiety 2 6
Preference of 1-4
4.27±0.9 4.07±1.0
institutional 4.46±0.77 3.62±1.23 99-3 2.80 0.044*
8 5
care
Difficulties for 3.27±1.1 3.71±1.0
3.53±1.12 3.72±1.48 99-3 0.72 0.542
family 2 4
General 39.00±4. 40.46±4. 39.21±7.2
42.46±8.31 99-3 1.11 0.347
anxiety 81 20 9
* p<0.05
31
Table 5. Mothers’ Level of Anxiety Depending on the Age of Mother , Means ( Χ ),

Standard Deviations(SD) and Results of Variance Analysis
Age of Mothers
30age 31-40 age 41 age and
Sub – dimensions and lower (N=57) older df F p Meaningf
(N=22) Χ ± SD (N=21) ul
Χ ± SD Χ ± SD differenc
e
Dependency and 3.95±0.78 3.71±1.01 3.42±0.67 99-2 1.81 0.168
self management
Cognitive disorder 2.18±1.18 3.56±1.38 3.95±1.07 99-2 12.16 0.000** 1-2, 1-3
Limitations on the 2.40±1.86 2.50±2.00 3.33±1.74 99-2 1.65 0.197
familial life
Life – long care 5.04±1.36 5.28±1.94 5.28±1.27 99-2 0.16 0.848
Dissonance in 3.72±1.07 4.17±1.01 4.04±0.74 99-2 1.65 0.197
family
Lack of individual 4.81±1.65 4.77±1.34 5.61+2.69 99-2 1.84 0.163
rewards
Continuous illness 3.09±1.15 3.50±1.24 3.52±1.32 99-2 0.99 0.374
anxiety
Physical 1.86±1.24 2.14±0.61 2.33±1.15 99-2 1.46 0.235
limitations
Preference of 3.95±1.17 4.07±1.17 3.85±0.85 99-2 0.30 0.740
institutional care
Difficulties for 3.36±1.21 3.59±1.36 3.85±0.91 99-2 0.83 0.435
family
General anxiety 37.22±5.48 40.10±5.90 42.33±6.98 99-2 3.87 0.024* 1-3
*p<0.05
**p<0.001
It is found that the age of the mothers produces statistically significant differences
in the scores of mothers in general anxiety (F(99-2)=3.87; p<0.05). The anxiety scores
increase in parallel to the age of mothers. Mothers who are 41 years old and older
have the highest score of anxiety. This is also observed in all sub-dimensions. It may
be argued that older the mother, the higher her anxiety about her child’s future. In the
scores of sub-dimensions, similar results occur. It is reported that mothers experience
intense anxiety who will care for their children after they could not provide care
(McMillan, 2002).
32
Table 6. Mothers’ Level of Anxiety Depending on the Educational Background of

Mothers, Means( Χ ), Standard Deviations (SD) and Results of Variance Analysis
Mothers’ Educational Background
Sub – dimensions Primary High Higher
school school education df F p Meaningful
(N=64) (N=28) (N=8) difference
Χ ± SD Χ ± SD Χ ± SD
Dependency and self
3.87±0.80 3.42±0.99 3.37±1.18 99-2 3.03 0.053
management
Cognitive disorder 3.56±1.39 3.14±1.40 2.25±1.28 99-2 3.57 0.032* 1-3
Limitations on the
2.82±2.05 2.42±1.75 2.12±1.55 99-2 0.74 0.478
familial life
Life – long care 5.28±1.82 5.10±1.61 5.25±0.70 99-2 0.10 0.903
Dissonance in family 4.07±0.94 3.92±1.15 4.25±0.70 99-2 0.39 0.674
Lack of individual
4.90±2.00 5.17±1.30 4.62+1.40 99-2 0.37 0.689
rewards
Continuous illness
3.51±1.23 3.53±1.19 2.87±1.45 99-2 0.99 0.372
anxiety
Physical limitations 2.04±0.96 2.32±0.86 2.00±0.53 99-2 0.95 0.389
Preference of
3.89±1.15 4.28±1.04 3.87±0.83 99-2 1.29 0.278
institutional care
Difficulties for
3.62±1.31 3.71±1.08 3.00±1.19 99-2 1.05 0.351
family
General anxiety 40.46±6.86 39.64±4.43 36.75±5.84 99-2 1.32 0.272
*p<0.05
Table 6 indicates that mothers’ educational background does not lead to

statistically significant variance in mothers’ anxiety levels (F(99-2)=1.32;p>0.05)
anlaşılmaktadır. Duvdevany & Abboud (2003) also found that educational background
has no effect on the mother’s anxiety.
Only in the subdimension of cognitive disorder, mothers’ educational background
produces statistically significant difference in their scores (F(99-2)=3.57;p<0.05). It is
found in the Scheffe test that the scores of mothers with primary school education and
those with higher education background are different. It is also found that the scores of
the mothers with primary school education is higher than the mothers with high school
education and those with higher education background (40.46±6.86,. 39.64±4.43,
36.75±5.84 respectively). It suggests that awareness of mothers increases in parallel to
increase in educational level of mothers. Mothers with higher educational level seem
to be informed about disability and to have consciously approach to their children’s
care.
Conclusion
In the study it is found that gender age of the child, diagnosis time, beginning date
of special education and mothers’ educational level do not lead to statistically
significant difference in mothers’ anxiety (p>.05). Only mothers’ age produces
statistically significant variance in their level of anxiety. It is also found that the
scores of anxiety are high in the mothers with mentally retarded children. It may be a
result of mothers’ anxiety about their childrens’ future. Since children need life-long
care, it is a very significant stressor. Parents may have anxiety about how their
33
children will continue their life. Therefore, social support services are required to
provide information and support to the families. Families should be informed about
their children’s disability and about their treatment and education . Thus such support
services should be widespread. Also, public institutions which provide care for
disabled people shoul be increased when any care cannot be provided to the disabled
children.
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maintining the psychological well-being of mothers of adults with intellectual disability
and mental ilness. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 47(4/5);313-327.
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Disability Practice, 5(6);6.
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katılımı. Çocuk Gelişimi ve Eğitimi Dergisi, 1(1);28-33.
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Power, T. J., Heather, F. R., Stephen, L. S., Blom-Hoffman, J. & Grim, S. M. 2002. Role of
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35
36
Understanding the School Readiness: A Study of
Parent’s and Preschool Teacher’s Views
4
Understanding the School Readiness:
A Study of Parent’s and Preschool
Teacher’s Views
Menekse Boz, Hacettepe University
&
Elif Ustun, Hacettepe University
W hile the school readiness has a meaning of preparation to formal education,

it is also the most important factor which influences the learning life and
school achievement of children in the future. Starting school requires a
certain preparation; school is a social environment for the child to meet with new
individuals, to obey rules and charged with duties for learning. Starting school
occupies a very large and significant part in the life of a child. The experiences of the
child in this period shall influence his or her future school life. Great responsibilities
belong to preschool teachers and families to make this influence positive or negative.
Preschool education is a system which enables the physical, cognitive, sensory
and social development of children in the period up to 7 years of age and provides a
positive guidance for their school life and learning.
As in many countries in the world, the age factor is deemed to be a criterion for
starting school in our country. While the age for children to start school varies
between 5 and 7, in Turkey the age for starting primary school is accepted as 7.
Whatever the age for starting school, there are children who are not ready for school
(Oktay A., 1982). The reason for this is the fact that factors other than the age factor in
starting school also influence this maturity.
The nursery school teachers play a great role in the transition of children to
primary school. Thus, it is important to understand the views of the nursery school
teachers regarding which skills, behaviors and qualities should children acquire for the
achievement and adaptation in primary school. These views are influential on the
school achievement and learning experiences of children. If the studies discussing the
teacher views regarding school readiness of children are considered (for instance,
Davies and North, 1990; Hains, Fowler, Schwartz, Kottwitz, and Rosenkoetter, 1989;
Lewit and Baker, 1995; Welch and White, 1999), it is observed that such views focus
on the physical adequacy and motor development, social and sensory development,
language development, cognitive development and learning approaches.
37
Physical Adequacy and Motor Development
This attribute covers the physical adequacies such as bodily health, growth, big
and small muscle motor skills of children. Factors such as the child to have a healthy
and normal bodily development -that is reaching a level close to the height and weight
of other children of the same age- or to be healthy in sight and hearing senses are
influential. Reaching to an adequate level of children in terms of motor development,
for instance hand-eye coordination required for reading-writing, showing adequacy in
skills such as small muscle development increases the adaptation and achievement of
children in school.
Social and Sensory Development
Children develop as a result of the interaction with the surrounding from the
moment of birth. This interaction is their learning environment. The communication
skills with their friends and with the adults, social skills such as cooperation, sharing
and acting together with the group are adequacies which help children to adapt school,
to reveal their academic skills, and to develop their self awareness and awareness on
the environment. In addition, being sensitive to the others’ emotions – empathy skill,
expressing one’s own feelings and the perception of entity, in other words the
emotional development of the child is also influential in starting school.
Language Development
Verbal language skills include listening, speech and vocabulary. Children, due to
their skill of listening and understanding what is said, do not experience difficulties in
understanding the instruction, participating in the daily activities, expressing their
desires and needs, and establishing communication and this facilitates their adaptation
to school. This skill is important in expressing oneself verbally, understanding others,
developing the skill of resolving problems by conversation.
Cognitive Development and Learning Approach
Development of conceptual and mathematic skills is significant in this attribute in

terms of starting school. Number, shape, direction, and time concepts and cognitive
skills such as arranging in rows, solving simple problems influence the future school
achievement of children. Development of such skills cherishes children to be willing
in participating in the daily activities and their approach towards learning. Cognitive
development signifies children using cognitive abilities of his or her age under the
academic skills, adaptation in social functions, and establishing the sufficient
equilibrium between dependency and autonomy. In addition, development of reading-
writing skills, knowledge of the letters, using abilities such as phonological sensitivity,
memory, focusing and keeping attention are factors influencing the achievement in
school.
38
Under the light of all these attributes, the extent of the responsibility of preschools
teachers in starting school can be observed. Certain issues are discussed in the “School
Readiness” conference held in 1995. These include defining school readiness
comprehensively, the roles of school and teachers in this issue, and developing
evaluation scales (Lewit and Baker, 1995).
Opinions on the significance of school readiness are discussed under the light of
studies and the following issues are put forth: health; basic self-care; social and
emotional maturity and self regulation; friendship relationships; interest in the world;
motor skills; cognitive skills; communication and intra-class adaptation, that is
obedience to the instructions of the teacher and the classroom routines (Piotrkowski
C.S. et al., 2000).
In order to understand the views of the teachers in school readiness, the factors
which influence such views should be examined. It is observed that the views of
teachers on school readiness differ by various levels of education (Holt-Reynolds,
1992; Calderhead and Robson, 1991). In the research carried out with 3047 preschool
teacher in 1998-1999 Rathbun et al. examined the educational approaches, application
evaluations, professional experiences, educational levels, and graduation status of
American teachers and as a result, they stated that, regarding the expectations on
children in school readiness, the teachers focus on the behaviors of children such as
obedience to instructions, non-harming behaviors in classroom, appreciating others’
emotions and waiting in line.
In the National Education Goals Panel (NEGP), held in 1990, preparation of
children in a time period up to 2000 is established as a purpose. The school readiness
concept is explained in three components in this panel: (1) the readiness of children,
(2) readiness of children to school, and (3) support provided by family and society in
school readiness (Emig C. and Moore A., 2000).
As it can be seen, the readiness of children to school reveals the significance of
preschool education. In Turkey, according to the statistical data of 2005, the ratio of
schooling in preschool is announced as 18%. Many activities are carried out by
governmental and non-governmental organizations to increase this ratio. Activities
such as restructuring the Faculties of Education, opening nursery schools in the
structure of the primary schools, and facilitating to establish independent nursery
schools carried out in this scope aim both to have qualified preschool teachers and
personnel and to enable more children benefiting from the preschool education. In
addition, there are many projects (such as “7 is too late mama” project of Mother and
Child Education Foundation) carried out by non-governmental organizations for
making preschool education widespread.
Certainly these activities influence families’ thoughts on preschool education and
raise their level of consciousness on the education of their children.
The opinion of families regarding preschool education, their expectations from
such education and their views on the skills necessary for starting school develop
within this framework. Family is one of the significant factors in preparing children to
school. Children develop not only towards the natal aptitudes or developmental
characteristics, but also with the socio-cultural environment they live in. Carrying
learning to home from school and continuing it in the home environment helps
learning to be permanent and also facilitates learning with a parallel learning medium
According to Sevinç (2003), parents should have active roles in the education of
children and opportunities should be given to them in order to experience observing
the development and growing up of children in school.
39
Families think that the programs, education and activities applied for their
children are effective (Garue, 1992). It is observed that families share the same
opinion with the teachers on the significance of communication, cooperation and
academic skills in school readiness (Lewit and Baker, 1995).
Families share the responsibility of nursery school teachers in the education of
children. There are not many researches which examine the correlation between the
views of families and teachers regarding school readiness. If we examine the studies
on school readiness carried out in Turkey, we observe that the factors which influence
this phenomenon are discussed whereas the number of the researches which include
the views of families and teachers are found to be fairly low.
In this study, the questions regarding the views of teachers on school readiness
will be answered based on age, level of education or graduation status, and
professional experience. In addition, the views of the nursery school teachers and
families on school readiness will be evaluated.
Method
Fundamental Problems
The preparation of children for school is very important in terms of their future
achievement in school, and academic, social, communication and reading-writing
skills. Parents and teachers have significant roles in preparing children for primary
school and in helping them to be successful individuals. Families are the first teachers
of children and they constitute a model in communicating with the environment.
Preschool teachers enter into many activities with children in preparing them for
school and thus apply programs which support the entire developmental fields and are
suitable to their individual characteristics. Therefore, in this study, the views of
families and teachers regarding school readiness will be examined.
The fundamental problem in this research is as follows:
1. Is there a difference between the views of nursery school teachers and parents on
the preparation of children to school?
Sub-Problems
• Do the views of nursery school teachers on school readiness change due

to their ages?
to their levels of education?
to their professional experiences?
40
Sampling
In the education of 6-year-old children in Turkey there are nursery schools within
the structure of primary schools under the Ministry of National Education (Public –
Private Primary Education Nursery Schools) and independent nursery schools (Public
– Private). The families of the 6-year-old children group which attend the nursery
schools found in the structures of Public and Private Primary Education Schools under
the Ministry of National Education in Ankara (n=258) and the nursery school teachers
working in these institutions (n=172) constitute the sample of this research. The entire
teachers participating in the study are female teachers.
Measures and Procedure
The teacher – family school preparation interview form, which is created in order
to determine the school readiness views and includes the demographic information on
teachers, is used as a data collection tool.
Since the tests of the scales regarding school readiness applied in Turkey are not
suitable to be used in our study, the interview form used in this study is created by
employing the suitable tests on child development, school readiness, reading-writing.
Triple likert-type questionnaire form consisting of 43 items is used for teachers
and families. The items which include the skills of children on school readiness are
found in this form. The answers depict three views: (very important (3) – important
(2) – not important (1). The form is applied both to the teachers and families 3 weeks
before the end of semester.
A preliminary form consisting of 52 items, where items on school readiness of
children take place, is distributed to 22 experts in creating the main form. The items
are re-organized in light of the opinions of the experts and thus the item number is
established to be 43.
The form is applied to the nursery school teachers and to families, and as a result
of the data obtained, factor analysis is made on the items used in the form. As a result
of the factor analysis carried out in order to see whether the relevant quality is
measured or not, 4 subscales are obtained.
Results of factor analyses were used to create four multi-item subscales reflecting
beliefs about school readiness. These four subscales are Social-communication skills
(21 items), Concept Knowledge (8 items), Mathematic skills (9 items), and Literacy
skills (4 items). The internal consistency coefficients of the subscales of the items
found in the school readiness opinion form are as follows: Social-communication
skills (Cronbach’s alpha= .9792), Concept Knowledge (Cronbach’s alpha= .9378),
Mathematic skills (Cronbach’s alpha= .9185), and Literacy skills (Cronbach’s alpha=
.9375). In other words, the consistency coefficients in the subscales are found to be at
the sufficient level.
Results
Sampling Characteristics
Preschool teachers (n=172) of which 55.2% work in the nursery schools under
primary education and 52.9% work in the private nursery schools participated in the
41
research. 39.5% of the teachers were in the age group 18-28, 37.3% were in 29-39
group, and 23.2% were over 40. In terms of educational background, 28.7% of them
were graduated from Girls Vocational High School, Child Development section,
32.5% had associate degrees, that is they were graduated from the 2-3 years higher
education program, and the 37,8% were university graduates. Of the teachers who
make up the sample, 31,9% had 1-9 years of professional experience, 68.1% had 10+
years of professional experience. The families consisted of the participants (n=258) of
which 27.9% were graduated from primary education, 37.2% from high school and
34.9% from university.
Teacher’s Views about Children’s School Readiness
The finding about the correlation between the teacher ages and the views on the
children’s school readiness is striking (Table 2.1). According to this table, there is a
significant difference between the views of Teachers on Social-Communication Skills
in school readiness and the teacher’s ages [F (2,168)=4.209, p= .016]. In order to find
out between which groups this difference exists, a post hoc comparison is carried out.
According to this, teachers in the age group of 18-28 consider that the Social-
Communication Skills are more important than the ones in the age group of 29-39.
Likewise, in school readiness, there are significant differences between the teacher’s
views on Conceptual Skill [F (2,169)=8.598, p= .000] and Reading-Writing Skills [F
(2,163)=6.738, p= .002]. In which groups these difference exists is examined and it is
found out that teachers in the age group 18-28 find Conceptual Skill more important
than the ones in the 29-39 age group, whereas in the Reading-Writing Skills subscale,
the teachers in the 18-28 age group have stated that they find the Reading-Writing
Skills less important in school readiness compared to the teachers in the other two age
groups. However, it is seen in Table 2.1 that the views of teachers on Mathematical
Skills in school readiness does not constitute a significant difference.
Table 2.1. Results of One-Way Variance Analysis of the Views of Teachers on School
Readiness in terms of Age
Source SS DF MS F p
SCS Between groups 1807,43 2 903,71 4,20 .016*
Within groups 36070,99 168 214,70
Total 37878,42 170
CS Between groups 438,85 2 219,42 8,59 .000*
Within groups 4312,83 169 25,52
Total 4751,69 171
MS Between groups 116,60 2 58,30 2.29 .104
Within groups 4112,12 162 25,38
Total 4228,72 164
LS Between groups 131,92 2 65,96 6,73 .002*
Within groups 1595,69 163 9,79
Total 1727,62 165
* p < .05
Significant differences are not found between the teachers having professional
experience of 1-9 years and the teachers having professional experience over 10 years
in the entire subscales in school readiness (SCS; t=.312, DF=158, p=.755, CS;
42
t=1.828, DF=158, p=.069, MS; t=-.017, DF=151, p=.987, LS; t=-1.562, DF=152,
p=.0120).
The correlation between the views on school readiness and the educational
background, in other words the institutions the teachers were graduated, which was
taken as another variable is examined via One-way ANOVA statistics. If we examine
the findings in Table 2.2, in the correlation of the teachers educational backgrounds
and the subscales in school readiness, there are significant differences in the
Conceptual Skill [F (2,169)=4.2, p= .016] and Reading-Writing Skills [F(2,163)=5.9,
p= .003] subscales. Conceptual Skill is considered more important by the teachers
graduated from Girls Vocational High School compared to the teachers in other
groups. When the views of teachers on Reading-Writing Skills in school readiness and
their educational backgrounds are examined, it is found out that the teachers having
associate degree consider this skill more important in school readiness compared to
the teachers graduated from girls’ vocational high school. However, findings on
significant difference are not found between the teachers’ views on school readiness
and other subscales [F (2,168)=2.6, p= .076; F (2,162)=1.6, p= .190].
Table 2.2. Results of One-Way Variance Analysis of the Teachers’ Views on School
Readiness and their Educational Backgrounds (Graduation)
Source SS DF MS F p
SCS Between groups 1142,84 2 571,42 2,61 .076
Within groups 36735,57 168 218,66
Total 37878,42 170
CS Between groups 228,10 2 114,05 4,26 .016*
Within groups 4523,59 169 26,76
Total 4751,69 171
MS Between groups 85,69 2 42,84 1,67 .190
Within groups 4112,12 162 25,57
Total 4228,72 164
LS Between groups 118,37 2 59,18 5,99 .003*
Within groups 1609,24 163 9,87
Total 1727,62 165
* p < .05
Views of Parents and Teachers about School Readiness
The independent samples t-test analysis indicates that the 171 preschool teacher’s
view related Social-Communication Skills had a mean of 36.3242 total points in
school readiness; 256 parent’s view had a mean of 31.3242 total points in school
readiness. There was a statistically significant difference between the views. (t=-4.302,
DF=425, p=.000, two tailed). As it can be seen in Table 2.3, there are significant
differences between the views of the teachers and the views of the parents in other
subscales in school readiness. Teachers consider Conceptual Skill (t=-4.223, DF=428,
p=.000), Mathematical Skills (t=-3.437, DF=418, p=.001) and Reading-Writing Skills
(t=-2.062, DF=418, p=.040) are more significant in school readiness when compared
to the views of the families.
In addition, when the views of the parents and teachers on school readiness are
examined, if we consider the means in the subscales, it is found out that teachers find
43
Social-Communication Skills are more important than other skills. (SCS; X =36.45,
CS; X =13.41, MS; X =16.27, LS; X =8.78). If we consider the views of the families
in school readiness, it is possible to say that they share the same views with the
teachers (SCS; X =31.32, CS; X =11.68, MS; X =14.70, LS; X =8.17).
Table 2.3. T-test results of the Views of Teachers and Families on School Readiness
N Mean SD t DF p
Teacher 171 36.3242 14.9269
SCS -4.302 425 .000*
Parent 256 31.3242 9.7288
Teacher 172 13.4128 5.2714

CS -4.223 428 .000*
Parent 256 11.6860 3.1999
Teacher 165 16.2727 5.0778

MS -3.437 418 .001*
Parent 255 14.7059 4.1973
Teacher 166 8.7892 3.2358

LS -2.062 418 .040*
Parent 254 8.1772 2.7897
* p < .05
Discussion
Teachers and families play active roles in the school readiness of children and they
have diverse expectations and views on what is important in starting school. We can
neither underestimate their views and expectations, nor the fact that certain skills are
more or less important than other skills.
In this study, the views of the teachers and families on school readiness are
examined and whether the teacher-family views have differences in this respect or not
is evaluated. As it can be seen in Table 2.3, teachers find Social-Communication Skill,
Conceptual Skill and Mathematical Skills more important in school readiness. As a
result of the studies of Lewit and Baker (1995) on the views of preschool teachers and
families in school readiness, it is found out that teachers and families consider that
skills such as physical development and health, communication, verbally expressing
one’s own needs and thoughts are more important in school readiness; however,
academic skills such as counting skill, knowing letters, writing are found more
important by the families than the teachers. In their study Dockett and Perry (2002)
emphasize that social skills such as social harmony and communication are considered
more important by the families and teachers in school readiness.
Again, in the studies, the importance of physical/health and communication skills
in school readiness is underlined (Heaviside at al., 1993; Piotrkowski at al., 2000). In
another study carried out in Australia, the families are found to consider social skills
more important than academic skills in school readiness (Lockwood and Fleet, 1999).
As a result of the statistical analysis, the means of the views of teachers on
subscales in school readiness is striking. Teachers consider that social communication
skill (understanding what is said, listening, sharing, communicating, obeying rules,
44
cooperating and being sensitive to others’ emotions) are more important than other
skills in school readiness (SCS; X =36.45, MS; X =16.27, CS; X =13.41, LS;
X =8.78). In light of these findings, it is possible to assert that teachers consider the
intra-classroom sharing, cooperation and communication are important in adaptation
to school.
Likewise, when the answers given by the families are examined, the similarity in
the results obtained is a significant finding. The families consider that social
communication skill is more important than other skills (Conceptual Skill,
Mathematical Skills, and Reading-Writing Skills).
The insufficiency of the level of social skills in the children when they start school
causes children to experience problems in their friendships and certain behavioral
problems to arise, therefore causes the academic achievement to decrease (Alexander,
Entwisle, & Dauber, 1993; Cooper & Farran, 1988; McClelland, Morrison, & Holmes,
2000).
With their study, H-L. Lin et al. (2003) tried to find out which variables influence
the views of preschool teachers in school readiness. In the said study, MIMIC model is
applied based on variables such as sex, race, age, certificate, region, and school type
and as a result, it is found out that the expectations of teachers in school readiness
gather in two groups: Academic expectations and Social expectations. The study puts
forth that teachers place more significance on social skills rather than academic skills.
Research state that the social skills are important in the school achievement and
school adaptation of children in correlation with their learning (McClell and M.M.,
Morrison F.J., 2003).
It is possible to claim that families and teachers place more importance on children
expressing themselves, to work in cooperation, to think empathically. In other words
be sensitive to the environment and to the society.
Many studies carried out in the recent years focus on the social skills of the
children and examine the effect of this skill on school achievement. In general, it is
observed that the findings regarding the correlation between the school achievement
of children and social skills increase even though social behaviors are not mentioned
specifically (Bachman & Morrison, 2002; Cooper & Farran, 1988; Cooper & Speece,
1988; McClelland, Kessenich, & Morrison, in press; McClelland et al., 2000). The
families and teachers stated the socializing skills such as playing games with friends,
expressing needs and wishes, and emotional maturity, etc. are “absolutely necessary”
(mean ratings of 3.5 or higher) (Piotrkowski et al.,2001).
The significant difference between teacher and family views on reading-writing
skills in this study may also be taken as a significant finding. In general, formal
educational process comes to the minds of teachers when they consider reading-
writing readiness. However, activities which improve the phonological sensitivity
towards the sounds of the letters, letter knowledge, improving audio visual perception
causes children to be ready for reading-writing and to gain easier reading-writing
skills in the formal education.
When the education system in our country is considered, it is observed that studies
on developing the skills of reading and writing before starting to the formal education,
that is primary school are low in number. In fact, it is emphasized by the experts that
children develop awareness regarding this skill and be ready to learn it. In case the
children pass this period away from sufficient stimuli and learning environment, this
affects their academic skills in primary school negatively. Where the reading-writing
skills are not emphasized sufficiently in the educational curricula in the preschool
45
education period and no guidance is provided, it is determined that such children

experience difficulties in reading-writing (Good et al., 1998; Dubow and Ippolotio,
1994). Such thoughts of the teachers also influence the views of families; this may be
put forth as the reason for the difference between the teacher and family views.
In his study carried out in 1995 with 1339 preschool teacher in 860 schools,
Nelson applied a questionnaire which included the views of the teachers in school
readiness and as a result, he stated that the socio-economic status, school type, age,
educational background and professional experience of teachers influence their views.
In this study, when the influence of age, educational background and professional
experience of teachers on their views regarding school readiness are examined,
significant differences are found in the correlation between age and Social-
Communication Skills, Conceptual Skills, and Reading-Writing Skills. According to
this, teachers in the 18-28 age group consider social-communication skills and
conceptual skill are more important; whereas they stated that the reading-writing skill
is less significant compared to the other groups in school readiness. When it is
considered that the teachers constituting this age group are mostly graduated from
Girls Vocational High School or have associate degree, it is possible to say that this
difference is determined by their educational backgrounds, in other words, their
graduations. The factors arising from the educational backgrounds of the teachers, the
government policies, the expectations of the education system, and the view of the
country on education also causes these views to be different. Another point which
must be emphasized here is the fact that teachers in the young age group consider
reading-writing skills less significant for school readiness than the teachers in other
age groups. The reason for such a difference may be the experiences of the elder
teachers and the feedbacks they receive regarding the problems children survive in the
beginning of primary school.
Age constitutes a difference in the views of teachers. Lin, Lawrence and Gorrell,
in their study they carried out with 3305 nursery school teachers in 2003, stated that
preschool teachers reported the significance of social skills in learning and in addition
to this, in this study the young teachers stated that they consider academic skills
(knowing letters, ability to read, counting, etc.) are more important in starting to
school when compared to the elder ones.
When the correlation between the teachers’ professional experiences and views on
school readiness is considered, a significant difference is not found. However, when
the means of subscales of school readiness are considered, it is possible to say that less
experienced teachers find social-communication skills ( X (1-9)=35.42; X (10
+)=34.62) and conceptual skill ( X (1-9)=13.93; X (10 +)=12.35) more important.
The experienced teachers stated that they find reading-writing skills more important in
school readiness ( X (1-9)=8.29; X (10 +)=9.19). Such findings on means have the
quality to support the significant difference between age and views on school
readiness.
Finally, how the educational backgrounds of teachers influence their views on
school readiness can be seen in Table 2.2. 29.7% of the teachers have graduated from
Girls Vocational High School Child Development section, 32.5% of them have
associate degree or in other words, have graduated from 2-3 year undergraduate
programs, and 37.8% are graduated from university. A significant difference is
observed in the conceptual skill and reading-writing skills subscales of school
readiness in terms of their educational backgrounds. The conceptual skill is considered
more important by the teachers graduated from Girls Vocational High School than the
46
ones having associate degree and it is possible to say that the reason for this is the
result of their education. Teachers who find the conceptual skill more important
consider vice-versa in reading-writing skills. The lack of collimation between the
curricula of vocational high schools and universities, the quality of the education
provided, and learning experiences explains such difference. Lack of transfer of the
research results carried out in academic scale to the lower levels of education and the
insufficiency of the activities carried out in order to increase the qualities of the
teachers in preschool education institutions via on-the-job trainings may be considered
as the reasons of this significant difference. Many teachers who are graduated from
diverse schools with different degrees are charged with duties in the preschool
education institutions in our country. This diversity causes certain problems to arise
and the governmental activities are carried on in order to regulate these. In the
restructuring process of the faculties of education, only the teachers graduated from
preschool instructorship are assigned to the state schools; however, private institutions
continue their education with the teachers graduated from girls vocational high school,
because of low cost. This may be considered as a factor which explains the difference
between the views.
Recommendations
The first step to identifying ways to promote readiness is to increase

communication and collaboration among schools, families, and communities. Parent
and teachers effect the chidren’s achievement and school adjustment directly.
In this study, on school readiness the teachers and families views have the same
beliefs ; able to tell his/her wishes and needs, sensitive to others’ emotions, able to
cooperate with friends and able to act together with the group etc. These skills aid
their adjustment to school facility and provide children’s positive attitude of learning.
Pre-school teachers can be involved in in-service training programmes about this
subject and also can be involved in sessions with more experienced teachers to share
these experiences.
Schools should involve parents in education by doing raising awareness studies
about preparation to school, facilitation of learning and taking responsibility in
education.
Equal opportunities should be provided all around the country. In our country,
preschools are generally situated in the centre. Therefore, pre-school education
should be widely spread and studies about training of the staff and opening new pre-
school organizations should be accelerated. The term “Preparation to school” should
be well defined and policies about the topic should be improved. In addition to this,
taking pre-school education into compulsory education could be a pioneer study for
this objective.
One shouldn’t forget that education is a process. Elementary school teachers and
pre-school teachers should work hand in hand to improve the success and to help the
adaptation process of the students. Moreover, interdiciplinary and sequent cirriculums
and programmes should be prepared. This will build up the quality and the
continuityof the education.
47
References
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short- and long-term consequences for school performance. Child Development, 64, 801–
814.
Calderhead, J., & Robson, M. (1991). Images of Teaching.: Student Teacher’s early
conceptions of classroom practice.Teaching and Teacher Education, 7,1-8
Cooper,D. H.,& Farran, D. C. (1988). Behavioral risk factors in kindergarten. Early Childhood
Research Quarterly,3, 1–19.
Cooper, D. H., & Speece, D. L. (1988). A novel methodology for the study of children at risk
for school failure. The Journal of Special Education, 22, 186–198
Davies, M., & North, J. (1990). Teacher’s expectations of school entry skills. Australian
Journal of Early Childhood, 15(4), 44-46
Dubow E.T., Ippolotio M.F. (1994) Effects Of Poverty And Quality Of The Home Enviroment
On Changes İn The Academic And Behavioral Adjustment Of Elementary School-Age
Children. Journal Of Clinical Child Psychology. (23) S.410-412
Emic, C., Moore, A. (2000). “Scholl Readiness: Helping Communities Children ready for
School and Schools Ready for Children” Child Trends Research Brief.
Good R.H., Simmons D.C. ve Simith S.B.(1998) “School Psychology İn The U.S. And
Effective Academic İntervention. Evaluating And Enhancing” The Aqusition Of Early
Reading Skills School Psycology Review.(27) S.45-46
Graue, M.E.(1993) “Ready for What? Constructing meanings of readiness for kindergarten”.
NY: State University of New York Press.
Hains, A.H., Fowler, S.A., Schwartz, I.S., Kottwitz, E., & Rosenkoetter, S. (1989). A
comparison of preschool and kindergarten teacher expectations for school readiness. Early
Childhood Research Quarterly, 4, 75-88
Heaviside, S., Farris, E. (1993). “Public school kindergarten teacher’s views on children’s
readiness for school”. NCES 93-410
Holt-Reynolds, D. (1992). Personal history-based beliefs as relevant prior knowledge in course
work. American Educational Research journal, 29, 325-349
Lewit, E.M., & Baker, L.S. (1995). School Readiness. The Future of Children, 5(2), 128-139
Lin, H-L., Lawrence, F.R., Gorrell, J. (2003). Kindergarten Teacher’s views of children’s
readiness for school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18, 225-237
McClelland, M. M.,Morrison, F. J., & Holmes, D. H. (2000). Children at-risk for early
academic problems: The role of learning-related social skills.Early Childhood Research
Quarterly, 15, 307–329. 883
McClelland, M. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2003). The emergence of learning-related social skills
in preschool children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18, 206–224. 881
Nelson, R.F. (1995). “The social context of readiness”. ED.393838 (online)
http:/athene.mit.csu.edu.au/ dopfer/s_school/about.htm
Oktay, A. (1982). “School Readiness” Istanbul University Press.
Piotrkowski, C.S., Botsko, M., & Matthews, E. (2001). Parents2 and teachers’ beliefs about
children’s school readiness in high-need community. Early Childhood Research Quarterly,
15(4), 537-558
Perry,B.& Dockett, S. (2002). Who’s Ready for What?Young Children Starting School
Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, Volume 3, Number 1, 2002
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readines”s (ERIC Document 437 225)
48
Research into the Impact of some Variables Relevant to Children on
Parents’ Choice of Preschool Education Institutions
5
Research into the Impact of some Variables
Relevant to Children on Parents’ Choice of
Preschool Education Institutions
Aysel Koksal Akyol, Ankara University

&
Vuslat Oguz, Ankara University
T he preschool years are accepted as the period during which a child’s physical,
social, emotional, psychomotor and cognitive development is the fastest. It is
believed that getting children into preschool education supports their
development and is effective on the formation of desirable behaviour (Demiriz et al.
2003). As more women get into working life more intensely, and the importance of
preschool education being understood, families want their children to benefit from
preschool education (Koç 1996).
It is important that parents are careful when they decide which preschool
education institution their children will attend. It has been suggested that parents have
information about the characteristics of the preschool education institutions before
they make a choice (Gülender, 1993). In the choice of a preschool education
institution, most parents primarily question the staff at the institution, and the price.
Yet, the preschool education institutions should be in harmony with not only the
family budget but also the interests and the needs of the child (Hohman 1992). Among
the required conditions, it is important that the environment the children will be in is
healthy. A child being healthy and feeling secure are effective on his/her benefiting
from the education provided in the best way. The child whose fundamental needs are
met finds the opportunity to direct his/her attention to the education, get actively
engaged in the tasks carried out and benefit intensely from the education environment
(Metin et al. 1993).
It is quite difficult for parents to choose the most appropriate school for the child’s
education. This is also a topic to which the least thought has been given and for which
the fewest preparations made. The extent to which the child will benefit from the
preschool education is closely related with the parents’ choice of the preschool
49
education institution and whether the preschool education institution has the desired
features or not.
The preschool education institutions aim at supporting the multidirectional
development of children. The preschool education institutions should have the
physical conditions, education environments, outdoor playgrounds, the staff and the
programme which will realize this objective (Koksal 2002).
One of the factors that determine the quality of the education provided for the
child in preschool education institutions is the physical conditions of the institution.
The child’s feelings of controlling the environment, self respect and belonging can be
shaped according to the arrangement of the school and the education environment. A
well-arranged and well-equipped environment enables children to become active
participators (Demiriz et al. 2003). While arranging the education environments, care
should be given to provide centers of science and nature, playing families, books, art,
blocks, music and puppets. The materials supplied for children in education
environments should be reliable and strong, and also at a quality supporting all the
development areas of the child (Oktay et al. 2003). Well-planned outdoor playgrounds
ensure that children get socialized by enabling them to plan, wait for their own turn,
speak with the teacher and friends and establish relations. In the outdoor playgrounds,
preschool children benefit from the opportunity of discovering and creating,
constructing and destroying, and learning how and why things happen. Accordingly,
the outdoor playgrounds should help children relax, should be planned in such a way
that children have the opportunity to realize many activities in this area, should
support children’s ability to take risks and struggle, should provide chances for a
variety of games and should allow children to use the tools and materials in the
playgrounds (Henniger 1994; Yılmaz 1994; Demiriz et al. 2003).
The programme prepared in a preschool education institution should be flexible
enough to include the family while taking into consideration the child’s age,
development level, interests and needs, individual differences and the features of the
environment. The programme should support the child to discover and research,
should include materials suitable for the child’s development, should be flexible and
innovative; and should aim at developing the problem solving ability and helping the
child to acquire behaviours of establishing reason-result relationship between events
(Zembat 1999; Aral et al. 2002). Preparing the programmes used in the preschool
education period to support child development, which constitutes the most important
years of life, has an influence on the future of children. The preschool education
programmes should allow families, who have a great significance in children’s lives,
to participate in their education. Through family participation tasks, parents can
develop a more positive influence on their children by getting informed about the
education provided at school as well as acquiring knowledge on topics such as the
development characteristics of children and preschool education programmes
(Wortham 2002).
The staff play a very important role in achieving goals and ensuring success in
high quality preschool education, however good are the physical conditions,
educational environments and the programme. The teachers and administrators should
be higher education graduates in the fields of child development and education or
early childhood education; and the personnel should be permanent (Aral et al. 2002;
Köksal 2002).
Some research has been conducted on topics such as the importance of early
childhood education, the staff working at preschool education institutions, the
expectations of the staff of preschool education institutions from parents, education
50
programmes and outdoor playgrounds in preschool education institutions (Kalemci

1998; Köksal et al. 2000; Turla et al. 2001; Çaltık 2004). Some research has revealed
that parents take into consideration such factors as the teacher, the distance of the
institution to their workplace or home, the working hours of the institution and
whether their children are happy or not, when making their choice of the preschool
education institution (Howes & Olenic 1986; Farquhar 1991). Moreover, the results of
the research conducted by Köksal (2002) on the factors affecting the preschool
education institution choice of parents with children at the age of three to six show
that the working status of the mother, the socio-economic level of the family, the
school type and the age of the child cause a significant difference on parents' choice of
a preschool education institution.
Although it has been accepted that parents' choice of a preschool education
institution calls for care, it is notable that the studies regarding its determination are
inadequate. Yet, the characteristics of the institution chosen is very important if
children are to benefit from the preschool education institution effectively.
Consequently, this research has aimed at determining whether factors such as the
gender of the child, the number of siblings, the birth order and the age group that the
child attends at the preschool education institution have an impact on parents' choice
of a preschool education institution or not.
Method
150 parents (99 mothers and 51 fathers) in Ankara whose children attend
kindergartens affiliated to the Ministry of National Education constitute the study
group of the research.
As data collection tools in the research, the General Information Form and the
Parents’ Choice of Preschool Education Institution Evaluation Form, developed by
Köksal (2002), were used. The Parents’ Choice of Preschool Education Institution
Evaluation Form consists of five sections with the following titles: physical
conditions, educational environments, outdoor playgrounds, the staff and the
programme. The questionnaire includes a total of forty-two questions, eleven of which
are about the “physical conditions”, seven, about “educational environments”, five,
about “outdoor playgrounds”, six, about “the staff” and thirteen. about “the
programme”. The total correlation within the factors of all the items has been
determined to be higher than .30. The alpha reliability coefficient of the factors has
been calculated as .81 for the physical conditions, .71 for the educational
environments, .88 for outdoor playgrounds, .79 for the staff and .85 for the
programme.
The analyses were carried out by applying the statistical software SPSS
(Statistical Package for Social Sciences) on the data obtained from the General
Information Forms and the Parents’ Choice of Preschool Education Institution
Evaluation Forms filled by 150 parents. T-test has been used to identify whether the
gender of the child leads to a meaningful difference on the average scores regarding
the sub-dimensions of the Parents’ Choice of Preschool Education Institution
Evaluation Forms filled by the parents involved in the research; and One-Way
ANOVA to identify whether the number of siblings, the birth order and the age group
the child attends at preschool result in a meaningful difference on the scores or not.
51
For the results that are found significant, Tukey Test has been employed in order
to determine among which groups there are differences (Büyüköztürk 2005).
Findings
The findings of the research, which has aimed at determining whether factors such
as the gender of the child, the number of siblings, the birth order and the age group at
the preschool education institution have an impact on parents' choice of a preschool
education institution or not, is shown below.
Table 1. Averages, Standard Deviations and T-test Results of the Scores of Parents
Received from the Choice of Preschool Education Institutions Evaluation Form,
According to the Gender of the Children Involved in the Study
PRESCHOOL
EDUCATION
GENDER N X SD df t p
INSTITUTION
CHOICE
Girls 72 4.25 .75

Physical Conditions 148 .30 .765
Boys 78 4.28 .60
Educational Girls 4.17 .76

7278 148 .17 .861
Environments Boys 4.19 .66
Girls 4.13 .78

Outdoor Playgrounds 7278 148 .22 .826
Boys 4.16 .67
Girls 4.21 .68

Staff 7278 148 1.51 .131
Boys 4.38 .65
Girls 4.27 .59

Program 7278 148 .87 .382
Boys 4.19 .61
Table 1 shows that the gender of the child does not bring about any significant
difference on the scores that parents received from Parents’ Choice of Preschool
Education Institutions Evaluation Form regarding the sub-dimensions of physical
conditions [t(148)=.30, p>.05], educational environments [t(98)=.17, p>.05], outdoor
playgrounds [t(98)=.22, p>.05], the staff [t(98)=1.51, p>.05] and the programme
[t(98)=.87, p>.05].
A similar finding, that the gender of the child does not bring about any significant
difference on the scores that parents received from Parents’ Choice of Preschool
Education Institutions Evaluation Form, was also determined in Köksal’s (2000) study
on the factors affecting the parents' choice of a preschool education institution for
children at the age of 3 to 6 and attending the kindergarten. The finding that the
gender of the child attending the preschool education institutions does not affect
52
parents' choice of the institution shows that parents have the same attitude for both
genders of children when they make a choice for the preschool education institution.
The finding that no discrimination depending on the gender has been made can be
considered significant.
53
Table 2. Averages and Standard Deviations of the Scores of Parents Received from the Choice of Preschool Education Institutions
Evaluation Form, According to the Number of Siblings of the Children Involved in the Study
PRESCHOOL EDUCATION INSTITUTION CHOICE

NUMBER OF SIBLINGS N Physical Conditions Educational Environments Outdoor Playgrounds Staff Program
⎯X ± SD ⎯X ± SD ⎯X ± SD ⎯X ± SD ⎯X ± SD
Single child 65 4.24 ± .74 4.16 ± .76 4.10 ± .84 4.44 ± .67 4.28 ± .59
Two children 58 4.36 ± .59 4.34 ± .59 4.31 ± .54 4.25 ± .58 4.29 ± .54
Three or more children 27 4.15 ± .65 3.88 ± .73 3.91 ± .70 4.05 ± .77 3.98 ± .72
54
Table 3. ANOVA Results Regarding the Scores of Parents Received from the Choice
of Preschool Education Institutions Evaluation Form, According to The Number of
Siblings of the Children Involved in the Study
PRESCHOOL EDUCATION
INSTITUTION CHOICE NUMBER OF SIBLING
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS
Surn of Mean
ANOVA RESULTS
Squares df Square F Sig
Between Groups .895 2 .448 .966 .383
Within Groups 68.128 147 .463
TOTAL 69.024 149
EDUCATIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS
ANOVA RESULTS Surn of Mean Significant
Squares df Square F Sig differences
Between Groups 3.990 2 1.995 4.109 .018 1-2, 1-3, 2-3
TOTAL 75.362 149
OUTDOOR PLAYGROUNDS
Surn of Mean
ANOVA RESULTS
Between Groups 3.044 2 1.522 2.953 .055
TOTAL 78.807 149
STAFF
Surn of Mean Significant
ANOVA RESULTS
Squares df Square F Sig differences
Between Groups 3.106 2 1.553 3.541 .031 1-2, 1-3, 2-3
TOTAL 67.421 149
PROGRAM Surn of Mean
ANOVA RESULTS Squares df Square F Sig
Between Groups 2.051 2 1.025 2.844 .061
TOTAL 55.059 149
In table 2, it is particularly observed that parents with three or more children got
the lowest score ( X =3.88) from the sub-dimension of educational environment, and
parents with a single child has got the highest score ( X =4.44) from the sub-dimension
of the staff of the Parents’ Choice of Preschool Education Institutions Evaluation
Form.
It has been determined that the number of siblings cause a significant difference on
the scores received from the sub-dimensions ‘educational environments’ and ‘the
staff’ of the Parents’ Choice of Preschool Education Institutions Evaluation Form
[F(2-147)=4.11, p<.05], [F(2-147)=3.54, p<.05]. Tukey test shows that the difference
between the scores of parents with a single child, two children and three or more
children is significant. On the other hand, there are no significant differences between
their scores of ‘physical conditions’ [F(2-147)=.97, p>.05], ‘outdoor playgrounds’
[F(2-147)=2.95, p>.05] and ‘programme’ [F(2-147)=2.84, p>.05] sub-dimensions of
the Parents’ Choice of Preschool Education Institutions Evaluation Form according to
the number of siblings.
The staff is seen as an important factor in achieving the goal and ensuring success.
Children spend their time away from the home with the staff of the preschool
55
education institution they attend. That’s why parents are closely concerned with who
will be with their children and what kind of individuals they are. The research has
revealed that the parents with one child received the highest score at the sub-
dimension ‘the staff’. Parents with one child may focus their interest on the only one.
This may be a reason why they are particular about the staff who they think will
highly influence their child.
Another finding obtained from the research is that the parents who received the
lowest score in the sub-dimension ‘educational environments’ have three or more
children. Education environments have a powerful impact on children’s benefiting
from preschool education. Yet, mothers with three or more children may be much
busier with child care compared to those with one child. Within this intense work,
they may not give enough care for the topic of educational environment in preschools.
56
Table 4. Averages and Standard Deviations of the Scores of Parents Received from the Choice of Preschool Education Institutions Evaluation Form,
According to the Birth Order of the Children Involved at the Study
PRESCHOOL EDUCATION INSTITUTION CHOICE
N Physical Conditions Educational Environments Outdoor Playgrounds Staff Program
BIRTH ORDER
⎯X ± SD ⎯X ± SD ⎯X ± SD ⎯X ± SD ⎯X ± SD
First child 89 4.31 ± .75 4.25 ± .74 4.18 ± .80 4.43 ± .65 4.32 ± .61
Middle-sized child/one of them 14 4.14 ± .75 3.89 ± .98 4.01 ± .87 3.88 ± .67 3.98 ± .83
Last child 47 4.22 ± .48 4.13 ± .51 3.13 ± .48 4.17 ± .64 4.14 ± .48
57
Table 4 shows the averages and standard deviations of the scores of parents
received from the Parents’ Choice of Preschool Education Institutions Evaluation
Form, according to the birth order of the children involved in the research. In the sub-
dimension ‘the staff’ of the Parents’ Choice of Preschool Education Institution
Evaluation Form, the highest scores have been received by the parents whose children
at school are the first child ( X =4.43), followed by the parents whose children at
school are the last child ( X =4.17 ), and finally those whose children at school are the
middle child or one of the middle children ( X =3.88).
It can be observed from Table 5 that the birth order of the child has a significant
effect on only the ‘staff’ sub-dimension [F(2-147)=5.54, p<.01] scores, at a level of
p<.01, received from the Parents’ Choice of Preschool Education Institutions
Evaluation Form. Turkey test results indicate that the difference exists between all
three groups. There are no significant differences at ‘physical conditions’ [F(2-
147)=.55, p>.05], ‘educational environments’ [F(2-147)=1.73, p>.05], ‘outdoor
playgrounds’ [F(2-147)=.36, p>.05] and ‘programme’ [F(2-147)=2.60, p>.05] levels
according to the child’s birth order.
When the ‘staff’ sub-dimension of the Choice of Preschool Education Institution
Evaluation Form in Table 4 is taken into consideration, it can be observed that the
parents of the children who are the first child have got the highest average. It can be
concluded that families care more about and more closely examine the quality of the
staff when they send their first child to a preschool education institution.
This research has also revealed that the age group that the child attends at the
preschool education institution does not cause a significant difference in the scores
received fron the Parents’ Choice of Preschool Education Institution Evaluation Form
(p>.05), which leads to the conclusion that the age group the child is in at the
preschool education institution does not affect parents’ choice of the institution.
Recommendations
Some recommendations can be made according to the results of the research.

Education meetings with parents can be arranged in order to inform them about the
importance of early childhood education and the criteria to observe in the choice of the
preschool education institution. These meetings can be organized by the Ministry of
National Education, preschool education institutions, the related units of universities
and non-governmental organizations. The factors affecting the parents' choice of a
preschool education institution can be studied on a wider range of sampling. A study
among parents whose children attend different types of schools can be planned to find
out whether their choice has been influenced by the institution type or not. This
research involved children of 3 to 6 years old. Different studies can be carried out
among the parents of 0 to 3-year-old children to examine the factors on their choices
of the preschool education institution.
58
Table 5. ANOVA Results Regarding the Scores of Parents Received from the Choice
of Preschool Education Institutions Evaluation Form, According to the Birth Order of
the Children Involved in the Study
PRESCHOOL EDUCATION
INSTITUTION CHOICE BIRTH ORDER
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS Surn of Mean
Between Groups .513 2 .256 .550 .57
TOTAL 69.024 149
EDUCATIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS Surn of Mean
ANOVA RESULTS
Between Groups 1.732 2 .866 1.729 181
TOTAL 75.362 149
OUTDOOR PLAYGROUNDS
Surn of Mean
Between Groups .384 2 .192 .360 .698
TOTAL 78.807 149
STAFF
Surn of Mean
Significant
differences
Between Groups 4.726 2 2.363 5.54 .005 1-2, 1-3, 2-3
TOTAL 67.421 149
PROGRAM
Surn of Mean
Between Groups 1.880 2 .940 2.598 .078
TOTAL 55.059 149
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60
The Influence of Different Training Methods on the Development of thought
Operations during the Seventh Year of Life
6
The Influence of Different Training
Methods on the Development of thought
Raiziene Saule, Vytautas Magnus University
&
Grigaite Bronislava, Vytautas Magnus University
T
eaching is given special attention by the present day scientific society. Most
research on teaching explore its educational aspects and focus on the analysis
of knowledge transmission by more experienced individuals to less informed
ones (Strauss, Ziv, Stein, 2002). The present paper researches teaching from
the perspective of cognitive development.
The change of two development stages – pre-operational and of concrete
operations – occurs in the seventh year of a child‘s life (Piaget, 2001). Piaget and
Inhelder (1963; Piaget, 1969) point that this period is exceptionally significant for the
development of two skills – seriation and classification.
Classification is the inclusion of a separate item or phenomenon into a certain
group based on common and essential characteristics of items and phenomena.
Seriation is arranging items into series by comparing items of the same class
according to certain characteristics. With Piaget‘s concept of classification and
seriation in mind, classification and seriation concepts employed in the present
research are supplemented: classification presupposes the performance of switching
operation A + A’ = B, as well as the operation opposite to switching B – A’ = A; the
operation of seriation presupposes the comparison of a certain object with a bigger
object and a smaller object at the same time.
The classification and seriation skills influence a child‘s ability to understand and
assimilate the educational material presented to him/her (Case, 1985; Desprels-
Fraysse, Lecacheur, 1996; Halford, 1982) as well as a child’s conception of number
(Charlesworth, 1996; Hunting, 2003).
Most of the research prove that the achievements in the first – third forms can be
prognosticated precisely according to the level of the children‘s classification and
seriation skills, determined before they start school (Dudek, Strobel, Thomas, 1987;
Pasnak, Madden et al, 1996; Pasnak, McCutcheon et al, 1991; Siliphant, 1983).
According to the performance of classification and seriation tasks, it can also be
determined how children will perform the tasks of different standardized achievement
tests (Pasnak, Holt, Campbell, 1991).
61
This demonstrates that mastering of classification and seriation operations in the

pre-school period may help the child to better prepare for school activity (i.e. reading,
writing, retelling, counting etc.) (Taiwo, Toylo, 2002). Therefore, it is significant to
explore if stimulation of classification and seriation thought operations in the period of
their fastest development (i.e. in the seventh year of a child‘s life), will enhance a
better mastering of these operations than in the case of their natural development
(without a systematic impact). This will help to evaluate development reserves, find
effective ways to develop children‘s cognitive activity, as well as prognosticate the
process of their cognitive development.
The results of the research about the training influence on the development of
classification and seriation operations demonstrated that classification and seriation
skills of pre-school children can be improved with the help of different training
methods: direct training (i.e. training to answer a certain question or to solve a certain
problem), indirect training (i.e. creation of educating environment where a child could
employ his/her classification and seriation skills while solving problems), application
of modeling training method (i.e. training children to graphically present the
relationship between objects).
The research on the effectiveness of early written language teaching method
(created by Grigaite (1981) carried out in Lithuania also proves that early written
language teaching may help children to master classification and seriation operations
better. Grigaite (1981) notes that the results of their research support Vygotsky‘s
(1983) idea that mastering of one higher mental function results in the formation of
new connections among other functions.
It is very difficult to compare the research of different authors on teaching
effectiveness as they focus on different age of pre-school children, employ different
evaluation methods and stimulate classification and seriation operations in different
time periods. The available literature resources do not give the comparison of the
effectiveness of several classification and seriation operations stimulation methods.
We only come over the researches that deal with the comparison of certain
classification and seriation and other cognitive function (for example, English
language teaching (Willson-Quayle, Pasnak, 1997) training methods.
The present research is new in that searching for a more effective training method
it was decided to compare the effectiveness of two classification and seriation
operation stimulation methods – indirect and modeling – as well as of early written
language teaching method. It is presumed that if the effectiveness of classification and
seriation stimulation methods and of written language teaching method is the same, a
child‘s cognitive development is a universal change of cognitive structure, as stated in
Piaget‘s operational intellect development theory. And the development of one higher
mental function ends with the changes of relations between the other functions, as
stated Vygotsky (1983).
Research Methodology
Subjects
There were 100 subjects in the study attending kindergartens in two largest cities
of Lithuania (Vilnius and Kaunas). 85 of them attended kindergartens, where they
were educated following the State educational program “Vėrinėlis”. They were
randomly assigned to the control, the 1st and the 2nd experimental groups. The control
62
group included 29 subjects (mean age 77.6 months, standard deviation (subsequently
SD) 3.9. The 1st and the 2nd experimental groups each had 28 subjects (mean age 77.2
months, SD: 3.2 of the 1st experimental group; mean age 76.8 months, SD: 3.9 of the
2nd experimental group). 15 of the subjects (mean age 76.0 months, SD: 2.7) were
from the kindergarten, where the special program of written language teaching was
applied. They composed the 3rd experimental group. The post-test, which took place
four months later, was administered to 95 subjects. Five subjects (two from the control
group and three from the 2nd experimental group) could not take the post-test, as they
were ill or they had missed more than 80% of training sessions in the 2nd experimental
group: their pre-test results were not included in the presented analysis. Parents of
each child gave their written consent for the participation of their child in the study.
Assessment Methods
In the pre-test the level of classification and seriation operations in each subject
was assessed using four tasks created by Piaget and Inhelder (1963). The first two
tasks - free classification and class inclusion – are intended for additive classification
development, the third – for multiplicational classification development and the fourth
– for seriation development research.
Free classification task. Stimulus material of free classification task consisted of
18 cards, presenting six circles (three small circles – 3 cm in diameter and three big
circles – 6 cm in diameter), six squares (three small squares– side 3 cm and three big
squares – side 6 cm) and six triangles (three small triangles – side 3 cm and three big
triangles – side 6 cm). Each of the corresponding figure sets was of a different color
(blue, red, yellow). 18 cards were placed in front of the subject. The subjects had to
classify these cards according to the shape, color, and size. This task helped to
determine whether a child is able to anticipate classification schemes and to change
classification criterion.
Evaluation of the ability to anticipate classification schemes was based on three
groups of criteria: (1) whether the subject was able to make a correct mental
identification of the number of groups into which s/he would categorize figures; (2)
whether the subject was able to name groups correctly; (3) whether the subject was
able to identify correctly which figures should be assigned to specific groups. If the
subject was unable to complete any of the above tasks, his/her ability to anticipate
classification schemes was assigned to the 1st level (no anticipation observed). If the
subject completed one or two tasks correctly, his/her anticipation ability was assigned
to the 2nd level (partial anticipation). Correct completion of all three tasks warranted
assignment to the 3rd level (complete anticipation).
The ability to switch classification criterion was evaluated as follows: if the
subject was able to change classification criterion not only in performing actual
classification, but also mentally, s/he was in the 3rd level of classification criterion
switching. If the child was able to switch the criterion only when performing actual
classification, s/he was in the 2nd level of classification criterion switching. Inability to
change the criterion classification was characteristic of the 1st level.
Class inclusion task. It was designed for the assessment of the child’s
understanding how a specific subclass (it can be marked as A) was connected to the
whole class (it can be marked as B). If the child understood class inclusion
relationship, he/she was able to compare subclass A with the whole class B and to
come to a logical conclusion that “all As are some Bs" when A< B. These links were
defined by the concepts “all” and “some”. Nine figures were placed in front of a child:
63
5 circles and 4 squares. These figures were in two colors – red and blue. There were
only two red figures – two red squares. All other figures were blue. Each child was
given 4 questions of class inclusion. Two of them were “Is the statement “All A’s are
B’s true?” when A<B. The correct answer is “Yes”. The remaining two were “Is the
statement “All B’s are A’s true?” when A<B. The correct answer is “No”. The
subjects received 1 point for each correct answer.
Multiplicational classification task. Multiplicational classification differs from the
additive in the feature that during the performance of the multiplicational task two or
more criteria should be coordinated instead of using a single criterion. Eight matrixes
were used to establish whether the child is able to perform multiplicational
classification. Each matrix consisted of 4 or 6 pictures. One picture was missing.
Pictures were placed next to the matrix and the subject had to find the missing picture.
In matrixes 1-4 two criteria had to be coordinated for correct classification. In matrix 1
and matrix 2 shape and color were coordinated, in matrix 3 shape and number were
coordinated, while matrix 4 required coordination of color and position of a figure (in
the picture the figure, e.g. a bird or a cat was rotated to the left or to the right).
Matrixes 5-8 required co-ordination of three criteria. Matrixes 5, 6, and 7 required
coordination of color, shape, and position of the figure, while matrix 8 required
coordination of such criteria as shape, color, and size. One point was given to the
subject for each correctly identified criterion. The subject could receive a total of 20
points.
Seriation task. This task was designed to establish, whether subjects were able to
anticipate seriation schemes and whether they were able to perform actual seriation.
Ten sticks of different sizes and colors were placed in front of the subject. The length
of sticks changed with an equal pace of 0.8 cm. The shortest stick was 9 cm, while the
longest was 16.2 cm long. While looking at these sticks, the subject had to draw the
series of these sticks according to their sizes and then lay them into a series.
The subject’s ability to anticipate seriation schemes was evaluated according to
the drawing. If the subject was unable to draw sticks placed in the ascending or
descending order, his or her ability to anticipate seriation schemes was judged to be of
the 1st level (unsuccessful anticipation). If the graphic representation of the series by
the subject was correct, but the colors corresponding to the sizes of the sticks were not
properly selected, the ability to anticipate schemes was assigned to the 2nd level
(global anticipation). If the subject drew the series of sticks in the order of magnitude
and the colors corresponding to the sizes of the sticks were properly selected, his/her
anticipation ability was judged to be of the 3rd level (analytic anticipation).
The subject’s ability to perform seriation was assessed on the basis of the mode of
performance. If the subject was unable to seriate sticks, his seriation ability was
assigned to the 1st level (unsuccessful seriation). If the subject attempted to seriate
sticks using trial and error method, his seriation ability was assigned to the 2nd level. If
the subject seriated sticks using systematic method, i.e. was looking for the smallest
(largest) stick first of all, then for the smallest of the remaining sticks and so on,
his/her seriation ability was evaluated as belonging to the 3rd level.
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Third Edition (WISC-IIILT). Apart from
the 4 tasks used for establishing classification and seriation abilities, WISC-IIILT test
of general intelligence was administered to all children. WISC-IIILT was standardized
and adapted in Lithuania in 1997-2000 by the Special Laboratory of Psychology at
Vilnius University. Intellectual abilities of subjects were assessed used twelve out of
thirteen WISC-IIILT subtests (the Labyrinths subtest was not used).
64
In the post-test the same four tasks created by Piaget and Inhelder for assessment
of classification and seriation abilities were used. To avoid the learning by heart
effect, attributes (shape, color, etc.) of the means used for assessment were modified
for the post-test.
Training Methods
Classification and seriation operations of subjects in the 1st and the 2nd
experimental groups were stimulated twice a week for four months (a total of 30
sessions) using a selected training method. The training sessions took place during the
first part of the day and took 20 to 30 minutes to complete.
The indirect method of training was applied to the 1st experimental group. The
purpose of the training sessions conducted using the indirect method was to create the
conditions in which children could do things, which they are able to do without adult
assistance. During these sessions there were tasks providing children with an
opportunity to name properties of objects/phenomena (5 tasks); to look for similarities
(20 tasks) and differences (20 tasks) between real, pictured or imagined objects; to
form a series of objects according to similarity or difference with criterion switching
(10 tasks) or without criterion switching; to use concepts “more/larger than”,
“less/smaller than” (25 tasks). These tasks were prepared on the basis of theoretical
propositions of Piaget by Raiziene (2005).
Method of modeling training was applied to the 2nd experimental group. The
purpose of sessions using the method of modeling training was to teach children
graphical representation of relationship among objects. Two forms of models were
used: “tree” diagram and Euler’s rings. Classification and seriation operations were
first stimulated using “tree” diagrams (18 tasks). When subjects mastered this method
of graphical representation, the Euler’s rings were used (12 tasks). These tasks were
prepared on the basis of recommendations of Venger (1986) by Raiziene (2005).
The stimulus materials, used in the sessions with the 1st and the 2nd experimental
groups, was different from the stimulus materials used in the classification and
seriation abilities assessment tools.
The subjects of the 3rd experimental group were from the special kindergarten,
where they were educated following the special program of written language teaching
from five years old. The written language teaching was based on the ideas of
Vygotsky and prepared by Grigaite (1981). Experimental teaching of written language
was executed in three stages. During the first stage (the fifth year of life) children were
introduced to the letters through various plays (didactic, music, sportive, story
playing), talks, observations, excursions, book readings. The area of written language
was created as separate activity play. During the second stage (the sixth year of life)
children used the letter as the signs in various activities. The letters were analyzed as
graphemes, trying to identify its similarities and differences. Children were taught to
draw printed capital letters. During the third stage (the seventh year of life) children
were taught to use written language in their activities (for example, to write their
ideas, greetings cards and etc.). At the beginning of the experiment the subjects of the
3rd experimental group had already participated in the written language teaching for a
year and half. During the four month lasting experiment it was organized for them also
the sessions, during which they were taught written language by the recommendation
of the second stage.
During the sessions of training of experimental groups’ subjects, the subjects
assigned to the control group were engaged in the ordinary kindergarten activities.
65
Results
Equivalence of Groups
To establish whether the experimental groups and the control group were
equivalent at the beginning of the experiment, these groups were compared in terms of
age, intellectual ability and indices of classification and seriation abilities. Data of
WISC-IIILT, class inclusion and multiplicational classification were on interval scale,
therefore the hypothesis of group equivalence was verified with univariate ANOVA.
Data of free classification and seriation tasks were ordinal, therefore to verify the
above-mentioned hypothesis the Chi2-test was used. Statistical analysis revealed, that
the groups did not differ significantly in terms of age (F(3,91)=0.939, p>0.05), IQ
(F(3,91)=2.586, p>0.05) and pre-test classification and seriation indices (anticipation
of classification schemes (χ2(6)=9.463, p>0.05), change of classification criterion
(χ2(3)=2.284, p>0.05), understanding of class inclusion relationship (F(3,91)=0.514,
p>0.05), understanding of relationships in multiplicational classification
(F(3,91)=0.109, p>0.05), anticipation of seriation schemes (χ2(6)=11.030, p>0.05),
and seriation performance (χ2(3)=4.927, p>0.05).
Effect of the Experimental Conditions: Comparison of Changes in Classification and

Seriation Indices
Free classification task. When comparing the anticipation of classification

schemes during the first and the second measurements in each group separately,
statistically significant improvement in anticipation of classification schemes was
found in control and in all three experimental groups (Sign test, p<0.01).
It was found no statistically significant differences between the control and all
three experimental groups, when the number of subjects in each group, whose ability
to anticipate classification schemes improved or stayed the same during the four-
month period 1, was compared (χ2(3)=0.948, p>0.05, see Table 1). It may be concluded
that during the four months period in the seventh year of life ability to anticipate
classification schemes improved regardless of whether or not classification and
seriation operations or other function of children’ cognition were systematically
stimulated using a certain training method.
When comparing the change of the classification criterion during the first and the
second measurements in each group separately statistically significant improvement in
ability to switch classification criterion was found only in the 1st and the 2nd
experimental groups (Sign test, p<0.01).
Comparison of the number of subjects in the control and all three experimental
groups, whose ability to switch classification criterion improved or remained
unchanged during the four months of the study 2, revealed no statistically significant
1
The control and the 2nd experimental group both had one subject, whose ability to anticipate
classification schemes regressed, however, results of these subjects were not included into
inter-group comparisons in order to achieve precise approximation of χ2 distribution.
2
The control and the 2nd experimental group both had one subject and the 3rd experimental group had two
subjects, whose ability to switch classification criterion deteriorated, however, results of these subjects
were not included into inter-group comparisons in order to achieve precise approximation of χ2
distribution.
66
difference among these four groups in terms of changes in the aforementioned

criterion, even though a tendency of difference was observed (χ2(3)=6.559,
0.05<p<0.1, see Table 1). No statistically significant difference was found between the
control and the 1st experimental group (χ2(1)=1.567, p>0.05) and the control and the
3rd experimental group (χ2(1)=1.219, p>0.05). However, there was a statistically
significant difference between the control group and the 2nd experimental group
(χ2(1)=5.078, p<0.05). However, there was no statistically significant difference
between different classification and seriation stimulation training methods, i.e. the 1st
and the 2nd experimental groups (χ2(1)=0.696, p>0.05).
Table 1. The Researched Subjects’ Distribution According to the Assessment of

Changes in Classification and Seriation Indices
The changes of classification and seriation indices in 4
Indice months χ2
Deteriorated Remained Improved
the same
Anticipation of classification schemes
Control group 3.7% 33.3% 63.0%
1st experimental group 0 32.1% 67.9% 0.948
2nd experimental group 4.0% 36.0% 60.0%
3rd experimental group 0 46.7% 53.3%
Classification criterion switching
1st experimental group 0 57.1% 42.9% 6.559*
3rd experimental group 13.3% 46.7% 40.0%
Anticipation of seriation schemes
1st experimental group 0 46.4% 53.6% 4.543
2nd experimental group 0 44.0% 56.0%
Seriation performance
1st experimental group 0 60.7% 39.3% 6.874*
**
p < 0.05; *p < 0.1
Class inclusion task. Table 2 presents results of pre-test and post-test in class
inclusion. When comparing pre-test and post-test results in the control and the 1st
experimental group, the deterioration of class inclusion results were found in both
groups, however this change was not statistically significant in any of the groups
(control group Wilcoxon Sign test Z =-1.001, p>0.05; the 1st experimental group
Wilcoxon Sign test Z =-1.498, p>0.05). Also, no change in class inclusion was found
in the 3rd experimental group (Wilcoxon Sign test Z =0.000, p>0.05). In the 2nd
experimental group improvement of class inclusion was observed, which was
statistically significant (Wilcoxon Sign test Z = -3.327, p<0.01). During the post-test
the subjects in the 2nd experimental group understood relationships of class inclusion
better than the subjects in the control, the 1st and the 3rd experimental groups.
Modeling training had a significant effect on this change (F(3,91)=8.965, p<0.001).
Statistical analysis revealed that modeling training method improves understanding of
class inclusion relationships better than the indirect classification/seriation and written
language training methods.
Multiplicational classification task. Pre-test and post-test results for the
multiplicational classification are presented in the Table 2. Statistically significant
67
improvements in multiplicational classification were found in the control group

(Wilcoxon Sign test Z = -3.367, p<0.01), the 1st experimental group (Wilcoxon Sign
test Z = -4.373, p<0.001) and the 2nd experimental group (Wilcoxon Sign test Z = -
4.204, p<0.001). It was no statistically significant improvement in multiplication
classification in the 3rd experimental group (Wilcoxon Sign test Z = -1.341, p>0.05).
Comparison of changes from the pre-test to the post-test in control and all three
experimental groups revealed that groups differed in terms of changes of attribute
coordination scores during the four-month period (F(3,91)=5.955, p<0.01). Both the
indirect method and the modeling training had positive effect on multiplicational
classification performance, however, no differences were found between these two
training methods.
Table 2. Class Inclusion and Multiplicational Classification Means and SD by Groups

Indice Mean ± SD
Pre-test Post-test
Class inclusion
Control group 2.22±0.70 1.96±0.98
st
1 experimental group 2.18±0.72 1.89±0.99
2nd experimental group 2.28±0.84 3.28±0.89
3rd experimental group 2.00±0.38 2.00±0.65
Multiplicational classification
Control group 13.15±2.48 15.85±2.96
st
1 experimental group 12.89±2.92 17.82±2.69
2nd experimental group 13.40±4.03 18.76±2.03
3rd experimental group 13.07±3.61 14.53±2.83
Seriation task. When comparing anticipation of seriation schemes during the first
and the second measurements in each group separately, the anticipation of seriation
scheme improvement in each four groups was observed (Sign test, p<0.05).
Comparing the number of subjects in the control and all three experimental
groups, whose ability to anticipate seriation schemes improved or remained
unchanged during the four months of the study 1, no statistically significant differences
were found (χ2(3)=4.543, p>0.05, see Table 1). It may be concluded that in the seventh
year of life the ability to anticipate seriation schemes develops regardless of whether
or not classification and seriation operations or other cognitive function are
systematically stimulated.
When comparing the change of the seriation performance during the first and the
second measurements in each group separately statistically significant improvement in
ability to seriation performance was found only in the 1st and the 2nd experimental
groups (Sign test, p<0.05).
Comparing the number of subjects in the control and all three experimental
groups, whose ability to perform seriation improved or remained unchanged during
the four months of the study 2, statistically significant difference in terms of change of
1
The control and the 3rd experimental group both had one subject, whose ability to anticipate
seriation schemes regressed, however, results of these subjects were not included into inter-
group comparisons in order to achieve precise approximation of χ2 distribution.
2
The control, the 2nd and the 3rd experimental group all had one subject, whose ability to
perform seriation regressed, however, results of these subjects were not included into inter-
group comparisons in order to achieve precise approximation of χ2 distribution.
68
the aforementioned criterion wasn’t found, even though a tendency of difference was
observed (χ2(3)=6.874, 0.05<p<0.1, see Table 1). It may be concluded that both the
indirect training method (χ2(1)=4.056, p<0.05), and the modeling training
(χ2(1)=4.426, p<0.05) had positive effect on the ability to perform seriation, however,
effectiveness of the two methods did not differ (χ2(1)=0.000, p>0.05). This suggests
that during the four-month period in the seventh year of life a progress in seriation
may be achieved regardless of the method – the indirect or the modeling – used for
stimulation of classification and seriation operations. No statistically significant
difference was found between the control and the 3rd experimental group (χ2(1)=0.839,
p>0.05).
Discussion
Results of the study indicate that in the seventh year of life children are able to
form groups of objects and to form a series of objects in terms of a certain attribute.
They are able to apply the assimilation scheme to a number of objects at once, rather
in turn. Ability of children to classify and seriate objects may be assigned to the
second stage of classification and seriation, which are characterized by differentiation
and coordination of content and extent, which, however, is not yet accurate. These
abilities are only to prepare a child for understanding of class inclusion relationship
and transitivity – two characteristics of the concrete operational level of thought. It
may be concluded that children in the seventh year of life in Lithuanian cultural
environment are in the period of transition from pre-operational to concrete
operational level of thought. This lends support to Piaget’s opinion (2001) and
corroborates other studies conducted in Lithuania.
The experiment revealed that in the seventh year of life both in case of a natural
development and in case of systematic stimulation of classification and seriation
operations in some children the indices of classification and seriation deteriorated
during the four-month period. It is plausible that these children are unable to unite
separate operations of classification and seriation into a unified whole. According to
Piaget (2001), this is indicative of intermediate operational level, in which
inconsistency of reactions appears due to a lack of coordination between various
schemes of thought.
Even though deterioration of classification and seriation indices was observed in
some children, more children manifested improvement in these abilities. This is
particularly true of those children, whose classification and seriation operations were
systematically stimulated. This suggests that systematic stimulation of these two
operations during the seventh year of life, when children are in the period of transition
from pre-operational to concrete operational thought, is useful and may assist children
in understanding relationships among the elements of classes and series.
When thought operations are stimulated by either indirect or modeling training
method a change in scores of attribute coordination in multiplicational classification is
observed and this change is larger than that observed in natural development. There
was also a statistically significant improvement in seriation performance scores, which
did not change in case of a natural development. In a group where classification and
seriation operations were stimulated using a modeling training method there was an
improvement in classification criterion switching and understanding of class inclusion
relationships. Four months of stimulation of classification and seriation operations did
not result in any significant changes in anticipation of classification and seriation
69
schemes, even though a progress in these indices was also observed in the case of
natural development. This suggests that when conditions for utilization of intellectual
capacities are created for children during the play, a change in cognitive abilities is
observed, regardless of whether the cognitive abilities activated are those, which the
child has mastered him/herself (in the case of the indirect training method) or those,
which the child is yet unable to employ him/herself and hence assistance from a more
competent person is required (in the case of the modeling training method). During
both kinds of sessions, improvement was observed in those processes, which assisted
in generalization of the experience gained during the sessions and in application of the
newly learned principles later, during the post-test of classification and seriation
abilities.
Results of our study are similar to those of Ciancio, Sadovsky et al. (1999),
Rhodes and Whitten (1997), Malabonga and Pasnak (1995), and Pasnak, Madden et al.
(1996), who found that stimulation of classification and seriation operations using a
method of indirect training caused progress in seriation performance. Venger’s (1986)
study showed that stimulation of these logical operations by the modeling training
method resulted in the progress of anticipation of seriation schemes and additive
classification. It should be noted, however, that in some aspects our results differed
from those of the aforementioned. Ciancio, Sadovsky et al. (1999), Rhodes and
Whitten (1997), Malabonga and Pasnak (1995), and Pasnak, Madden et al. (1996)
found progress in additive classification. In our study stimulation of logical operations
using the method of indirect training did not result in increased progress in any of the
three indices of additive classification compared to the control condition. In Venger’s
(1986) study, modeling training did not result in statistically significant improvement
in multiplicational classification, while contrary was found in our study. Discrepancies
in results might be explained by differences in methods used to assess additive and
multiplicational classification skills and differences in the duration of training between
studies of other authors and our study.
Our study is new in that it aimed to compare the effectiveness of two methods
used for stimulation of classification and seriation operations. The results of the study
indicate that effect of the two methods differed only in terms of changes in only one
indicator of classification and seriation abilities, namely – understanding of class
inclusion relationships. It may be suggested that a training method, which did not
correspond to the developmental level of a child, i.e. was oriented to the proximal
development zone, stimulated the formation of schemes structures enabling reverse
operations. This emphasizes the importance of the modeling training method in this
age group.
Therefore, we would recommend educators working with pre-school children to
use the methods of stimulation of classification and seriation operations discussed in
this research as methods for presentation of instructional material. Application of
methods described in this study will enable educators not only to create conditions for
discovery for children but also to present material in such a way that the method of
presentation itself will have a positive effect on the development of classification and
seriation abilities. It should be noted that in such classes children will not only use
classification and seriation operations in play, but will employ language, imagination,
and creativity as well.
The experiment revealed that the method of early written language teaching did
not have any special effect on the development of classification and seriation
operations. This suggests that stimulation of other cognitive functions than
classification and seriation had not improved the above-mentioned thought operations.
70
Our results contradict Vygotsky’s (1983) statement about the changes between
functions, when some higher mental function ends its development. The discrepancy
could be explained by some limitations of the use of written language teaching method
in our study. First, the subjects of the third experimental group before the experiment
were in the conditions of the experimental training and were not randomly assigned to
this group. Second, for the peculiarities of the written language teaching method it was
not possible to control the intensity of the training (the number of the stimulation
sessions was not as strict as in other experimental groups). Third, we had not
investigated the changes of subjects’ use of written language.
In summary of findings of the present research, we may conclude that the
development of logic is due to changes characteristic of individuals of a certain age,
when experience (both corresponding the development level of a child and surpassing
it) effects development of these operations. Quantitative structural changes might
explain the effect of indirect and modeling training methods on classification and
seriation abilities of the children in the 1st and the 2nd experimental groups. Such
changes determine the probability to expanded application of the mental structure.
However, the changes might be not only quantitative, but qualitative as well. In the
further studies after evaluation of qualitative changes in operation structure, it would
be possible to discuss a more general scientific issue of how the development progress
- if the changes in structure of operations are universal, as it is stated in operational
theory of intelligence development offered by Piaget.
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72
The Opinions of the Parents Concerning Pre-School Chıldren
7
The Opinions of the Parents Concerning
Pre-School Children Books in Pre-School
Education
Mine C. Durmusoglu, Hacettepe University
&
Eda Erdem, Hacettepe University
T
o introduce children to books in their early age is important for their reading
habit development and love of books. It’s also important for children’s
language, cognitive, socio-cultural and aesthetic development. The books play
an active role in the way in which children perceive the environmental
stimulus. As books contribute to every aspect of child’s development, they strengthen
children’s communication with the world and enrich their life. The role of parents as
well as of teachers is quite crucial for children’s reading habit development and love
of books.
The best period for the development of reading and love of books is the pre-
school period, when the children are between 0 and 6 years of age. Love of books may
start during pregnancy, in mother’s womb as after the 6th or 7th month of the
pregnancy, a baby can hear the outside world. By reading books aloud during
pregnancy, you can lay the foundations of child’s reading habit development (Gönen
et.al. 2003). Baby’s vocabulary starts building up as from the time s/he hears the first
word. A baby starts understanding the meaning of words through regular
conversations and repeating songs. The more baby listens, understands and speaks, the
more s/he enlarges his/her vocabulary. As of the 6th month, the baby should initially
be introduced to picture books. The key feature of pre-school books is that they are the
books with numerous pictures which appeal to children’s senses.
It is important to communicate with the child from day one, reading to them even
before birth, and giving them a foundation to build a lifelong love of reading and
learning. We also wanted to increase public awareness of the value of sharing books,
repeating nursery rhymes, singing songs, and reading stories to young children (Quon
2005).
Initially, a child meets only with picture books, then progressively with the books
having picture-word, picture-sentences, picture-narrative, less picture-more text
73
combinations, and finally with the texts without pictures. In the course of time, a child
tends to read narratives with simple subjects. Perceiving these narratives again and
again enlarges child’s vocabulary; and this enables a child to understand more
complicated narratives. When a child begins to build a link between what s/he hears
and what s/he sees, s/he also starts learning how to think. (Gönen 2005).
Books of children’s interest vary according to their ages. The factors affecting this
interest can be classified as child-related factors, book-related factors and
environmental factors (Jalongo 1993).
1. Child-related factors: Age, sex, race, socio-economic level, areas of

interest, experiences, the level of mental development, tendency towards
books and reading.
2. Book-related factors: Contents, type of the book, general design of the
book, quality of the printing, binding of the book, the picture-text
consistency.
3. Environmental factors: Availability of children’s library, availability of
books at home and pre-school institution, children’s interest in pre-
school books advertised at visual and print media.
Taking the above-mentioned factors into account, parents or teachers should

introduce children with different books of children’s interest. When the types of pre-
school books are examined, the books in that category can be summarised as follows:
ABC books, tale books, story books, activity books, biographies, reference books,
children’s magazines, puzzle books, poetry books, and etc. As a child interacts with
these books, s/he gains different life experiences. Moreover, these experiences help
the child to get to know himself/herself; facilitates his/her socialisation; and makes a
considerable contribution to his/her communication skills.
Development of children’s communicational skills requires that a child also
acquires such skills as, listening, impersonation, natural use of language, conceptual
development, comparison abilities, expressing his/her own or other people’s emotions,
good pronunciation and deduction. Yet, these skills can only be acquired through
storytelling. (Gönen 2005).
Love of, and interest in books helps children to lay the foundations for the
development of their reading habit. The reading habit is basically performing the
reading activity constantly and regularly throughout the life-span. (Devrimci 1993).
There are many factors affecting this; and as Jalongo (1993) states, it is first the family
members, who lay the foundation for the inculcation of children’s reading habit.
Children develop a reading habit much more considerably as family members read
books by themselves, go shopping with their children to buy books, and read books to
their children. In addition to the family environment, the society and community in
which the child is raised, as well as schools and teachers are of a great importance for
children to develop a reading habit. Additionally, whether parents have an accurate
knowledge about the importance and features of child books has a direct effect on the
child’s meeting with books, as well as on a lasting companionship with books (Tuğrul
2002; Gürcan 1999).
Reading habits might be developed at any stage of life; yet its development at an
early age has an influence on its life-long longevity and consistency. Children, who
read and are read books develop broader perspectives than others. Since thoughts
develop through knowledge, children can think as much as they know (Gönen and the
others 2003).
74
Much of children’s early cognitive development occurs within the family context
(Gauvain 2001), and family involvement in literacy activities is critical to children’s
early literacy skill development. Home-based literacy activities may impact on
vocabulary development, oral language skills, print awareness and children’s values
related to literacy (Mautone, and the others 2003).
If a child has a reading habit, s/he would enjoy learning and understanding things,
and hence, depending on his/her cognitive development and reading abilities, would
easily learn things, and be successful at school (Friedeberg 1995). According to Russel
(1997), if a child has a reading habit, s/he also enjoys being read books. Thereby, s/he
not only widens his/her knowledge, but also his/her culture. In this way, a child gets to
know the world and other cultures, and would experience various adventures though
books.
Children’s books also contribute to child’s language development. Therefore,
children should be read books with many pictures, and be encouraged to illustrate
these pictures, answer to the book-related questions, complete uncompleted sentences,
narrate the unfinished book and summarize the book with his/her own words (Gönen
2005).
Books should be available in children’s surroundings, be it at each and every
accessible place and even around their toys. In this way, parents should make their
child realize that books are precious tools.
There are six emergent literacy skills--the building blocks that children need in
order to learn to read and write successfully when they begin school.
The first essential skill is child’s interest in and enjoyment of books. In other
words, children must be motivated if they are to become readers. When we work with
parents and caregivers, we encourage them to start with the youngest children. We tell
adults: surround babies with board books. Let them handle them, and don’t worry if
they chew on them. This is a baby's way of enjoying a book. Make a fuss over the
books. Make book sharing a special time. At home or in a child-care centre, the
pleasure of being nurtured by a loving adult with a book in hand will encourage
children to associate books with delight throughout their lives.
We also tell parents, caregivers, and preschool teachers to let children know that
you think books are special. Let them know that you love to read. Let them see you
reading on your own. Take every opportunity to remind them that someday they will
know how to read books all by themselves. Take your child to the library and treat
each visit as a special outing. Then there are the books themselves. Choose lots of
humorous ones, get everyone laughing. Use books that encourage children to
participate. Books like these draw young listeners into the storytelling and guarantee
that they have a good time (Arnold and Colburn 2004).
Which Books are Appropriate for Children?
Given the age, interests and degree of development of preschool children,
children between 0 and 3 years of age should be read easily perceived, simply written
and bright-coloured books. As the baby develops, parents should prefer more detailed
books, pointing the details in these pictures or encouraging the baby to do so. Audible
books and tactile books do also attract children at this age group. Children between 3
and 4 years of age should be read books that would let them learn concepts through
games and entertainment, and by using their senses. These kinds of books would also
develop child’s psychomotor skills. Books which prepare children for primary school
75
and life could be read to children between 4 and 5 years of age. And for children
between 5 and 6 years of age, series books could be read, as well as science and nature
oriented books in which children are interested . For this age group, it would be
efficacious to finish a book in a couple of days. With these books, children would
develop their thinking skills.
The Ways İn which Books are Read to Children
While reading books to children, various methods and techniques are used,
including the usage of puppets, slides and boards. These methods are effective in
terms of making reading a fun thing to do, and enjoyable for children. (Alpöge 2003).
Parents should analyse the books in advance, and should let the child to view the
book freely. Then, the text in the book should be read. It should be borne in mind that
children between 3 and 4 years of age want to be listened to, as much as they listen.
For this reason, we should take this particular characteristic of children into account,
and let them tell us about the book. Consequently, the child will develop expression
skills, particularly regarding his/her own opinions and thoughts. Children between 3
and 4 years of age ask too many questions; and hence they may ask to hear the story
again and again. When this happens, replies and repetitions should be done patiently
so that they draw children’s attention and stimulate their ambition to learn. Time and
environment should be arranged in such a way that would enable you to read to a child
at least for 20-30 minutes in a day. A regular and quality atmosphere should be
provided. If an unknown word comes out during the reading, its meaning should be
explained with new words. In addition to its regularity, it is also important that
teaching about books and reading should be given in a peaceful, undisturbed and
friendly atmosphere. Children’s libraries can also be used during the process of
reading habit development (Boyes 2002).
The books play active role in children’s perception of the environmental stimulus.
They strengthen the communication skills of children, as well as enrich their life.
Parents’ role is very important in the development of reading habit and love of books.
This study presents the opinions of pre-school children parents’ related with child
books and the reading habit. It is aimed to take their views about the books of pre-
school education.
Method
In this particular research, a qualitative research pattern is employed. Interviews

are used for data collection, as a method for qualitative research. In this process, an
interview form has been prepared in order to collect the same type of data from
different parents.
Data Collection Process
An interview form was prepared, consisting of 15 questions and oriented at

parents having a child between 3 to 6 years of age. Data were recorded with a tape
recorder; and the interviews with the parents took place between September and
October 2005.
76
The Working Group
In this study, interviews were made with ten fathers and twenty mothers, totally
30 persons having a child between 3 to 6 years of age. While nineteen of these
children took pre-school education, eleven of them didn’t. All of participant families
are nuclear families with 3 to 4 members consisting of mother, father and a child. 30
of these families have one child, while 11 of them have two, and 2 of them have 3
children. The distribution of these pre-school children according to their age is shown
at Table 1.
Table 1 .Distribution of Children According to Their Age

Age Frequency %
Age 3 6 20
Age 4 5 16,7
Age 5 7 23,3
Age 6 12 40
Total 30 100
As it can be observed, the percentage of children at the age of 3, 4 and 5 is

between 16,7 % and 23,3 %, while the percentage of children at the age of 6 is 40 %.
When we analyse the income level of the participant families, it is observed that
the percentage of families with the highest and lowest income level are equal (6,7 %),
and the general income level of the families is 1-2 billion YTL (60 %). This is
followed by the families with a monthly income of 3-4 billion YTL, that is 26,6 %.
Relevant data is shown at Table 2.
Table 2. Distribution of the İncome Level of Participant Families

Income Level (TL) Number of the Families %
Below 1 billion 2 6,7
1-2 billion 18 60
3-4 billion 8 26,6
5-6 billion 2 6,7
Total 30 100
When we analyse parents’ level of education, it can be stated that 16,7 % of the
parents have a high school, 50 % of the parents have an undergraduate and 33,3 % of
them have a post-graduate degree. According to the data acquired, half of the parents
who took part in this research have an undergraduate degree; and this is followed by
parents with a postgraduate degree and with a high school degree respectively.
Relevant data is shown at Table 3.
Table 3. Distribution of the Level of Education of the Participant Families

Parents High % Undergraduate % Postgraduate % TOTAL
School
Mother 2 6,7 11 36,7 3 10 16
Father 3 10 4 13,3 7 23,3 14
Total 5 16,7 15 50 10 33,3 30
77
The table set below shows the distribution of parents according to their profession.
Accordingly, it can be observed that civil servants (teacher, doctor, nurse etc.) take the
first place (53,4 %); and this is followed by academicians (26,7 %) and by housewives
and self employed people respectively. The lowest percentage belongs to workers with
3,2 %.
Table 4. Distribution of Parents According to their Profession

Parent House- % Civil % Worker % Self % Academician %
wife servant employed
Mother 3 10 11 36,7 - - 3 10
Father - 5 16,7 1 3,2 2 6,7 5 16,7
Total 3 10 16 53,4 1 3,2 2 6,7 8 26,7
Data Analysis
Descriptive and content analysis is used for the data collected by qualitative
research method. In interpreting the research findings, direct quotations are also used
in order to reflect the views of individuals interviewed. The relevant data are analyzed
at four stages, which are data coding, finding the themes, organising the codes and
themes, and interpretation. (Yıldırım & Şimşek 2005). Collected data are subjected to
in-depth analysis, based upon these stages.
Findings and Interpretation
This section is dedicated to the findings and interpretations acquired through the
qualitative research method.
Types of Publications Parents Read
Most of the publications that parents read consist of professional publications,

classics, novels, daily papers, monthly magazines related to hobbies, regular
publications (such as Bilim Teknik, National Geographic, and etc.) to which they
subscribe, best-seller books and e-publications. On the other hand, it is observed that
poetries and biographies are almost not read at all. Insofar as the reading motives of
parents are concerned, it is concluded that parents read mostly to develop a reading
habit, to obtain information, to develop their creativity and to develop themselves in
relation to their profession, to write short stories and to entertain themselves. For
example, B.H. states that “ ... definitely not to occupy my free time, but because I like,
and in order to learn and enjoy ...”; or N.Y. states “ ..I read in order to keep the track
on current events; also I read book critics to shape my book preferences ...”.
Parents as a Role Model
Reading books when the child is around is as important as reading books to

children. When a child sees adults’ reading, it would encourage the child to read. For
this particular reason, adults should be role models for children in their reading habit
development. If parents read books, even magazines and newspapers nearby their
78
child, this would encourage the child to do so as well. (Alpöge 2003). For example,
M.A. states that “ ... I think I am an appropriate model. My child sees me when I am
reading. In the family, we always read publications, such as newspapers and books. In
most of the time that I spend with my child, she considers me as a model who reads;
then she imitates me as if she reads a book or a newspaper...”; or A.A. states, “ ...In
that way, children see that people read not because they have to go to school, but to
attain a knowledge, have a good time, and entertain themselves; and hence this
encourage them to read...”
A closer look to the above-mentioned statements shows that parents consider
themselves as a good model for their children in terms of their reading habit
development. On the other hand, a minority of parents who think that they do not
provide a good model for their children express their ideas as follows:
S.A. “...I don’t think that I am a good model. Due to heavy workload,
long working hours, and the fact that I can not spend too much time
with my child, I can not read to my child regularly ...”
Ş.K. “I do not think I am a good model, because I spend too much time
doing housework, and I have three children; so I only get a chance to
read after they sleep ...”
There upon, it can be concluded that there may be models in the family whom the
child can follow as long as there are people in the house reading books and
newspapers.
Books’ Contribution to Child’s Development
Reading books to pre-school children would help them to build up a

correspondence between cause and effect; to give their attention to something for a
longer time; learn new concepts and realise that story in a book with pictures
alternates; and therefore, it contributes to their cognitive development (Alpöge 2003).
In this study, results of the interviews show that cognitive development includes
the following elements: perception, understanding, comprehension, identification,
description, building up a correspondence between cause and effect, problem solving,
critical thinking, creative thinking, gaining knowledge, distinguishing opposite
concepts (antonyms) such as small-big, long-short, conjecturing (completing stories),
self decision making, comparison, curiosity, asking questions, criticising, development
of virtual memory, imagination and making connection with the daily life. In relation
to this, S.T. expresses that “…reading helps the child to see the connection between
real and fiction ...”.
Research results also show that books contribute to children’s language skills as
well as to their cognitive development. Language development includes speech skills,
increase of word-stock, self-expression, and ability to answer questions. S.M., one of
the participant parents, states that “... I think that my child’s cognitive skills have
improved, while his expression problems have been solved. His word-stock has
increased; and now he is able to express his opinions much more easily; also it helps
him to throw lessons from the stories”.
Debaryshe (1993) maintains that a kind of parent-child experience acquired
through reading picture books has a simulative effect on child’s language skills and
79
cognitive field; and it improves children’s language development in the early

childhood.
When we take a look at the social-emotional development of children under the
scope of this particular research, it can be stated that books develop children’s sense of
humour, and help them to take and fulfil responsibilities, express their emotions,
develop empathy for others, play roles, develop his/her self-confidence, enjoy alone
and in group works and to learn while entertaining themselves. The research also
shows that realisation of artistic and aesthetic values are also among the books’
contribution to child’s development. In relation to the importance of realisation of
artistic and aesthetic values, Ş.T. highlights that “... I think books help children to
develop their personalities and improve their sense of humour, as well as to gain an
aesthetic formation...”
It is important that authors and artists of a country should not underestimate pre-
school children who are one of the essential elements of a given society and should
spend some of their times for the works oriented at children. In that way, they should
pass on the aesthetic values of that society to the children; hence achieve the
continuity of fine arts (Goknil 1998).
Type of Books Read to Children
Depending on the age, interests and needs of their children, parents do read books
with short texts, stories and tales with pictures, activity books for concept
development, scientific books, child magazines, animation books with three-
dimensional pictures, ABC books, puzzle books, and child encyclopaedias. Following
expression can be given as an example of parents’ opinions about the types of books
read:
S.T. “... I read scientific-experiment books, books which support natural

sciences with easy experiments. For their expression skills, I also read
descriptive tale books, fables, and short stories with a social theme…”
Purpose of Reading Books to Children
Contributing to child’s mental development, giving a message, being instructive,

connecting child with the real life, helping him/her to distinguish opposite (antonym)
concepts and make comparisons and broadening child’s imagination are among the
reasons why parents read book to their children. Various views of parents about this
issue are as follows:
S.S. “... I read to him to meet his interests and needs, for him develop new
hobbies, and to let him to have new perspectives.
B.A. “... I read to meet his interests and needs. For instance, my child is
interested in space and spacecraft; and for this reason I buy him books related
to this subject ...”
Parents do also indicate that they read books for their children to make them have
a pleasant time as well as to support their language development, conversational skills
and their vocabulary. L.E. states that “... While reading a book to my child, I pay
attention that he looks at the pictures, and describes what he sees and hence improves
his expression skills...”
80
According to Gönen (2005), reading books to children serve to three purposes: 1)

to introduce children with literature which forms the centre of the culture they are in
2) to strengthen their knowledge, and canalize them for seeking more information; and
3) to improve child’s mental skills related to language.
Criteria Paid Attention While Buying Books
In this research, it is commonly observed that parents take into consideration the
following criteria when buying books for their children: compatibility to child’s age
and level of development, meeting child’s interests and needs, educational character,
big and clear pictures, picture-text consistency, realistic content, non-violent content,
non-redundant messages, expert’s views, short sentences, logical subject matter, more
concrete expressions (less abstraction); supplementary gifts, name of the author and
publisher, and etc:
A.A. “...Cartoon characters and my daughters’ favourite colours are effective

on our decisions. Sometimes I buy a book just because of a pink necklace
which was given as a gift with the book ...”
This view shows that gifts given with books can also be counted among the
selection criteria of parents.
H.U.: “...Depends on the age. I used to prefer thinner, picture books with
less text. I pick up clear, understandable texts with nice pictures. I don’t have
any concern about her language skills. She already learns this at the
educational institute. Let her learn by living, instead of learning from books,
so she can see and live it herself...” (The child has been attending to pre-
school education for three years). In this way, the parent indicates that books
do not have to be educational as the pre-school education meets this
necessity.
T.S. “...I pay attention to the actions and emotions of book characters, the
way in which their anger and happiness are reflected to pictures...” By
saying this, the parent underlines the importance of expression of feelings in
the books.
B.G. “...I give importance whether the story ends with a happy ending, and
gives a positive message. I value books which do not include violence and
dreadful messages...” Hence, the parent thinks that books should not include
violence and dreadful messages.
Not being able to think objectively as much as elder children and adults, not being
able to build concrete and physical connections between events and objects, self-
centric character, and confusing realty with fiction are among the general features of
pre-school children. For that particular reason, pre-school books should contain texts
with concrete expressions (Diliduzgun 2003).
As to the physical features of books, parents pay attention to the print quality,
design of the book, its binding and endurance, paper quality, whether it contains clear
and cute pictures (not like caricature), whether it contains original pictures created by
artists, whether the pictures have bright colours with less text, and whether every page
of the book has one picture.
81
Other criteria emphasised by parents are that books should be prepared by

professional writers; publishers should be experienced and qualified in child books,
and finally the books should not be prepared for all age groups, but for a certain one.
In relation to this, O.K. states that, “... We rather prefer books that exactly refer a
certain age group. 3 to 6 for instance, has a big gap. We sometimes buy books
published by Tubitak, yet it is mostly for elder children. High price of books is also a
factor”.
T.Y., one of the participant parents maintains that books should be prepared by
taking the socio-cultural and moral values into consideration; and accordingly
states, “...I think books imposing religious, faith-related and moral (such as
sinful, shameful, and etc.) values are not suitable for this age group. The book
themes should have a reflected in the real life”.
Books which are not compatible with children’s daily life and having a subject
beyond their imagination can have adverse effects on children. A sound child book
should contain universal, humanitarian and moral values, as well as cultural ones
(Oguzkan 1998).
Interviews demonstrate that the most influential person in choosing a book is the
child him/her self, yet parents still check whether the chosen book is appropriate for
the child and guide him/her accordingly. N.D. states, “We want him/her to choose one
of the books he/she wants to buy”, and accordingly implies that s/he provides guidance
during his/her child’s book selection. Some of the families interviewed demonstrate an
authoritative character by saying that only they can have an influence over the book
selection.
Parents’ Expectations From Children’s Books
Children’s books should not contain too many advices. Those books may be
boring for children, and may discourage their reading habit. Books should provide an
excitement for exploring things, and enlist their interest. (Gunes 2000).
Accordingly, books should put an emphasis to conceptual education, yet at the
same time should not be didactic at all, as B.G. states, “Examples from life, not top-
down doctrines, are better to be provided”.
Books should be compatible with children’s age and their level of development;
they should help them develop their imagination and creativity, and enable them to
discover new things. In this respect, they should excite their interest and increase their
curiosity. Moreover, they should contain positive messages; have a simple language;
include audible elements for their sensual development; cover specific subjects (such
as nutrition, health, illnesses, fears, hobbies, special days and celebrations etc.), and
not be expensive at all. Some of parents’ expectations are listed below:
S.S. “... Should be books with themes that lead children to talk, discuss and
think. Should be books that make children to question, criticise and
think….”
L.E. “...We should especially be careful about books that are translated from
other languages. I think they should be easily understood”.
N.N.“…Picture books are better to include some minor activities as well; for
instance, at the end of the book, there may be questions such as ‘where is the
mistake?’, ‘How will the story end?’”
82
What do Parents do to make their Children Develop a Reading Habit?
During the interviews, parents mostly mention the importance of reading in order
to facilitate their children’s reading habit development and to maintain its consistency;
yet they also stress the importance of the following activities in order to achieve this:
not putting pressure on child to read books; talking about books and the pictures they
contain every night before the child goes to bed; examining the books together
when/where they want talk about it; being a role model by reading; letting their
children to buy books they want and which are in line with their interests and needs;
going to bookstores together with their children to examine and buy books; buying
children’s magazines from time to time; rewarding their children when they examine
books; encouraging them to build a personal library, and etc.
Among the participant parents who go to bookstores together with their children,
buy and read books together, some express their views as below:
M.L. “...I try him to perceive this as a voluntary process, not something
compulsory. While shopping, I definitely walk around the book section of a
store, and let my son to examine books. I want my child to get into one to
one dialogue with books...”
N.D. “...We, me and my daughter, go to bookstores together and examine
children’s books at the book section. My daughter examines books and picks
up the one she wants. I decide to buy it after examining. Moreover, we turn
off the TV at some certain hours, and then read book together; in the
meantime, she examines her own book and describes the pictures in it...”
B.S. “...I buy one of the audible books, tactile and animated story books
which he is interested in...”
One of the participant parents, Ö.K., states his/her opinions about rewarding
children as they read with the following words: “...I reward my child by saying ‘well
done’ when she examines the books. While my child is working on his/her activity
books, I tell her how good she has performed the activity…”
Reading Environment
Parents rather create a quiet environment for their children to help them pay
attention to the book they read (for instance, they switch off the TV or turn off its
volume). Parents also indicate that children read books not only in their rooms, but
also at the time and place they prefer (in buses, service buses, in any room of the
house, and etc.). While some parents mention that they read books to their children
before they go to bed, some others rather take the advantage of reading at different
times and occasions. As A.A states, “...I read to my children after they come back from
school, in the weekends and before they do their homework”.
Children’s Libraries
Generally speaking, parents do not benefit from children’s libraries while guiding
their children to develop a reading habit. Most of them do not know the places of
those libraries or they have never been there. They mostly prefer to benefit from
bookstores and pre-school institutions. They prefer building up a library at home for
83
their children, rather than going to such libraries. In relation to this, M.S.A. notes as:
“...We make up our own library. We have variety of books. I can assure you that we
have more than 100 quality books for a child at the age of 4”.
According to Boyes (2002), parents do not have a tendency to make use of public
libraries, despite their wide availability. Still, parents have a crucial responsibility to
build a library at home, as books constitute one of the most important values of our
lives. Building a library at home and buying books in addition to toys may promote
children’s love of books (Gönen et.al. 2003).
Activities Done During and after Reading Books
Participant parents emphasise that they, while reading a book, imitate the book
characters with their children; vocalise them by using different types of sounds, sing
songs and jingles, make guesses about the ending; play games; develop their own
scenarios, ask questions, make dramatisations; summarise what they understood; have
conversations about the book and extemporise; and give examples in connection with
the real life. Parents’ views about imitation and vocalisation are as follows:
T.Y. “...If there is a witch, I vocalize it. I put the accent. I become a mature
father, a commander. In the next day, he/she narrates the book to me. We
imitate the characters...”
After reading the book, it can be understood whether children understood the story
or not by asking questions. Children can also be asked if they enjoyed the book or not,
or about the best thing they liked about the book. Children should be given an
opportunity to summarise the books they read, or to narrate their own stories (Alpöge
2003).
In this study, the common activities carried out by the parents during and after
reading are having conversations; dramatisation; questions and answers; imitations;
guessing the end of a story, rewarding, playing games, drawing the pictures of book
characters; adaptation; touching the pictures, pulling puppets, finding mistakes in the
relevant texts; and etc:
B.G. “... We touch the pictures when we read a book; we ask questions, and
then give a break to discuss...”
N.T. “..Some book series include finding the mistake of a given story. While
carrying out this activity, we complete the end of the story together...”
The home and school need to work together for the good of the child. If children
raise questions about what is being read, curiosity is being stressed. Students also need
to learn to predict that which will happen next or in the future of content read in the
library book. If students can learn to predict, they generally understand what is being
read presently. Predicting involves linking the past/present with the future in content
being considered. Content needs to be clarified so that meaning is in evidence in terms
of what is being read. Summarizing what has been read indicates the student
understand the ensuing ideas (Ediger and Rao 2003)
84
Positives about Books
The content of books should be arranged from easy to hard, from simple to
complicated, from concrete to abstract, from general to specific and from closer
environment to farther environment. It is also among the main principles that language
of the writer should be simple and understandable, directing to children’s interests
(Güneş 2000).
According to the findings of this particular research, parents have a tendency to
think that books give importance to socio-cultural and moral values, improve child’s
development, include positive physical features and contents; have educational and
instructive aspects, and enable children to make connections with the daily life, as
much as they are entertaining.
Negatives about Books
Endurance is a significant feature that should be taken note of in the preparation

of pre-school books. Books may wear out easily, when children do not show the
necessary care. Therefore, high quality paper and strong binding may be preferred to
prevent tearing of a book, or its falling apart (Alpöge 2003). Interviews with the
participant parents do also show that binding-related problems are commonly
experienced among parents.
The following features are the most commonly observed negativities related to the
physical features of books: usage of low quality of paper; poor quality binding;
uninteresting drawings; incompatibility between drawings and colours; affordability
problems; inconsistency between the introduction, main part and conclusion of a story
due to absence of a theme; not having a simple and understandable language
(especially regarding translation books). About books having improper and unrealistic
messages, L.E. expresses that:
“…I think books adapted from cartoons include unrealistic and imaginary
themes, and this provides a bad influence for our children...I would like to
tell an incident my son has experienced: For my son, we used to buy
magazines about Pokemon. When he was at the age of 3, he jumped from
the bed to the couch. Since the gap between them was too big, he fell down.
He hit his ear to the edge of the couch and cut it. When he was hospitalised,
we asked him why he did it, and he replied: ‘Dad, I couldn’t fly like
Pokemon’…”.
As it can be seen from the above-mentioned statement, children may experience

difficulties in differentiation fiction from reality, and may be adversely affected by the
surreal actions of the characters in those books.
Participant parents also raise criticisms if writers write children’s books without
having knowledge about children; ads in children’s magazines have a bad influence
over children, and if the books are prepared according to a specific age group, such as
for the 3 and 4 for years of age, not for a broader age group like 3 to 6.
85
Conclusıon
The results of the survey reveal that parents mostly read professional publications,
classics, novels, daily papers, monthly magazines related to hobbies and story books.
Insofar as the reading motives of parents are concerned, it is concluded that parents
read mostly to develop a reading habit, to obtain information, to develop their
creativity and to develop themselves in relation to their profession, and to entertain
themselves. Parents consider themselves as a good role model for their children in
terms of their reading habit development. According to parents, books contribute to
children’s cognitive development, language skills, social-emotional development, and
help the children to realise artistic and aesthetic values.
The books that parents read to their children are stories and tales with pictures,
activity books, scientific books, child magazines, animation books with three-
dimensional pictures, ABC books and child encyclopaedias. Contributing to child’s
mental development, giving a positive message, being instructive, connecting child
with the real life, helping him/her to distinguish opposite (antonym) concepts and
make comparisons and broadening child’s imagination are among the reasons why
parents read book to their children. Parents do also indicate that they read books for
their children to make them have a pleasant time as well as to support their language
development and conversational skills.
Parents take into consideration the following criteria when buying books for their
children: compatibility with child’s age and level of development, meeting child’s
interests and needs, educational character, big and clear pictures, picture-text
consistency, realistic content, non-violent content, non-redundant messages, expert’s
views, short sentences, logical subject matter, more concrete expressions (less
abstraction); supplementary gifts, and the name of the author and publisher. Other
criteria emphasised by parents include the print quality, design of the book, its binding
and endurance, paper quality, whether it contains clear and cute pictures, whether it
contains original pictures created by artists, whether the pictures have bright colours
with less text. Parents also maintain that books should be prepared by taking the socio-
cultural and moral values into consideration. Most influential person in choosing a
book is the child him/herself, yet parents still check whether the chosen book is
appropriate for the child and guide him/her accordingly.
According to parents’ expectations, children’s books should put an emphasis on
conceptual education, yet at the same time should not be didactic at all; books should
help the children to discover new knowledge; they should excite the children's interest
and increase their curiosity; they should be realistic and apprehensible; that they
should aim at contributing to children's sensual development; and they should not be
expensive at all. Parents mostly mention the importance of reading in order to
facilitate their children’s reading habit development and to maintain its consistency. In
addition, they avoid putting pressure on any child to read books; they talk about the
pictures that the books contain; they examine the book together when/where they want
to talk about it; they become a role model for the child; they buy books and magazines
which are in line with the interests and needs of the children and which the children
want to have; they reward their children; they encourage them to build a personal
library.
Parents create a quiet environment for their children to help them pay attention to
the book they read. Parents also indicate that children read books not only in their
rooms, but also at the time and place they prefer. On the other hand, parents do not
benefit from children’s libraries while guiding their children to develop a reading
86
habit. They prefer building up a library at home for their children, rather than going to
such libraries.
Activities that parents carry out while and after reading books to their children
include imitating the book characters with their children; singing songs and jingles,
making guesses about the end of the book; playing finger games; developing their own
scenarios, asking questions, making dramatisations; having conversations about the
book and extemporise; and improvised plays and adaptations. Rewarding, drawing the
pictures of book characters; adaptation; touching the pictures, pulling puppets, finding
mistakes in the relevant texts are among other activities that parents undertake after
reading a book.
Parents mentioned positive aspects of the books as follows: books give importance
to socio-cultural and moral values, improve child’s development, include positive
physical features and contents; have educational and instructive aspects, and enable
children to make connections with the daily life, as much as they are entertaining. The
following features are the most commonly observed negativities related to the books:
poor quality binding; incompatibility between drawings and colours; affordability
problem; inconsistency within the text; not having a simple and understandable
language, especially regarding translation books; not targeting specific ages but broad
age groups; writers' writing children’s books without having appropriate knowledge
about children; and advertisements in the publications which manipulate the children.
Suggestions
Learning to read is hard work for many children; and children, like adults, enjoy
things that bring them pleasure. Professionals who work with young children hence
should ensure that children discover the joy of books (Arnold and Nell Colburn 2004).
Following suggestions can be made for parents, to make their children develop a
reading habit and love of books:
1. Books should be read in the presence of their children, so that children

take parents as a role model;
2. In addition to the time specified by parents, parents should also value the
time and places that the child prefers to read; and hence should not put
pressure on children to examine books;
3. Parents should support their children when they examine books by
themselves;
4. Parents should reward children when they examine books; and should
prefer books as a present in special days;
5. They should follow periodicals, such as daily newspapers and
magazines, so as to encourage children to be curious and discover new
knowledge;
6. Reading habit development should start during pre-school education.
Parents should go to bookstores, children’s libraries and book fairs with
their children, and make them know these environments. Specially
trained people should be available in these environments in order to
provide conscious guidance for children;
7. Children should be read books and stories with plenty of pictures. In this
way, children should be encouraged to describe these pictures, answer
87
questions, complete the end of a given story; and to express what s/he
understands from the book with his/her own words.
8. While preparing pre-school education programmes, different methods
and techniques should be employed to perform activities, and they
should address all senses of children.
9. In order to achieve consistency and continuity of pre-school children’s
reading habits, their parents should be cooperated in arranging the
learning environment of children both at home and in schools.
10. Painter (artists) of picture books should be in co-operation with their
writers and exchange ideas with them in relation to the subject of the
book;
11. Publishing houses engaged in children’s books should be audited by the
relevant public authorities.
12. Media and teachers at preschool education institutions should aim to
create and promote awareness among parents as to the pre-school
children books.
Bibliography
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Calkıns, L.M.(2001).The Art of Teaching Reading, New York:Longman.
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Family Involvement on Early Literacy Skill Development NASP Communiqué, Vol. 31, 3
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no3 65-6, 69 Fall.
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90
Mothers’ Knowledge about Breast-Feeding Applications and their
Ability to put their Knowledge into Practice
8
Mothers’ Knowledge about Breast-Feeding
Applications and their Ability to put their
Knowledge into Practice
Didem Onay, Selcuk University

&
Nevin Aktas, Vytautas Magnus University
I
t is believed that the human race has existed for 2 million years and that they
lived as hunter- picker until 5 thousand years ago and that, during this time, they
most probably fed their children with mother milk. Interests in breastfeeding
dropped after the 1st World War as women rights revolution caused
misunderstandings and women participated in work life more due to industrialisation.
In 1920’s and 1930’s, breastfeeding became popular again, but an industry for baby
food emerged as well and many researches were carried out on development of baby
food. This industry became so powerful that it affected even the governments and
mother milk lost its importance. Thus, a bottle-feeding period started and bottle turned
out to be an icon for modern maternity. As a result, breastfeeding rate decreased in
more traditional communities where mother’s milk was previously preferred.
Today, more than a million babies die every year and many babies get sick due to
no breastfeeding. Studies in recent years revealed that despite the latest technological
developments, baby food cannot replace mother milk. A baby, who is fed only with
mother milk during the first 6 months, was found to have 10-15 times more chance to
live than a baby unfed with mother milk. Based on this fact, international
organisations cooperatively decided to encourage breastfeeding after 1980. In the
declaration on ‘Protection, promotion and support of breastfeeding”, UNICEF and
World Health Organisation (WHO) published a joint-report regarding the role of
maternity services on “Ten steps to successful breastfeeding”. Hospital and maternity
facilities implemented these ten specific steps are designated as “Baby-friendly
hospital”. The program was initiated in Ankara in mid-1991 and twelve countries,
Bolivia, Brazil, Ivory Coast, Philippines, Gabon, Kenya, Egypt, Mexico, Nigeria,
Pakistan, Thailand and Turkey participated in the program. After one year the ten
steps to successful breastfeeding was published, Innocenti Declaration was announced
in Florence. In the declaration, providing a suitable environment for breastfeeding,
91
only breastfeeding during the first 6 months and then giving additional food together
with breastfeeding were recommended (Özatay 1994).
The first couple of years after the birth is of paramount importance for building a
healthy life (Coşkun 2003). This period, known as nursing infant, is a transition time
from intrauterine life to extra-uterine life. In first couple of months of this period,
especially premature babies have physiological disabilities and differences in the
functions of organs. In order to survive in the sudden-changing environment, a
newborn baby must be fed with the food in quality and quantity that can compensate
the physiological differences. Undoubtedly, the perfect food that is provided by nature
and that cannot be replaced with another one is mother milk. (Nuhoğlu 1989).
Method
The survey was carried out in three central districts of Konya. 188 mothers were
joined to research from eight village clinics ( 3 from Selçuklu district, 3 from Meram
district and 2 from Karatay district). The central districts, the village clinics and
mothers were selected with randomly sampling method on the ratio of 20 % from the
records of the unit of statics Konya health department.
188 mothers were joined to research from eight village clinics.
The method of questionnaire has been applied for collection of research data.
The questionnaire was formed of general information about mothers, and
behaviours and knowledge of mothers about breastfeeding .
During interpretation of answers given to the survey, tables showing absolute and
percentage values were prepared and necessary arithmetic mean values were
calculated (Düzgüneş et al. 1983). Results were determined by average (X), standard
deviation (S) and standard error (Sx) (Sumbuloglu ve Sumbuloglu 1990) and Chi-
square test was applied if needed. When Pearson Chi-Square value was the freedom of
1 and the value of expected frequency of two cells was less than 5, Fisher’s Exact test
was considered.
There were 10 questions in the questionnaire to determine the knowledge of
mothers about milk applications. It was evaluated as “very well” for 90 points, and up,
“good” for 70-89, “moderate” for 50-69, “bad” for 25-49 and “very bad” for 24 points
and down.
Results and Discussion
General Knowledge
The age of mothers changed between 17 and 38, and the mean age of them was
25.40 ± 4.69 years. It is determined that 72.9% of mothers graduated from primary
school and 3.2% of them was not literate. The mean number of people was 2.44 ± 1.14
in the family.
It was reported that the mean children age was 186.44±152.52 (six years) days.
92
Table 1. Dispersion According to First Feeding Time of Infants

First feeding N %
First 1 hours 128 68.1
First 2 hours 15 8.0
3 hours and later 45 23.9
TOTAL 188 100.0
Infants should be breast-fed immediately after delivery. Over half (68.1%) of the
mothers began breast-feeding in the first hour after delivery.
Table 2. Dispersion According to Different Research Results Interested in First

Feeding Time of Infants
Researcher Year of research Subject number Mothers that breastfed at
first 1 hours (%)
Akgül et all. 1992 100 20.0
Yücecan et all. 1992 1428 52.8
Çetinkaya et all. 1999 202 59.0
As it can be seen from table, rate of the mothers who are breast feeding
immediately after delivery have 68.1% and results of the research are higher than
those of Çetinkaya et all.
Table 3. Dispersion According to First Food that the Mothers give to their Infants
after Delivery
First food N %
Water with sugar 5 2.7
Water 2 1.1
Mother milk 177 94.1
Other (Cow milk,baby food) 4 2.1
TOTAL 188 100.0
As it can be seen from the table, 94.1% of the mothers said that mother milk
should be given to their babies as first food.
Table 4. Dispersion According to Different Research Results Interested in First Food

that the Mothers Give to their Infants after Delivery
Researcher Year of Subject FINDINGS (%)
research number Mother milk Water with Baby food
sugar
Toksöz et all. 1991 580 43.96 36.55 11.38

Ok and Genç 1992 250 51.22 5.7 26.83
Günay et all. 2003 283 81.6 18.4
As it can be seen from table 4, ratios of mother milk as first food that the mothers
give to their infants after delivery, have been increased until now from 1991.
First food given to infants is evaluated according to the variables (age group of
mothers, educational level of mothers, number of children, sequence of birth) and the
relationship in-between hasn’t been found to be statistically significant. (P>0.05).
At the research done by Toksöz et all (1991) found that the relation between
mothers’ educational level and the first food given to infant is statistically important.
And also it found that the ratio of giving water and water with sugar is very high
93
(55.6%) between highly educated women. But in our research it is determined that the
first food given to infants were mother milk in highly educated (high school and
upper) women.
Sahinoz et all (2005), attained 1058 children between age 0-54 months by using
randomly sampling method in 9 countries at South-East Anatolian distinct. In that
research it was found that the ratio of the mothers who gave the first food except
mother milk was very high for literate and unliterate mothers (P<0.001). The ratio of
giving sugar-water mixture to the new borned infants decreases when the mothers’
education level increases (37.1% and 24.8% respectively under elementary school and
elementary school and upper).
Table 5. Dispersion According to Time that the Mothers Feed their Infants
Feeding Time N %
At certain hours 42 22.3
When it cries 136 72.3
When it wakes up 8 4.3
Not Feeding at all 2 1.1
TOTAL 188 100.0
As seen from table 72.3% of the mothers feed their infants when their babies want
and 22.3% of the mothers feed at certain hours.
The statistical ratio of the age groups of mothers, education levels, time that they
feed their infants according to child number wasn’t found very important (P>0.05).
The relation between the order of last child and when they feed their infants was found
important statisticaly (P<0.05).
Toksöz et all. (1991) investigated that the feeding freguency of educated mothers
(not certain hours) were 83.9%, 59.1% at uneducated mothers, 66.3% at graduate from
elementary school and 56.8% at graduate from middle school. And relation between
education level of mother and frequency of feeding was found statistically important
(P<0.001).
The mothers answered the question of “do you feed your infants at present” as
85.1% with yes and 14.9% with no.
Table 6. Dispersion of Infants that are Still Breast-Feeding

Feeding Day Night
N % N %
Unknown 39 23.4 17 10.6
Eight times 28 17.5 14 8.8
Much than eight times 28 17.5 8 5.0
Little than eight times 65 40.6 121 75.6
TOTAL 160 100.0 160 100.0
In this study, it was determined that ratio of the mothers, who breast-feed less than
eight times on a day, was 75.6% (at night) and 40.6% (on day).
As it can be seen from table 7, 48.1% of the mothers are determined that their
infants will have been breast-feeding until 24 months from 19.
The mothers whose infants are still breast-feeding and the length that it will
continue are evaluated according to the variables (age group of mothers, educational
level of mothers, number of children, sequence of birth) and the relationship between
them hasn’t been found as statistically significant (P>0.05).
94
At the research done by Toksöz et all (1991) it is found that the relation between
breastfeeding time of infants thinking and education level of the mothers was
significant statistically (P<0.001). 27.2% of the educated mothers said that they want
to breast-feed their infants during 4-6 months.
Table 7. Dispersion According to the Infants that are Still Breast-Feeding for Length
that it will Continue
Time N %
≤6 months 5 3.1
7 -12 months 30 18.8
13 -18 months 33 20.7
19 -24 months 77 48.1
According to mother milk 15 9.3
TOTAL 160 100.0
The mothers answered the question of “Why did you breast-feed your infants?” as
53.6% with mother milk cutting, 14.2 % as the infant didn’t want to breast-feed.
At the research done by Bağcı and Egemen (1991) it was determined that 93.0% of
the nurses should be breast-feeding their infants; while 7.0% of them should not be
breast-feeding their infants. The nurses that were not breast-feeding answered the
question of “Why did you not breast-feed your infants?” as 3.0% with health problem,
4.0% with work.
At the research done by Genç et all (1998) it was determined that the mothers
answered the question of “ Why did you not breast-feed your infants?” as 47.2% with
the infant that didn’t want to be breast-fed, 23.0% as mother milk was insufficient,
18.4% for other reasons (I was pregnant, I was ill as like). 8.0 of the mothers didn’t
respond.
The mothers who were not still breast-feeding answered the question of “how long
have you been breast-feeding your infant” as 39.3% with less than 4 months, 21.4%
with 4-6 months, 14.3% with 7-12 months, again 14.3% with 13-18 months and 3.9%
with 19-24 months.
According to the research findings, the mothers are determined that 7.1% of the
mothers have never given mother’s milk to their infants.
The research (1992) that Ok and Genç is made to determine the factors which
effect the breast-feeding period, determined that the infants should be fed with mother
milk 45.4% with 0-3 months, 28.3% with 4-6 months, 17.1% with 7-9 months, 4.9%
with 10-12 months.
The research (1994) that Michaelsen et all made to 91 healthy babies was
determined that the infants should be fed with mother milk as only 60.0% of them
with 3 months, 10.0% of them with 5 months
Table 8. Diversion According to Breast-Feeding Time to their Infants of the Mothers

who were not stil Breast-Feeding
Time N %
Less than 4 months 11 39.3
4-6 months 6 21.4
7-12 months 4 14.3
13-18 months 4 14.3
19-24 months 1 3.6
I didn’t give at all 2 7.1
TOTAL 28 100.0
95
Table 9. Dispersion According to Starting Conditions of Supplementary Food of

Mothers, Time for Beginning (For Starting), When will be Started (for Not Started
Yet)
Have you begun to additional food? S %
Yes 108 57.4
No 80 42.6
TOTAL 188 100.0
When if yes
Before 4 months 28 26.0
4-6 months 75 69.4
After 6 months 5 4.6
TOTAL 108 100.0
When if no
Before 4 months 2 2.5
4-6 months 74 92.5
After 6 months 4 5.0
TOTAL 80 100.0
As it can be seen from the table, 57.4% of the mothers said that they began to give
additional food; while 42.6% of the mothers did not.
108 mothers, who have begun additional food, were determined that they began
with ratios of 69.4% with 4-6 months, 26% with before 4 months, 4.6% with after 6
months. The mean beginning time to additional food was 4.54 ± 1.78 months.
According to research results, 80 mothers who haven’t begun additional food yet said
that they will begin to add food with ratios of 92.5% with 4-6 months, 5.0% with after
6 months, 2.5% with before 4 months respectively.
The research that Ok and Genç made in 1992, determined that ratio of the infants
who have been begun additional food before 4 months and 4 months, 4-6 months and
7-9 months as 40.5%, 26.3% and 2.4% respectively. As it can be seen from table, it
was found that ratio of the infants who have been begun to additional food before 6
months and this result is less than those of our research result (95.4%). It can be seen,
many mothers had begun to additional food before 6 months.
Table 10. Dispersion According to Causes of Additional Food Beginning of the

Mothers
Why S %
Mother milk was insufficient 54 50.0
Mother milk cutting. 11 10.2
Mother milk was sufficient but additional food is 36 33.3
necessary
Mother is ill 1 0.9
Baby is not feeding 3 2.8
Other 3 2.8
TOTAL 108 100.0
The mothers answered the question of “Why did you begin to additional food?” as
50.0% with mother milk’s insufficiency, in 33.3%, mother milk was sufficient but
additional food is necessary, 12.0 % with mother milk cutting.
The mothers answered the question of “how did you give additional food” as
63.0% with spoon, 32.4% with feeding bottle and 4.6% both spoon and feeding bottle.
96
Table 11. Dispersion of Taking Knowledge for Feeding and Mother Milk of Mother
After Birth, and Source of Knowledge if it’s Taken
Taked knowledge after delivery S %
Taked 122 64.9
Not taked 66 35.1
TOTAL 188 100.0
Source of knowledge S %
Health personel 114 91.4
Relative and friend 1 0.8
Books 11 7.0
Scholl and seminar 1 0.8
TOTAL 122 100.0
As it can be seen from table, ratio of mothers who take knowledge after delivery
is 64.9% , ratio of them who did not take knowledge after delivery were 35.1%.
It’s determined that most of the mothers taken knowledge about mother milk and
infant feeding (n=122), have taken this knowledge from health personel (91.4%).
Öktem et all. (1997) shows at the research for mothers of new birth for 261
people that mothers declares that they learned about mother milk mostly from family
inside and only %19 of them learned from health personals and %60 of mothers have
insufficient knowledge about mother milk and infant feeding.
Genc et all. (1998), asked a question about “from whose knowledge did you bring
up (or are you bringing up) your last child.” At their research in Malatya in 1998, it
was investigated that it was declared; 64.8% of mothers answered as from their own
experience, 21.2% of mothers as from the experience of grand family members, 2.4%
of mothers as from midwife of village clinic, 8% of mothers as from doctor 3.6% of
mothers from book, TV, newspaper.
Table 12. Dispersion of Answer for the Question “When Should Be an Infant Fed” of
Mothers
Feeding Time N %
Immediately after delivery 177 94.1
Three times for giving the moslem 2 1.1
call to prayer passes
After than 1-2 hours 5 2.7
Not Know 4 2.1
Total 188 100.0
As seen from table, while the ratio of mothers saying “infant should be fed just
after from birth” is 94.1%, the ratio of mothers saying after 1-2 hours from birth is
2.7%. And also it was found that the mothers saying that three times for giving the
moslem call to prayer passes, are 1.1% and mothers who don’t know when an infant
should be fed are 2.1%.
Oktem et all. determined at the research made in 1997 that 66% of mothers
emphasize that infants should be fed just after from birth, 9% of mothers said after
three times for giving the moslem call to prayer waited and 13% of mothers explained
as after 24 hours passed infants should be fed. The research (1997) that Topbaş et all
made in Samsun was determined that 97.3% of the midwife know that infants should
be fed immediately after delivery. But in our research it was found that mothers saying
infant should be fed just after birth is 94.1%. This result is found as higher than the
result of Oktem at all but closer to the result of Topbas at all.
97
Behaviours about Applications of the Mothers’ Breast-Feeding
Table 13. Dispersion According to Knowledge of Mothers for the First Feeding Time
and Behaviour of Mothers at this Subject
Behaviour 1 hours After than 1 hours Total
Knowledge
N % N % N %
Immedialty 124 70.1 53 29.9 177 100.0

>1 hours 3 42.9 4 57.1 7 100.0
Not know 1 25.0 3 75.0 4 100.0
Total 128 68.1 60 31.9 188 100.0
X2 = 5.784 SD= 2 P<0.05
As seen from table that the relation is found statistically important of knowledge
of first feeding time of mothers and activating the behaviour (P<0.05).
Mothers were asked “should be mouth milk given to infants?” 94.7% of the
mothers responsed with “yes”; while 3.2% of them responsed with “no”.
The research (1997) that Öktem et all made to 261 mother, was determined that
9% of the mother believed that mouth milk should not be given to infants.
Table 14. Dispersion According to Knowledge of Mothers for Giving Mouth Milk to
Infants of Mothers and Behavior According to this Subject
Behaviour Mother given Mother not given Toplam
Knowledge
N % N % N %
May give 169 94.9 9 5.1 178 100.0

Not may give 3 50.0 3 50.0 6 100.0
Not know 3 75.0 1 25.0 4 100.0
Total 175 93.1 13 6.9 188 100.0
X2 = 20.292 SD = 2 P < 0.05
Table 14 states that 178 of the mothers think that mother milk should be given
whereas 6 of the mothers think it should not be given. 4 mothers have no opinion
about this subject.
As it can be seen from the table, 169 of 178 mothers (94 %), who have said
mother milk should be given, behaved in line with their opinion; while 9 mothers (5.1
%) did not. The relationship in-between has been found to be statistically significant.
(p<0.05)
Ozatay (1994) found that 386 of the mothers have said that mouth milk should be
given and 94 % of them behaved accordingly whereas behaviour of the 5.5% were not
inline with their opinion.
Mothers were asked "In what periods babies should be suckled?". 42% of
the mothers respond that babies should be suckled when they cry; 41% respond that
they should be suckled at intervals of less than 3 hours (frequently), 11.2% of them
said to suckle at intervals of 3 hours and 5.3% replied that babies should be
suckled when they wake up.
98
Table 15. Dispersion According to Knowledge of Frequency of Mother Feeding and

Behaviour According to this Subject
Behaviour Certain When it When it cries When it TOTAL
Knowledge periods wants wakes up
S % S % S % S % S %
When it cries 8 10.1 35 44.3 33 41.8 3 41.8 79 100.0
Certain periods 32 33.0 29 29.9 31 31.9 5 5.2 97 100.0
When it wakes 2 20.0 5 50.0 3 30.0 - - 10 100.0
up
Tootal 42 22.6 69 37.1 67 36.0 8 4.3 186** 100.0
X2 =12.184 SD= 1 *P<0.05
* While the division of according to hour were examined as “certain periods”, the divisions of
when it wants, when it cries, when it wakes up are examined as “are not according to certain
periods”. And statistic evaluations were done like these seperation.
** 186 feeding mothers were taken to evaluation since there were 2 mothers who were never
feeding.
According to research results 97 mothers said that infants should be fed according
to hour, 79 mother said that infants should be fed when they cry and 10 mothers said
that they should be fed when they want. The relation between the knowledge of
breast-feeding of infants by mothers and the behaviour of feeding, was found to be
statistically significant.
Table 16. Dispersion According to Answer of the Question of “According to you at

which Period an Infant Should have Taken Mother Milk” of Mothers
Time S %
Less than 6 months 24 12.8
7-12 months 25 13.3
13-18 months 37 19.7
19-24 months 95 50.5
Much than 24 months 4 2.1
As it takes 3 1.6
Total 188 100.0
As it can be seen from table half of mothers (50.5) declare that infants should be
fed between 19-24 months, 19.7 says between 13-18 months,13.3 says between 7 and
12 months and 12.8 of mothers explained that infants should have taken less than 6
months.
Most of the mothers (94.1%), explained that between 4 and 6 months infants
should be started to supplementary food.
Table 17. Dispersion According to Knowledge of Starting Months to Supplementary

Food and Behavior According to this Subject
Behaviour Before 6 months 6 months and after 6 Total
months
Knowledge S % S % S %
Before 6 months 100 96.2 4 3.8 104 100.0

6 months and after 6 3 75.0 1 25.0 4 100.0
months
Total 103 95.4 5 4.6 108 100.0
X2 = 3.904 SD= 1 P<0.05
99
As it can be seen from the figure 18, out of 104 women who were thinking that
they should start additional feeding to their babies (before 6 months), 100 of them put
this idea into action successfuly and four of them couldn’t.
Ceran et all (2003) made a research on mothers who have 0-2 years old babies.
The research was related with the observations of the mothers themselves knowledge
and senses of breast feeding. In their research, only 19% of the mothers prefered to
feed their babies with mother milk for the first 4 months. When the application of that
process was questioned for the first four months, 11.0% of the mothers said that they
fed their babies with mother milk and 33.0% said that they fed their babies with not
her milk and water.
While 96.8% of the mothers believed that mother milk protect their babies from
the diseases, 3.2% said that they didn’t have any idea about this. It is also observed
that while 50.5% of the mothers were saying that mother milk can protect from any
diseases, 12.1% said it protects from child diseases, 9.9% said it protects from grippe
and 7.8% said that it protects from icterus. The mothers answered the question of “
How do babies feed at first months?” as 96.3% only mother milk.
The mothers were asked “how to feed the children at first months more healthy?”
and 96.8 % of the mothers responsed as mother milk.
The mothers were asked “does quantity of mother milk increase with some food?”
and 87.8% of the mothers responded quantity of mother milk was increased with some
food; 4.8% of them responded quantity of mother milk wasn’t increased with some
food. In the research, 7.4% of the mothers said that they didn’t know this.
Table 18. Dispersion According to Levels of Knowledge about Breast-Feeding

Applications of the Mothers
Knowledges of nutrition N %
Bad-very bad 6 3.2
Middle 47 25.0
Good 109 58.0
Very good 26 13.8
TOTAL 188 100.0
In the table, it was determined that over half (58.0%) of the mothers have good
knowledge about breast-feeding applications and it continues as 25% of middle,
13.8% of very good and 3.2% bad-very bad.
The statistical result was found unimportant at the relation between age groups,
number of children and the order of the last child and knowledge level of mothers at
mother milk applications (P>0.05) but it was found important according to educational
level (P<0.05).
Informing public and health staff for supporting, protecting and spreading the
continuance of mother’s suckling her baby without any other nutrient during six
months, and in addition to this, during healthy child monitoring, suckling consultancy
and solving frequent suckling problems immediately and correctly are the musts. In
maternal clinics, it is important to be aware of the 10 steps application which is
proposed by World Health Organasation (WHO) and UNICEF.
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102
Computer Usage in Early Childhood: Parents’ View on Early Chilhood
Computer Usage
9
Computer Usage in Early Childhood:
Parents’ View on Early Chilhood
Computer Usage
Fatma Unal, Akdeniz University
T oday, the use of computers is becoming widespread owing to fast developing

technologies. The availability of technology for individuals at all ages has
increased the use of computers in early childhood, too. In spite of the fact that
computers are being used at home and schools in early childhood, their effects on
children’s development and education and how they could be used in a beneficial way
are still being discussed.
There are various studies showing the positive effects of using computers in early
childhood (Haugland 1992; Hoot 1986). Clements (1994; 2002) has reported that
computers can enhance social interaction, motivation and attitudes towards learning.
Further, increased collaboration enhances and mediates cognitive benefits.
Appropriate use of computers facilitates young children’s development of academic
abilities such as oral language, reading, and writing skills. The most powerful benefits
of computers are that they foster children’s higher level thinking and mathematical
abilities.
In their study, Subrahmanyam et al. use families who were provided with
computers and Internet access. The authors have presented data on children’s interest
in, and comfort with computers and the Internet. In addition, they summarize the
existing literature on the consequences of children’s computer use. The authors
consider whether and how computer use affects children’s cognitive development, as
well as their social relationships. As Subrahmanyam et al. discuss, the gender divide in
access to new media is narrowing somewhat, but socioeconomic differences in access
to new technology persist (Calvert, Jordan 2001).
It has been stated that computers have contributed to intellectual, social and
emotional development of children in addition to their academic achievements
(Clements 1994; Haugland 1996). Computers are only one type of the tools that are
used to actualize children’s potential for development and facilitate learning. This fact
brings about questions such as ‘When should the computers be started to be used in
early childhood?’, ‘What properties should the program to be used bear?’, ‘For how
long should it be used?’ and alike.
103
Arguments stating that children in the early childhood period are very curious and
they want to learn everything, but because they do not know how to read and write, it
would be difficult for them to learn how to use the computer, that the computer could
affect the development of a child negatively, and that it could be inappropriate to use it
in early childhood as it could adversely affect the normal education process have been
invalidated in many pieces of research (Haugland 1992; Watson 1987)
In the previous years, it was stated that children should reach the concrete
operations stage before starting to use a computer. However, various studies
conducted in more recent years show that children might use suitable computer
application programs even at the preoperational stage (Clements 2002).
Experts state that it is suitable for children to use a computer after the age of three.
Since learning for children under 3 happens through sensational motor actions like
touching, seeing and hearing, children at that age like to experience actively with
materials. It is also stated that computer is not a suitable choice for developmental
skills such as crawling, talking and walking (Haugland 1998;2000). On the other hand,
some researchers believe that children under three could be simply trained, and
develop a positive attitude towards computers (Clements 1987).
According to Wardle (2006), to evaluate whether computers are developmentally
appropriate for children over age three, we need to determine the developmental needs
of these children. Children this age are developmentally within Piaget’s preoperational
stage. This means they are concrete learners who are very interested in using newly
learned symbolic representation – speaking, writing, drawing and using numbers.
Further, children this age are extremely active and mobile. They often have difficulty
sitting still; they need frequent changes in learning modalities; and they want a variety
of physical experiences involving dance, physical play, climbing and sports.
Preoperational children are also are continuing their mastery of language, and
exploring various facets of social behaviour.
Another discussion topic is the time period that children at early childhood stage
spend on a computer. Studies conducted among young children show that a daily
computer support of 10-20 minutes has important advantages. However, it is
emphasized that positive contributions of computers are related with the type of
computer experiences presented and the frequency of the time spent on the computer,
rather than the length (Aktaş-Arnas 2005).
Haugland (1996) argues that computers in early childhood classrooms serve to
raise young children's self-esteem, self-concept, and place in the classroom
community. She provides examples for specific computer exercises including
storytelling, journals, autobiographies, classroom data collection and recording, and
classroom activities. She notes that these computer activities enhance self-knowledge
and expression.
Although there are studies on the positive effects of computers on child
development and learning, they could be beneficial when they are used properly
developmentally and it is important that they are not abused as if they are ordinary
devices. Early childhood is the period when the basis of the child’s development is
founded. The child’s getting acquainted with the computer should be within the
framework of educational programmes prepared for the child’s development. Any
software to be used must be appropriate for the child’s developmental interest and
needs.
It has been stated that in the early childhood period, instead of programs oriented
to practising and exercise solving, child development based, open-ended and multi-
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Computer Usage
dimensional software which intends to develop children’s problem solving skills and
creativity should be preferred (Clements 1994; 2002).
The software content should be appropriate to child’s age. The process of using
the software should occupy the child so much that the result should be considered
secondarily. The software should support the child’s self-discovering and self-learning
(Aktaş Arnas 2005). It should include topics realted to the culture of the society the
child lives in (Arı & Bayhan 2002). The program should not contain any elements and
components of violence. Programs should also be able to help children gain prosocial
behaviours such as cooperation, empathy, friendship, family, sharing and healthy
communication.
Research conducted shows that computers have a strong influence on children. As
a result, how it is used is very important. The benefits expected of the computer
depends on the way it is integrated into the education, how compatible it is with the
newest technology, and whether it possesses the properties of providing
communication, motivation, and in accordance with behaviour development and the
development of children. Computers are one of the means of realizing the
developmental potential of children. Yet, in order to benefit from the developmental
contributions of the device, the right programmes should be selected. The key for the
successful use of the computers is their teachers and parents.
While trying to keep up with the fast developing technology, it is important that
the problems, applications and drawbacks in this process should be known. Thus, this
study has been conducted to determine the state of the use of computers by early
childhood children and parents’s perception of their children’s using computers.
Basic Problem
Do children at early childhood period use computers?
Sub-Problems
Problems concerning children’s use of computers
1. Is there a relation between children’s use of computers and having a computer

at their home?
2. Is there a relation between children’s computer usage and their parents’
computer usage status?
3. Does the child’s age group have any effects on children’s use of computers?
4. Does gender have any effects on children’s use of computers?
5. Ways of children’s learning how to use a computer.
6. Aims of children’s using a computer.
7. What are the conditions that affect the choice of computer software for
children?
8. How long is children’s daily computer using period?
9. How do children utilize the Internet?
10. In what kind of environments do children use computers?
11. Who accompanies children while they use computers?
Parents’ perception of children’s use of computers
105
1. Parents’ state of computer use

2. Is there a computer and Internet access at home?
3. Is there a relation between children’s gender and whether parents find
computer use at early childhood beneficial?
4. What are the reasons for parents’ finding the use of computer at early
childhood beneficial?
5. What are the reasons for parents’ not finding the use of computer at early
childhood beneficial?
6. What are the ways that parents use to block their children to enter
inappropriate sites on the Internet?
Method
The research has been conducted according to ‘survey method.’

Sample: The sample was formed by the participation of 156 volunteering parents
of children from the formal preschools affiliated to the Ministry of National
Education, within Antalya city center.
Data Collection: Research data has been collected by means of a “Questionnaire”
prepared by the researcher. The survey questionnaire includes items regarding the
demographic characteristics of the subjects and also those items about the state of
children’s use of computers (3-6 years) and parents’ perception of children’s using
computers at early childhood.
Data Analysis Procedures: For the evaluation of data, SPSS 10 computer software
programmes were used. Findings have been presented as frequency distributions. The
relation between variables has been evaluated by “Chi-square test”.
Findings
156 parents have been involved in the study. The profile of the respondents is
shown in Table 1.
Table 1. The Profile of the Parents Involved in the Research (n=156)

Mother Father
Age F % f %
21-25 17 10.9 1 ,6
26-30 51 32.7 18 11.5
31-35 48 30.8 72 46.2
36-40 32 20.5 33 21.2
41 and over 8 5.1 32 20.5
Educational Background (Graduation)
Primary 27 17.3 23 14.7
Secondary 7 4.5 7 4.5
High School 62 39.7 55 35.3
University 60 38.5 71 45.5
Employment Status
Employed 91 58.3 154 98.7
Not Employed 65 41.7 2 1.3
Computer Usage Status
Using 106 67.9 118 75.6
Not Using 50 32.1 38 24.5
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Computer Usage
Examining Table 1, it can be observed that the majority of the mothers are at 21-
25 age interval and fathers are at 31-35 age interval. As for the educational
background, most of the parents are either high school or university graduates.
Research reveals that the educational level of parents have effects on children’s use of
new technologies (Shashaani, 1994). It is also observed that almost all fathers are
employed; whereas, employment rate among mothers is lower, and the majority of
both mothers and fathers use computers.
Table 2. The Profile of the Children Whose Parents were Involved In the Study
(n=156)
Age f %
3 - -
4 9 5.8
5 67 42.9
6 80 51.3
Gender
Female 81 51.9
Male 75 48.1
Computer Usage Status
Using 97 62.2
Not Using 59 37.8
Internet Access Status
Yes 37 23.7
No 119 76.3
Table 2 shows that the majority of the children whose parents were involved in the
study are at the age of 6, and there are no families with children at the age of 3. It can
also be observed that the majority of the children use computers, 62.2% (97), and the
rate of Internet access is lower.
Table 3. Status of Having a Computer and Internet Access at Home

Yes No Total
f % F % f %
1 Is there a computer at home? 95 60.9 61 39,1 156 100.0
2 Do you have access to the 55 35.3 101 64.7 156 100.0
Internet at home?
Examining Table 3, it is found that 60.9% of the families involved in the study
have a computer at home, 39.1% do not have a computer, 35.3% have Internet access,
and 64.7% do not have Internet access.
This section first covers the findings regarding the children, and secondly the
findings regarding the parents according to the data collected by the questionnaire.
107
Table 4. Distribution Regarding the Child’s Computer Usage (n=97)

f %
1. The age which the child started to use computers
Age 3 10 10.0
Age 4 31 32.0
Age 5 41 42.0
Age 6 15 16.0
Total 97 100.0
2. Time spent using a computer (minutes per day)
5-15 minutes 4 4.1
15-30 minutes 2 2.0
30-60 minutes 20 20.6
60-120 minutes 35 36.1
120 minutes and over 36 37.1
Total 97 100.0
3. The place they use the computers
Home 83 67.5
School 20 16.2
Internet Cafe 6 4.9
Other (parent’s workplace or their 14 11.4
relatives.)
Total 123 100.0

4.People from whom children learn how to use a
computer Mother 51 32.9
Father 57 36.8
Teacher 8 5.2
Other (relatives, sister, brother etc) 39 25.1
Total 155 100.0
5.Does anyone accompany the child while using a
computer Yes 43 44.3
No 8 8.3
Sometimes 46 47.4
Total 97 100.0
6. People who accompany the child while using a
computer Mother 39 38.2
Father 31 30.4
Sister or Brother 15 14.7
Teacher 8 7.9
Friends 4 3.9
Other (relatives) 5 4.9
Total 102 100.0
7. Programs they prefer
Game oriented programs 81 57.4
Teaching oriented programs 36 25.5
Other (watching films and to learn 24 17.1
how to use a computer)
Total 141 100.0
8.The Internet sites accessed
Game sites 31 88.6
Other sites 4 11.4
Total 35 100.0
Examining Table 4,
o The age which the child started to use computers: 10.0% of the children
started using computers at the age 3, while 32. 0% started at age 4, and
42.0% at age 5; and 16.0% at age 6.
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Computer Usage
o Time spent using a computer (minutes per day): It is found that 4.1% of the
children spend 5-15 minutes, 2.0% 15-30 minutes, 20.6% 30-60 minutes,
36.1% 60-120 minutes, and 37.1% spent over 120 minutes on the computer.
o The places that they use computers: 67.5% of the children use computers at
home, 16.2% at school, 4.9% in an Internet cafe, and 11.4% of them at their
parent’s workplace or their relatives.
o People from whom children learn how to use a computer: 32.9% of the
children have learned from their mother, 36.8% from their father, 5.2% from
their teachers, and 25.1% have learned from close people (relatives, sister,
brother etc.).
o Does anyone accompany the child while using a computer? It is found that
8.3% of the children use the computer alone, 44.3% are accompanied by
someone and 47.4% of them are sometimes acoompanied.
o People with whom children use a computer: 38.2% with their mother, 30.4%
with their father, 14.7% with their sister or brother, 7.9% with their teacher,
3.9% with their friends, and 4.9% with their relatives.
o Programs they prefer: 57.4% of the children prefer game oriented programs
while 25.5% use teaching oriented programs. 17.1% of the children use a
computer to watch films and to learn how to use a computer. Also 88.6% of
them use game sites on theInternet.
Table 5. Distribution of the Parents Rergarding their Opinions on whether Children

Should use the Computer (n=156)
f %
1. Finds computer usage beneficial for early
childhood period Benificial 126 80.8
Not beneficial 30 19.2
Total 156 100.0
2. Reasons for not finding computers
beneficial for early childhood Not sure if computers can be 16 47.1
helpful for education
The computer usage can 10 29.4
damage the normal education
Other (thinks computers are 8 23.5
harmful for children at this age
and it is early to start using it.)
Total 34 100.0
3 Benefits of computer usage for children
While their children are using 4 2.9
computers, the parents find a
chance to do their own work
Computers enable more active 74 54.0
learning
The work done with computers 7 5.1
is less boring for the mind
Enables varying emotional and 19 13.9
perceptual models
Personalizes learning 15 11.0
Enables children to 18 13.1
communicate freely
Total 137 100.0
109
4. Deciding on which computer programs the

children should use According to the 18 16.5
recommendations of teachers at
school
From magazines and similar 19 17.5
publications
According to child’s preference 25 22.9
Other (relatives ,friends) 47 43.1
Total 109 100.0
5. Do they taking precautions to block child’s
access to inappropriate sites on the Internet Takes precautions 43 78.1
Does not take precautions 12 21.9
Total 55 100.0
6. Methods for blocking children’s access to
inappropriate sites Child cannot connect to the 15 34.9
Internet
Warn their child not to connect 11 26.6
Disable their modem 13 30.2
Has not given opinion 4 9.3
Total 43 100.0
7. The age group within early childhood that
they find computer usage appropriate Age 2 and below 1 0.6
Age 3 2 1.3
Age 4 15 9.6
Age 5 41 26.3
Age 6 33 21.1
Age 7 and over 50 32.1
Has not given opinion 14 9.0
Total 156 100.0
Examining Table 5,
o It is found that 80.8% of the parents find computer usage beneficial for early
childhood period, while 19.2% do not.
o Reasons for not finding computers beneficial for early childhood: 47.1% of
the parents are not sure if computers can be helpful for education, 29.4%
think computer usage can damage the normal education system and 23.5%
think computers are harmful for children at this age and it is early to start
using it.
o Benefits of computer usage for children: 54.0% of the parents stated that
computers enable more active learning, 13.9% stated that it enables varying
emotional and perceptual models, 11.0% stated that it personalizes learning,
13.1% stated that it enables children to communicate freely, and 2.9% stated
that while their children are using computers, they find a chance to do their
own work, 5.1% stated that the work done with the computers is less boring
for the mind.
o Deciding on which computer programs the children should use: 16.5% of the
parents choose the programs according to recommendations of teachers at
school, 17.5% from magazines and similar publications, 22.9% according to
child’s preference, and 43.1% choose according to the recommendations of
other people.
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Computer Usage
o It is found that 78.1% of the parents take precautions to block child’s access
to inappropriate sites on the Internet, whereas 21.9% do not.
o Methods for blocking children’s access to inappropriate sites: 34.9% of the
parents stated that their child cannot connect to the Internet because he/she is
too young, 26.6% stated that they warn their child not to connect, and 30.2%
stated that they disable their modem. 9.3% of the paretns haven’t stated their
opinion.
o The age group within early childhood that they find computer usage
appropriate: 0.6% of the parents have found age 2 and below appropriate,
1.3% found age 3 appropriate, 9.6% age 4, 26.3% age 5, 21.1% age 6, and
32.1% have found age 7 and above appropriate, 9.0 % of the paretns haven’t
stated their opinion.
Table 6. Chi-Square Test Results For Children’s Computer Usage According to

Having a Computer at Home
Uses a Computer Does Not Use a Total
Having a Computer at Computer
Home n % N % n %
Yes 79 83.2 16 16.8 95 100.0
No 18 29.5 43 70.5 61 100.0
Total 97 62.2 59 37.8 156 100.0
Examining Table 6, it can be observed that 83.2% of the children with a computer
at home use a computer; whereas, 16.8% of them do not. 29.5% of the children with
no computers at home use a computer; whereas, 70.5% do not. This shows that there
exists a relation between having a computer at home and children’s using a computer
(X2= 45.46, sd =1, p<0.05).
Table 7. Chi-Square Test Results for Children’s Computer Usage According to their
Age
Uses a Computer Does Not Use a Total
Computer
n % N % n %
Age 4 2 22.2 7 77.8 9 100.0
Age 5 39 58.2 28 41.8 67 100.0
Age 6 56 70.2 24 30.0 80 100.0
Total 97 62.2 59 37.8 156 100.0
As it is seen in Table 7, 22.2% of children at age 4, 58.2% of children at age 5,

and 70.2% of children at age 6 use a computer. It is observed that the older the child
is, the higher the rate of computer usage gets. The relation between the age of children
and their computer usage has been found to be meaningful (X2= 8.64, sd =2 , p<0.05).
Table 8 Chi-Square Test Results for Children’s Computer Usage According to their
Gender
Uses a Computer Does not Use a Total
Computer
n % n % n %
Girls 45 55.6 36 44.4 81 100.0
Boys 52 69.3 23 30.7 75 100.0
Total 97 62.2 59 37.8 156 100.0
111
When Table 8 is observed it can be seen that 55.6% of the girls use a computer
where 44.4% do not, and 69.3% of the boys use a computer where 30.7% do not. It is
found that there is no meaningful relation between children’s gender and their
computer usage (X2= 3.14, sd =1, p>0.05).
Table 9. Chi-Square Test Results for Children’s Computer Usage According to their
Parents’ Computer Usage
Uses a Computer Does not Use a Total
Mother Computer
n % n % n %
Uses a Computer 79 74.5 27 25.5 106 100.0
Does not Use a Computer 18 36.0 32 64.0 50 100.0
Total 97 62.2 59 37.8 156 100.0
Father
Uses a Computer 83 70.3 35 29.7 95 100.0
Does not Use a Computer 14 36.8 24 63.2 61 100.0
Total 97 62.2 59 37.8 156 100.0
From Table 9, it can be observed that 74.5% of the children whose mother uses a
computer also use a computer; whereas 25.5% of them do not. 36.0% of the children
whose mother does not use a computer use a computer; whereas 64% of them do not.
There is a meaningful relation between children’s computer usage and their mother’s
computer usage (X2= 21.44, sd =1, p<0.05).
It is found that 70.3% of the children whose father uses a computer also use a
computer; whereas 29.7% of them do not, and 63.2% of the children whose father
does not use a computer do not use a computer. There is also a meaningful relation
between children’s computer usage and their father’s computer usage (X2= 13.71,
sd=1, p<0.05).
Table 10. Chi-Square Test Results for Parents’ Finding Computer Usage at Early
Childhood Beneficial According to their Gender
Parent find computer usage at early childhood: Total
Beneficial Not Beneficial
N % n % n %
Girls 65 80.2 16 19.8 81 100.0
Boys 61 81.3 14 18.7 75 100.0
Total 126 80,8 30 19.2 156 100.0
Table 10 shows that parents of 80.2% of the girls find using a computer at early
childhood beneficial; whereas 19.8% do not. Parents of 81.3% of the boys find it
beneficial and 18.7% do not. There is no meaningful relation between parents finding
computer usage at early childhood beneficial and their children’s gender (X2=,030,
sd=1, p>0.05).
It was also found that there is no meaningful relation between children’s gender
and their computer usage. Accordingly, we can say that children’s gender make no
difference on their computer usage, or their parents finding their computer usage
beneficial.
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Computer Usage
Discussion and Conclusion
This study has assessed the state of children’s using the computer at early
childhood period (Age 3-6) and their parents’ perception of their children’s using the
computer.
Whereas 80.8% of the 156 parents involved in the study find children’s using of
the computer at early childhood beneficial, 19.2% of them do not. This result shows
that computer usage at early childhood is accepted by the majority of parents in the
sample.. However, most of them (32.1%) also states that age 7 and above is an
appropriate age to start using computers. This indicates parent’s hesitant attitude for
their child’s computer usage at early childhood in spite of the fact that they find it
beneficial.
When the reasons for parents’ not finding computer usage at early childhood
beneficial is prioritized, the first reason is that “they are unsure of its positive
contribution to education” (47.1%). Researchers such as Clements (1994) and
Haugland (1996) have studies showing that computer usage could be useful at early
childhood education.
When the benefits of computer usage for children has been questioned, as the
most beneficial property, 54.1% of the parents have stated that “computers enable
more active learning”.
It has been observed that 2.9% of the parents have stated “while children are using
computers, they find a chance to do their own work”. Even though the rate of parents
stating this is low, it is worth considering that parents see computers as a tool that
keeps the child ‘busy’. Computers should be evaluated as a supporting tool for
constructive education rather than a time-killing tool for children.
The collected data shows that the majority of the families (60.3%) have a
computer at home, and 35.3% also have access to the Internet. In Calvert’s (2006)
study, it has also been found that 75% of the families have a computer at home. This
indicates that there are computers at homes in different countries, too.
It has been determined that the majority of the children whose parents participated
in the reasearch use computers (62.2%), and 23.7% access the Internet. The majority
of the children (67.5%) use the computer at home, 16.2% at kindergarten and 4.9% in
an Internet Cafe. There is a statistical relation between having a computer at home and
the rate of computer usage. The fact that children use computers at Kindergarten less
makes us think that the number of computers used for the purposes of education at
schools is low, the existing computers are used for secreterial purposes or teachers do
not make enough room for computer aided education in their programs. The research
conducted by Guven and Sahin (1999) indicates that the majority of the administrators
of preschool education institutions (62.07%) think that they do not have an adequate
number of computers at their school, and that, of the existing computers, 3.66% are
used for educational purposes.
Although the rate of children using computers at the Internet cafes is found to be
very low (4.9%), it is still unfavourable for children’s development to use computers
at Internet cafes where it is found to be inappropriate and there is an age prohibition
for even older children.
78.1% of the parents have stated that they take precautions for their children not to
access inappropriate sites. However, the majority of them (34.9%) states “their child
being too young, he/she cannot be able to connect to the Internet” as a precaution.
113
This brings out the idea that parents are not actually taking any precautions to prevent
their children accessing inappropriate sites on the Internet.
When we look at which computer programs the children are using on the
computer, we see that game oriented programs have the priority (57.4%) to be used by
children, similar to the game oriented sites on the Internet.
According to Lecht, today’s kids are attacked by computers, and direct relation of
a child with a computer is through “electronic games” and “ataries”. Contrarily, Kidler
suggests that computer games are a smart attempt of computer industry, and it is a
perfect starting point to introduce computers to children (Arı & Bayhan 2002).
Without disregarding these different views, together with game oriented programs,
education oriented programs to support their development should also be provided to
children.
It has been observed that in determining the programs to be used, most of the
parents (22.9%) have considered their child’s preference. This situation has been
evaluated as parents respect for child’s preferences.
It has been found that most of the children using computers (42.0%) have started
to use a computer at the age of 5. No difference has been observed between children’s
computer usage depending on their gender and the age that they start using it.
Research has reported significant differences in male and female attitudes toward
computers. Evidence converges on the fact that females have less favorable attitudes
toward computers than males (Ogletree & Williams, 1990; Collins, 1985). Calvert
(2006), did not faund a gender divide in early childhood computer use. Boys and girls
began to use computers around the same age and were aqually likely to have played
computer games.
The collected data shows that fathers use computers at a higher rate (75.6%) than
mothers do (67.9%).
It has been determined that children learned how to use a computer mostly from
their fathers (36.8%), but when they use a computer their mothers accompany them
(38.2%). This can be explained in terms of the fact that the number of fathers who use
a computer is more than that of mothers. Similarly, mothers’ accompanying the child
makes one think that this is because as fathers are working, they cannot spend as much
time with their children as the mothers.
8.3% of the children have found to be alone while using a computer. It is one of
the positive effects of computer use that during the period on the computer children
are free of social pressure, and can communicate freely. However, it is stated that
together with an elder guidance, they tend to be more careful, interested, and less
anxious (Clements 2002). Shade & Watson (1990) state that technology can be
misused as any other tool. Adults may encourage inappropriate as well as appropriate
uses of computers. In addition, for their social development it is recommended to
work on the computer cooperatively with other children.
When we look at the daily computer usage periods, we see that the majority of the
children (37.1%) use a computer for over 120 minutes a day. This shows that children
spend longer time on the computer than it is recommended for their age. Spending too
much time on the computer might cause some negative effects such as hostility or
loneliness instead of its communication-related positive effects. Therefore, it is
recommended that time spent on the computer is limited to at most 20 minutes for
children (Clements, 2002).
Capra, who is an absolute sceptic about children’s using computers, is of the
opinion that we expend unnecessarily too much care about the knowledge of our
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Computer Usage
children. She/He adds that we should be more concerned about our children’s
becoming thoughtful, sharing and aesthetically sensitive humans (Healy 1998).
To conclude, computer usage at early childhood is getting widespread every day.
However, children, especially very young children, being able to use a computer does
not mean that they are learning anything important.
Families should care about the contents of the video and computer games that
their children play, and should avoid games containing violence and sex components.
Families should also be careful about children to spend a limited time on the
computer. As long as it is education oriented, it is a fact that games have positive
effects. Considering that computer and video games might have negative effects on
children, families should always supervise their children while playing on the
computer, and specify a time limit. They should also limit the contents of the games
played.
It is expected that computers and other electronic devices will have a place at
children’s lives as a necessary part of the era. Computers can provide valuable
experiences for children, new opportunities for supporting their education and new
ways of learning. However, it should be considered that the likely benefits of
computers can be actualized through the controlled use of programs designed
according to child’s developmental characteristics and also regarding other aspects of
development. An effort must be made to change all the existing negative aspects of
computers to positive.
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Shashaani, L. (1994). Socioeconomic status, parents’ sex –role stereotypes, and the gender gap
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childhood.com /articles/index.cfm?FuseActiom=Article&A=302.6 mar.6 3.2006.
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Jersey: Educational Technology Publication.
116
A Study on Preschool Educators’ Application about
Math Activities in Kindergartens
10
A Study on Preschool Educators’
Application about Math Activities in
Kindergartens
Gulen Baran, Ankara University

&
Serap Erdogan, Ankara University
&
Rezzan Yildirim, Ankara University
&
Selda Erten, Ankara University
T
he first experiences with mathematics are generally gained as a result of the
child’s experiences with objects in the early childhood depending on the
perceptual development of the child. Active learning environments and
methods are required in the early childhood period for the development of
mathematical concepts and skills to be used by the child in the following years (Metin
1997, Wortham 1998, Guven 2000, Baroody and Benson 2001).
Children between two – six years of age like to act, use their senses, categorize
and pile the objects and experience different materials. Children should be provided
with an environment that will support them to touch real objects, to look at the
pictures of the objects and to move freely and enable them to develop their skills. The
classroom environment should be organized in a specific way that will allow the
children to use their hand and perform the activities in small groups and also as the
whole class. Work area and game-playing area are required for mathematical activities
and materials. Many materials should be present in this area for the discovery and use
of mathematical concept. Objects, structural materials, cubes should be used for
counting studies. In addition, some materials that may be required for measurement of
weight and time should be present in this area (Wright 1992, Wortham 1998, Dincer
and Ulutas 1999).
Activities related with mathematical skills should be planned in accordance with
the mental development of children and learning of new concepts. At this point,
117
teacher becomes significant in the arrangement of an environment suitable for

mathematic education. The teacher should prepare and plan the activities in way that
will allow transition from concrete to abstract, from simple to complicated, from
trying to doing. Teacher is the person who will decide on when systematical
information will be given and when the activities should be started. Teacher should
focus on activities where child is directly involved, at the planning stage of the
activities where teacher will teach mathematic concepts. Accordingly, mathematic
corners should be used, small group studies should be performed and experiences of
children about mathematical concepts should be enriched to the possible extend.
Whichever method is used by the teacher, the information given to the children should
be meaningful and logical (Wortham 1998, Baroody and Benson 2001, Jacobson
2001).
Early childhood educators can plan the mathematical concepts required to be
developed in children and how they can make related activities more interesting and
attractive if they can effectively observe the developmental levels of the children
(Metin 1997, Frakes and Keline 2000). On the basis of this view, this study aims at
examining the use of mathematical activities by kindergarten teachers.
Materials and Methods
The domain of this study is teachers working in separate kindergartens located in

Ankara and affiliated to the Ministry of National Education. The study covers a total
of 100 teachers working in fourteen kindergartens randomly selected among these
kindergartens. (Cumhuriyet, Zubeyde Hanım, Dr. Ufuk Ege, Yıldırım Beyazıt,
Hayriye Andicen, Batıkent, Mehmetcik, Manolya, Yurtkur, Pursaklar, Cigiltepe,
Sevgi, Gelincik and Mine Kindergartens) 98% of the teachers covered by this study
are graduates of departments of “Child Development and Education” and “Pre-school
Education” of universities and all of them are female. Distribution of teachers by age
and terms of teaching are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Distribution of Teachers Covered under this Study by Age and Working Term
Age N %
25 and less 15 15.00
26-35 53 53.00
36 and over 32 32.00
Total 100 100.00
Term
1-5 years 27 27.00
6-10 years 33 33.00
11-15 years 22 22.00
16 years and longer 18 18.00
Total 100 100.00
Table 1 shows that 15% of teachers is 25 and less, 53% is between the ages of 26
and 35 while 32% is at the age of 36 and older. In terms of working term, it was
identified that 33% worked as a teacher between 6 to 10 years while 27% worked
between 1 to 5 years. The rate of those worked as a teacher for 16 years or longer is
18%.
A questionnaire developed by the researchers was used as a tool for data
collection in this study. The questionnaire consists of two parts. Part I covers
questions such as the gender, education level, age and working term of the teacher.
118
Part II covers questions such as the frequency of use of activities related with
mathematics by teachers in the education program, which activities are used for
teaching mathematical concepts, which features are taken into consideration,
frequency of implementing various studies related with basic mathematical concepts,
tools used, in which cases and how the help of families are asked. The questionnaire
has been used by the researchers for the teachers individually and it took
approximately fifteen minutes per teacher. The frequency and percentage values
related to the data collected with this study are given in tables.
Distribution of teachers under this study by the frequency of using activities

related with mathematics in the education program is given in Table 2.
Table 2. Distribution of Teachers under this Study by the Frequency of Using

Activities Related with Mathematics in the Education Program
Frequency of using activities related with
mathematics in the education program N %
Activity once a month 8 8.00
Activity once a week 43 43.00
Activity once a day 49 49.00

Total 100 100.00
In Table 2; 49% of teachers use one activity related with mathematics in their
program everyday while 43% use one activity related with mathematics per week. Pre-
school education teachers generally cover activities related with mathematics in their
daily plans. The teacher covers concepts related with mathematics in various activities
during the course of the day and enriches the mathematic experiences of children
(Copley 2000, Aktaş 2002).
Table 3 shows distribution of activities used by the teachers for teaching
mathematical concepts.
Table 3. Distribution of Activities Used by Teachers Under this Study for

Mathematical Concepts (n=100)
Activities used to teach mathematical
N %
concepts
Turkish Language Activity 38 38.00
Drawing and Writing Activity 85 85.00
Music Activity 38 38.00
Play activity 78 78.00
Art Activity 25 25.00
Routine Activities 33 33.00
Games at Interest Corners 41 41.00
As shown in Table 3; mathematical concepts are mostly given with drawing and
writing activities at a rate of 85%. They are followed by play activities at a rate of
78%. Turkish language activity (38%), music activity (38%), routine activities such
119
as tidying-up and cleaning (33%) and games in interest corners (41%) are also used by
the teachers for mathematical concepts. Art activities have the lowest rate with 25% in
terms of covering subjects related with mathematics. Mathematic education can be
given during routine activities and many other activities such as Turkish language
activities, dramatic activities, music, desk activities and drawing- writing activities.
Children are introduced with mathematic concepts during these activities. Drawing
and writing activities among these cover activities to teach various concepts. These
activities have great significance especially in terms of the repetition and emphasizing
of the concepts (Graham et al. 1997, Aktaş 2002). The study by Yıldız (1998) shows
that teachers use mathematical concepts more in the drawing and writing activities in
preschool education institutions.
Graham et al. (1997) emphasized that use of all of the activities by teachers for
mathematic studies at the school is very significant in preparation for elementary
school. This case explains why mathematic studies are considered more as preparation
activity for elementary education.
Table 4 shows the features taken into consideration by the teachers in the
preparation of activities related with mathematics.
Table 4. Features Taken into Consideration by the Teachers in Preparation of

Activities Related with Mathematics
Features taken into Never Sometimes Always Total

consideration in the
preparation of activities
related with mathematics N % N % N % N %
Needs of the child 3 3 18 18 79 79 100 100
Developmental
2 2 7 7 91 91 100 100
characteristics of child
Individual differences 3 3 24 24 73 73 100 100
Preparation of the child

9 9 25 25 66 66 100 100
to elementary school
Expectations of family 32 32 41 41 27 27 100 100
91% of teachers always take developmental characteristics of the child into

consideration while 79% consider the needs of the child, 73% consider the individual
differences and 66% consider the preparation of the child to elementary school. The
rate of teachers who sometimes take the expectations of families into consideration is
41% while 32% of them do not consider it at all. The rate of those who ignore the
needs of the child, developmental characteristics, individual differences and
preparation of the child to elementary school is quite low.
The activities related with mathematical skills should be planned in accordance
with the mental development of the children and in way that will allow learning of
new concepts. Graham et al. (1997) found that teachers take the developmental
characteristics of children and individual differences into consideration in the planning
of mathematic activities.
Table 5 gives the implementation frequency of basic mathematical concepts
studies by teachers.
120
Table 5. Distribution of Teachers by Implementation Frequency of Basic

Mathematical Concepts Studies
Basic mathematical concept Never Sometimes Always Total

studies
N % N % N % N %
Counting with concrete objects
0 0.00 14 14.00 86 86.00 100 100.00
Counting up to 20 by heart
5 5.00 27 27.00 68 68.00 100 100.00
One to one correspondence

1 1.00 29 29.00 70 70.00 100 100.00
Recognizing and writing figure

symbols 11 11.00 34 34.00 55 55.00 100 100.00
Distinguishing figures
4 4.00 29 29.00 67 67.00 100 100.00
Enumeration
6 6.00 30 30.00 64 64.00 100 100.00
Distinguishing quantitive
concepts such as identical, 4 4.00 42 42.00 54 54.00 100 100.00
different, less, more etc.
Matching half objects
4 4.00 44 44.00 52 52.00 100 100.00
Classifying a group of objects into

groups of two 8 8.00 40 40.00 52 52.00 100 100.00
Addition by using objects

7 7.00 45 45.00 48 48.00 100 100.00
Addition by using figure symbols

17 17.00 41 41.00 42 42.00 100 100.00
As in Table 5; 86% of teachers always perform the activity of counting with

concrete object while 70% perform one to one correspondence with objects, 68%
perform counting up to 20 by heart, 67% perform distinguishing figures and 64%
perform enumeration. Rate of teachers who sometime ask children to make addition
with objects is 45% while the rate of teachers who ask children to make addition with
figure symbols is 41%. Rate of teachers who never ask children to make addition with
figure symbols is 17%. The first experiences with mathematics in the early childhood
are generally gained as a result of the child’s experiences with objects and experiences
gained in accordance with the child’s perceptual development. Therefore, a child in
early childhood needs active learning environments and methods to develop
mathematical concepts and skills for future. Concrete objects should be used
specifically for the studies with children. The teacher should ensure that the activity
should have a transition from concrete to abstract, simple to complicated, and trying to
doing (Wortham, 1998, Guven, 2000, Erdoğan and Baran 2003).
Yıldız (1998) found in his study that teachers mostly use activities of one to one
correspondence of objects, counting objects and recognizing figures. Kline’s study
(2000) show that the teachers first plan activities of counting with objects and then
continue with activities of developing counting skills.
Table 6 shows the distribution of tools used by teachers in mathematics activities.
121
Table 6. Distribution of Tools used by Teachers of this Study in Mathematics

Activities (n=100)
Tools used in mathematics activities N %
Beads 62 62.00
Beans, chickpeas etc. 30 30.00
Abacus 31 31.00
Ball, balloon 49 49.00
Books 57 57.00
Puppets 31 31.00
Educative Toys 72 72.00
All 24 24.00
72% of teachers expressed that they use educative toys in mathematics activities
while 62% use beads and 57% use books. In addition to these tools, teachers use
objects such as beans, chickpeas, balls, balloons etc. as well as abacus, puppets etc. in
mathematics activities. The rate of teachers who stated that they use all is 24%.
Use of various materials by teachers in mathematics activities is significant in
terms of creating concrete experiences in learning mathematical concepts and ensuring
the permanence of learning. Especially the educative toys at schools play a significant
role in these activities since they cover various mathematical concepts. The study of
Kline (2000) states that the teachers use the pictures in books, toys and countable
objects.
Table 7 gives the distribution of the teachers asking help of families in
mathematics activities.
Table 7. Distribution of Teachers of this Study Asking Help of Families in

Mathematics Activities
Asking help of families N %
Yes 45 45.00
No 55 55.00
Total 100 100.00
As shown in Table 7; 55% of teachers said that they do not ask for help of
families in mathematics activities while 45% stated that they ask for help of families.
Today’s understanding of education attempts to activate the family and the school on
the basis of the significant impact of family on the education of the child. Therefore,
the school and the family should be in cooperation. Consolidation of education which
is given to the child at school in the natural environment of home ensures the
permanence of learning (Ford and Kline1991, Güven 1997). Bennett (2000) concluded
in his study that support of the experiences of children related with mathematics with
various materials and techniques by teachers and adults is beneficial.
Table 8 gives the distribution of the ways followed by teachers in asking help of
families in mathematics activities.
122
Table 8. Distribution of Ways Followed by Teachers in Asking Help of Families in

Mathematics Activities
Families involvement in mathematics activities N %
Participation in activity with children 13 28,89
Observation of the activity 3 6,67
Preparation of education material at home or in school 13 28,89
All 16 35,56
Total 45 100,00
As given in Table 8; 28,89% of families contribute by participating in the

activities together with children while 28,89% prepare education material at home or
in school and 6,67% observe the activity implemented at school. 35,55% contribute by
doing all. Parents should experience all environments together with the child where
the child can learn mathematics. Appropriate environments can be created for learning
mathematical concepts while eating, cooking, ironing, bathing, watching TV, having
fun, playing at the park, i.e. everywhere. Teachers can start by helping parents about
the activities they can perform at home. Families can organize a sample activity
together with their children. Then they can monitor independent performance of the
child. The activities to be organized at home would also be liked by the parents (Ford
and Crew 1991, Guven 1997). Musun-Miller and Blevins-Knabe (1998) study
concluded that the level of significance given to the mathematical concepts by parents
also affect the approach of the child to the mathematical concepts and arrangement of
various activities at home and in school by parents together with their children is
beneficial.
Conclusion and Recommendations
This study determined that most of the teachers covered under this study are
between the ages of 26 to 35 and they have been working as a teacher for 6-10 years.
It has also been found that teachers mostly organize mathematics activities once a day
and they use drawing and writing activities, play activities and interest corners in
mathematical activities. Teachers were found to take the developmental
characteristics, needs and individual differences of children into consideration in
preparation of the activities related with mathematics. It was further concluded that
teachers use activities of counting with concrete objects, one to one correspondence of
objects, counting up to 20 and distinguishing figures in terms of basic mathematics
concepts and that they mostly prefer educative toys and beads in mathematics
activities. Moreover, it was identified that majority of the teachers under this study ask
for help of families and families contribute by participating in the activity together
with the child, observing the activity organized and preparing the education material at
home and in school.
Children are more interested in concrete concepts and facts while the mathematics
world of adults is full of abstract concepts. Therefore, the mathematics activities of
early childhood should cover activities that can be implemented by children in real life
and learning by doing- living should be the basis. Teachers should enable the children
to interact with their environment and discover mathematics concepts on their own.
123
Particularly, direct verbal education should be used less. Concrete objects should be
used rather than abstract figures.
Qualified mathematics education should be realized both under the guidance of
the teacher and effective participation of the child. Children should be introduced with
different methods, materials and quantities to the possible extend.
As a result of the restriction of mathematic activities to pen and paper, the children
will lose their chance to experience the outer world and learning of mathematics
concepts shall be delayed. Children should be encouraged to solve problems on
mathematics and to talk about these. Children should be allowed to make mistakes.
These opportunities should be given to the children since they can learn the right from
their own mistakes. Questions should be asked to the child to find the right answer.
Mathematics activities should be appealing for the child and should be introduced to
the child in an amusing way. Teacher should be able to develop materials related with
mathematics together with the child.
References
Aktaş, Y. 2002. Okulöncesi dönemde matematik eğitimi. Nobel Tıp Kitabevi, Adana.
Baroody,A.J. and Benson, A. Early Number Instruction. Teaching Children Mathematics, 8(3);
154-159.
Benett,T.L. 2000. Teachers’ Use of Children’s Literature, Mathematics Manipulatives, and
Scaffolding to Improve Preschool Mahematics Achievement: Does it Work. Doctora
Thesis(Unpublised), University of North Texas. Texas.
Copley, V.J. 2000. TheYoung Child and Matehamatics. Curtis Brown Ltd.USA.
Dinçer, Ç. ve Ulutaş, İ. 1999. Okulöncesi eğitimde matematik kavramları ve etkinlikler.
Yaşadıkça Eğitim, 62 : 6 – 11.
Graham,T.A., Nash, C. and Paul,K. 1997. Young Children’s Exposure to Mathematics: The
Child Care Context. Early Childhood Education Journal, 25(1); 31-35.
Güven, Y. 1997. Erken matematik yeteneği testi – 2’ nin geçerlik, güvenirlik, norm çalışması
ve sosyokültürel faktörlerin matematik yeteneğine etkisinin incelenmesi.Doktora tezi
(basılmamış). Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul.
Güven, Y. 2000. Erken çocukluk döneminde sezgisel düşünme ve matematik. Ya-Pa Yayınları,
İstanbul.
Erdoğan,S. ve Baran, G. 2003. Erken Çocukluk Döneminde Matematik. Eğitim ve Bilim,
28(130); 32-40.
Frakes, C. and Kline, K. 2000. Teaching young mathematicions : The challenges and rewarts.
Teaching Children Mathematics, 6 (6); 376 – 381.
Kline, K. 2000. Early Childhood Teachers Discuss the Standards. Teaching Children
Mathematics, 6(9); 568-572.
Metin, N. 1997. Okulöncesi dönemde çocuk ve matematik. Ulusal Ev Ekonomisi Kongresi. 6-7
Kasım, Ankara Üniversitesi, s. 200-203. Ankara.
Musun-Miller,L. and Blevins-Knabe, B. 1998. Adult’s Beliefs about Children and
Mathematics: How Importtant is it and How do Children Learn about it? Early
Development and Parenting, 7:191-202.
Wright, B. 1992. Number Topics in Early Childhood Mathematics Curricula: Historical
Background, Dilammas, and Possible Solutions. Australian Journal of Education, 36(2);
125-142.
Wortham, C. S. 1998. Early childhood cirriculum developmental bases for learning and
teaching. Second Edition. Prentice Hall, Inc., USA.
Yıldız,V. 1998. İşbirlikçi Öğrenme ve Geleneksel Öğretimin Okul Öncesi Çocuklarının Temel
Matematik Başarıları Üzerindeki Etkileri ve Mevcut Uygulamalarla İlgili Öğretmen
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Görüşleri. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Dokuz Eylül

Üniversitesi, İzmir.
Jacobson, l. Experts Say Young Children Need More Math. Education Week, 21(4); 3-5
125
126
Adolescents
127
128
Effects of Termination of Pregnancy on Adolescent Schoolgirls in the
Eastern Free State, South Africa
11
Effects of Termination of Pregnancy on
Adolescent Schoolgirls in the Eastern Free
State, South Africa
Hlalele Dipane, University of the Free State
S
outh Africa repealed the highly restrictive Abortion and Sterilzation Act of
1975 and replaced it by the highly liberal Choice of Termination of Pregnancy
Act of 1996. It is undeniable that the majority of South African children live
in poverty. They also face the constant threat of abuse and exploitation. Girls
and young women are most vulnerable and many are forced to enter into transactional
sex to survive (Weekly Mail and Guardian, 10 June 2004: 33). Some girls fall
pregnant because of trying to experiment regarding what they hear from their peers
about sexuality. Girls whose menarche begins as young as nine years of age are
biologically capable of bearing children (Saturday Star, 02 July 2005:1). This implies
that pregnancy as well as termination can occur at an early, i.e. at a school-going age.
Reports indicate that by 2001, over half of legal terminations were procured by girls
eighteen years and younger. This qualitative study investigates the effects of the
termination of pregnancy on adolescent schoolgirls. It addresses the following
questions:
What is the family, social and educational background of adolescent

schoolgirls who terminate pregnancy?
What are the effects of termination of pregnancy (TOP) on adolescent
schoolgirls?
TOP has multiple definitions. For the purpose of this paper, TOP means the
“separation and expulsion, by medical or surgical means, of the contents of the uterus
of a pregnant woman” (Government Gazzette 22 November 1996:4). Spontaneous and
unsafe back-alley terminations are therefore excluded.
129
Methodology
Data were obtained from two groups of respondents. The first group constituted
educators responsible for Life Orientation (n= 17) at their respective schools in the
eastern Free State. Purposive random sampling was applied since educators had to
have had contact with learners who terminated pregnancy and then had attempted to
assist them. Creswell (1998:118) regards purposeful selection of participants as a key
decision point in a study and Erlandson, Harris, Skipper & Allen (1993:33) support
the idea that the search for data should be guided by processes that will provide rich
detail. Adolescents (20 years and younger), having just completed the TOP 2
procurement process at a designated public institution in the area, made up the second
group (n=57). Both groups were interviewed (one-to-one) by the author using a
structured questionnaire The structured questionnaire sought to determine the family,
educational and social background of adolescent TOP procurers as well as educators’
state of preparedness for assisting procurers.
Since TOP is a controversial and sensitive issue, authorities demanded adherence
to a few prescriptions. The structured questionnaires had to be submitted to the Ethics
Committee of the University of the Free State to ascertain ethical authenticity. It was
also required of the author to protect the privacy of the former group of respondents
by putting a screen between the respondents and the author. Contact was primarily
verbal. Consent was sought at the beginning of each interview and each participant
was informed about the voluntary nature of her partipation and that she could decline
to continue at any point. Hakim (2000:143) stresses that informed consent is a
necessary condition rather than a luxury or impediment. The findings of the study are
discussed next.
Discussion
Findings regarding the effects of TOP on adolescent schoolgirls are discussed, in

terms of the two dissimilar groups of respondents (i.e., schoolgirls who procured TOP
and Life Orientation educators). A probe into the former’s family, educational and
social background yields particular trends.
Family Background
It was indicated that among African women in South Africa, the largest proportion
gave birth to their first child at 18, 19 and 20 years of age (Statistics South Africa
2001:17). This study reveals some form of harmony between pregnancy and TOP
procurement ages. It also reveals that the average age at which adolescents procure
TOP is 18 years nine months. This is the age where schoolgirls are generally
confronted with the obligation of finishing high school education and /or traversing
higher education.
The study further establishes that an overwhelming majority of these schoolgirls
are not married, affirming Kaplan and Sadock’s (1994:55) assertion that almost all
girls seeking TOP are unwed. Parents in the African society are generally regarded as
unreliable sources of sexuality information since the majority of the learners were
found to not discuss their romantic relationships with their parents. The study reveals
that more than half of the girls have both parents and an overwhelming majority
130
continue to have contact with both parents even if they have separated. One would
therefore expect the girls to be in relatively stable family structure, enjoying firm
support and being less vulnerable to unintended pregnancy than their counterparts
whose family backgrounds are less favourable. A decline in the size of families is also
evident.The girls’ parents’ level of education was also probed. The majority of the
parents’ level of education is below Grade 12 and very few are highly-paid earners.
Basic amenities in the family were another indicator of their socio-economic status. It
can be concluded that most families belong to a lower socio-economic stratum. A
discussion of the girls’ educational background is presented next.
Educational Background
This section presents findings regarding the girls’ school attendance, academic
performance and career aspirations. Freeman and Rickels (1993:73-74) indicate that
adolescent schoolgirls procuring TOP continue to finish their high school education.
Four out of five adolescent schoolgirls who have procured TOP and are currently
attending school, have never been absent from school for a period exceeding three
months. It can therefore be concluded that the likelihoods of regarding TOP as a
panacea for unintended pregnancy and the subsequent disruption of their schooling are
great. It may further be argued that the girls are more motivated and possess a strongly
positive attitude towards their education. Even though an overwhelming majority of
girls in this study state that they have never been given performance awards at school,
very few rate their academic performance as “below average”. Lack of skills, training
and education characterise adolescent parents. The girls seem to be aware of the
situation. The study finds that the girls are aware of their career goals, as well as the
fact that the subjects they are doing at school are relevant to the careers they aspire to
follow. The conclusion that girls procuring TOP have clear educational and
occupational goals and therefore prefer not to derail /delay the achievement of such
goals by carrying the pregnancy to term.
Social Background
The majority of schoolgirls procuring are Christians. They are aware that the
religion’s generally pro-life attitude strongly condemns TOP procurement. The
manifestation of the pro-life attitude can be detected in the following utterance made
by one of the girls:
“I will confess in Church and ask for forgiveness from God. I feel guilty but
proceeded to procure TOP because I cannot compromise my educational
goals. I have to be educated in order to succeed in life”
The church may be an important role player in the girls’ support system. Contrary
to the commitment to confess above, the majority of the girls state that they will not
inform their churches about their TOP procurement. The Saturday Star (29 January
2005:6) reports about an adolescent TOP seeker who left church because the pastor
preached about TOP and appealed to girls to stop killing babies. Another says “Isex ea
tshwenya because e monate” (Meaning “Sex is tricky because it is nice). Girls are
sexually active at a young age and they have sexual relations mainly with men older
131
than them. This study finds that four out of every five adolescent schoolgirls procuring
TOP experience their first sexual encounter before their seventeenth birthday and that
their partners are on average, four years older. Affirming Rasch, Silberscmidt,
Mchumwu & Mneary’s (2000:52) assertion, the study further finds that the majority of
the girls either do not use contraceptives altogether or they are using them
inconsistently. Pregnant adolescent schoolgirls are often negligent or fail to recognise
the risk of irregular and/or non-use of contraceptives hence the occurrence of
unplanned pregnancy. Findings regarding the girls’ pregnancy and termination trends
as well as the effects of TOP are presented next.
Pregnancy
The majority of pregnancies in adolescence are unintended and result from sexual
intercourse with men to whom girls felt emotionally attached. However, many young
girls do become pregnant as a result of sexual assault (Saturday Star, 02 July 2005:1).
Pregnancy resolution in adolescence has distinctive characteristics.
The situation is aggravated by the fact that most adolescents procuring TOP are
pregnant for the first time. Coping with pregnancy becomes more complicated with
the decision to procure TOP. Statistics in the Gauteng province indicate that 86% of
all terminations are performed before 12 weeks of gestation (Saturday Star, 29 January
2005:6). This study indicates that an overwhelming majority of schoolgirls procuring
TOP present themselves before the initial cut-off of 12 weeks.
Termination
A lack of readiness to bring a child into the world, financial problems and a lack
family support were mentioned as motivating factors for TOP procurement. More
importantly, avoidance of disrupting one’s schooling is the major reason. Bearing a
child out-of-wedlock is also regarded by some as “shameful and a disgrace to the
family”. The study further finds lack of awareness regarding other options in
pregnancy resolution. This reaffirms the need for Sexuality Education in schools.
Effects of Top on Adolescent Schoolgirls
It was stated that legalized TOP does not carry much risk for women’s health
while illegal and unsafe termination does carry risk for women’s health. This study
establishes that besides abdominal pain, headache and mild bleeding, no other health
complications were reported; entrenching the view that legal termination is generally
safe. Adolescents emerge from the TOP procurement process with more commitment
to using contraceptives. Almost all girls expressed the commitment, verifying
Ferreira‘s (1985:54) assertion of the existence of a positive correlation between
contraceptive practice and accessibility of safe termination. Girls further commit
themselves to one or more of the following behavioural patterns:
Being faithful to one partner

Abstinence
Terminating the relationship with the father
132
The TOP occurrence therefore avails an opportunity for the girl to ponder upon
her livelihood and make decisions.It was also noted that reactions to TOP may
resemble the condition defined as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This disorder
is characterized by long-term “sleeper” effects in which the girls may have negative
reactions long after the experience is over. When the stressor leading to PTSD is TOP,
some clinicians refer to this as Post Abortion Syndrome (PAS) (Circle of prayer 23
June 2005; Willke 2 February 2006). Wilke(2006:3) further states that PAS manifests
itself as “guilt” which is ever present along with regret, remorse, shame, lowered self-
esteem, insomnia, dreams and nightmares and anniversary reactions. Girls procuring
TOP report feelings of guilt, relief, as well as both guilt and relief. Expressions of guilt
are found in utterances such as:
“The child is a gift from God. TOP is unacceptable in our African culture. It
is also against our religious prescriptions. It remains an unforgivable sin. I
deplore having undergone it”
Purposefully selected Life Orientation educators observe absenteeism,

illness(Post-TOP complications), decline in academic performance , dropping out of
school, low self-esteem, stigmatization, withdrawal , flashbacks, bleeding, and
maintaining friendship only with those that of the girl’s TOP procurement, as resultant
effects of TOP on schoolgirls. Attempts at alleviating the aforementioned effects
suggest recommendations that follow.
Recommendations
It should be borne in mind that the severity of the above effects may depend
largely on the girl’s support system. According to Major et al. (1997:1351) post-TOP
well-being is preceded by social support. The school, church, and family can be cited
as important support systems for the girls. Responses gleaned from interviews with
Life Orientation educators indicate that educators are not well prepared to handle such
learners.
Workshops and Seminars for Educators
Workshops and seminars should be geared towards addressing educators’

inadequate preparedness in assisting learners who procured TOP. Amongst the seven
critical roles of the educator is the community, citizenship and pastoral role
(Department of Education 1999:7).
Pursuance of this role means the educator will demonstrate an ability to develop a
supportive and empowering environment for the learners. He/She will respond to the
educational and other needs of learners. Awareness of educators regarding the Choice
on Termination of Pregnancy Act, Act 92 of 1996 (CTPA) will be enhanced.
Educators may be made aware of centres where learners can be assisted. This is partly
in accordance with the belief that prevention is better than cure.
133
Pregnancy Prevention Programs
The establishment of pregnancy prevention programs in schools should be aimed

at raising awareness regarding sexuality matters. These programs should assist
learners in delaying the onset of their sexual activity. Community-based support
systems such as youth clubs and life centres may also execute such programs. These
programs may further aim at:
Increasing sexual decision-making skills among adolescents;

Inculcating a sense of responsibility for one’s actions
Addressing peer pressure;
Providing information regarding the financial and legal implications of
parenthood;
Entrenching success-oriented attitudes among adolescents.
Reduced incidence of pregnancy may lead to a reduction in the demand for TOP.
As mentioned earlier, counseling support before and after TOP may assist the girls to
cope with their decision and actual termination.
Counseling
Without contravening learners’ right to privacy, an invitational atmosphere can be

created at school where educators trained as professional school counsellors lure
learners to discuss, in confidence, any problems they might have. The counseling
process should aim at assisting learners to accept the decision that they make and to
face the challenges that lie beyond TOP procurement. One of the coping mechanisms
involves approach strategies (e.g. thinking and talking about the process of pregnancy
termination).
Adler, David, Major, Roth, Russo & Wyatt (1990:42) maintain that women who
use these strategies after TOP show a decrease in anxiety. Women who use denial
score higher in depression and anxiety. Stigmatization and denial may lead to
depression and anxiety. The Circle of Prayer (23 June 2005) suggests two major
dimensions of post TOP healing. One is spiritual, the other is communal. One woman
who thought she was fully healed after confessing her sin to Jesus later discovered that
sharing her experience with other post-TOP women offered another kind of healing.
She says: “While it takes the blood of Jesus to deliver us from guilt, it takes the
acceptance of others to deliver us from shame”. This study finds that educators are not
properly trained to deal with learners who have terminated pregnancy. The situation
suggests the need for proper training.
Training of School Counselors
Teacher education in South Africa generally focuses on improvement of

educators’ skills, knowledge and competence in a particular learning area/subject.
Training of school counselors is likely to equip them with skills in observing learners
with problems, assessing them and applying their helping skills. Counsellors possess
the ability to address the most important concerns of learners without fear of
134
ineptitude or failure. The necessity of an inter-institutional forum for TOP is argued

next.
Establishment of an Inter-Institutional Forum for TOP
An inter-institutional forum for TOP should comprise educators, health care

workers, parents, learners, and representatives from youth clubs and churches.
Educators may regard counseling as the primary responsibility of health care workers
and vice versa. Knowledge and/or awareness regarding stakeholders’ responsibility
may enhance execution of such. One of the responsibilities that are being tossed
around is contraceptive awareness. One institution sees it as the responsibility of the
other. Collaboration may enhance a holistic approach to addressing the issue.
Utilisation of peer Educators
The use of peer educators seems to be gathering momentum due to the fact that
they seem to succeed in reaching their peers. Having gone through the same process
makes them even more powerful as educators. Sharing their experiences with learners
who recently procured TOP may assist the latter’s with the coping process.
Conclusion
Termination of pregnancy among adolescents is further complicated by school

attendance. Adolescents account for over half of TOP procurements in South Africa.
This situation singles them out as a group that needs intervention. This study reveals
certain effects of this procedure such as a drop in the learner’s academic performance,
absenteeism, withdrawal and stigmatization. Support systems play a crucial role in
assisting learners to cope better. Educators constitute a valuable support structure. It is
therefore very important for them to be adequately trained.
References
Adler NE, David PH, Major BN, Roth SH, Russo NF, Wyatt GE. Psychological responses
after abortion. Science 248: 41-44
Circle of Prayer, 23 June 2005:1-4. Hurt by abortion. [Online] Available at
http//www.circleofprayer.com/ abortion-truth.html
Creswell, JW. 1998. Qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five traditions.
Thousand Oaks:Sage
Department of Education 1999. Norms and standards for educators. Draft Policy. Fourth
edited version
Erlandson, DA, Harris, EL, Skipper, BL, & Allen, SD1993. Doing naturalistic inquiry: a guide
to methods. London:Sage
Ferreira M 1985. Abortion and family planning: A literature study. Report S-126. Pretoria:
HSRC
Freeman EW & Rickels K Early childbearing : perspectives of Black adolescents on
pregnancy, abortion and contraception. Newbury park: SAGE
Government Gazzette, 22 November 1996. Choice on Termination of Pregnancy Act, Act No.
92
135
Hakim C. 2000. Research design:successful designs for social and economic research.London:
Routledge
Kaplan HI & Sadock BJ Synopsis of Psychiatry .7th ed. Philadelphia: Williams & Wilkins
Major B, Cooper ML, Zubek JM, Cozzarelli C, Richards PC 1997. Mixed messages:
Implications of social conflict and social support within close relationships for adjustment
after a stressful life event. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72(6):1349-1363
Rasch V, Silberschmidt M, Mchumwu, JV, Mneary V 2000. Adolescent girls with illegally
induced abortion in Dar es Salaam: The discrepancy between sexual behaviour and lack of
access to contraception. Reproductive Health Matters 8(15): 52-62
Saturday Star, 29 January 2005: 6. From shame to support- girls on road to abortion
Saturday Star, 02 July 2005: 1. Abortion outrage
Statistics South Africa 2001. The Youth of South Africa. Pretoria: Statssa
Weekly Mail and Guardian, 10 June 2004:33. Abortion is the decision of girls, not their
parents.
Willke JC. 2 February 2006:1-7. Why can’t we love them both? [Online] Available at Abortion
facts.com
136
A Study on the Effects of Socio-Economic Level on the Perception of
Family Environment in Adolescents
12
A Study on the Effects of Socio-Economic
Level on the Perception of Family
Environment in Adolescents
Figen Gursoy, Ankara University School of Home Economics

&
Mudriye Yildiz Bicakci, Ankara University School of Home
Economics
I
n the phase of socialisation, the family is very important in the preparation of
the basis of a person’s characteristics, shaping their behaviours and manners and
preparing them for their future role in the society (Basar, 1996; Recepov, 2000).
Mother and Father are the closest persons interacting with the child and for the
longest duration. The child is learning it’s cultural values and attitude towards main
customs within the family. (Gursoy ve Bıcakcı, 2003).
The family environment gains more importance in adolescence and therefore
influences the adolescent’s attitudes. Adolescence is a period during which a young
person experiences physical, emotional and social changes and evolutions. (Bulut
Pedük, 2004; San Antonio, 2006). In this period a youth is trying to get used to a new
body while trying to find their identity and sometimes experiences controversial
feelings. (Kandemir, 1991; Nelson and Lott 2001; Powel, 2004).In this period an
adolescent is still unable to support his parents and is in need of their support. While
the perception of the adolescent of the familial environment and their position depends
primarily on their relations with their mother and father, factors such as friendships,
the socio-economic level of the family, and the number of brothers or sisters, can have
impact to a certain degree. (Van Voorhees et al. 2005).
In principle the relationship between the mother and the father and the adolescent
is based on the attitude they adopt towards their child. Parents with a democratic
attitude towards the adolescent demonstrate that they accept them as an individual of
the family and support them in their decisions. Adolescents who have grown up in a
democratic environment, besides developing a healthy personality, are able to
137
establish compatible relations and interactions within their social environment. This
consequently affects the adolescent’s interaction with and relation to their surrounding
relationships. (Koc, 2002). The young person in adolescence is in need of a friendship
relation in order to be able to share the emotional situations they are experiencing, to
acquire the feeling of belonging to a group, and to secure the approbation of friends.
In this period the young person is trying to extend and enrich their friendship relations,
to join a group and to be accepted by them, and is trying to send a message to society
by trying to prove themselves. (Erwin, 2000; Dizman, 2003; Varlinkaya and Spear
2006).
Adolescents within unhealthy family environments, who experience clashes with
their parents and do not obtain sufficient attention from their mother or the father, feel
themselves not confident or insufficient and consequently fall under the dominance of
peers who are audacious and confident. On the contrary adolescents whose relations
with their families are based on love and trust are directed toward positive and
enhancing friendships and show healthy behaviours. (Dogucu, 2004).
The socio-economic level of the family has a very important role in the perception
of the adolescent whether positive or negative. Since the needs of the adolescent from
a low socio-economic level are not met sufficiently, due to lack of funds, adolescents
can perceive the familial environment as negative. Families from upper socio-
economic levels are more advantageous from the perspective of the adolescent to meet
their needs. Within healthy familial relations, where the needs of the adolescent are
met sufficiently, the adolescent should perceive the family realtion as being positive.
For this reason this study aimed to determine the extent to which significant
differences in adolescents’ familial relations and environment are due to factors such
as differences in their socio-economic level, inter-relations with friends, number of
siblings, and parents education level, and to determine whether these factors make a
significant difference or not.
Material and Procedure
Sampling
Participants were 300 adolescents aged between 15 and 17 attending first and
second year high school. 150 subjects were from the low socio-economic level and
150 from the upper socio-economic level. The high schools were determined by the
use of random sampling from low or high socio-economic districts in Ankara.
Means of Collecting Data
General Information Sheet: The form includes questions in relation to the

number of siblings, friendship and familial relations, and the education level of the
mother.
Familial Environment Measurement Scale: The scale developed in 1974 by

Moss and translated into Turkish by Usluer has two sub levels - association and
control and twenty intra-groups. The points allocated to family environment are high,
showing that association and control monitoring is high.
138
Analysis of Data
The t-test method was used to determine the socio-economic level of the family
and the familial environment using factors such as the number of brothers and sisters,
mother’s education level, familial relationship, friendship and perception of the
familial environment based on socio-economic level. “Variance Analysis” was used to
detect whether these factors were differentiated or not. In addition, and in order to
identify from which group any differentiation arose, the “Scheefe Test” was
employed (Buyukozturk 2002).
Findings
Table 1. The Family Envinroment Point Averages, Standard Deviations and T-Test
Results of Subjects by Sex
FAMILY ENVINROMENT
Socio
Economic N Association Control
Level
S X S
X
Lower 150 40.65 6.92 25.62 5.76
Upper 150 44.70 5.45 25.46 4.01
t- TEST
.5.36 298 .00 .279 298 .785
p<.01
As seen from table 1 the t-test indicated that although the scores for association of
adolescents based on their socio-economic level displayed a meaningful difference
(t(298)=5.36, p<.01) there was also a meaningful between the average control scores
(t(298)=.298, p>.05).
In table 2 adolescents in the low socio-economic group from single child families
have a score average of 40.41±7.18, those with one sibling 40.50±7.01, and those with
two or more siblings 41.35±6.23. In this socio-economic group the single child’s
control average was 27.14±6.47, those from two children families 25.59±5.51 and
those from families with three and more children 25.17±6.01. The data showed that
adolescents from the upper socio-economic level who were single children had an
average score for cooperation and association of 42.50±5.23, those from a family of
two children 45.10±5.30, and those with from a family of three and more children
44.77±6.03. In this socio-economic group single children have control averages of
27.11±4.88, those from families with two children 25.58±3.94 and those from families
with three and more children 24.13±3.83.
139
Table 2. Means and Standard Deviation about Perception of Family Environment

Level Scores Based on Number of Sibling
FAMILY ENVINROMENT
Number of Sibling Association Control
N S X S
X
Lower Socio-Economic Level
Single child 40.41 7.18 27.14 6.47
Two children 40.50 7.01 25.29 5.51
Three children and 41.35 6.23 25.17 6.01
more
Total 40.65 6.92 25.62 5.76
Upper Socio-Economic Level
Single child 42.50 5.23 27.11 4.88
Two children 45.10 5.30 25.58 3.94
more
Total 44.70 5.45 25.46 4.01
GENERAL
Single child 41.58 6.85 27.13 6.06
Two children 42.95 6.56 25.45 4.73
more
Total 42.68 6.54 25.54 4.95
Table 3. Result of Variance Analysis on the Perception of Family Environment Level

Scores Based on Number of Sibling
FAMILY ENVINROMENT
RESULTS of
VARIENCE
Association Control
ANALYSIS
Sum of df Mean p Sum of Mean p

squares square squares square
SEL 380.179 1 380.179 .00 2.255 2.255 .76
Number of 64.943 2 32.472 .43 100.166 50.083 13
Sibling
Sel X 55.905 2 27.952 .48 14.645 7.323 .74
Number of
Sibling
Error 11441.429 294 38.916 7206.050 24.510
Total 559292.00 300 203142.00
p<.01
In table 3 a meaningful difference (F(1-.294)= 9.836 p<.01), is indicated between the

scores for association and the socio-economic level, but not between the control scores
where there was no meaningful difference (F(1-.294)= 3.836 p>.05). In addition there is
meaningful difference between the number of sisters and brothers and association (F(2-
.294)= .3266 p>.0) and also control (F(2-.294)=.942 p>.05).
In table 4 the average scores for cooperation and association of adolescents from the
lower socio-economic group and whose mothers were literate or primary school
graduates was 37.51±6.94, for those whose mothers were junior high school or high
school graduates 39.90±7.31, and for those whose mothers were college or university
graduates 42.29±6.26. For those adolescents whose mothers were literate or primary
school graduates their average control scores were 22.29±4.64, for those whose
mothers were junior high school or high school graduates 24.97±3.73, and for those
140
whose mothers were college of university graduates 27.29±5.47. It was determined that
the average scores for association for adolescents from the upper socio-economic level
with mothers who were literate or primary school graduates was 45.14±5.46, for those
whose mothers were junior high school or high school graduates 43.50±5.60, and for
those whose mothers were college or university graduates 45.15±5.09, The average
control scores were respectively 25.66±4.33 for literate or primary school graduates,
23.95±3.24 for secondary school, and 25.46±4.01 for graduates of tertiary education.

Level Scores Based on Mother’s Education Level
Mother’s Education Level FAMILY ENVINROMENT
Association Control
N S X S
X
Literate or primary school graduates 1 26 37.51 6.94 22.29 4.64
Junior high school or high school 80 39.90 7.31 24.97 5.96
graduates 2
College or university graduates 3 44 42.29 6.26 27.29 5.47
Total 150 40.65 6.92 25.62 5.76
graduates 2
Total 150 44.70 5.45 25.46 4.01
GENERAL
graduates 2
Total 300 42.68 6.54 25.54 4.95

Scores Based on Mother’s Education Level
FAMILY ENVINROMENT
RESULTS of
VARIENCE
Association Control
ANALYSIS

SEL 1369.408 1 1369.408 .00 33.713 33.713 .22
.02 .00
Mother’s 270.029 2 135.015 1-3 498.183 249.091 3-1
Education Level 3-2
Sel X 283.620 2 141.810 .02 234.898 117.4449 .00

Mother’s
Education Level
Error 10967.240 294 37.304 66.1.532 22.454
Total 559292.00 300 203142.00
p<.01, p<.05
141
In table 5 the base variance for socio-economic level (F(1-.294)=3.619, p<.01), and the
difference between the education level of the mother and the scores for cooperation and
association have been found to be meaningful (F(2-.294)= 3.802,p<.05). The control
scores and the education level of the mother also indicated a meaningful difference (F(2-
.294)= 5.231, p<.01). The difference was analysed by the Scheefe test method which
indicated that on the cooperation and association scale the differing education
backgrounds of mothers was responsible for the difference between socio-economic
levels. Moreover from the base variance for association (F(2-.294)= 3.802, p<.05) and the
control perspective (F(2-.294)= 5.231,p<.01) the socio-economic level and the mothers
education level have been determined to be in interaction.

Level Scores Based on Relation with Family
FAMILY ENVINROMENT
Relation with Family Association Control
N S X S
X
I do not share much with family 1 14 39.00 6.61 25.71 3.66
I can only discuss certain things 70 39.62 6.56 25.75 3.73
with my family 2
I have good relations with my 66 42.10 7.14 25.10 4.37
family 3
Total 150 40.65 6.92 25.46 4.01
with my family 2
family 3
Total 150 44.80 5.45 25.62 5.76
GENERAL
with my family 2
family 3
Total 300 42.68 6.54 25.54 4.95
When table 6 is examined the average scores for cooperation and association of
adolescents from lower socio-economic level who reported “I do not share much with
family” was 39.00±6.61, “I can only discuss certain things with my family” was
39.62±6.56, and “I have good relations with my family ” 42.10±7.14. The control
point averages were 25.71±3.66, 25.75±3.738, and 25.10±4.37 respectively. The
average cooperation and association scores for adolescents from upper socio-economic
level who reported “I do not share much with family” was 43.50±5.80, “I can only
discuss certain things with my family” 44.81±4.82, and “I have good relations with my
family” 44.84±6.04. The average control point average was 24.95±5.4+, 24.33±5.51,
and 26.97±5.86 respectively.
Table 7 shows the results of the variance analysis for socio-economic level (F(1-
.294)=13.108 p<.01) and that the difference is meaningful for family relations and for
142
association (F(2-.294)= 9.211,p<.05). The relation between control points and the socio-
economic level (F(1-.294)= .304 p>.05) and friendship were found to make a meaningful
(F(2-.294)= .897 p>.05) difference. Moreover from the control perspective the interaction
between socio-economic level and family relations (F(2-.294)= 8.722,p<.05) seem to be
meaningful.

Scores Based on Relation with Family
FAMILY ENVINROMENT
RESULTS of
VARIENCE
ANALYSIS Association Control
Sum of squares df Mean p Sum of Mean square p

square squares
SEL 878.256 1 878.256 .00 .551 .551 .88

Relation 183.011 2 91.505 .04 65.679 32.839 .25
with Family 1-3
Sel X 100.002 2 50.001 .27 184.350 92.175 .02
Relation with
Family
Error 11294.647 294 38.417 7104.104 24.164

Total 559292.000 300 203142.00
p<.01, p<.05

Level Scores Based on Relation with Friends
FAMILY ENVINROMENT
Relation with Friends Association Control
N S S
X X
I don’t like spending time with friends 10 37.00 6.99 25.30 5.79
1
I sometimes like spending time with 35 38.45 6.56 25.80 5.78
friends 2
I always like spending time with friends 105 41.57 4.52 26.60 3.31
3
Total 150 40.65 6.92 25.46 4.01
1
friends 2
3
Total 150 44.70 5.45 25.62 5.76
GENERAL
1
friends 2
3
Total 300 42.68 6.54 25.54 4.95
143
In table 8 the cooperation and association average scores of adolescents from

lower socio-economic level who reported “I don’t like spending time with friends”
was 37.41±6.99, “I sometimes like spending time with friends” was 38.45±6.56, and
those who said “I always like spending time with friends” was 41.57±4.52. The
control point average were determined to be 25.30±5.79, 25.80±5.78, and 26.60±3.31
respectively. For those adolescents from upper socio-economic level who reported “I
don’t like spending time with friends” the average cooperation and association point
was 44.87±5.50, “I sometimes like spending time with friends” 44.22±5.56, and “I
always like spending time with friends” 44.40±4.0. The control point averages were
26.38±5.79, 23.93±5.78, and 23.10±3.31 respectively.

Scores Based on Relation with Friends
FAMILY ENVINROMENT
RESULTS of
VARIENCE
Association Control
ANALYSIS

SEL 710.562 1 710.562 .00 48.698 2.011 .15
Relation with 249.802 2 124.901 .03 28.375 1.172 .31
Friends 1-3
Sel X 126.667 2 63.333 .19 79.598 3.288 .03
Relation with
Friends
Error 11169.323 294 37.991 24.212

Total 559292.00 300
p<.01, p<.05
As seen from table 9 based it was determined that on the conclusions of the
effected variance analysis for socio-economic level (F(1-.294)= 17.251 p<.01) and also
for the difference between the friendship and association which is meaningful (F(1-
.294)= .7521 p>.05), the control points from socio-economic level (F(1-.294)= .304 p>.05)
and also from friendship relations seems not to create a meaningful difference (F(2-
.294)= 3.836 p>.05). Moreover it can be noticed that on the level of control the socio
economic level and friendship has a meaningful interaction (F(2-.294)= 18.214,p<.05)
Discussion
When Table 1 is being examined it is striking to notice that the upper socio-
economic level adolescent’s cooperation and association point average is high whereas
the adolescents from lower socio-economic level have a higher control average score.
The families from the upper socio-economic level have a loving familial environment
based on parents’ democratic attitude and the families from the lower socio-economic
level there is a conditional loving environment and wrong or harsh parent attitudes can
be observed. As a result of this the adolescents from lower socio-economic level can
perceive the familial environment as being controlled (Kandemir,1991). As seen from
table 2 it is noticeable that adolescent single children from upper or lower socio-
144
economic levels had a perception that there was a more controlled familial
environment compared to other children and children having more then three brothers
or sisters perceived the familial environment as being cooperative and associative.
When we look at table 3 from the cooperation and association perspective the
socio-economic level is important. A study performed by Akcan (2001) found that
single children and those having more than four brothers and sisters are less successful
compared to other children. In a single child family although the needs of nutrition,
lodging, security and education expenses can be met to a better degree, the single child
lacks a brother or sister with whom to share its concerns and sorrows. Their parents
also focus all their attention on the child and have excessive expectations with regard
to them. These factors negatively affect the familial relations of the adolescent and
therefore the child perceives it as being so, (Yavuzer 2001).
When table 4 is examined, depending on the mother’s education level and from
the cooperation and association and control perspectives, it is interesting to notice that
they have a parallel and increasing trend with the education level of the mother. This
situation on the scope of cooperation and association is further increased with the
education level of the mother enabling a better quality education for their child. From
the control perspective it can be explained that an educated mother can from time to
time enter into excessive expectations toward the adolescent. In his study Fazlıoğlu
(1992), examined the effects of social change on family structure and on the status of
women, determined that as the level of education of the mother increased the familial
relations improved. Berns (1993) and Zetlin et al. (2006) stated that besides the
attitude of the mother and the father toward the child, factors such as the age of the
mother and the father, their education level, and work status have an influential role in
the attainment of healthy communication within the family.
When table 6 is examined we observe that adolescents from low/higher socio-
economic level in good relations with his/her family have a higher cooperation and
association score, whereas those in conflict with their families have a higher control
score. When we look at table 7 and the perception of adolescents of their familial
environment, the socio-economic level is important to familial relations while
cooperation and association have a greatly differentiating impact. The results of the
Scheefe test indicate that the difference arises due to the scores of those adolescents
who stated “I don’t like spending time with friends “ and those stating “I always like
spending time with friends”. In his research in which Burt et al. (1988) examined
adolescents and their familial compliance he found that in families where serious
clashes are felt, adolescents have a negative character development and their
perception of the familial environment is unhealthy. In a study on the functions of the
family Aydogan (1992) and Walker et al. (1998) have emphasized that having
unhealthy familial relations lead children to perceive the family environment as bad
and consequently may be a cause to lead children to commit crime. The close
relations, based on trust and sharing that the adolescent will build with family
members, will help them in future social life to deal with other people and enable them
to develop self confidence and become a more compliant person (Baran, 2005).
As seen from table 8, adolescents from the lower socio-economic level who
enjoyed being with their friends achieved higher scores in cooperation and unity and
control compared to those from other groups. Adolescents from lower socio-economic
level, due to material limitations, cannot attend social events at the theatre and cinema
very frequently and consequently can spend more time with their friends.
145
It can be observed from table 9 that the perception of adolescents of their familial
environment and the scope of cooperation and unity is influenced by friendship. Based
on the findings of the Scheefe test the importance arises due to the difference in the
scores between those adolescents who have said “I don’t like spending time with
friends “ and those who have said “I always like spending time with friends. This
touches on the importance of friendship in adolescence and findings that friendship
relations affect familial relations to a substantial degree. (Noack, 1998; Kulis et al.
2003; Mazzotti, 2006).
As a result of the study, it was found that socio-economic level, relation of

friendship, relation with family, mother’s education (p<.05) makes meaningful
difference at scores belonging to the dimensions of association of family environment,
and also mother’s education level makes meaningful difference at scores belonging to
the dimension of control of family environment (p<.01).
In support of these findings it is important that parents prepare their child for
adolescence. To assist parents the period of adolescence and the specifics in relation
to this period should be known. We should also be sensitive to the special needs of
adolescents during this period. Parents must trust their adolescent children and must
support them at all times, should have due regard for their thoughts and ideas, and
give them the opportunity to express themselves. Parents should not impede the
relations the adolescents have with their friends, fearing that they could jeopardize or
lessen their relations, and consequently should give them the freedom to choose their
friends by themselves.
References
Akcan, I. (2001). Ailenin ilköğretimde öğrenci başarısına etkisi. Unpublished master’s thesis,
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147
148
The Study on Empathic Skills of Adolescents
13

&
Aynur Butun Ayhan, Ankara University
T
he period of adolescence has a significant place in the developmental stages.
Individuals entering this period as children become adults at the end of the
period. Individuals in this period may have conflicts with their parents, and
have close relationships with their friends. For individuals to have positive
relationships empathic skills are very important.
In the period of adolescence, individuals experience physical, biological, mental
and affective changes. Adolescents need to adapt to these changes in the body, mental
structure and social life (Kulaksızoglu, 1984; Erden & Akman, 1996). Individuals in
the adolescent period are not regarded as either a child nor as an adult, and need to
gain respect and have a status (Yavuzer 1992). In the period of adolescence the most
difficult part is about social adaptation. This adaptation refers to being with family,
friends, school circle and other people. Adolescents in the socialization period adapt to
a lot of situations to achieve an adult model. Such situations are new friends, changing
social behaviour, new social groups, new values related to social acceptance or
rejection. Adolescents must adapt to such situations (Hurlock, 1980). In this
conformity process, adolescents’ communication with their parents, other adults and
friends and their empathic skills play significant roles.
It is widely stated that empathy, respect, transparency are basic integredients of
interpersonal communication. Of them, empathy facilitates the interpersonal
relationships and communication. People, when empathy exists, feel that they are
understood and given importance. Being understood by others and being respected
make people relax and feel good. Empathy is not only good for the target person but
also for the person who has empathy. People with high levels of empathic skills and
tendency help the other people and it is highly possible that they are liked by the
others. (Baltas & Baltas 1993; Pervin 1989; Voltan Acar 1994; Hickson 1985).
Empathy is defined as the ability to think about the other person’s situation and to
feel his emotions (Woolfolk, 1993). The other definition of empathy is that empathy is
to feel the emotion that belongs to others (Batson, Fultz & Schienrade, 1987) Empathy
is not only the ability to understand others’ feeling but also to share them (Vasta,
Haith & Miller, 1992).
149
A leading figure in the studies of empathy is Rogers. Rogers (1983) argues that
empathy is the ability of a person to think about the other person’s situation and to
look at the events from his perspective and to understand the other’s emotions
correctly and to communicate this to the person. In Rogers’s empathy framework, the
ability of a person to think about the other person’s situation and to look at the events
from his perspective and to understand the other’s emotions correctly and to
communicate this to the person is the basic unit. Empathy is a communication skill
that can be measurable and improved through education. Rogers’s empathy
framework is made up of three basic elements: first, the person who will develop
empathy should think about the other person’s situation and to look at the events from
his perspective. Secondly, he should understand the other’s emotions and thoughts
correctly. Thirdly, he should communicate this to the person is the basic unit
(Dokmen; 1990, 2004).
Researches indicate that stress and negative life conditions and interpersonal
conflicts may have effects on the empathic (Clark 1980; O’Neal & Range 1993,
Golomb, Ludolph, Westen, Block, Maurer & Wiss 1994). In the adolescent period,
young people may have conflicts with their parents or other people as a result of their
developmental stage. In this period, adolescents may need empathic skills to realize
success in their interpersonal relationships.
Thus it is thought that to study the emphatic skills of adolescents and the effects of
such variables as gender, socioeconomical status (SES), educational level of parents
on the emphatic skills is important.
Method
This study is designed to study the empathic skills of adolescents and the effects
of such variables as gender, socioeconomical status, educational level of parents on
the empathic skills is important.
The sample of the study includes a total of 300 high school students. Of them, 150
are from lower SES high schools (2nd grade) and 150 are from higher SES high
schools (2nd grade).
To collect the data two tools were employed: “General Information Form” to
gather demographical information about the subjects and “The Scale of Emphatic
Skills- B Form” developed by Dokmen (1988, 1990) to determine the empathic skills
of them.
“The Scale of Empathic Skills- B Form” is made up of six distinct psychological
problems. There are A and B forms of the scale. B Form is used in the study. In B
Form, subjects are asked to give four reactions out of twelve reactions in response to
problems. Reactions given are scored and the total score provides her/his total score
from “The Scale of Empathic Skills- B Form”. One reaction out of twelve reactions is
unmeaningful and when the subject chooses this reaction, her/his form is excluded.
“The Scale of Emphatic Skills- B Form”, is analyzed in terms of its reliability and
validity administering it to 60 freshmen in Ankara University Educational Sciences
Faculty and to four psychologists in the same institution. Its reliability is found to be r
= .83. Validity analysis showed a difference between students and psychologists. In a
different validity study, a relationship between “The Scale of Emphatic Skills- B
Form” And Role Assuming Test (RAT) is found at the level of r = .78 (Dökmen 1988,
1990).
150
To identify the effects of such variables as socioeconomic status, gender,

educational level of parents on the emphatic skills of adolescents t-test is used when
there are two groups and One Way ANOVA is used when there are more than two
groups (Buyukozturk 2002).
The results of the research that is designed to study the empathic skills of
adolescents and the effects of such variables as gender, socioeconomic status, and
educational level of parents on the empathic skills are given in tables.
Table 1. Mean Scores in “The Scale of Empathic Skills- B Form”, Standard

Deviations and Results of T-Test of the Adolescents Based on their Gender
Gender n X SD df t p
Female 168 130.91 15.76 298 0.65 .514
Male 132 132.11 15.84
Table 1 shows that empathic skills scores of girls (130.91±15.76) and those of
boys (132.11 ± 15.84) are very similar. It is found that adolescents’ scores of empathic
skills do not vary based on gender (t(298)=0.65, p>.05). This shows that gender does
not lead to any difference in empathic skills of adolescents. Other studies also report
that the empathic skills of males and females do not differ (Dökmen 1987; Alver
1998; Eisenberg & Mc Wolly 1993; Bayram et. al. 1995; Koksal 2000).
Table 2. Mean Scores in “The Scale of Empathic Skills- B Form”, Standard

Deviations and Results of T-Test of the Adolescents Based on their SES
SES n X SD df t p
Lower SES 150 132.55 16.07 298 1.22 .222
Upper SES 150 130.32 15.46
Table 2 indicates that mean score of adolescents from lower SES group is found to
be 132.55 ±16.07, that of adolescents from higher SES group is found to be
130.32±15.46 The results of t-test show that SES does not produce statistically
significant variance in empathic skills of adolescents. (t(298)=1.22, p>.05).
Families from different SES orientation may provide different opportunities to
their children. Families with higher SES orientation can provide better educational and
social opportunities. Families with lower SES orientation provide limited
opportunities however such opportunities seem not to have effects on empathic skills
of adolescents. Since adolescents have similar developmental characteristics, their
perceptions related to family and friendship relationships can be similar. Therefore,
151
although they have different SES orientations their levels of empathic skills can be
similar.
Table 3. Means ( Χ ), Standard Deviations (SD) and ANOVA Results of Adolescents’

Scores on Empathic Skills Depending on their Mothers’ Educational Level
Educational level of mothers N Empathic skills score
Illiterate 18 138.05 ±12.21
Primary school 110 132.62 ±14.35
Junior high school 50 130.82 ±17.84
High school 80 131.67 ±15.66
Higher education 42 125.78 ±17.24
General 300 131.44 ±15.78
Mean
Variance Analysis Results Df F p
Square
Between groups 4 577.314 2.359 .054
Within groups 295 244.701
Total 299
Table 3 shows that the highest empathic score is that of those whose mothers are
illiterate (138.05 ±12.21) . It is followed by those whose mothers have primary school
education, those whose mothers have junior high school education, those whose
mothers have high school education and those whose mothers have higher education.
It is found that mothers’ educational level does not produce statistically significant
variance in adolescents’ empathic skills score (F(4-295) = 2.359, p>.05) This finding
suggests that mothers’ educational level does not produce statistically significant
variance in adolescents’ empathic skills.
Table 4. Means ( Χ ), Standard Deviations (SD) and ANOVA Results of Adolescents’

Scores on Empathic Skills Depending on their Fathers’ Educational Level
Educational level of fathers N Empathic skills score
Illiterate 70 132.41±13.72
Primary school 59 132.01 ±16.03
Junior high school 99 133.02 ±17.18
High school 72 127.84 ±15.18
GENERAL 300 131.44 ±15.78
VARIANCE ANALYSIS Mean
Df F p
RESULTS Square
Between groups 3 420.891 1.701 .167
Within groups 296 247.410
Total 299
Table 4 shows that the highest empathic score is that of those whose fathers have
high school education. (133.02±17.18). The scores of those whose fathers have
primary school education (132.41±13.72) and the scores of those whose fathers have
junior high school education (132.01 ±16.03) are very similar. The results of variance
152
analysis show that fathers’ educational level does not produce statistically significant
variance in adolescents’ emphatic skills. (F(3-296) = 1.701, p>.05)
Table 3 and 4 indicate that mothers’ and fathers’ educational level do not produce
statistically significant variance in adolescents’ empathic skills. It is found that the
empathic skill levels of adolescents whose parents have lower levels of education and
of those whose parents have higher levels of education are very close to each other.
Koksal (1997), Vatansever (2002) and Oguz (2006) also conclude that empathic skills
of children and adolescents do not vary depending on their parents’ educational level.
Thus, the findings of the study support their conclusion.
Conclusion
This study is designed to study the empathic skills of adolescents and the effects
of such variables as gender, socioeconomical status, educational level of parents on
the empathic skills of adolescents. The results show that gender, socioeconomical
status, educational level of parents have no effect on emphatic skills (p>.05).
Given that empathy avoids communicative conflicts and provides much more
meaningful communication in order to produce a society with empathic skills studies
attempting to improve such skills are regarded as important. It is known that school-
age children can give empathic responses in contrast to pre-school children. Therefore,
empathy education should be provided in schools.
Schools, which have effects on individuals after family must seek to train
individuals who confirm to society, have efficient communicative skills, are
independent. To achieve this aim, school managers, teachers and personnel should be
informed about problems of adolescents, and interpersonal communication through in-
service programs. Parents should also be informed about the same topics.
Future studies may deal with the relationship between empathic skills of
adolescents and their personality traits. Empathic skills of adolescents and those of
their parents can also be studied. Experimental studies can be carried out to improve
the empathic skills of adolescents.
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154
Study on the Types of Music Listened by the Second Year Students of
High Schools and their Assertiveness Levels
14
Study on the Types of Music Listened by the
Second Year Students of High Schools and
their Assertiveness Levels
&
Yasemin Aydogan, Abant Izzet Baysal University
M
usic is a phenomenon that exists in every phase of human life. The
relationship between human beings and music starts to be established
indirectly during the prenatal period and becomes a “direct relation” after
the birth and continues for life in a diversifying and enriching manner
(Ucan, 1997).
Music that gives voice to the feelings that cannot be expressed, aesthetic
sensitivities and philosophical thoughts (Simsek, 2000) can be classified as rock,
heavy metal, folk, pop, soft, classical and slow music. Kalender (2001) classified the
music types that are made and listened to in our country as traditional art music,
modern art music, popular folk music, international music types (art, folk, popular).
Nowadays, these music types are used for various reasons like increasing
production in work places, psychological treatments, decreasing anxiety, speeding up
learning process, healing the sick and even growing the plants (Guner, 1995;Hammer,
1996; Miluk-Kolasa & Matejek, 1996; Andersen, 1996; Simsek, 2000; Burns et al.,
2002; Barrera, Rykoy & Doyle, 2002).
There are many researches on the effect of the music on the societies or the effect
of the societies and culture on the music. Nevertheless, there are few studies on the
psychological effects of the music on the individuals.
Guner (1998) concluded in his study on the aggressiveness level of the adolescents
who listen to arabesque, heavy metal and classical music that the aggressiveness point
means of these groups were higher than the means of the groups who prefer other
music types in a meaningful manner.
Arnet (1991) also examined the effect of the heavy metal music on the adolescent
behaviours and concluded that the percentage of the men who said that they liked this
155
kind of music displayed negligient behaviours such as driving fast and not complying
with the rules of the traffic, behaving in a violent way whereas the women who liked
heavy metal music displayed negative behaviours such as giving harm to beauty and
lack of self-confidence.
Wells & Hakanen (1991) found out in their study that music preference was not
affected by the social variables such as gender and degree in the school.
Other studies confirmed that heavy metal music promoted the aggressiveness of the
young people and that it could play a provocative role (Scheel & Westefeld, 1999).
Another study that was conducted on the effects of the music determined that there
was a relationship between the patterns of assertive behavior of the secondary school
students and fast tempo music and concluded that the slow music had positive effects
on the behaviors (Mills,1996).
It was concluded that listening to music was a good and effective method for
adolescents to overcome the pressures and that the behavior problems of the students
who prefer heavy metal and rap music were more intense whereas they were not so
common among the students who listen to other types of music (Hendrics et al., 1999).
Another work examining the relationship between the suicide idea and music
concluded that music was both affected from many thoughts and caused many positive
or negative feelings (Lacoursa, Clares & Villenue, 2001).
Burns et al. (2002) proved in their empirical studies that the music was effective on
cognitive components that were related with the anxiety (state-trait and constant
anxiety).
As can be seen from the studies conducted, types of music that the adolescent listen
to affects his/her development in a considerable amount. The assertiveness that
composes an important part of the personality is considered as a communication way
and it is defined as “protecting one’s rights without contempting and offending the
rights of others and expressing one’s ideas, feelings and beliefs in direct, flawless and
appropriate ways”. In other words, assertiveness is the skill of respecting the equality
in human relations, expressing themselves as they are, conveying positive or negative
feelings, resisting adverse demands and being able to demand from others. (Voltan,
1980a; Kırac,1994; Yesilyaprak & Kısac,1999; Kuru-Orgun,2000).
According to Becet (1989), the individuals who are not assertive or whose
assertiveness levels are low cannot appropriately meet their needs. As a result of this
they can experience different psychological and social dissatisfaction. In such a case,
the skills of establishing effective and successful communication of the individuals
will not be enough.
The concept of assertiveness that was the subject of various studies in socio-
cultural and psychological terms was examined in many dimensions and it was
concluded in the frame of the results that this behavior could be taught or developed
with the establishment of the preconditions that could develop assertiveness. (Voltan,
1980a; Sorias,1986; Culha & Dereli, 1987; Inceoglu & Aytar, 1987; Tegin, 1990; Aral
& Basar,1997; Yesilyaprak & Kısac,1999).
In case that the individual gains assertiveness skill during the adolescence that is
accepted as one of the most delicate periods of life and during which basic behavior
patterns and adjustment mechanisms form, it is accepted that the individual will have a
healthier communication and harmony with his/her environment and will have less
psychological problems (Tataker, 2005).
Segal (2005) concluded in his work that there was a negative correlation between
the assertiveness and depression whereas Tataker (2005) found out a negative
correlation between the assertiveness levels and psychological problem experiencing.
156
Many factors such as personal characteristics of the adolescent, relationships with

the parents and the environment, socio-economic and cultural level of the family can
be effective in the development of the assertiveness that constitutes an important part
of the personality. It is similarly considered that the relationship of the adolescent with
the music can also have an important role on the development of the assertiveness
level. Moving from this idea, this research was conducted with the aim of finding out
the relationship between the assertiveness level of the high school students and the
music they listen to, and other variables.
Material and Methods
This study is planned to find out whether the difference between the assertiveness
levels of the second year students of high schools and their sex, their age, income level
of their families, education level of their parents, the type of the music they listen and
their frequency of listening music is meaningful or not. Students, attending high
schools in medium socio-economic level districts of Ankara, formed the sampling
domain of the study. In the sampling procedure the list prepared by the State Institute
of Statistics according to the socio-economic levels of the residential areas and the list
of the schools under the Ministry of National Education in Ankara were utilized. Four
high schools that are considered as the representative of medium socio-economic level
are selected between the high schools in the districts determined according to these
data with random sampling method and samplings of 210 second year students in
these high schools are formed. “General Information Form”, developed by the authors,
was used as the data collection tool along with the “Rathus Assertiveness Schedule
(R.A.S.)”, developed by Rathus (1973) and translated and adopted into Turkish by
Voltan-Acar (1980b).
There was demographic information on the student and his/her family in the first
part of the “General Information Form” that was composed of two parts. The second
part comprised the questions on the types and duration of music that their families and
they listened to. The points given to each article could change between -3 and +3 in
Rathus Assertiveness Schedule that comprised 30 questions. There was not 0 in the
Schedule. The total point that one can get from the Schedule varied between -90 and
+90. –90 indicated the most passive state (timidity) whereas +90 indicated the most
activity (assertiveness) (Voltan 1980b). In the analysis of the data collected with this
scaling tool, Independent Samples T-Test and One-Way ANOVA were used.
Findings and Dıscussıon
The information collected from the research conducted in order to examine the
differences between the assertiveness level of the second year high school students
and various variables were assessed and analyzed. The findings are in tables.
Table 1. T-Test Outcomes of the Assertiveness Behavior of the Students According to

Gender
Gender N x S df t p
Female 115 21.93 16.72 208 1.207 .229
Male 95 19.08 17.35
157
When we analyze Table 1 we can see that mean assertiveness point of the female
students is x =21.93 whereas mean assertiveness point of the male students is
x =19.08. These points indicate that the assertiveness level of the female students is
higher than that of the male students. However it is concluded that this gender
difference is not statistically meaningful. [t(208) =1.207, p>.05].
In our society boys are considered more precious due to the traditional child
raising attitude and they are expected to display more assertive behaviors than the
girls. Nevertheless, young people who have the anxiety of not being able to meet the
expectations of their families can display more timid and dependent behaviors under
the influence of adolescence.
The study conducted by Kırac (1994) revealed that the girls display more assertive
behaviors than the boys. In parallel with the findings of this study, the other researches
conducted with high school students revealed that there was not a meaningful
difference of assertiveness level according to the gender (Kimble et al, 1984;
Oral,1986; Saruhan,1996; Aral & Basar, 1997; Gorus, 1999).
Table 2. Arithmetical Average, Standard Deviation and ANOVA Outcomes of the

Assertiveness Attitudes of the Students According to the Ages
Age N x S F p Meaningful
Difference
Age 16 16 26.31 12.57 3.416 .035 -
Age 17 95 17.45 18.01
Age 18 99 22.78 16.22
TOTAL 210 20.64 17.02
When we examine the assertiveness attitude points of the students in Table 2, we

can see that the mean assertiveness point of 16 year old students is x =26.31, that of
18 year old students is x =22.78 and that of 17 year old students is x =17.45.
According to the outcomes of ANOVA, the difference between the assertiveness
attitude points of the students and their ages is meaningful. [F(207) =3.416, p<.05].
As can be understood from the table, the assertiveness behavior patterns of the 16
year old students are higher than the other age groups. Increases in the level of
expectations with the increase in age, increase in the responsibility level of the
adolescents and the fact they try to display more serious behaviors in accordance with
the expectations can be considered to have impact on this outcome. The fact that the
level of assertiveness decreases at the age of 17 can be explained with the stress they
face due to the university entrance exam.
In the researches conducted with the high school students, it was concluded that
there is no meaningful relation between their assertiveness level and their ages. (Aral
& Basar, 1997; Goruş, 1999).
According to Table 3, the mean assertiveness point of the students whose family
income is less than 500 YTL. Per month is x =24.96, that of the students whose
family income is between 500 and 1000 YTL. is x =18.70 and finally that of the
students whose family income is 1000 YTL. and more is x =15.34. The results of the
analysis showed that there was a meaningful difference between the assertiveness
levels of students according to the income levels of their families. [F(207)=4.635,p<.05].
In other words, the assertiveness level of the students decreased in a statistically
meaningful manner as much as the income level of the family increased. According to
the outcomes of the Scheffe test that was conducted in order to find out which groups
have differences between the units, the students whose family income levels were less
158
than 500 YTL. Per month had more assertive behavior patterns than the other two
groups.
Table 3. Arithmetical Average, Standard Deviation and ANOVA Outcomes of

Assertiveness Attitude Points of the Students According to the Income Level of Their
Families
Income N x S F p Meaningful
Difference
Below 500 YTL. 79 24.96 18.53 4.635 .011 1-2,1-3
Between 500 - 1000 YTL 105 18.70 14.91
1000 YTL. and above 26 15.34 17.97
In his work Goruş (1999) examined the relationship between the assertiveness
level of the high school students and the ways for coping with stress and concluded
that there was a meaningful relationship between the assertiveness levels of the high
schools coming from different socio-economic levels.

Assertiveness Attitude Points of the Students According to the Education Level of
Their Parents
Education Level of the Parents Mother Father
N x S N x S
Illiterate 14 24.28 13.63 - - -
Literate/Primary School Graduate 106 20.90 18.52 79 24.03 18.80
Secondary School Graduate 33 23.78 10.32 35 20.28 15.86
High School Graduate 42 16.07 18.01 54 15.66 16.12
Result of Variance Analysis F:12.15 F:2.655
p:.306 p:.050
When we analyze the mean assertiveness point of the students in Table 4, we can
see that it is x =24.28 for those whose mother is illiterate, x =23.78 for those whose
mother graduated from secondary school, x =20.90 for those whose mother is literate
or graduated from primary school and x =16.07 for those whose mother graduated
from high schools. When we look at the relation between the assertiveness level of the
students and the education level of their father, we can see that the mean assertiveness
point is x =24.03 for the students whose father is literate or graduated from primary
school, x =20.28 for those whose father graduated from secondary school and
x =15.66 for those whose father graduated from high schools. At the end of the
ANOVA conducted, it was concluded that there was not a meaningful relation
between the assertiveness points of the students and the education level of their
mothers [F(206)=12.15, p>.05] and fathers [F(206) =2.655, p>.05].
These findings proved that the education level of the parents didn’t have
important effect on the assertiveness level of the children and especially the
assertiveness level of the students decreased as the education level of the fathers
increased. Contrary to the expectations, it was concluded that the students whose
mother was illiterate and father was literate or primary school graduate had higher
assertiveness levels than the other groups. This situation can be explained with the fact
that the expectations increase as the education levels of the parents increase or the
adolescents whose parents have lower education level need to put forth more efforts in
order to socialize and be accepted.
159
Aral and Basar (1997) concluded in their study that the difference between the
assertiveness level of the students and the education level of their parents was not
important.
In a similar study conducted by Orgun (2000), it was concluded that the students
whose mothers graduated from high school displayed more assertive behaviors than
those whose mother graduated from primary school and that there was not a
meaningful difference between the education level of the fathers and the assertiveness
level of the students.

Assertiveness Attitude Points of the Students According to the Music Types They
Listen
Music Type Student Family
N x S N x S
Arabesque 45 24.22 19.05 37 23.78 15.06
Heavy 17 20.52 15.46 - - -
Classical 14 21.57 16.17 24 24.29 21.73
Folk 16 20.93 17.78 49 21.24 14.71
Pop 70 21.92 16.42 41 21.56 16.96
Every Type 48 15.08 15.88 59 16.05 17.46
Result of Variance Analysis F: 1.529 F: 1.782
p: .182 p: .144
One can see from the Table 5 that the students who listen to arabesque music have
a higher level of assertiveness than the other groups that is x =24.22, whereas the
assertiveness level of the students who listen to every type of music is x =15.08 and it
is lower than the other groups. When we analyze the assertiveness points of the
students according to the music types that their families listen to, we can see that the
students whose families listen to classical music have the highest assertiveness points
( x =24.29) and the students whose families listen to arabesque music have the second
highest assertiveness points ( x =23.78). The lowest mean assertiveness points have
belonged to the group of students whose families listen to every type of music
( x =16.05). As a result of the ANOVA, it was concluded that there was not any
meaningful relationship between the assertiveness level of the students and the music
types that they or their families listen to, respectively [F(204)=1.529, p>.05] and
[F(205)=1.782, p>.05].
Bleich et al. (1991) examined the effects of the listening to rock music on the
rebellious behaviors of the young people in a similar study. As a result they found out
that these young people, contrary to their coevals, liked rock music video clips that
didn’t have rebelliousness element.

Assertiveness Attitude Points of the Students According to the Frequency of Listening
to Music
Frequency of listening to Student Family
music N x S N x S
A few times per week 28 19.82 14.63 76 20.57 17.21
3-4 days per week 54 22.57 17.20 47 19.53 16.45
3-4 hours per day 62 19.22 15.97 38 20.42 16.82
All day 42 20.35 17.57 23 22.52 13.97
Other 24 21.41 21.39 26 21.50 20.97
Result of Variance Analysis F: .308 F: .136
p: .872 p: .969
160
When we analyze Table 6, we can see that the students who listen to music 3-4
days per week have the highest assertiveness mean ( x =22.57) whereas the students
who listen to music 3-4 hours per day have the lowest mean assertiveness points
( x =19.22). The difference between the frequency of listening to music and their
assertiveness levels have not been statistically meaningful [F(205)=.308,p>.05]. When
we analyze the relationship between the frequency of listening to music for the
families and the assertiveness points of the students in the same table, we can see that
the students whose families listen to music all day have the highest mean of
assertiveness points which is x =22.52 and that those whose families listen to music 3-
4 days per week have the lowest mean assertiveness points. As a result of the
ANOVA, the frequencies of listening to music for the families didn’t create
meaningful differences in the assertiveness level of the students [F(205)=.136, p>.05].
As a result of the research that was conducted in order to examine the difference
between the assertiveness levels of the second year high school students and some
variables; it was concluded that there was a meaningful difference between the
assertiveness levels of the students and the monthly income level of their families
(p<.05) and that the students whose families had monthly income of less than 500
YTL. had higher assertiveness behavior patterns than those in the two other groups.
Furthermore, it was concluded that the assertiveness attitude points of the students
didn’t change in a meaningful manner according to the gender, education levels of
their parents, music types they and their families listen and frequency of listening to
music.
In the light of these outcomes, some suggestions can be presented to the
researchers, parents and educators on the assertiveness level development of the
individuals.
Examining the relationship between the assertiveness level of the individuals and
their relations with the music in different age groups and with a broader sampling and
comparing the outcomes will elucidate and contribute the works for developing the
assertiveness.
As indicated in the theoretical part, assertiveness is an important characteristic
that leads individual to the success. Considered in this sense, assertiveness training
programmes should be developed and given in schools or implemented as a guidance
activity in order to decrease the conflicts and problems in interpersonal relations, have
a healthier psychology and be able to express himself in every situation in the most
appropriate manner. This will have an important role in supporting assertiveness
behavior patterns.
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164
Analysis of Anxiety Levels of Using Alcohol and
Non-Using Alcohol Adolescents
15
Analysis of Anxiety Levels of Using Alcohol
and Non-Using Alcohol Adolescents

&
Mudriye Yildiz Bicakci, Ankara University
A
dolescence is a physical, and social maturation period between childhood
and young adult. The new living and new responsibilities of the adolescent
either with their peers or with the adults, the fast growth, the sexual
impulse, the fact that they are not mature’ due to all those reasons
adolescence is considered to be a period of clash and stress (Gander and Gander,
2001). In this period the adolescent is trying to claim independence from the parents,
wishes its sexual recognition, searches for its social position and tries to get a job, is
experiencing feeling of anger, desperation and anxiety (Kandemir, 1991; Fogle et al.
2002).
We can see contradictions in the emotional life of the adolescent. From one side
the adolescent wants to be a part of a group and from another side they are living
anxiety with respect to their future. Due to those emotional changes the happy,
sensitive and compatible child becomes anxious, unhappy and incompatible (Nelson
and Lott, 2001). Without doubt the adolescent who is struggling with emotional
problems is in need of parents who trust him and who do support him. In unhealthy
familial relationships the adolescent who experiencing clash with the family or who
doesn’t have sufficient attention and trust from the mother or the father feels himself
not confident and insufficient and sees his anxiety and fears increasing and can be
drawn towards cigarettes, alcohol or even drugs. The authority of the family, the
unhealthy and immoderate relations, the constraint imposed on the adolescent can lead
the adolescent toward undesired friendships or even can increase the possibility to join
clans. The young having anxiety and fears within the family, with the impact of
negative friends that they have in their surroundings, and in order to prove themselves
can think that they can overcome their fears by using alcohol or cigarettes (Gill et al.
2000).
165
Anxiety can be defined as an emotional reaction existing in the human being, in

response to environmental or psychological events (Babaroglu, 2004). The person who
is anxious, nervous, in fear can feel that something bad can happen at any time
(Kaplan and Sadock 1998). External or internal events which are unexpected and
uncontrolled should be examined into two groups: state anxiety or trait anxiety. Trait
anxiety is the fear felt by the person in a stressful situation and is an indicator of the
stress and anxiety level felt by the person. State anxiety is the anxiety linked with the
dependent life of the person. This situation causes the person to conceptualize the
situation as stressful or stress by itself.
The reason for the anxiety felt in the adolescence can be the familial relationship
(Bucholz and Catton, 1999) the socio-economic status of the family (Woodward and
Kalyon Marish, 1990), impaired quality of life (Cohn et al. 2003) the relations to the
surroundings, the friendships, the educational level of the parents and the level of
loneliness felt by the person (Gursoy and Yıldız Bıcakcı, 2003). In adolescence the
pessimism, anxiety, fear, stress and unhappiness lived by the adolescent makes him
distressed and therefore is trying to prove himself, to get the attention of others, and is
trying to receive the approbation of his/her friends and can be inclined toward the use
of alcohol. In the world and within our society the use of smoking among adolescents
is increasing and brings within itself psychological problems (Ritter et al. 2002,
Varlinskaya and Spear 2005; Reddy, 2006) Based from this idea, in this research
conducted we have tried to determine the anxiety level felt by those going to high
school using alcohol or not using alcohol, grouped by their gender, socio-economic
level and the educational level of the mother and father and to examine if the specified
factors do influence the level of anxiety or not. Another aim is to determine whether
there is a relation between trait anxiety and state anxiety.
Materıal and Procedure
The research has been conducted in the high schools from various socio economic
levels in the centre of Ankara, attending at the first and second year ranged between
15 and 16 year old adolescents. 124 adolescent using alcohols and 124 adolescent non-
user of alcohol totalling to 248 have been participating in the research. In order to get
information about the adolescents themselves and about their family a “General
Information Form” has been developed by Spielberger to determine the anxiety level
of the adolescents and has been worked by Öner and Le Compte (1985) to determine
their continuity and trustiness, “Trait Anxiety Inventory” and “State Anxiety
Inventory” has been used. 20 statements constitute the inventories in the direct way
and the reverse sense and the total points to be obtained from each inventory will very
between 20 and 80. The high points are indicating high degree of anxiety.
The results obtained from the research have been analysed by the use of the T test
and the Variance Analysis. The Variance analysis’s conclusion and the cause of the
difference have been determined by the “Scheffe Test” (Buyukozturk, 2002).
166
Findings
Table 1. The Anxiety Point Averages, standard deviations and t-test Results of
Subjects by Using Alcohol Status
STATE ANXIETY TRAIT ANXIETY
Using
Alcohol N S Sd t p S t p
Status
X X
Using 124 56.87 11.03 246 5.54 .00 47.42 8.91 2.02 .04
Alcohol
Non- 124 47.82 14.43 45.21 7.84
Using
Alcohol
p<.01, p<.05
When Table 1 is examined the average points of continuous and case-by-case

anxiety level is showing meaningful difference [traits anxiety: t[246]=5.54, p<.01, state
anxiety: t[294]=2.02, p<.05]. The adolescents using alcohol have higher points in state
and traits anxiety level compared to those not using alcohol.
Table 2. Means and Standard Deviation about Anxiety Level Scores Based on Sex
Using Alcohol Status STATE ANXIETY TRAIT ANXIETY
Sex N S X S
X
Using Alcohol
Male 75 56.29 11.74 45.87 9.19
Female 49 57.75 9.89 48.87 9.28
Total 124 56.87 11.03 47.24 9.27
Non-Using Alcohol
Male 72 47.27 14.60 43.46 7.68
Female 52 48.57 14.29 46.48 7.79
Total 124 47.82 14.43 45.21 7.84
Male 147 51.87 13.93 44.63 8.51
Female 101 53.02 13.13 47.48 8.59
Total 248 52.34 13.59 46.32 8.64
Table 3. Result of Variance Analysis on the Anxiety Level Scores Based on Sex
RESULTS of
VARIENCE
ANALYSIS
Using Alcohol 4950.737 1 4950.737 .00 285.607 285.607 .04
Status
Sex 114.007 1 114.007 .40 466.860 466.860 01
Using Alcohol .396 1 .396 .96 3.194 3.194 83

X Sex
Error 40487.745 244 165.93 17676.654 72.445

Total 755244.000 248 550604.00
p<.01, p<.05
167
When Table 2 is examined it has been noticed that the males using alcohol and
their trait anxiety average 56.29±11.74, females 57.75±9.89 ; Among those not using
alcohol males trait anxiety level average 47.27±14.60, females 48.57±14.29; Males
using alcohol and their state anxiety level average 45.87±9.14, females 48.87±9.28;
males not using alcohol and their state anxiety level average points 43.46±7.68,
females 46.48±7.79.
On the conclusions based on the variance analysis the difference between the level
of using alcohol and the level of trait anxiety (F(1-.244)= 29.836,p<.01) as well as state
anxiety (F(1-.244)=3.942,p<.05) . On top of that gender and the state anxiety (F(1-
.244)=6.444,p<.05) points have a meaningful difference .
Table 4. Means and Standard Deviation about Anxiety Level Scores Based on
Socio-Economic Level
Using Alcohol Status STATE ANXIETY TRAIT ANXIETY
Socio-Economic
Level N X S X S
Using Alcohol
Lower 62 59.74 6.53 50.12 7.38
Upper 62 54.93 11.92 45.60 10.00
Total 124 56.87 11.03 47.24 9.27
Non-Using Alcohol
Lower 62 52.98 14.18 46.17 8.14
Upper 62 40.18 11.11 43.80 7.22
Total 124 47.82 14.43 45.21 7.84
GENERAL
Lower 124 55.70 12.14 47.76 8.05
Upper 124 48.93 14.18 44.87 8.99
Total 248 52.34 13.59 46.32 8.64
When table 4 is observed it can be stated that the adolescents from lower socio-
economic level using alcohol and their anxiety points being 59.74±6.53, those
adolescents from upper socio-economic having 54.93±11.92 and those from low level
socio-economic level not using alcohol anxiety points 52.98±14.18, those from upper
socio-economic level’s anxiety points are 40.18±11.11. The state anxiety points of
adolescents from low socio economic level using alcohol is 50.12±7.38, those from
upper level socio-economic level is 45.60±10.00, it has been determined that those
who don’t use alcohol from low socio-economic level adolescents state anxiety level
is 46.17±8.14, upper socio-economic level adolescents have 43.80 ± 7.22 points.
Table 5. Result of Variance Analysis on the Anxiety Level Scores Based on Socio-
Economic Level
DURUMLUK KAYGI SÜREKLİ KAYGI
RESULTS of
VARIENCE
Sum of df Mean p Sum of Mean square P
ANALYSIS
squares square squares
Using Alcohol 6900.287 1 6900.287 .00 493.689 493.689 .00
Status
Socio-Economic 4628.803 1 4628.803 .00 707.753 707.753 00
Level
Using Alcohol 954.581 1 954.581 .01 68.083 68.083 32
XSEL
Error 35018.649 244 143.519 17371.631 71.195
168
Total 755244.000 248 550604.00

p<.01, p<.05
Based on the conclusion of variance analysis the fact of using alcohol and case by
case anxiety (F(1-.244)= 48.079,p<.01), and also state anxiety (F(1-.244)=6.934,p<.01) level
points have a meaningful difference, besides this the socio-economic level and the
trait anxiety (F(1-.244)= 32.252 p<.01), and continuous anxiety (F(1-.244)=9.94, p<.01)
level points have a substantial difference and this has been proven. On top of that
usage of alcohol X socio-economic level and their interference ( F(1-244) =6.651,p<.05)
is causing a difference in the statistical sense to the average of the case by case anxiety
level.
Education Level of Mother
Using Alcohol Status
Education Level of Mother N X S X S
Using Alcohol
Literate or primary school 72 59.74 8.84 48.70 9.23
graduates
graduates
College or university graduates 9 45.75 16.02 41.25 4.99
Total 124 56.87 11.03 47.24 9.27
Non-Using Alcohol
graduates
graduates
Total 124 47.82 14.43 45.21 7.84
GENERAL
graduates
graduates
Total 248 52.34 13.59 46.32 8.64
As seen from Table 6 those using alcohol having a mother literate or primary
school graduates trait anxiety level 59.74±8.84, those having mothers junior high
school or high school graduates 52.76±12.35, those having mothers graduates from the
college or the university 45.75±16.02 have been determined those not using alcohol
and whose mothers are literate or primary school graduates have a trait anxiety points
of 51.75±13.40, those whose mothers are junior high school or high school graduates
are 43.06±14.86, those whose mothers are university are 42±9.04. From state anxiety
point level those having mothers from primary school graduates have 48.70±9.23
points, those having mothers junior high school or high school graduates have
45.72±9.29, those having mothers from college or university graduates have
41.25±4.99 points. It has been determined that those who do not use alcohol and
whose mothers are literate or primary school graduates have trait anxiety level points
of 45.92±7.41, whose mothers are junior high school or high school graduates have
points of 44.06±8.76, whose mothers are college or university graduates have
45.85±4.87 points.
169
Based on the variance analysis conclusions, it can be determined that the fact of
using alcohol (F(1.-244)= .0010,p<.01), and the level of education of the mother (F(2.-
244)= 2.782,p<.01) and trait anxiety points have a very important difference. Despite
this fact the relationship between the state anxiety points are not meaningful. On the
conclusions of the Scheffe test the difference is caused by the father being literate or
primary school graduates or of adolescents having father’s junior high school or high
school graduates and college or university graduates have an interference with the
adolescents.
Table 7. Result of Variance Analysis on the Anxiety Level Scores Based on Education
Level of Mother
Results Of STATE ANXIETY TRAIT ANXIETY
Varience
Analysis
Sum of df Mean P Sum of Mean p
Using Alcohol 1139.269 1 1139.269 .00 6.766E-02 6.766E-02 .97
Status
Education Level 4333.460 2 2166.730 .00 405.729 202.865 06
of Mother A-B
A-C
Using Alcohol 68.045 2 34.022 .79 135.418 67.709 39
X Education
Level of Mother
Error 36218.624 242 149.664 17643.840 72.908
Total 755244.000 248 550604.00
p<.01
Educational Level of Father
Using Alcohol Status
Education Level of Father N X S X S
Using Alcohol
graduates A
graduates B
College or university graduates C 19 53.57 16.99 42.89 6.22
Total 124 56.87 11.03 47.24 9.27
Non-Using Alcohol
graduates A
graduates B
Total 124 47.82 14.43 45.21 7.67
GENERAL
graduates A
graduates B
Total 248 52.34 13.59 46.32 8.64
When we look at Table 8 those using alcohol having fathers literate or primary
school graduates trait anxiety level is 58.91±8.51, fathers who are junior high school
170
or high school graduates have 56.24±10.29, fathers who are college or university
graduates have 53.57±16.99 has been determined. Those who do not use alcohol and
whose father are literate or primary school graduates who have trait anxiety points
being 53.71±12.94, adolescents whose fathers are junior high school or have
48.89±14.47 and for those whose fathers are college or university graduates have
38.83±11.84. From the state anxiety point of view adolescents using alcohol and
whose fathers are literate or primary school graduates have 48.39±8.63 anxiety points,
adolescents having fathers being junior high school or high school graduates have
48.12±10.28, the adolescents having fathers college or university graduates have
42.89±6.22. Adolescents who do not use alcohol and whose fathers are literate or
primary school graduates have a trait anxiety level of 45.88±7.41, those having fathers
high school or high school graduates have 46.37±7.20 those having fathers college or
university graduates have 42.16±8.55.
Table 9. Result of Variance Analysis on the Anxiety Level Scores Based on Education
Level of Father
RESULTS of STATE ANXIETY TRAIT ANXIETY
VARIENCE
ANALYSIS
Sum of df Mean p Sum of Mean square p
squares square squares
Using Alcohol 4386.093 1 4386.093 .00 146.479 146.479 .15
Status
Education Level 3020.017 2 1510.008 .00 822.479 411.239 .00
of Father C-A C-A
C-B C-B
Using Alcohol 699.954 2 349.977 .10 23.64 11.821 84

X Education
Level of Father
Error 36465.559 242 150.684 17310.915 71.533
Total 755244.00 248 550604.00
p<.01
Based on the conclusions of the variance analysis we have noticed that there is a
significant difference between the usage of alcohol (F(2-.244)= 10.021 p<.01) , state
anxiety and the fathers education level (F(2-.244)= 5.749 p<.01) and the state of anxiety
points. The conclusions of the Scheffe test is the difference for the trait and state
anxiety of adolescents whose fathers are college or university graduates is in
interference with other adolescents whose fathers are junior high school or high school
graduates or primary school graduates.
Discussion
This research has been conducted on adolescents aged between 15-16 year old
attending to first and second year of high school, using or not alcohol to determine
their anxiety level and whether the gender or the socio-economic level and the parents
education level do create a difference or not and to also determine whether there is a
relation between trait and state anxiety.
When table 1 is examined the adolescents using or not alcohol trait and state
anxiety points average do differ significantly based on their usage or not of alcohol. It
171
has been pointed out that those using alcohol have higher anxiety points compared to
adolescents not using alcohol. Parallel to our observations, in studies which have been
conducted it has been determined that the anxiety and depression level of adolescents
using alcohol is high (Dobkin et al. 1994; Lynskey et. al. 1994; Ham and Hope, 2003).
The young in adolescence due to physical or emotional changes can experience
feelings of fear, anxiety. Familial relations which are not healthy, bad living
conditions, negative friendships, stress are among reasons which may increase the
anxiety and stress endured by the adolescent, who can be stimulated in some way to
use alcohol. The adolescent is sometimes driven to the usage of alcohol by taking as a
model someone in the family who is using alcohol or by trying to catch the attention
of his family or friends (Gill et al., 2000; Ritter et al 2002).
From table 2 it is noticeable that the girls who do use alcohol have a higher
average points compared to the girls who do not use alcohol. In our society the male
adolescents family is considering him as the one for the continuity and integrity of the
family and he is given with more opportunities to express himself within the family
and outside. Whereas female adolescents are more often limited and they have
boundaries with regard to their friend and jobs. The interference of the families to
female adolescents life may cause their anxiety to increase even further. In table 3 it
can be noticed that there is a significant relation between the fact of usage of alcohol
and the state and traits anxiety average points and the there is a significant relation
between the gender and the state anxiety average points (Ritter et al 2002, Sachs et al.
2002). Girls are being more affected from clashes within the family compared to boys
and it is more frequent to encounter behavioural defects such as stress, fear and
anxiety among girls. In his study Powel (2004) has stated that girls do face more
clashes compared to boys and consequently their self-confidence level is lower and
their concern about the future is higher.
When we examine table 4 and 5 it has been determined that whether using or not
alcohol the adolescents from lower socio-economic level have higher anxiety average
points compared to adolescents from higher socio-economic level. Based on the
statistical study performed it has been proven that the difference between usage of
alcohol and anxiety points is significant. The studies performed with adolescents have
shown that low confidence and usage of alcohol within the family are affecting. (Kulis
et al 2003; Varlinkaya and Spears, 2005; Reddy, 2006). The socio-economic
conditions of the family are affecting the psychological status of the family members
and their relationships with their surroundings. Adolescents from lower socio-
economic level whether due to their special phase, whether due to insufficiency to
meet their needs, can face anxiety and can be driven to use alcohol to lower the pain
they are enduring.
When table 6,7,8 and 9 are examined and based on the results of this research,
adolescents whose mother and father are primary school graduates’ anxiety points are
higher. Adolescence is a very important phase in human life due to the fact that
familial relations are not good and the adolescent can not be supported by the family,
the family comparing the adolescent with his/her peers can cause the adolescent to
experience the feeling that he/she is not wanted. The adolescent experiencing those
feelings can have worry about his/her future. The educational level of the mother and
the father is providing information on how the parents and the adolescent is
communicating (Gursoy and Yıldız Bıcakcı, 2003, San Antonio, 2006). Studies
performed have shown and are underlying that the behaviour or attitude or
characteristics of the parents has great influence on the evolution of the adolescent.
(Sing Lau et al.1999; Richard de Minzi and Sacchi, 2004).
172
Conclusion and Suggestions
The results of the research has found that there is a statistically significant
difference between average anxiety level scores of the using alcohol and non-using
alcohol adolescents, and average anxiety level scores of using alcohol were found to
be higher than those of non-alcohol adolescents. While the socioeconomic level,
father’s level of education were observed to create significant difference on the
anxiety levels of the adolescents participating in the research (p<.05 and p<.01), also
gender was found to create significant differences on trait anxiety (p<.05) and
mother’s education level was found to create significant differences of state anxiety
level.
In the light of this study it can be emphasized that the power of the anxiety
experienced by the adolescents is important. It is taught that decreasing the level of
anxiety may decrease the usage of alcohol. The feelings and behaviours that can be
experienced during adolescence and all the changes during the evolution should be
explained and the adolescent should receive information. The adolescent developing
his/her self-confidence is consequently decreasing his/her anxiety level. For this
reason environments, which favour the development of self-confidence, should be
encouraged. The adolescent should be directed to hobbies into which he/her is
interested. The negative impacts of usage of alcohol should be explained at earlier
ages and education programmes against use of alcohol should be developed.
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174
Part 2
Pedagogy
175
176
Learning
177
178
The Attitudes of Turkish Cypriot Students towards
Greek Language Learning
16
The Attitudes of Turkish Cypriot Students
towards Greek Language Learning
Ahmet Pehlivan, International Cyprus University

&
Hakan Atamturk, Near East University
N owadays, it has been more obvious that motivation and language attitudes
affect language learning. Many researches have been done on motivation and
language attitudes in foreign language and second language learning
(Gardner & Lambert 1972; Gardner 1985, Williams at. al., 2002: 503-527, Holt 2002,
Jose, 2003, Gardner at al., 2004: 1-34, Saracoğlu 1995: 73-91, İnal at. al., 2002: 37-
52).
The main result of all these researches is that language learning has both linguistic
and nonlinguistic components. While linguistic components cover increasing language
awareness, fluency, similarities etc, nonlinguistic components cover the attitude
towards the community in which the target language is spoken, the attitudes towards
the second language, the aim of using the target language in the future and the anxiety
about the usage and learning of the language (Gardner at al., 2004: 1-34).
Numerous researches on language learning prove that there is a strong relationship
between language attitudes and social factors (Sung & Padilla, 1998: 205-216; Wright,
1999: 197-208; Al-Haq, 2000: 263-273; Dawale, 2005: 118-137; Lasagabaster, 2005:
296-316). For this reason, it can be said that language attitudes is the key factor in
sociolinguistic and language learning (Lasagabaster, 2005: 299). In short,
sociolinguistic variables consist of the effect of social factors in attitude. These are
related to social class, age, gender, ethnic identity, etc.
It has been proven that there is a relationship between ethnic identity, which is one
of the variables of sociolinguistics and language (Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1990).
Widdowson said, ‘‘Language is naturally used to define social identity; and
conformity to the norms of a particular language variety is an expression of group
membership’’ (Norrish, 1997: 5). Fishman (1998) argues that language is a link
between the past and the present, and this link is very important in language learning.
Carli at al. (2003: 865-883), in the researches that they have done on the relationship
179
between ethnic and cultural identity and the border concepts in the border of the East
and West Europe, declares that despite the governments support for minority language
policies, people in Europe still attach importance to their different culture, identity and
language as a nation. A research that is done in Flemish has shown that although the
learners’ attitudes towards the English language were positive, the French language
was more important than the English language to their polycultural identity (Dawale,
2005 :118-137). A research that was conducted with university students in Israel
suggests that ethnic and linguistic identity and ethnolinguistics vitality were better
predictors in final examinations and reading comprehension than the other variables
(Ellinger, 2000: 292-307). The other research shows that ethnic heritage related
motivation emerged as a major contributory influence in students’ learning an Asian
language (Sung & Padilla, 1998: 205-216).
In language learning, how learners evaluate the target language, its speakers and
culture is also very effective (Garner, 1985; Dörnyei, 2001). Gardner (1979) claims
that learners who spend considerable time and energy in acquiring a second language,
are those who possess positive attitudes towards the target society. Dörnyei (1994),
draws attention to the importance of sociocultural orientation and according to him the
attitudes towards the society of target language is more important than the context of
learning environment. Schumann (1986), argues that the cultural interaction with the
society of the target language has a role in success. In brief, the effect of the learner’s
own culture and the understanding of the culture of the target language are important
factors in language learning.
Oh and Au Kit-Fong (2005: 229-241), have carried out a research in the United
States on the students of Latino College, their interaction with the Latin culture, their
participation in Latin cultural activities, their utilizing Spanish outside class and their
accent and they have found that there is a relation between their accent and their
sociocultural backgrounds. As a result, the negative attitudes towards the target
language, its culture and society will lessen the opportunities for the interaction in
foreign language. Many researchers agreed that the positive attitudes towards second
language and the wish to communicate with the speakers of target community affect
second language learning (Gardner at al., 2004: 1-34; Dörnyei & Csizer, 1998: 203-
229; see: Jose, 2003).
In this study the experience of learners which can be considered as one of the
factors that affect language learning has an important role. Some researches support
this idea as well. Oh & Au Kit-Fong (2005: 229-241), have suggested that in the
United States the usage of Spanish outside class and its being the language used at
home have been influential in language efficiency. A research that is done with the
children who met Korean in their early childhood have better accents than the ones
who started speaking later (Oh et al., 2003). A research that is done in Bask proves
that there is a relationship between language at home and at school and language
attitudes (Echeverria, 2005: 249-264). This situation is nearly similar to Cyprus. Greek
language has been a part of the lives of Turkish Cypriots until recently (Konur, 1938:
23; An, 1999). Despite the fact that it is no longer so, many elderly people still speak
Greek language as if it were their native language.
In language learning along with the attitudes towards the society and culture of the
target language some individual pragmatic reasons are influential as well (Gardner,
1985, Gardner at al., 2004: 1-34). Gardner (1985) said that such reasons as career
opportunities, passing exams and financial opportunities are also important and
effective in language learning.
180
Greek Language in Turkish Cypriots
In Cyprus, Turks came across Greek language in Ottoman Empire period. When
Ottoman people moved to the Island they started living with the local Greek people
and mixed with them. Especially the fact that there were mixed villages is the reason
for the emergence of bilingualism and this fact also affected Turkish Cypriot dialect
(see: An, 1999, Konur 1938: 23). Besides, under the British rule mixed schools were
set up (see. Behcet, 1969: 157-166), and as a result Greeks and Turks studied together.
For this reason, the mutual effect of Greek and Turkish language had increased. In
addition, When Greeks and Turks started working together in various establishments
under the British rule these two languages got closer (see. Gokceoglu, 1988).
In Cyprus after the British rule was over in 1960 the Republic of Cyprus, which
was based on the association of Greeks and Turks, was founded, and thus Greek and
Turkish languages became official languages in this state (see: Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti
Anayasası, 1960: 4). It is possible to say that the mutual effect of these two languages
was at its peak.
As a result of conflict between Turks and Greeks, the Island is divided into two as
the North and the South and the interaction between Turks living in the North and
Greeks living in the South was limited until 2002. It is even possible to say that there
was no interaction at all. As a result of this division the need of Turkish Cypriots to
speak in Greek disappeared. When legal policies and the new ethnic understanding
supported this separation, the older generations couldn’t pass their knowledge of
Greek on to the new generations. The previously mentioned ethnic, social and
individual reasons which affect the attitudes of learners towards language learning
have been effective in this situation. When the ethnic identity turned into nationalism
the importance of Greek language decreased. These policies were reflected on the
language, and campaigns were organized to leave Greek words out of the Turkish
language used in Cyprus and the Turkish language that is spoken in Turkey was taken
as a model (Kızılyürek and Kızılyürek, 2002). In this period, the fact that the Greek
language was not incorporated in school curricula exemplifies this prejudice (see:
İlköğretim Kurumları Eğitim Programı 1999). Moreover, the absence of social and
individual reasons contributed to the end of Greek language amongst Turks.
In recent years, there has been some renewals in the mutual effect of the two
languages. Some gates were opened in some borders between the North and South in
Cyprus. As a result of this, Greeks and Turks started to get together and communicate
as they used to do. In addition, these gates brought with them some job and education
opportunities. Today many Turkish Cypriots work in the South. The number of these
people is estimated to be ten thousand. Moreover, the number of students studying in
the South is increasing day by day. This shows that Greek language became an
individual need and reason again in the Turkish Cypriot community. The other
renewal that Turkish Cypriots are experiencing is that official authorities changed
their policy. To illustrate, for the first time in the system of education, the need for
Greek language is mentioned amongst the objectives of education (Kıbrıs Türk Eğitim
Sistemi, 2005: 11). However, it must be mentioned that they have not started to teach
Greek, yet. Thus, in this study whether the changing political tendency affects the
attitudes towards Greek language or not is questioned. Since in literature it is seen that
changes in politics affect language learning. In Jordan, during the peace-making
period between Arabs and Israelis, the attitudes of university students towards Hebrew
181
were questioned, and attention has been drawn to the importance of getting closer on
the language (Al- Haq, 2000: 263-273).
Aim
The aim of this study is to determine the attitudes of Turkish Cypriot teacher
candidates towards Greek language. The study attempts to answer the following
particular questions:
1. Do the Turkish Cypriot teacher candidates have positive attitudes towards

Greek language and Greek language learning?
2. Do the Turkish Cypriot teacher candidates have positive individual reasons
for learning Greek?
3. Do the Turkish Cypriot teacher candidates have positive attitudes towards
Greek culture and community?
Method
The Sample
The participants of this research are teacher candidates who are studying in
departments of Faculty of Education in the Near East University. This study has been
conducted with 195 students from the departments of Guidance and Psychology
Education, Physical Education and Sports Teaching, English Language Teaching,
Teaching Technologies and Pre-school Teaching. The students from each department
was chosen randomly as sample. However, it is not the purpose of study to analyses
the differences between various groups. None of the students takes a course on Greek
language. 68% of the participants are females and 32% of them are males. The mean
age is 21.
The Instrument
The research was based on a questionnaire containing 18 items and adaptation of

various researches (Gardner, 1985; Al- Haq, 2000: 263-273; Wright, 1999; Osam,
2004: 271-288). A 5-point Likert scale (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree,
strongly disagree) questionnaire consisting of 4 factors. First factor tests the attitudes
towards the Greek language and Greek language learning. The second factor tests
individual pragmatic reasons. The third factor tests the attitudes towards the Greek
culture. The last factor tests the attitude towards Greeks. The first factor consists of 8
questions. The second factor has 6 questions and the others have two questions each.
Two major preliminary analyses were run in order to describe the student
questionnaire: 4-factor Varimax rotated principal components analysis to explore its
structure and Cronbach alpha reliability analysis to estimate its internal reliability. The
reliability of the student’s questionnaire was found to be Alpha= .85. Prior to the
factor analysis, the allocation of items to questionnaire subtest was determined by
expert in order to establish test content validity. The factor analysis of the students’
questionnaire was made, and it was found out that the entries in the questionnaire were
under 4 factors. For all the entries in the scale, the total entry correlation changes
182
between .441 and .773. The percentage of variance explained by factors= % 60.591.
The 1. factor correlation changes between .484 and .773. Percentage of variance
explained by first factor= %22.324. The 2. factor correlation changes between .585
and .733. Percentage of variance explained by second factor= %20.421. The 3. factor
correlation changes between .441 and .592. Percentage of variance explained by third
factor= %9.853. The 4. factor correlation changes between .484 and .773. Percentage
of variance explained by fourth factor= %7.994.
Means and percentages were used in the statistical processes in the study.
Whether the Turkish Cypriots who participated in this study know Greek or not is
important so far as the language attitude is concerned. For this reason, to know Greek
is important in this research.
Table 1. The Language that the Participants know

Language f %
English 153 78.5
Greek 15 7.7
French 2 1
German 2 1
Other 2 1
The majority of the participants declared that they know English. The percentage
of the participants that know Greek is 7.7%, which is rather low. With regard to the
fact that many elderly Turkish Cypriots used to know Greek (Konur, 1938 ), this low
percentage proves that parents didn’t pass this language onto their children.
Table 2. The Attitudes towards Greek and Learning Greek

Strongly Strongly
Items Disagree Neutral Agree
disagree Agree
F % f % f % F % F %
I want to improve my Greek and
25 12.8 29 14.9 49 25.11 58 29.8 34 17.4
speak Greek very well.
I’d like to learn Greek. 28 14.4 36 18.5 47 24.1 55 28.2 27 13.8
I want my sisters brothers and
27 13.8 29 14.9 51 26.2 55 28.2 33 16.9
children to learn Greek.
To me, learning Greek is
20 10.3 32 16.4 42 21.5 76 39 25 12.8
interesting.
If I had Greek neighbors I would
like to learn Greek talking with 25 12.8 31 15.9 38 19.5 69 35.4 32 16.4
them
If I knew Greek I would like to
read Greek newspapers and 23 11.8 30 15.4 35 17.9 75 38.5 32 16.4
magazines.
I sometimes listen to Greek radio
channels although I don’t know 75 38.5 65 33.3 8 4.1 42 21.5 5 2.6
Greek.
I listen to Greek music.
54 27.7 50 25.6 16 8.2 59 30.3 16 8.2
183
Almost all the answers related to the attitudes towards learning Greek have
‘agree’ or ‘strongly agree’ choices. For this reason, the majority of the participants
have developed positive attitudes towards learning Greek. The majority of the
participants ticked either ‘agree’ or ‘strongly agree’ choices so far as increasing their
Greek knowledge and the wish for speaking Greek very well are concerned. Nearly
half of the participants (42%) like Greek language and they want to teach this
language to their sisters, brothers and children (45%). More than half of the
participants (52%) find Greek language interesting. More than half of the participants
want to communicate with their Greek neighbors (52%) and read Greek newspapers
and magazines (55%). All these percentages are higher than the total percentage of
‘strongly disagree’ and ‘disagree’. As a result it is possible to say that the participants
have positive attitudes for learning Greek. However, the majority of the participants
do not watch Greek radio or TV channels (72%). Besides, more than half of the
participants (53%) do not listen to Greek music. The reason for this result can be the
fact that only 7.7% of the participants know Greek.
Table 3. The Attitudes Related to Individual Pragmatic Reasons

Strongly Strongly
disagree Agree
F % f % f % F % F %
Learning Greek is important for
28 14.4 43 22.1 44 22.6 53 27.2 27 13.8
my career in the future
Knowing Greek will make me
25 12.8 43 22.1 36 18.5 58 29.7 33 16.9
more knowledgeable
Knowing Greek will help me
23 11.8 34 17.4 56 28.7 52 26.7 30 15.4
find a job
Knowing Greek will raise my
31 15.9 56 28.7 51 26.2 36 18.5 21 10.8
income
Knowing Greek will provide me
21 10.8 52 26.7 67 34.4 43 22.1 12 6.2
with prestige
Knowing Greek will provide me
with better cultural and
15 7.7 35 17.9 40 20.5 70 35.9 35 17.9
financial advantages compared
to the ones who do not know it
One of the factors that influence second language learning is pragmatic reasons.
The belief that knowing foreign languages will provide individual gains is among the
factors that increase enthusiasm (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1991: 57-72). As it can be
seen in Table 3, for the item about learning Greek for better career opportunities the
participants ticked ‘agree’ more than they did ‘disagree’. 46% of participants believe
that knowing Greek will make them more knowledgeable. The percentage of the
undecided ones for the item about knowing Greek will help them find job is higher
than the other choices (29%). Besides, the percentage of the ones who ‘disagree’ or
‘strongly disagree’ with the opinion that knowing Greek will increase their income is
higher than the other opinions (45%). According to this, Turkish Cypriot teacher
candidates do not believe that learning Greek will increase their income. Nevertheless,
many Turkish Cypriots believe that working in the South provides them with better
income. The reason for this can be that there are not many teaching opportunities for
Turkish Cypriot teacher candidates in the South. 34% percent of the participants
hesitate about that Greek language will provide them with prestige. In this choice,
total percentage of the ones who ‘disagree’ and ‘strongly disagree’ (37%) is higher
than the percentage of the ones who ‘agree’ (28%). The percentage of the ones who
184
‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree’ knowing Greek will provide them with cultural and
financial advantages (55%), is higher than the others (26%). Thus, the majority of the
participants believe that knowing Greek provides cultural and financial advantages.
Table 4. Getting to know Greek Culture

Strongly Strongly
disagree agree
F % f % f % F % F %
Knowing Greek will enable me to
understand Greek history and culture 29 14.9 46 23.9 50 25.6 57 29.2 13 6.7
better.
Knowing Greek will enable Turks to
get more interested in Greek and 23 11.8 63 32.3 52 26.7 49 25.1 8 4.1
Greek culture.
As it can be seen in Table 4, the majority of the teacher candidates do not believe
that learning Greek will make getting to know Greek culture easy. A part of the
participants (39%) ‘disagree’ or ‘strongly disagree’ with the item that knowing Greek
will enable them to understand Greek culture. A group of participants (36%) ‘agree’
and ‘strongly agree’ with this item. Moreover, nearly half of the participants (46%)
‘disagree’ or ‘strongly disagree’ with the opinion that knowing Greek will enable them
to understand Greek and Greek culture better. Nevertheless, researches have proven
that learning foreign languages is related to culture and learning a language provides a
tendency towards the culture of that language. This result combined with the results in
Table 2 shows that the participants want to learn Greek. However, it is not possible to
say that they want to learn Greek to establish cultural bonds with Greeks. The
participants are not decided in this respect.
Table 5. The Attitudes towards Greek Community

Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Items
disagree agree
f % f % f % F % F %
I do not need to like Greeks to learn
12 6.2 18 9.2 19 9.7 83 42.6 63 32.3
Greek
Learning Greek will enable Turks to
take precautions against Greek 25 12.8 39 20 55 28.2 49 25.1 27 13.8
cunning
The great majority of the participants (75%) ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree’ with the
first item. Whereas 28% of the participants are neutral about the item that learning
Greek is effective in defending ourselves against Greeks, 25% them agree with this
item. Yet, the percentage of the ones who ‘strongly agree’ (39%) is higher than the
percentage of the ones who ‘disagree’ or ‘strongly disagree’(33%). The results above
show that Turkish Cypriots are suspicious towards Greeks. This result makes it
obvious that it will take time to have these two communities get closer.
Conclusion
In Cyprus most people used to know Turkish and Greek and used these two
languages to communicate. As a result of the division between Turkish Cypriots and
185
Greeks by borders, the mutual effect of Turkish and Greek languages was limited.
However, in recent years there have been some political changes. Some gates in the
borders were opened and Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots started to communicate
with each other but not as much as they used to do. Besides, Turkish Cypriots had the
opportunity to work and study in the South. For this reason, this political and
individual pragmatic developments enable the young people who do not know Greek
at all to have positive attitudes towards the Greek language.
In this study, which attempts to find out the attitudes of Turkish Cypriots towards
Greek and learning Greek; it is discovered that the participants are eager to learn
Greek but undecided in the attitude towards Greek community and culture. From this
perspective, the attitudes of the participants are neither positive nor negative. This
result is similar to the attitude towards Hebrew in Jordan (Al- Haq, 2000: 263-273).
Besides, the participants agree with some items that Greek language provides some
individual practical gains, disagree with some other items and neutral about the rest.
This result is a little similar to Gardner & MacIntyre’s findings (1991, 57-72).
To establish a common language policy, authorities should know the place of the
social, cultural and individual dynamics of the languages spoken in Cyprus. All these
variables should be defined so as to establish a sound language policy.
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187
188
The Effects of Problem-Based Learning on the Elementary School
Student’s Understanding of Genetics
17
The Effects of Problem-Based Learning on
the Elementary School Students’
Understanding of Genetics
Gulsum Araz, Middle East Technical University
&
Semra Sungur, Middle East Technical University
I
n today’s world, one of the main goals of science education is to help students
develop scientific thinking. In order to accomplish this end, there is need for
creating rich learning environments in which students are involved in inquiry
based tasks requiring cognitive processes as used by scientists while conducting
research. As suggested by Chin and Chia (2005) such scientific thinking processes can
be developed in students with the integration of the problem based learning (PBL) into
the curriculum. In fact, the PBL provides students with guided experience in learning
through dealing with ill-structured problems based on real life. In a PBL environment,
students are challenged to understand the problem situation, identify importation
points to be investigated, formulate hypothesis for a solution, access variety of
resources to gain new knowledge, think about how new knowledge can be used to deal
with the problem, and reflect on their understanding. Moreover, in a PBL class student
participate in social interactions working in groups and teacher acts as a facilitator.
Therefore, in PBL environments problems are used as guides for student learning and
teachers who are no longer considered as dispenser of knowledge are expected to keep
students on track while deciding on what directions to follow in their investigations,
what information to collect, and how to evaluate the information (Chin & Chia, 2005;
Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Song, Grabowski, Koszalka, & Harkness, 2006).
The PBL, which was originally developed in medical school programs, is of
increasing interest to elementary and high school educators since it encourages active
and transferable learning and potentially motivates students (Achilles & Hoover,
1996; Gallagher & Stepien, 1995; Gordon , Rogers, Comfort, Gavula, & McGee,
2001; Hmelo-Silver, 2004, McBroom & Mc Broom, 2001; Savoie & Hughes, 1994;
Stepien & Gallagher, 1993; Sage, 1996). Results of the studies, conducted to
189
determine the effectiveness of the PBL in elementary and high school levels, in
general, revealed that the PBL allow students to actively participate in the learning
process and become better learners in terms of time management skills and it
improves ability to define topics, access different resources, and evaluate validity of
these resources. Moreover, the PBL was found to improve critical thinking,
communication, and interpersonal skills. For example, Gordon et al. (2001) reported
that urban minority elementary school students appreciated the high levels of
challenge, the group work, and personal relevance of the material provided by the
PBL. They were pleased with the active participation in the learning process. Parallel
to the students’ ideas, teachers thought that the PBL was helpful in the development of
interpersonal skills, critical thinking, and information seeking abilities of their
students. Moreover, the authors found that the PBL enhanced science performance of
students. Similarly, McBroom and McBroom (2001) showed that the PBL improved
high school juniors’ achievement in genetics as well as their attitude. In fact, Savery
and Duffy (1995) proposed that the PBL allow students to discover and internalize the
knowledge providing a context similar to the context in which they would use that
knowledge.
In the light of the findings in the literature, this present study aimed at determining
the effect of problem-based learning on 8th grade students’ achievement in the unit of
genetics. Previous studies showed that students have difficulty in understanding
genetics concepts and hold a variety of misconceptions with incoherent knowledge
structure. Actually, genetics includes many abstract concepts that are hard to
understand, learn and remember (Bahar, Johnstone, & Hansell, 1999; Cavallo, 1996;
Lewis, & Leach, 2004; Lewis, & Wood-Robinson, 2000; Lewis, Leach, & Wood-
Robinson, 2000a, b, c; Wood-Robinson, Lewis, & Leach, 2000). Results of the related
studies revealed that main reasons for the difficulties that students experience are the
nature of the science curricula which is prescriptive and includes the extensive
subjects with limited time devoted to cover them. In addition, students tend to use
lower order thinking skills memorizing related concepts and principles which results
in rote learning. However, meaningful understanding of genetics as an abstract topic
requires higher order thinking skills realizing the relationships among the concepts
and their applications. It is suggested that the PBL may improve students’
understanding of genetics since it is assumed to increase higher order thinking skills
while dealing with authentic problems, participating in social interactions, being
guided by teachers and peers (Song et al, 2006). Therefore, in the current study,
effectiveness of the PBL in comparison to the traditional instruction in students’
achievement in genetics will be investigated.
Method
Sample
The sample was 234 eight grade students (128 females, 106 males) attending 7 intact
classes in an elementary school in an urban area. The socio-economic backgrounds of
the students were similar, majority of them coming from middle class families. The
mean age of the students was 14,07 years (SD=,34 range=2).
190
Instrument
Genetics Achievement Test
Student’s achievement in the unit of genetics was measured using a 20- item
multiple-choice test constructed by the researchers. Items in the test were related to
Mendelian Genetics. Content validity of each item in the test was determined by a
group of experts in biology, biology education, and measurement and evaluation. The
classroom teacher also analysed the relatedness of the test items to the instructional
objectives. The reliability coefficient computed by Cronbach’s alpha estimates of
internal consistency of this test was found to be ,63.
Treatment
Each of two instructional methods (the PBL vs. traditional instruction) was
randomly assigned to seven intact classes. Accordingly, there were 4 experimental
groups and 3 control groups. Students in the control groups were taught by traditional
instruction which was based upon lessons with lecture/questioning methods to teach
concepts. Teaching strategies relied on teacher explanations, discussions and
textbooks. However, students in the experimental groups were instructed by student-
centred PBL method. In the PBL classes students were introduced to problems with no
single solution and they worked in small heterogeneous groups to deal with the
problems and identify what they know and what they need to know. They
brainstormed and generated ideas and hypotheses related to the problem and decided
on the learning issues. Then, each student in a group conducted independent study
searching for information regarding learning issues in relation to problem situation.
Students shared the information that they gained with other students in their groups.
Students discussed new knowledge and revised their previous ideas, hypotheses based
on new knowledge. These processes continued until the groups were satisfied that
sufficient basic science was learned. Actually, during these processes, it was
emphasized that purpose is not to find a quick solution to problems but learning
underlying concepts and principles.
Results
An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted to assess the effect of

treatment on students’ achievement. The independent variable was the treatment (the
PBL and traditional instruction). The dependent variable was scores on the genetics
achievement test measuring students’ achievement in the unit of genetics. Students’
scores on the test before the treatment were used as a covariate to remove the variation
in the dependent variable that is due to the students’ prior knowledge. Before
conducting ANCOVA, key assumptions such as linearity, homogeneity of regression
slopes, homogeneity of variance, and normality were checked. Scatterplots were used
to check the linearity assumption for each of the groups. Moreover, coefficient of
determination (r2) was calculated for different levels of independent variable to
determine the strength of relationship between students’ prior knowledge and their
achievement. Coefficients of determinations for students in the experimental and
control groups were 0.22 and 0.09, respectively. Also, the relationship between the
191
covariate and dependent variable for each group was found to be the same, F(2, 230) =
1.07, p = 0.303. Therefore, there was no violation of homogeneity of regression
slopes assumption. In addition, results of Levene’s test of equality of variances
showed that variability of the scores for each group was similar, F(1, 232) = 0.50 , p =
0.480. Moreover, skewness and kurtosis values ranging from -0.008 to 0.144 and -
0.299 to -0.527, respectively showed that there was no serious violation of normality
assumption. In fact, with large sample sizes (n > 30) violation of the normality
assumption does not cause any major problems (Stevens, 1996).
After checking the key assumptions, ANCOVA was conducted (Table I). The
results showed that there was a statistically significant difference in achievement
scores for students in the experimental and control groups, while controlling for their
prior knowledge, F(2, 231) = 5.92, p= 0.016. When mean scores were considered, it
was found that the PBL students (M=11.16 and SD=3.29) were more successful on the
test compared to control groups students (M=10.91 and SD=3.38). However, the effect
size was found to be small (eta squared=0.03). In addition, results showed that there
was a strong relationship between prior knowledge and achievement, as indicated by
an eta-squared value of 0.14.
Table1 Summary of ANCOVA

Source df F p η2
Prior Knowledge 1 37.43 0.000 0.14
Treatment 1 5.92 0.016 0.03
Error 113
Discussion
The present study aimed at comparing the effect of the PBL and traditional
instruction on elementary school students’ achievement in the unit of genetics. Results
showed that students instructed by the PBL had higher mean scores on the genetics
achievement test. This result can be due to the fact that PBL is assumed to increase
higher order thinking skills during the process of dealing with problems with no single
solution, working in groups, and being guided by teachers and peers (Song et al,
2006). In fact, meaningful understanding of genetics requires higher order thinking
skills and rote memorization is not sufficient to promote learning in genetics (Cavallo,
1996). Actually, in the present study many of the items were on comprehension level
and above in Bloom’s taxonomy. Therefore, to be able to answer the questions
correctly, students had to realize interrelationships among the concepts and apply their
knowledge about genetics. Accordingly, it is suggested that problems used in the PBL
classes encourage students to apply their newly constructed knowledge and to take
alternative point of views and strategies into consideration. In fact, Savery and Duffy
(1995) suggested that opportunities given to students in the PBL classes to gain
information independently and through interaction with their environment help them
internalize knowledge. However, at this point it should be noted that in the present
study effect size was found to be small. The reason for this finding can be that the
PBL was a new approach for the students who were used to being passive in the
learning process. If the duration of implementation was longer and not restricted to
one unit, effect size could have been found differently. In addition, if retention was
measured, the effectiveness of the PBL might have been more obvious. In fact, Dochy,
Segers, Van den Bossche and Gijbels (2003) reported that students in the PBL
remember more of the acquired knowledge and apply it more proficiently. In addition,
192
they suggested that observed effects of the PBL depends on how the knowledge and
skills are assessed, and the better the instrument is capable of evaluating skills to
transfer the knowledge, the larger the ascertained effect of PBL. Moreover, it should
be noted that dealing with authentic problems is a complex process which requires
sophisticated skills and a tolerance for uncertainty and not all teachers and students
have an innate capacity for such skills. Therefore, there is need for being grounded in
the realities of teachers’ and students’ school lives and designing learning
environments where students are provided with authentic learning experiences of
increasing ambiguity (Gordon, 1998).
References
Archilles, C. M., & Hoover, S. P. (1996). Exploring problem-based learning (PBL) in Grades
6-12. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research
Association, Tuscaloosa.
Bahar, M., Johnstone, A. H., & Hansell, M. H. (1999). Revisiting learning difficulties in
Biology. Journal of Biological Education, 33(2), 84-86.
Cavallo, A. M. L. (1996). Meaningful learning, reasoning ability, and students’ understanding
and problem solving of topics in Genetics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
33(6), 625-656.
Chin, C., & Chia, L. (2006). Problem-based learning: Using ill-structured problems in Biology
project work. Science Education, 90(1), 44-67.
Dochy, F., Segers, M., Van den Bossche, P., Gijbels, D. (2003). Effects of problem-based
learning: a meta-analysis. Learning and Instruction, 13, 533-568.
Gallagher, S. A., & Stepien, W. J. (1995). Implementing problem-based learning in Science
classrooms. School Science & Mathematics, 95(3), 136-146.
Gordon, P. R., Rogers A. M., Comfort, M., Gavula, N., & McGee, B. P. (2001). A taste of
problem-based learning increases achievement of urban minority middle-school students.
Educational Horizons, 79(4), 171-175.
Gordon, R. (1998). Balancing real-world problems with real-word results. Phi Delta Kappan,
79(5), 390-393.
Grow, P. G., & Plucker, J., A. (2003). Good problems to have. The science teacher, 70(9), 31-
35.
Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn?
Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 235-266.
Lewis, J., & Leach, J. (2004). Traits, genes, particles and information: Re-visiting students’
understandings of genetics. International Journal of Science Education, 26(2), 165-206.
Lewis, J., Leach, J., & Wood-Robinson, C. (2000a). All in the genes? – Young people’s
understanding of the nature of genes. Journal of Biological Education, 34(2), 74-79.
Lewis, J., Leach, J., & Wood-Robinson, C. (2000c). Chromosomes: The missing link - Young
people’s understanding of mitosis, meiosis, and fertilization. Journal of Biological
Education, 34(4), 189-199.
Lewis, J., Leach, J., & Wood-Robinson, C. (2000b). What’s in a cell? - Young people’s
understanding of the genetic relationship between cells, within an individual. Journal of
Biological Education, 34(3), 129-132.
Lewis, J., & Wood-Robinson, C. (2000). Genes, chromosomes, cell division and inheritance –
Do students see any relationship? International Journal of Science Education, 22(2), 177-
195.
McBroom, D. G., & McBroom, W. H. (2001). Teaching molecular genetics to secondary
students: An illustration and evaluation using problem-based learning. Problem Log, 6, 2-
4.
193
Sage, S. M. (1996). A qualitative examination of problem-based learning at the K-8 Level:

Preliminary findings. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South
Educational Research Association. New York.
Savery, J.R. & Duffy, T, M. (1995). Problem-based learning: An instructional model and its
constructivist framework. Educational Technology. 35, 31-38.
Savoie, J. M., & Hughes, A. S. (1994). Problem-based learning as classroom solution.
Educational Leadership, 52(3), 54-57.
Song, H., Grabowski, B. L., Koszalka, T. A., & Harkness, W. L. (2006). Patterns of
instructional-design factors prompting reflective thinking in middle-school and college
level problem-based learning environments. Instructional Science, 34, 63-87.
Stepian, W., & Gallagher, S. A. (1993). Problem-based learning: As authentic as it gets.
Educational Leadership, 510(7), 25-28.
Stevens, J. (1996). Applied multivariate statistics for the social science. (3rd ed.). Mahwah,
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Wood-Robinson, C., Lewis, J., & Leach, J. (2000). Young people’s understanding of the nature
of genetic information in the cells of an organism. Journal of Biological Education, 35(1),
29-36.
194
Did Lessons in Environmental Education Lead to Different Children
Activities than Lessons in Natural and Social Studies
18
Did Lessons in Environmental Education
Lead to Different Children Activities than
Lessons in Natural and Social Studies
Vlasta Hus, University of Maribor
M
odern didactics is geared toward a greater active role of the pupils in the
educational process. Educational activities should be organised in such a
manner that the “pupil’s mind and soul would not merely express
themselves, but also form themselves, so that his psycho-physical
functions would not just be the conditions for learning but also the result of learning”
(Strmcnik, 1996: 103). Such view of the active role of pupils in the educational
process has its philosophical, sociological and psychological background. With the
curricular reform of the primary school system in the Republic of Slovenia (1998) the
individual pupil and his development became one of the basic general goals of the
reform. And the psychological basis of the classes was recognising the findings of the
humanist and cognitive theory of learning and teaching (The guidelines of the
curricular reform, 1996).
Under the influence of theoretical suppositions of cognitive, humanist and critical
psychology, new, more suitable views on learning of various origins developed.
Despite this diversity they have many things in common. We speak of significant or
important learning, of “live” and “constructive” learning, of learning from
“experience”, and of “inventiveness” in the process of learning. All the above
mentioned, however, share the fact that they do not see learning as a process of
“acquiring knowledge, skills and habits”, but broader as a process of “progressive
permanent changing of the individual on the basis of his own experience.” What and
how the individual will learn is significantly influenced by his existing knowledge,
viewpoints, expectations, emotions and his social framework” (Marentic Pozarnik,
1998: 252-255). These views were the basis for the formation of the curriculum for the
subject Environmental Education (EE), which has replaced the subject Early Social
and Natural Studies in Slovene primary schools.
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The Definition of the Research Problem
“By demanding a more active role we are not solving the problem itself. To
demand is relatively easy. It is necessary to proceed from a mere demand to its
practical realisation.” (Poljak, 1975: 178).
The present research wishes to determine how the activities for pupils planned in
the national curriculum for the subject Environmental Education are being realised in
practice and whether there are in this respect any quantitative differences between
classes in Environmental Education and those in Natural and Social Studies. Thus the
following research questions were asked:
1. Which types of activities of pupils prevailed during classes?

2. To what extent are students mentally active during classes and which
mental activities prevail?
3. To what extent are students physically active during classes and which
physical activities prevail?
4. To what extent do the pupils express themselves during classes and which
activities relating to expression prevail?
5. How frequently students employ their senses during classes and which of
them prevail?
6. Are the established activities of pupils in accordance with set educational
goals?
7. Are the established activities of pupils in accordance with their level of
development?
The study of classroom activities is methodologically complicated since activities

do not appear as pure individual activities, but as compound ones. It is frequently
difficult to differentiate between e.g. motor activities and expressive ones. Some of
them are more obvious, while others are hard to discern, especially the mental
activities (Bognar, 1987).
Methodology
The basic research method was the causal-nonexperimental method of

pedagogical research. Lessons in Environmental Education, and those in Early Natural
and Social Studies were being monitored during the first year of the implementation of
the primary school reform. Four schools in the organisational unit ZRSŠ (Institute of
the Republic of Slovenia for Education) Maribor were chosen as sample units. At two
of them, classes in Environmental Education were observed, whereas at the other two
classes on Early Natural and Social Studies were under inspection. At each school one
classroom unit was chosen. The number of pupils in that unit was a criterion in this
choice. A protocol, produced for this particular occasion, was used as the instrument
of monitoring. It consisted of lines and columns. The lines defined the pupils’
activities, whereas the columns (there were nine of them) denoted 5-minute intervals.
The classification of pupils’ activities was adapted from Bogner (1987).
The procedure of data collecting comprised three topics, namely We are having a
party, The Garden and The orchard. Each topic was dealt with for three hours. 18
hours of classroom recordings were made in each of both subjects. We were assisted
196
in the collection of data by students from the Department of Elementary Education at

the Faculty of Education in Maribor. They had received prior training for the task.
Quantitative and qualitative data processing procedures were used in the research.
Some correlations between variables were tested with the chi-square test.
Results and Interpretations
Which Types of Pupils’ Activities Prevail During Lessons?
Table 1. Types of Activities Attested During Lessons in Environmental Education and

in Early Natural and Social Studies
EE NSS
PUPILS' ACTIVITIES f f% f f%
PHYSICAL 486 26.9 586 22.3
SENSORY 367 20.3 323 12.7
MENTAL 415 23.0 741 29.1
EXPRESSIVE 538 29.8 912 35.8
TOTAL 1806 100.0 2544 100.0
2 i = 76.01 > χ2 ( P = 0.001, g = 3) = 16.27
A statistically significant difference exists between classes in Environmental

Education and those in Early Natural and Social Studies relating to the
representedness of individual types of pupils’ activities during lessons. Lessons in
Environmental Education attest a higher amount of physical and sensory activities of
students, while lessons in Early Natural and Social Studies attested more expressive
and mental ones. Reasons for the difference in the attested activities were sought in
the different conceptual origins of both subjects and in their basic emphases, that is in
the planning of the curriculum in terms of the educational goals or the educational
contents, respectively; in the prevailing inductive or deductive methods of learning,
respectively; and in the different psychological justifications of the learning process.
The table shows that lessons in Environmental Education attested 30% less activities
than lessons in Early Natural and Social Studies. However, it is necessary to consider
that the latter involved a larger amount of inappropriate learning teaching activities,
namely e.g. in the case of physical activities they amounted up to 38% of a lesson.
How Many Pupils are Mentally Active During Lessons and which Mental Activities
Prevail?
A larger amount of pupils’ mental activities was observed during lessons in

Natural and Social Studies than during Environmental education. The most frequent
mental activities during Early Natural and Social Studies were: enumeration (10%),
naming (9.3%), explanation (8.5%), recognition (7.7%), conclusion (7.2%),
participation (6.7%), solving mental tasks (6.5%), revision (3.5%),…
The most frequent mental activities during lessons in Natural and Social Studies
were: recognition (13.2%), participation (12.5%), explanation (10.3%), choosing/
depicting (8.4%), enumeration (7.7%), naming (6%), conclusion (4.8%), distribution
(4.5%), arranging (3.6%), etc.
In the case of both subjects, pupils’ activities at a lower mental level (according to
Bloom) prevailed. This finding entirely corresponds with the number and level of
197
questions asked/given during lessons in both subjects. In the method of conversation,

which was the one of the prevailing methods in Early Natural and Social Studies
classes, the teacher gave a number of questions (78 per lesson). As much as 91.6% of
them were at a lower level. In Environmental Education classes there was less of the
conversational method (the laboratory-experimental teaching method prevailed),
which is why there were also fewer questions (60% less). As many as 94.1% of the
latter were of a lower level.
During lessons in Environmental Education, the pupils developed their mental
capacities through practical activities rather than through conversation. They were
able to make a butterfly, take a role in a play, play games restricted by rules, etc. It
was impossible to gain insight into these mental activities merely by observation,
since we recorded only that which the pupil manifested on the outside. The largest
number of mental activities was attested in the following educational stages:
introduction of the pupils to the new content and dealing with the new content. As
regards topics, mental activities prevailed in the one dealing with Partying.
To what Extent are Pupils Physically Active During Classes and which Physical
Activities Prevail?
Pupils’ physical activities were more frequent and varied in the case of lessons in
Environmental Education than in Early Natural and Social Studies. Differences
between lessons in one and the other show also in the prevailing physical activities of
the pupils. In the case of Environmental Education the pupils most frequently
manipulated with objects (17.5%), took walks in the classroom (13.7%), sat in their
seats (10%), sat on cushions (8.4%), raised their hands (4.9%), took a stroll outside the
classroom (4.5%), stood on the desk (4.3%), shaped things (3.7%), etc. In Early
Natural and Social Studies classes they most frequently got up and walked around
(23%), played (22.5%), wiggled their feet (13%), lay down (12.5%), manipulated with
objects (11.4%), sat on a carpet (63%), tidied up the place (4.6%), and collected things
(3.2%).
The prevailing physical activities of pupils in Environmental Education classes
were conditioned by the prevailing educational phase (training), educational
formation (group) and working method (laboratory-experimental). The pupils not only
operated with various materials and tools a lot, but also extensively challenged their
physical skills both inside and outside the classroom. They took brief instructive
excursions (instructive walks), where they familiarised with the world they live in
through primary sources of knowledge. There were as much as 44% of such
instructive lessons, much more than at Early Natural and Social Studies classes, where
there were only 22% of such lessons. In the case of both subjects such lessons
prevailed in the topics Garden and Meadow, namely in the field of natural sciences.
Early Natural and Social Studies lessons attested also physical activities which are
according to Furlan considered unsuitable. “If a pupil is involved in an activity which
has nothing to do with the lesson he is participating in, his activity is said to be
inappropriate. Such inappropriate activity not only does not contribute to his
learning/education, but as a rule hinders it” (Furlan, 1972: 29-30).
Some such inappropriate activities of pupils occurring during Early Natural and
Social Studies classes are: communicating with classmates, wiggling with ones feet,
lying on the table, fooling around with objects on the table, drinking water, etc. There
were 38% of such activities on average per lesson. They excelled in school A when
198
dealing with the topic Garden during revisions (62%) and in school B as they dealt
with the topic We are having a party when a lesson was being introduced (60%).
The occurrence of inappropriate activities of pupils during Early Natural and
Social Studies lessons could be explained as a reaction of the pupils to excessively
frontally guided classes where the verbal textual teaching methods prevailed and
where the pupils needs for movement and play were not sufficiently taken into
consideration. Students should have more opportunity to move around, lie down, lean
against things, take walks, relax,…since such activities strongly support learning. “In
school such opportunities are objectively restricted, but this does not hold when it
comes to the pupils sitting straight and calm in their seats” (Strmčnik, 1996: 105).
And it was particularly the psychological physiological discoveries that pointed
out the importance of kinaesthetic feelings during the process of learning. They are
believed to enable better understanding, memorising and application of knowledge.
To what Extent the Pupils Express Themselves During in Classes and which
Expressive Activities Prevail?
The pupils were more expressively active during Early Natural and Social Studies
classes and less during Environmental Studies classes. In the latter the prevailing
activities were: communicating with classmates (20.2%), communicating with the
teacher (20%), responding to questions (16.9%), asking the teacher questions (10.9%),
artistic expression (5.9%), reading (3.1%). In the former the prevailing activities of the
pupils were: responding to questions (14.6%), conversation with the classmates
(13%), conversation with the teacher (12.9%), asking questions (11%), reading
(8.2%), taking notes (6.7%), describing things (5.7%), narrating (5%), etc.
The expressive activities are the prevailing activities of pupils in Early Natural
and Social Studies classes. The pupils mostly gave answers to the teacher’s questions.
These were either oral or written. The pupils only seldom expressed themselves orally.
In 17 out of 18 lessons they spoke up to as little as 30% of the lesson’s duration. The
pupils responded to questions more frequently through the written medium, i.e. with
the help of work-sheets.
The expressive activities of pupils included also some such activities (11% on
average in every lesson), which were not related with the lesson itself. The prevailing
activity was communication with the classmates. The same thing as in the case of
inappropriate physical activities could be said for inappropriate expressive activities.
These, too, can be regarded as a pupils’ reaction to their often too frequently
overlooked need for socialising with his peers and the need for exchange of opinion
with them.
In Environmental Education classes the pupils could frequently exchange opinions
among each other. The external as well as internal organisation of the lessons greatly
contributed to this. The pupils also had more opportunities to speak freely with the
teacher. This happened mostly during practical work.
How frequently do Children use their Senses During Classes and which Ones
Prevail?
The pupils used their senses more extensively during Environmental Education
lessons than in Early Natural and Social Studies. The differences between the lessons
showed also in prevailing sensory activities of pupils. In Environmental Education
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lessons observing prevailed, whereas in the Early Natural and Social Studies ones
listening did.
The differences in the attested sensory activities of the pupils were conditioned
particularly by the different methodical-didactic structuring of the lessons in the case
of both subjects. As regards the teaching methods, it can be said that in the case of
Environmental Education, the demonstrative-illustrative method prevails (thus
observing as a response) over the verbal-textual teaching method prevailing in the
lessons in Early Natural and Social Studies (thus listening as a response).
The different ways of accounting for the sensory activities during lessons in the
compared subjects are most possibly the result of the teacher’s or caretaker’s level of
awareness of the role of sense perceptions in the process of cognition, and the
perceptive system she will give priority to. It has been established that a well-thought-
out combination of all the senses gives the most efficient pieces of information. It is
important for the teacher to behave accordingly, in order for her to provide all the
pupils, i.e. those with visual as well as those with kinaesthetic and auditive priority
perceptive channels, with the appropriate experience. Tomič (1999) calls such
teaching multiple-sensory or learning with all the senses. Sensory experience is a
precondition for the pupil’s arriving (through remaking it and through mental
activities) at the essence of cognitive reality.
Are the Attested Activities of the Pupils in Accordance with the Set Educational
Goals?
One might say that the differences exist between the classes in Environmental
Education and those in Early Natural and Social Studies relating to activities of pupils
regarding the realisation of set educational goals. In the realisation of cognitive
educational goals, which prevailed in the syllabus for both subjects, they were realised
in lessons in Environmental Education more in terms of expressive and physical
activities of the pupils, while in lessons in Early Natural and Social Studies they were
realised more in terms of expressive and mental activities of the pupils.
It would be easier to determine the realisation of the teaching goals defined in the
preparations if the latter were written in an operative form, namely in such a manner
that the expected activity on the side of the pupil were expressed more clearly and
mono-semantically. In reality the teaching goals prevailed which were written on a
relatively general level which made the determining of their realisation difficult if not
almost impossible.
Are the Attested Activities of the Pupils Suitable for their Level of Development?
The attested activities of the pupils were, considering the pupils’ level of
development, more appropriate in Environmental Education lessons than in lesson on
Early Natural and Social Studies.
The basic needs of children at this age are the needs for activity, movement and
socialising with peers. There is also the presence of the need for confirmation and
accomplishment. The pupils attending lessons in Environmental Education were able
to realise these needs through their activities better than those attending Early Natural
and Social Studies lessons. In the latter this showed among other things in the higher
number of inappropriate activities of the pupils, particularly the physical ones (38%
per lesson on average).
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Conclusion
It is possible to conclude that the planned activities of the pupils are witnessing a
fairly good realisation in practice through the subject Environmental Education. The
lessons are mainly organised in such a manner that the pupils arrive at new discoveries
through concrete activities, guided by the teachers and caretakers and usually
concluded by some product by the pupil. With the attested activities of the pupils
mainly the cognitively planned teaching goals were realised. The chosen activities
were to a large extent in accordance with the developmental needs of the children.
However, some deficiencies were also observed. The teaching goals in lesson
planning were not sufficiently operationalised, the activities of the pupils not being
transparent enough in them. It was observed that the pupils were not active enough in
the sole planning of the individual topic, that their experience and prior knowledge
were not taken into consideration enough. There is also not enough of making the
pupils aware of how they came to learn something, or proceding from manual skills to
expressing what they had made and further on to reflecting on how they had made it.
All these phases are of vital importance and linked with learning through experience.
However, despite the mentioned difficulties, one could say that quantitative and
qualitative changes are occurring in the activities of pupils in the learning process of
lessons in Environmental Education compared to lessons in Early Natural and Social
Studies.
References
Adamič, M. (1990): Spoznavanje narave in družbe (1. do 3. razred) (Natural and Social Studies
– from 1st to 3rd grade). In: Logar, T.(ed.), Evalvacija programa življenja in dela osnovne
šole. Ljubljana: Zavod RS za šolstvo.
Bognar, L. (1987): Igra pri pouku na začetku šolanja (Games in classes in the initial stages of
school). Ljubljana: Državna založba Slovenije.
Furlan, I. (1972): Pažnja učenika osnovne škole (Attention span with primary school students).
Zagreb: Pogledi i iskustva u reformi školstva, No. 5.
Krnel, D. (1996): Nastajanje nove podobe predmeta Spoznavanje okolja v prvem triletju
osnovne šole (The making of a new image for the subject Environmental Studies in the
first three years of primary school). Ljubljana: PRKK za Spoznavanje okolja.
Labinowicz, E. (1989): Izvirni Piaget (The original Piaget). Ljubljana: DZS
Marentič-Požarnik, B. (1991): Pomen operativnega oblikovanja vzgojno izobraževalnih
smotrov za uspešnejši pouk (The importance of operative shaping of the educational goals
for more efficient classes). In: Blažič, M. (ed.), Izbrana poglavja iz didaktike. Novo
Mesto: Pedagoška obzorja.
Marentič-Požarnik, B. (1980): Kakšno vprašanje, takšen odgovor (Like question, like answer).
Ljubljana: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo.
Marentič-Požarnik, B. (1998): Kako pomembna so pojmovanja znanja, učenja in poučevanja
za uspeh kurikularne prenove (The importance of comprehension of knowledge, learning
and teaching for the success of curricular reforms). Ljubljana: Sodobna pedagogika, Year
49, No. 3, pp. 244-261.
Nacionalni kurikularni svet. (1996): Izhodišča kurikularne prenove (The guidelines of the
curricular refoms). Ljubljana.
Nacionalni kurikularni svet. (1998): Učni načrt spoznavanje okolja (Syllabus for the subject
Environmental studies).
Poljak, V. (1975): Obrada nastavnih sadržaja i stjecanje znanja (Handling of teaching material
and achieving knowledge). Zagreb: PKZ.
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Strmčnik, F. (1996): Učna aktivnost učencev in učiteljev (Learning activities of students and
teachers). Ljubljana: Sodobna pedagogika, No.3-4.
Tomić, A. (1999): Izbrana poglavja iz didaktike (Selected chapters in didactics). Ljubljana:
Center FF za pedagoško izobraževanje.
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School Textbook Research: A New Method
19
Janez Justin, Educational Research Institute
H
istory textbooks have often been investigated on the assumption that they
communicate to students disturbing ideas about nations and territories.
However, in history textbook production there is increasingly more expert
and social control over final products. Therefore, any attempt to overtly
communicate to students ideas that are incoherent with widely accepted standards of
political correctness would soon get detected and socially sanctioned. As a result,
'incorrect' ideas about the past of a nation, its identity or territory get communicated
covertly, i.e. implicitly. What forms of implicit communication can we think of?
First, there are single expressions that can do the job. One can think of such
rhetorical figures as presupposition, implication, understatement, insinuation,
paralogism, parataxis, ellipsis, metaphor, metonymy etc.
But the idea that almost any single linguistic utterance conveys more cognitive
content than it explicitly expresses is a more general one. Theories of linguistic
communication labeled as pragmatic distinguish between sentence meaning and
broader utterance meaning. When interpreting an utterance an interpreter does not only
decode word meaning and sentence meaning. He/she also makes inferences about
those aspects of utterance meaning that result from the fact that a sentence was used in
a particular situation and with a certain communicative intention which may not be
fully expressed.
Among various kinds of linguistic utterances that serve as means of knowledge
transmission there is one kind that occupies a central place: assertions. An assertion
can be viewed as consisting of different sorts of assumptions. Some of the assumptions
are explicitly expressed; i.e. they are contained in what people actually tell each other.
Other assumptions are implicitly conveyed, or implicated, i.e. they result from the
activity in which people get other people to think something (Grice, 1975, Sperber &
Wilson, 1998).
Finally, it is not only when interpreting single utterances that a reader discovers
implicit meanings. Such meanings may result from his/her interpretation of sets of
utterances, i.e. of the way they relate to each other. The style that textbook authors use
can be more or less elliptic. All texts are semantically incomplete. Whenever an
interpreter notices gaps in a text surface structure, i.e. observes that text meaning is
incomplete, this is for him/her a strong signal that there is additional meaning to be
inferred.
203
Discourse analysis that aims at reconstructing implicitly communicated meanings

has a long tradition. One of the first examples of such analysis can be found in
Quintilian’s Institutiones Oratoriae where he gave a description of the main motives
for the use of what he called 'insinuatio'. According to the Roman writer, the motive
for conveying certain meanings in the form of insinuation lies either
- in a speaker's lack of certainty about what he would like to communicate

to a hearer
- or in a speaker’s conviction that overt communication of a certain
content would be inappropriate (Institutiones Oratoriae, IX, 2)
A contemporary French linguist Catherine Kerbrat-Orecchioni also described

possible motives speakers might have for using implicit forms of communication. One
of them is the speaker's intention to outplay a moral, political or legal censorship
(Kerbrat-Orecchioni, 1986, 277). This could be taken as a reference to instances of
implicit communication in history textbooks that are aimed at outplaying the norms of
political correctness.
However, I shall not be dealing here only with inappropriate implicit messages
that history textbooks might communicate to students. A textbook discourse can
produce cognitive effects on students beyond message (explicit or implicit), just by
directing them to specific background representations they have to entertain in order to
reconstruct what is missing in the surface structure of that discourse.
Is it really necessary that textbook research pays so much attention to theoretical
debates? The debate of which I am going to present a small fragment can help see that
textbooks produce on students at least one kind of cognitive effect that traditional
textbook research has never accounted for. So let me discuss for a moment the way
one of the pragmatic theories of communication approaches the inference process in
which interpreters reconstruct implicit meanings. I believe that the theory I have in
mind – the so-called relevance theory – can make a great contribution to the type of
textbook research that focuses on 'collateral' cognitive and epistemic effects textbooks
can produce on students.
A Relevance-Theoretical Account of Inferences Triggered by Gaps in Didactic Text

Surface Structure
Relevance theory created by Sperber and Wilson in 1980s gives us a pretty clear
picture of how a reader who interprets semantically incomplete discourse fills in the
gaps. In order to reconstruct what is missing in a text surface structure, he/she has to
base his/her inferences on certain background assumptions he/she accesses in his/her
long-term memory. But just how does he/she manage to access the right background
assumption? Part of the answer is in the following: He/she accesses and uses the
background assumption he/she has reason to believe to be the assumption the
speaker/writer has implicated in his utterance act.
The question remains as to what criterion an interpreter employs in doing so.
Before trying to answer the question we must get a clearer view of the role background
assumptions are supposed to play in inference process. Let us consider an example
taken form a Slovene history textbook, more precisely, from a chapter that deals with
one of the First World War battlefields, the one in Soča (It. – Isonzo) valley where the
Austrian army was facing the Italian army.
204
/1/
The Slovene and Croatian regiments in the Austrian army were the bravest.
In eleven offensives the Italian army, that was twice as big, could not break
through the front line. (Nesovic & Prunk, 1996, 16)
The two sentences are juxtaposed without being connected with argumentative or
any other sort of connective. In rhetoric such juxtaposition of two sentences is called
parataxis. The content of the fragment is somewhat odd. First, a small fraction of the
Austrian army is attributed an outstanding courage. Then we learn about weak
performance of the Italian army that was trying to break through the Austrian lines.
What seems to be missing is a clear statement how the two sentences are to be
connected. What was the reason for the Italian army's failure? The text does not
explicitly mention any, but there is no doubt what most students would regard as a
reason.
They would intuitively recognize in /1/ the implicature that it must be the courage
of the Slovene and Croatian regiments that was the reason for the Italian army's
failure. However, more than intuition is needed to explain how they would recognize
such an implicature. Let me put it this way: In his/her search for the implicated
meaning an interpreter would activate the following background assumption:
/2/
If an army is composed of some brave regiments the opposite army can not
break through its lines even if twice as big.
More precisely, an interpreter would make the following assumption: The author
had access to the assumption /2/ and used it in the production of the fragment as he/she
assumed that the assumption /2/ is also part of the background knowledge the
interpreter has and thus the author and the interpreter share. What the interpreter has to
do now - according to the authors of relevance theory - is some deductive reasoning.
He/she uses the selected background assumption as a premise for some conclusion.
After having retrieved the assumption /2/ from his/her memory the interpreter is in
fact supposed to draw his/her conclusion from two premises:
/3/
Premise 1: If an army is composed of some brave regiments the opposite
army can not break through its lines even if twice as big.
Premise 2: The Austrian army was composed of some brave Slovene and
Croatian regiments.
Conclusion 1: The courage of the Slovene and Croatian regiments caused
the Italian army's failure.
Premise 1 is derived from a background representation which is easily accessible in

our culture. The representation of heroic fighting leading to a triumph over a stronger
enemy is broadly distributed in it.
As the authors of relevance theory might argue, this is an oversimplified version of
the process going on in an interpreter's mind. They pay attention to the fact that
implicatures may be characterized by some degree of indeterminacy, i.e., premises and
conclusions may be strongly or weakly implicated. An interpreter may be only weakly
encouraged to use a background assumption as the implicated assumption (Sperber &
205
Wilson, 1986, 109). Besides, he/she may not use exactly the same assumption a
speaker (an author) implicated in his/her utterance. He/she only tries to come as close
to it as possible. Sperber and Wilson know that in communication there is no
duplication of thoughts but only a possible increase in mutuality of different
individuals’ cognitive environments (Sperber and Wilson, 1986, 200).
Let us have a closer look at example /1/. There is no context linking the second
statement to the first one. An interpreter can only construct such a context by selecting
an adequate background assumption or a set of background assumptions. How does
he/she do that? What makes him/her believe that the assumption formulated in premise
1 is the most adequate background assumption he/she can use in order to link the
second statement to the first one, and to recover the implicit meaning of the second
statement?
Classical versions of pragmatic theory pay little if any attention to the question just
raised. The context is generally seen as something given and known by both the author
and the interpreter of a statement, and knowledge of the context is considered as the
interpreter's point of departure. According to relevance theory knowledge of the
context is something resulting from inferential interpretation of utterances. What
Sperber and Wilson consider as given is not the context but relevance of what is
communicated (Sperber and Wilson, 1986, 142). More precisely, they claim that
utterances communicate to interpreters the presumption of their optimal relevance
(Sperber and Wilson, 1986, 162).
One of the crucial points relevance theory made in this framework is in the
following: When interpreting semantically incomplete utterances interpreters are going
to select the background assumptions that can produce the strongest possible effect in
their cognitive environment, requiring at the same time from interpreters the least
possible effort. What determines the degree of relevance of a background assumption
is the ratio between the effort that processing of an assumption would require from an
interpreter, and the effect that processing has on an interpreter's cognitive
environment.
An additional question emerges: When can be a cognitive effect considered as
strong? According to Sperber and Wilson it can be considered as such if new
information resulting from inference process modifies or improves importantly
assumptions an interpreter entertained so far, and improves significantly his/her
representations of the world. There would be strong effect if a conclusion causes an
old assumption to be abandoned or if it strengthens an old assumption by providing
new evidence for it (Sperber and Wilson, 1986, 109).
Let us now return to /1/. I said that in order for an interpreter to use premise 1 in
his/her interpretation of /1/, he /she must have access to an adequate background
assumption. The latter becomes - together with the interpreter's assumption that the
speaker has a share in it – the cognitive basis for the interpreter's production of
premise 1.
Suppose the interpreter is someone who has good knowledge of Slovene language
but no knowledge of what Slovenes think of themselves in terms of courage. Could
he/she produce premise 1 after having read /1/? The authors of relevance theory would
give a negative answer to that. Premise 1 can not be used by the interpreter if he/she
has no access to the set of assumptions containing the assumption from which premise
1 is derived.
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An Impass in Relevance-Theoretical Account
No matter what potentials relevance theory might have for textbook research – or
more precisely, for explaining how students interpret semantically incomplete
textbook discourse – it still has some deficiencies. First of all, what relevance theory is
focused on are implicit meanings or implicatures. They are sensed to be the implicit
part of a linguistic message structure. Relevance theory almost completely overlooks
an interesting aspect of the reasoning process triggered by such semantically
incomplete text surface structures as /1/. Namely, the implicated premise 1 is just a
means an interpreter uses to inferentially reconstruct the author's implicit message. It is
not part of the message. The author did not transmit this premise to students. It is only
true that the latter access a background representation and produce this premise in
view of getting a coherent message. This, however, does not diminish the importance
of premise 1. Its representational content defines the perspective in which interpreters
are to view the author's second statement in /1/ (‘the Italian army could not break
through the front line’) as well as to look for the connection between the first and the
second statement. This is something relevance theory has not accounted for.
There is another weak point in the relevance-theoretical account. When
interpreting a semantically incomplete text interpreters are supposed to make
inferences that, according to Sperber and Wilson, are deductions. A question arises as
to the presuming deductive nature of those inferences.
Deduction is a 'water-tight' construction; the conclusion is necessary if the
premises are true. Now, let us consider once more premise 1: 'If an army is composed
of some brave regiments the opposite army can not break through its lines even if
twice as big.' Its meaning is by no means as categorical as the meaning of premise 3 in:
/4/
Premise 3: All men are mortal.
Premise 4: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion 2: Socrates is mortal.
Premise 3 is as categorical as possible whereas premise 1 implicitly introduces a

continuum of possible meanings, something like: The braver the regiments are, the
harder it is for the opposite army to break through the front line. Above I have
formulated conclusion 1 in the way in which Sperber and Wilson would formulate it:
'The courage of the Slovene and Croatian regiments caused the Italian army's failure.'
Due to the continuum introduced in premise 1 the formulation of the conclusion is
much too categorical (according to Sperber and Wilson, conclusions inherit
uncertainty from premises). In fact, the conjecture-like nature of conclusion 1 would
be better reflected in 'It must be the courage of the Slovene and Croatian regiments
that caused the Italian army's failure.' The epistemic modal verb in 'it must be' does not
really express necessity but rather uncertainty.
Would it not be more reasonable to assume that due to such uncertainty
interpretation of fragments like /1/ takes form of something different from deduction,
something that could be described as tentative, conjecture-like or hypothesis-like
cognitive activity?
207
Abduction Instead of Deduction
C. S. Peirce has provided us with the concept of abduction which I believe gives a
much better description of the cognitive activity in question than the concept of
deduction used in relevance theory. For Peirce, abduction is, along with induction and
deduction, one of the three modes of reasoning or inferring. In his work abduction is
often associated with making a hypothesis or conjecture. He wrote that abduction »is,
after all, nothing but guessing« (Peirce, 7.219). Abduction is motivated »by the feeling
that a theory is needed to explain the surprising facts« (Peirce, 7.220). He also wrote
that »abduction seeks a theory« (Peirce, 7.218). Here is an example of abductive
inference:
Suppose I enter a room and there find a number of bags, containing

different kinds of beans. On the table, there is a handful of white beans;
and, after some searching, I find one of the bags contains white beans
only. I at once infer as a probability, or as a fair guess, that this handful
was taken out of that bag... (Peirce, 2.623)
Sperber's and Wilson's discussion of deductive reasoning is similar to that of

logicians. Namely, it refers to relations between logical propositions. Peirce's account
of deduction, induction and abduction is about a different kind of relations, those
established between components of actions or processes. He does not speak of
premises and conclusions but of cases, rules and results. One might find in that some
sort of logic of explanation of causal (or quasi-causal) phenomena. Here is how Peirce
concieved of three types of inferences: If a general rule and a case are given, we
deduce a result. If a case (or several cases) and a result are given, we induce a general
rule. If a rule and a result are given, we can infer – abduce – a case. But if only a result
is given then we can abduce a rule as well as a case. Considering this last possibility,
Peirce wrote that »very curious circumstances ... would be explained by the
supposition that it was the case of a certain general rule« (Peirce, 2.623 – 2.625).
Let us assume that what the gap in /1/ triggers in an interpreter is abductive and
not deductive reasoning. Can we reconstruct that reasoning? A result can be found in
the second statement in /1/: 'In eleven offensives the Italian army that was twice as big
could not break through the front line.' A rule may be recognized in the background
assumption that students access while interpreting /1/: 'If an army is composed of some
brave regiments the opposite army can not break through its lines even if twice as big.'
The abductive reasoning about what caused the Italian army's failure to break through
the Austrian lines leads to establishing a case. Here is the whole scheme:
/5/
Result: In eleven offensives the Italian army that was twice as big as the
Austrian army could not break through the front line.
Inference to a rule: If an army is composed of some brave regiments the
opposite army can not break through its lines even if twice as big.
Inference to a case (to a cause): It must be the courage of the Slovene and
Croatian regiments that prevented the Italian army to break through the
front line.
The brave Slovene and Croatian regiments' stopping the Italian army is thought to
be a case of a general rule. This fits well with what Peirce said about abduction. In
208
abduction, he said, we depart from a result and infer to a rule and a case or to a case of
a general rule.
A student making such an abduction could be regarded as not just using a
background representation as a support for an inference to a case. He/she should rather
be seen as having been induced by /1/ to (temporarily) appropriate a perspective
established by that background representation. The condition for the fragment /1/ (or
its author) to exert that power - to so act upon a student - is in that the latter has to have
access to a background representation that fits with the incomplete context the text
proposes, and has reason to assume that the author has access to the same background
representation, expecting him/her (i.e. the student) to have access to it too, etc.
How important this is becomes clear if we consider an alternative or perhaps
completive abduction that example /1/ might also trigger in a student. It is quite
probable that nearly all users of the history textbook from which example /1/ is taken
have access to a stereotypical background representation of Italian soldiers as 'lacking
courage'. (The question of the role such stereotypes have in nationalistic ideologies
exceeds the limits of this paper.) The following abduction might also fill in the gap in
example /1/:
/6/
Result: In eleven offensives the Italian army that was twice as big as
the Austrian army could not break through the front line.
First inference to a rule: If an army is composed of soldiers who lack
courage it can not break through a front line even if twice as big as the
opposite army.
Second inference to a rule: In battlefields Italian soldiers (as a rule)
lack courage.
Inference to a case: It must be the Italian soldiers' lack of courage that
prevented the Italian army from breaking through the front line.
Are the two abductions connected? The first inference to a rule in /6/ is different
from inference to the rule in /5/ in that it involves an inversion of perspectives. Instead
of taking courage as a way to victory /6/ takes lack of courage to be a way to defeat.
As a matter of fact, /1/ can be sensed to encourage an interpreter to combine both
perspectives. First, an outstanding courage is explicitly attributed to a small fraction of
one army as a possible cause for the opposite army's failure. This makes it natural for
an interpreter to activate a background representation in which lack of courage is
attributed to the opposite army. The two attributions can be seen as complementary.
To say that almost every Slovene student has easy access to the representation of
Italian soldiers as 'lacking courage' does not entail that he/she believes this to be the
case. Rather, he/she should be regarded as representing others to represent Italian
soldiers in this way. That is, a reader who makes the second inference to a rule in /6/
part of his interpretation of /6/ does not need to entertain any specific propositional
attitude (such as belief) to the object-proposition.
The Carinthian Affaire
I shall now apply the abduction scheme onto four textual fragments found in
Slovene and Austrian history textbooks. The fragments deal with events that occurred
soon after the First World War in what is now Austrian province of Carinthia. After
the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the First World War, the bilingual –
209
German and Slovene speaking – province of Carinthia was claimed both by

Yugoslavia (of which, at the time, Slovenia was part) and by the newly created
Republic of Austria. After both sides had undertaken some military action, Paris peace
conference brought the decision that a plebiscite should take place in Carinthia. As the
majority of the population voted for the Republic of Austria, Carinthia was made part
of that state.
Let us first have a look at how three Slovene history textbooks deal with the issue:
/7/
…irresoluteness of the government in Ljubljana that did not send new
troops…A month later (the Belgrade government) sent the army to
Carinthia which occupied Celovec (Klagenfurt). But it was already too
late. By that time a peace conference in Paris was deliberating upon
the border in Carinthia. After lengthy negotiations … it was agreed
that a decision was to be taken in a plebiscite. Finally, the 10th October
came, the day of the plebiscite… Over… 22 thousand people (59
percent of the adult population) voted for Austria, about 15 thousand
for Yugoslavia… Carinthia, the cradle of the Slovenian nation, was
lost. (Nesovic & Prunk, 1996, 54-55).
/8/
Heavy fighting occurred in Carinthia. Volunteers were (...) fighting on the
Slovene side. However, their activities did not receive a proper support
from the Yugoslavian authorities that had entrusted the question of the
border to a peace conference (...). It was not until six months after the
unification of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia that the Serbian army
intervened on the Slovene northern border but this did not solve the
problem. (...) At that time the Paris conference already decided that there
should be a plebiscite. (Kern, Necak & Repe, 1998, 70)
/9/
The help from the Serbian army came much too late (...), not before May
1919 when it occupied the Celovec (Klagenfurt) basin. At that time the
major powers organizing a peace conference already deliberated on
postwar order. The problem of Carinthia was decided to be solved in a
plebiscite (...) (Dolenc, Gabric & Rode, 1999, 54)
All three fragments clearly express regret that the army did not intervene in time;
when it did intervene it was already too late. Is there anything missing in this
information? Are /7/, /8/ and /9/ semantically incomplete? There is no doubt the
answer should be affirmative. Namely, each time a question emerges: It was TOO
LATE FOR WHAT? Once more we can apply the abduction scheme onto a potential
reasoning process:
/10/
Result: Paris peace conference decided that a plebiscite should take
place.
First inference to a rule: A peace conference decision on plebiscite can
be prevented if an army intervenes in time.
210
Second inference to a rule: If plebiscite is not in the national interest it

is a duty of the government to resolve the conflict by sending the army
in time.
First inference to a case: As a plebiscite was not in the national
interest it was a duty of the government to send the army in time.
Second inference to a case: The government sent the army too late to
prevent the peace conference decision on plebiscite.
There is a gap of the same type in all three textual fragments taken from three
different history textbooks. The gap becomes a signal directing the students to the
same background representation expressed here in the second inference to a rule. As
the representation is – as Quintilian would have it – inappropriate, it is clear why the
authors of the three textbooks could not express it. Interestingly, they even did not
communicate it implicitly, as the abductive inference to a rule is not part of the
implicit message; it is contained in a background representation a student is induced to
activate in order to recognize the implicit part of the message, i.e. the case. It may well
be that such a refined way of – as Kerbrat-Orecchioni would have it – 'outplaying the
censorship' is cognitively quite effective, i.e. that it leaves traces in students’ epistemic
states. But I shall not speculate on that any further.
I do not think I need to argue why in /10/ the second inference to a rule is
'inappropriate'. As a matter of fact, one of the textbooks from which fragments were
taken paradoxically presents the right argument. Following the fragment /9/ we read:
»The plebiscite is the most democratic way of making decisions and resolving
conflicts« (sic!).
Let us now have a look at a textual fragment found in an Austrian textbook of
history that treats the same historical event, the Carinthian plebiscite.
/11/
The Slovene speaking Austrians did not vote for the victorious neighbor
that seemed to be able to offer them more (linguistically, politically and
economically) than the defeated, poor and humiliated Austria: Carinthia
remained undivided (Göbhart-Chvojka, 1988, 58)
Here, 'the victorious neighbor' is, of course, Yugoslavia. The fragment is

semantically incomplete as it leaves students with a mystery: The victorious neighbor
having more to offer in every conceivable sense, why did the 'Slovene speaking
Austrians' vote for Austria at all? Should we look for an answer in the somewhat
triumphant exclamation that 'Carinthia remained undivided'? Does that latter explain
the motives the 'Slovene speaking Austrians' had for voting for Austria? An
application of the abduction scheme helps us obtain an answer:
/12/
Result: The Slovene speaking Austrians did not vote for the victorious
neighbor.
Inference to a rule: Voters may have motives that are higher than
political, economical and linguistic motives (e.g. a wish to preserve a
region's integrity).
Inference to a case: When voting for Austria the Slovene speaking
Austrians had such higher-order motive.
211
The mention of Carinthia's integrity requires some clarification. It relates to the

fact that the first phase of the plebiscite took place in the southern part of the region. It
was agreed that if the result of the first phase was in favor of Yugoslavia the next
phase would take place in the northern part. So at the moment of voting the voters
clearly were facing a possibility that the region would get divided between the two
states.
However, this only clarifies the pathos in the exclamation 'Carinthia remained
undivided', the pathos that comes from retrospection. But the rational purport of the
statement 'Carinthia remained undivided' could hardly be taken as a description of the
motives ‘the Slovene speaking Austrians’ had at the moment of voting. The plebiscite
was meant to bring about a choice between Yugoslavia and Austria, not between the
region being divided or not. After all, Carinthia would also remain undivided if the
majority of votes both in the south and the north of the region were in favor of
Yugoslavia.
Besides, in /12/ the description of the voters as 'the Slovene speaking Austrians'
reveals an odd logical structure. The core proposition is: 'The Slovene speaking
Austrians voted for Austria'. The proposition is supposed to describe the state of affairs
at the very moment of voting. Obviously, at that moment the Slovene speaking voters
were not (yet) 'the Slovene speaking Austrians'. At that moment the possibility of
Carinthia becoming part of Yugoslavia was still open. Taking this into account, a
description of the voters as 'the Slovene speaking Austrians' is also allowing for some
future 'possible world' in which those voters would
i. have Slovene as their mother tongue

ii. be citizens of Yugoslavia
iii.and yet be Austrians (???)
Isn't it true that what the plebiscite was all about was precisely to find out whether
Carinthians preferred to become Yugoslavians or Austrians? So the agents of voting
should not be described as 'the Slovene speaking Austrians'. Unless they have always
been predestined to become Austrians ...
As a matter of fact, such a teleological perspective on historical events is not so
rare in history textbooks. Let me cite just one example. In one of the Slovene
textbooks that deal with antiquity the today's territory of Slovenia is depicted as
predestined to become Slovene:
/13/
During the reign of Augustus the Romans dominated the entire Slovene
territory. On our territory they built… (Jansa-Zorn & Mihelic, 1994, 76)
In a short passage there are a dozen of formulations of that kind, i.e. formulations
involving the idea that Romans occupied the Slovene (i.e. 'our') territory. Finally the
passage triumphantly ends with the constatation:
/14/
In the 4th century we already had two abbeys. (Jansa-Zorn & Mihelic,
1994, 76)
Not only 'our' territory but also 'our' spirit referred to in ‘we’ was already there.
Such fragments clearly violate the principle of semantic homogeneity, more precisely,
212
the principle of unity of time. Being illogical they cannot be relevant. However, they
become relevant as soon as an interpreter starts basing his/her interpretation on the
assumption that the territory that is 'ours' today has always been predestined to become
'ours'.
Perhaps this brief survey of a few textual fragments from textbooks dealing with
past relations between three neighboring countries – Slovenia, Italy and Austria –
provides us an illustration of the difficulties of interpretation students are experiencing
today, i.e. in a period when norms of political correctness have taken effect in the
surface structure of history textbook discourse but left other mechanisms of dubious
discursive 'mind-management' intact. It is hard to fight the ideas contained in implicit
messages and even harder to fight those contained in background representations the
students are induced to activate while interpreting semantically incomplete history
textbook discourse. But that, of course, is just another reason to go on with survey,
perhaps on a somewhat larger scale.
References
Dolenc, E., A. Gabric & M. Rode. 1999. Koraki v casu (Steps in time). Ljubljana: DZS
Göbhart-Chvojka. 1988. Zeitbilder – Geschichte und Sozialkunde 8 (Images of time – History
and Social Studies). Vienna: Bundesverlag Ueberreuter
Grice, H. P. 1975. Logic and conversation, in Cole, P. and Morgan, J., Syntax and semantics 3,
Speech acts. New York: Academic Press
Jansa-Zorn, Olga & Mihelic, Darja. 1994. Stari in srednji vek – Zgodovina za 6. razred osnovne
sole (Antiquity and Middle ages – History for 6th grade). Ljubljana: DZS
Kerbrat-Orecchioni, Catherine. 1986. L’implicite (Implicitness). Paris: Armand Colin
Kern, Ana Nusa & Necak, Dusan & Repe, Bozo. 1998. Nase stoletje, Zgodovina za osmi razred
osnovne sole (Our century, History for 8th grade). Ljubljana: Modrijan
Nesovic, Branimir & Prunk, Janko. 1996. 20. Stoletje – Zgodovina za 8. razred osnovne sole
(20th century – History for 8th grade). Ljubljana: DZS, Ljubljana
Peirce, Charles Sanders. 1936-1966. Collected Papers of … C. Hartshorne, P. Weiss & A. W.
Burks (eds.). 8 vols. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, Harvard University Press (in text
references: vol., paragraph)
Sperber, Dan & Wilson, Deirdre. 1986. Relevance – communication and cognition. Oxford and
Cambridge: Blackwell
213
214
University Students at Work: Moulding Information-Seeking Strategy
20
University Students at Work: Moulding
Information-Seeking Strategy
Luc Wilkin, Universite Libre de Bruxelles

&
Perine Brotcorne, Universite Libre de Bruxelles
&
Ilaria Faccin, Universite Libre de Bruxelles
E
ducational policy and practices are increasingly coping with the pervasive
presence of Information Technologies (ITs). It has become commonplace to
consider that these tools enable fundamental transformations in all aspects
of higher education.
The prevailing discourse in favour of new technologies, particularly regarding the
Internet, asserts that they are key components of an up-to-date university, enabling
renewed opportunities in terms of learning, teaching and research. In this perspective,
commonly presented as a rich, diverse and stimulating academic information resource,
the usage of the Internet is assumed to be taken-for-granted in students’ academic life,
progressively displacing all “older” information resources. In this way, students,
portrayed as ‘the digital generation’, are claimed to be inherently technology
competent and information literate.
Nonetheless, beyond speculations about the potential of ITs for students’ literacy,
systematic empirical evidences about the extent to which students are taking up these
much hyped Internet opportunities are still lacking. It remains also unclear whether the
use of the web for information-seeking represents a significant change in students’
academic life or, less dramatically, simply a new medium to achieve familiar ends
(Slaouti, 2002). It is thus pertinent to provide a more realistic account about the ways
ITs are incorporated into students’ academic day-to-day information-seeking
activities.
An examination of students’ ITs uses encourages a contextualised approach in
which the role of the Internet is analysed in relation to both pre-existing information
resources and practices. Taking a comprehensive students-centred perspective, this
215
paper focuses on exploring undergraduate students’ ITs’ use (especially the Internet)
for academic purposes, without neglecting paper-based information-seeking practices.
The first research question is thus: what is the role of electronic-based information
sources compared to other sources and channels in information-seeking?
In order to gain a better understanding of information-seeking strategies, we
enquired also the role of the academic discipline and of the year of enrolment as
potential “moulding” factors of information-seeking strategies. Consequently, our
second research question is: are students’ information-seeking behaviours patterned by
disciplines and year of study?
Research Methods and Instruments
Results are based on data gathered through a multi-methods research design

combining a quantitative (questionnaire survey) and a qualitative (semi-structured
interviews). Given our focus on contextualized ITs’ use, this multi-methods design
enables a “triangulation” of findings arising from the “ground” in order to illuminate
different dimension of students’ ITs use.
While the first approach highlights main patterns of students’ ITs use, the
qualitative one captures the variety of the individualized experiences and contexts of
these practices, complementing the ‘what’ and the ‘when’ of the survey details with
more of the ‘why’ and ‘how’ (Selwyn, Gorard and Furlong, 2005). Although this
combination is widely valorised (Flick 1998), it remains that such an approach is
generally lacking in the literature.
The first stage of data collection involved in-depth semi-structured interviews
with 25 students. Results of the analysis of responses were used to point out elements
to be integrated in the questionnaire.
In the second stage of data collection, a detailed questionnaire was designed
covering many dimensions of students’ access to and use of ITs and questions dealing
with the use of the web for information-seeking as well as other sources of
information. Survey responses were coded and introduced into the SPSS statistical
package for analysis. Main statistical test used to analyse data is analysis of variance
for comparing means.
The last tier of data collection involved in-depth semi-structured interviews with
50 students carried out during the academic year 2004-2005. Respondents came from
different subject disciplines and spanned the full range of year of study groups.
The interviews covered a range of open-ended questions related to students’
perceptions and use of ITs in their academic and non academic daily lives. A number
of more specific questions were asked relating to students’ information research
strategies and the role of the Internet as an academic information resource. In this way,
interviews approached a “life-story” method which enabled a deeper understanding of
how ITs use fitted into students’ wider information research practices.
Presentation of the findings takes into account the complementarity of the two
approaches. Quantitative results (tables are at the end of the paper and commented in
the text) are completed with interviews excerpts that try to better enlighten, with more
nuanced information, the overall picture of students information-seeking strategies.
216
Participants
Data from the questionnaire survey come from 452 undergraduate students
enrolled at a French speaking university in Belgium.
The average age of the subjects was 20.6 (SD =2.33). 57.6% were girls and 42.5
% were boys. Six disciplines were involved: Psychology (24.8%), Applied sciences
(23.5%), Sciences (22.6%), Social and political sciences (11.9%), Humanities (9.5%)
and Pharmacy (7.7 %).
For analytical purposes and, following Whitmire (2002), the disciplines have been
grouped in two main sub-families that were supposed to help a better focus on
potential differences in terms of information-seeking practices. These two sub samples
are: hard sciences (53, 8% of the total sample) and soft sciences (46, 2%).
The hard sciences sub sample (i.e. Applied sciences, Sciences, and Pharmacy)
represents 53.8% (n = 243) of the sample and is populated mainly by men (61.4%).
The soft sciences group (i.e. Social and political sciences, Humanities and
Psychology) represents 46.2% of the sample (n = 209) and exhibits an opposite gender
connotation: women represented 79.3%.
Seventy five students were interviewed (44 in soft sciences and 25 in hard
sciences). Interviews lasted on average between one hour and an hour and an half.
Questions dealt mainly with their research strategies as well as general use of the
Internet.
Results
General Internet Usage Indicators
In the light of quantitative results, it appears that the Internet is fully integrated
into students’ daily activities. A majority of them (86.2%) state that they have been
using the Internet for more than three years (Table 1) and 51.9% report using the
Internet “everyday” or “several times a week” (Table 2).
Table 1. Internet Seniority (%)

<1 year Between 1 and 2 years Between 3 and 4 years >4 years
2.4 11.4 35.9 50.3
Table 2. Frequency of Use (%) for all Purposes

Never/From time to 1 to 2 times a week 3 to 4 times a week Everyday
time
13.2 17.5 17.3 51.9
Average time spent on the Internet per day varies from less than one hour a day
(59.8%) to more than two hours per day (19.8% - Table 3). 17.3 % declare that they
spend more than 75% of their web usage for academic purposes (53.5% for less than
50% - Table 4).
217
Table 3. Average Time Spent on the Internet/day (%)

<1 hour/day Between 1 and 2 hours/day >2 hours/day
59.8 20.4 19.8
Table 4. Proportion of Time Spent on the Internet for Academic Purposes (%)
<50 % Between 50 and 75 % >75 %
53.5 29.1 17.3
Interviews confirm that the Internet plays an integral part in the day-to-day lives
students as expressed by this student: “Today, the Internet is an essential tool in
student’s life. It’s a tool you must be able to use. We must live with our time (…).
Without the Internet, I do not know how I would do my work at the university. For
instance, you get a lot of summaries of lectures and all types of academic information
you need from the Internet. For a student like me (…), the Internet saves an incredible
amount of time” 1 (Applied sciences, third-year).
Another student expresses the view that: “… I use it [the Internet] every day… It’s
more practical, it’s faster, and you can do tons of things. In fact, now, I search
everything on the net. For my work also I search the Internet, I have a tendency to say
‘why search elsewhere if all the information is there’.” (Psychology, third-year).
However, at the same time, it appears also that the Internet is not perceived as a
value in itself. For instance, some students – although frequent users – discussed the
academic “usefulness” in mixed terms: the “absolute usefulness” of the web was felt
to jar with the prevailing rhetoric of educational usefulness, as this student explains: “I
never find relevant information for my university papers. I always hear everywhere
that the Internet is the new leading edge media for information research but,
personally, around me, among my friends, none focus their academic information
research on the Internet, because they seldom find something interesting for their
research topic. Me too, for my final study paper for example, I don’t try to seek a lot
on the Internet! I find the Internet very useful to communicate and chat with my
friends but not as an academic information resource.” (Humanities, fourth-year).
Other students recognize the place of Internet in their life but take a fairly
detached, critical view of the role of this tool in their day-to-day academic activities:
“Internet is an indispensable component in my academic as well as non-academic life
but I don’t manage all my life via my computer”. Question: what do you mean? “I
mean that ITs do not change my way of thinking. It’s just a question of tools. When I
am seeking information, I still like to be in the academic library, to write down the
reference and going directly to take the books I need. I still like books and enjoy the
paper sheet feeling. You would see how many books I have in my bedroom!” (Social
Science, second-year).
From this overview of the sample, it appears that students have integrated ITs in
their life without showing any “abuse” or “addiction” to the medium.
1
Interviews were in French. Translations are ours.
218
Role and Place of the Web: An Important Trigger of the Research Process
With regard to the first research question, results show that students use the
Internet for information-seeking activities related to academic activities: 49.6%
declare that they use it at least once a week (6.7% say “rarely” or “never”) for
assignments or reports and 43.3% use it with the same frequency to collect lecture
notes (Table 5).
Table 5. Frequency of Web’s Uses (%) for Academic Purposes

Usage type Never/ At least once a At least once a Meana
Rarely month week
Communicate with other

students 20.1 27.2 32.7 2.73
Seeking information for
assignments and reports
6.7 43.8 49.6 2.66
Collect lecture notes 15.9 40.8 43.3 2.43
Consult students’ forums
43.5 19.7 36.8 2.20
Communicate with
lectures and teaching
assistants 61.1 30.8 8.0 1.52
Scale: 1 = “Never/Rarely” to 5 = “Nearly everyday”; aMean score for total sample
Table 6 shows that the role of the Internet in students’ information-seeking

strategies is shared between two main goals: being a guide for a synoptic view of a
new subject for which they have to provide an essay or report (74.3% declare that they
use the Internet regularly for that purpose) and being a complementary source of
information (74.2%, on a regular base). These aims are more frequent than searches
for more in-depth information but, still, 50.9% mobilize the web for that purpose.
Table 6. Web’s Role and Frequency

Frequency (%)
Use the Internet for… Never Sometimes Regularly
Overall view of the subject 8.5 17.2 74.3

In-depth information 17.9 31.3 50.8
Complementary information 6 19.9 74.1
Scale: 1 = “Never/Rarely” to 4 = “Regularly”
Table 7. Students’ Use of Various Information Sources for Schoolwork (Means for
Sample and Hard/Soft Dichotomy)
Information-seeking research items Sample* Hard Soft ta
Surfing on the Web 4.11 4.25 3.93 3.51**

Other students/mates help 3.22 3.33 3.09 ns
Online library catalogue (books) 3.18 2.75 3.69 -7.21**
Tracking strategies 2.83 2.82 2.84 ns
General press 2.70 2.56 2.86 -3.05**
Online catalogue for scientific journals 2.70 2.56 2.91 -2.98**
Library personnel support 2.64 2.19 2.04 ns
Assistants/lecturers’ help 2.64 2.86 2.38 5.06**
Browsing the library hallways 2.39 2.32 2.48 ns
Other universities’ online catalogues 2.06 1.97 2.17 ns
219
Online catalogue - end of year works 2.33 2.26 2.41 ns

Bibliographic databases 2.15 1.89 2.48 -5.14**
Official institutional databases 1.83 1.69 1.99 -3.06**
Table of contents of electronic journals 1.82 1.78 1.88 ns
Scale: 1 = “do not know” to 5 = “I always use”; *Mean - total sample; ta value t-test;
**=p<0.001; ns = not significant
In order to shed light on the place of the web in searching strategies compared to
other information resources, the questionnaire asked students to rank 14 possible
sources of information they use when starting a new essay on a 5 point scale (1 = “Do
not know” to 5 = “I always use”). Table 7 (mean for the overall sample) demonstrates
that search engines play a “leading” role (mean = 4.11), followed by searching the
online library catalogue for books (mean = 3.18) and asking help from colleagues
(mean = 3.22). None of the other items emerges as being systematically used. It seems
though that students, in general, diversify their strategies and tools, adding as well the
informal reachable side of the information-seeking issue (asking assistance from other
colleagues). At the same time they tend to ignore some other tools such as scientific
journals, online catalogues and official databases.
Qualitative data underline a similar trend. For a majority of students, the Internet
appears to be an entry-point or trigger in the information-seeking process, rapidly
playing a complementary role, as is typically expressed by a student in applied
sciences: “My tactic when searching for information is to first surf on the web and,
from there, I go to the university library and, above all, to specialized libraries at our
department.” (Applied sciences, third-year).
Another explains that: “I use Google to start my research. I sort out what I get, I
keep some links. Often, it is to get into the swing of things. From there … I use the
information as a base… In general the Internet helps me to structure my work.”
(Communication studies, third-year).
In the same vein, students talked also about the Internet’s role as providing
background or preparatory ‘punctual’ information rather than the total sum of their
overall research strategy: “When I am seeking information for academic papers, I use
both print-based and web-based information. I generally use the Web at the beginning
of my research, when I seek to get a general idea of a topic. After that, I prefer going
to the library. I don’t know why but I have the impression I will find more precise
information there.” (Communication studies, third-year).
Another respondent says that: “I use the Internet when I need to get a definition or
something else precise that I don’t understand in my textbook. For such type of
research, Internet is very helpful. I’m at home in my sofa, I’ve just to click on the
mouse and I get what I want. However, except for punctual information like this, I
never use the Internet for academic assignments. I never write a paper with
information found on the web. I focus my information research on books or other kind
of print-based information. Internet is a complement” (Humanities, fourth-year).
Some students limit their searches to well-defined problems: “Internet, I use it
when there are names of authors I don’t know. Contemporary authors for instance it‘s
difficult to find about them in books.” (Philosophy, second-year). A similar view is
echoed by a student in the mathematics department: “… I think that the web is not
really essential for my studies. Moreover …I always start with the library … but when
you need it, you need it, I use the web when it’s really inevitable, when I can’t get the
information elsewhere” (Mathematics, second-year).
Other students attempt to compromise between on- and off-line resources
adopting selection criteria that witness how they assess the information they find on
220
the net and the supervising role of lecturers, as the following excerpts show: "When I
wrote my academic paper last year, I gathered some online articles on Google and
Yahoo but I finally based my work on the information found in the library. I took some
ideas from online articles but I didn’t dare to cite the references in my paper. I
realized that I cannot cite them because I didn’t know where they come from.”
(Psychology, second-year). In the same vein, another student states that: “… I don’t
cite Internet references in my papers but often [laugh]… I take articles from the web
and I try to find the equivalent print-based reference to cite it in my paper. I know that
professors prefer print-based references because Internet references are something
temporary, it’s too much virtual.” (Communication studies, fourth-year).
All in all, survey data and interviews then tend to point to a “realistic” point of view:
as useful and structuring as it is, the Internet has not supplanted other information
resources but rather complement them.
Crafting the Information-Seeking Strategy: Disciplinary Differences?
Our second research question sought to elicit the role of two potential crafting
factors in the shaping of the information research process: disciplinary differences and
year of enrolment.
Table 7 shows that students in soft sciences focus more often their attention on a
wider range of sources when searching for information: search engines are in short list
with the library electronic research tool for books. Other students’ help is as well
taken into consideration and online library catalogue for scientific journals together
with general press sources or bibliographic databases. Hard sciences students use
significantly more search engines and turn more often to assistants/lectures for
guidance.
A section of the questionnaire was devoted to assess preferences of students for
searching via the library or on the web. Two scales were designed for this purpose. A
first scale consisted of six items measuring preference for the web (sample items: “I
prefer to search for information at the library instead of the web” – reversed for
calculating scale data; “Since I use the web, I spend less time consulting print-based
documents at the library”). A second scale was intended to measure preference for the
library as an information resource (sample items: “Information I find at the library are
more pertinent than the one I find on the web”; “At the library I generally find more
accurate information than on the web”). Internal consistency tests resulted in
coefficient alphas equal to 0.87 for the first scale and 0.84 for the second scale.
Table 8. Students’ Preferences for Library Search vs. Web Search

Scale Sample Hard sciences Soft sciences t
mean students students
Preference for the web 2.92 3.15 2.64 6.08*

Preference for the library 3.43 3.25 3.64 -5.29*
Scale: 1 = “Totally agree” to 5 = “Totally disagree” (see text for sample items); *p<. 001
Table 8 shows that students tend to prefer the library as an information resource.
This is in line with findings of Divleko and Gottlieb (2002), who found that while
undergraduates begin searching information using online sources, books and print
journals are crucial components of submitted work. However, a deeper look at
empirical results reveals that hard and soft sciences students differ significantly in
221
their attitudes: whereas the first prefer searching on the web, the latter prefer to use the
library. It is also noteworthy that hard sciences students think that the use of the web
enhance the quality of their work more often than soft sciences students (see Table 9).
Table 9. Use of the Web Enhance the Quality of my Work

Disagree/ +/- Agree/ Mean*
Totally disagree Totally agree
Soft sciences 28.6% 50.5% 20.9% 3.19

Hard sciences 17.5% 50.4% 32.1% 2.86
*Difference significant at p<. 001 (t = 3.97). Scale: 1 = “Totally agree” to 5 = “Totally
disagree”
Qualitative data confirm that students in hard sciences disciplines tend to

concentrate relatively more often their approach on search engines: “Google, it helps
really a lot… I don’t know how I should do without Internet. Personally, in my view, I
make the association research=internet” (Applied sciences, fourth-year); “In
computer sciences you find everything on sites. It is not like in human sciences, you
don’t need to put references… What lecturers ask us is not to collect literature but to
solve very precise problems.”(Informatics, fourth-year); “To search information, I
essentially use Google or Yahoo. Otherwise, I use forums. I ask questions and I wait
for replies. Sometimes it works really well. It is the part of Internet that occupies most
of my work.” (Applied sciences, third-year).
They also tend to request more often assistance for information-seeking from
teaching staff or colleagues than soft sciences students (Table 7). This pattern is
expressed by this student: “For the work I had to do last year, I searched with Google.
My tactic was to find a sample of pages and to click on the first link. If it doesn’t suit
me, I go to the second and so on. But I don’t go the library, it is not a reflex I have.
Even before I had an access to Internet, it was not a reflex to go to the library. Or I
have the book at home, or I ask my lecturers or people around me” (Biology, third-
year).
In contrast, the following excerpts are emblematic of the attitude of many soft
sciences students: “When I’m seeking information for academic papers, I never find
the information on the Internet as synthetic as print-based information…A book you
can easily turn the pages. If you want to have a look at the references, you are going
immediately to that chapter…When you have 25 books in front of you, you take books
one by on, books refer to other books and so on… You can get a better general idea on
the topic. It is not the case with the Internet… I am somebody who find easier to have
written materials in books in front of her.” (Communication studies, fourth-year); “I
start immediately with the library and take a lot of books… I go to the computer, I type
a keyword large enough and then I go to the shelves.” (Political sciences, second-
year); “For my work last year I didn’t know how to find information and then I went to
look on Google even if I knew there was a lot of foolish information there and then I
went to the library to look at books I found on the online catalogue but I couldn’t find
anything because I typed keywords which did not give results. Then, what I did is that
I looked in the “sociology of family” section in the library and I looked at the books
one by one. Finally I found what I looked for.”(Social sciences, second-year).
Another student also stresses the associated issue of situational convenience of the
Internet as an academic resource: “(…) My topic doesn’t suit with the Internet! My
research covers the question of the masculine identity in the men’s fashion. When you
222
type the keyword « fashion » on Google, you find a lot of different kind of commercial
stuff but nothing interesting for an academic research. Another great disadvantage of
the Internet is that the research is limited to keywords. Walking around in the
academic library, I found many interesting books which don’t contain the keyword
“fashion” or “clothes” but which were relevant for my research topic anyway. Via
Internet, I would have never found them!” (Humanities, fourth-year).
From the above data, we might say that discipline matters in the orientation and in
the “construction” of information-seeking strategies. The sources’ choices and
preferences are varied and context-dependent.
Crafting the Information-Seeking Strategy: Seniority
First and second year students’ preferences have been compared with third year
and above students. We presumed that the latter are in an academic path more
demanding in terms of reports and papers.
Table 10. Students’ Use of Various Information Sources by Seniority (Means for Total
Sample and 1s-2ndt/3rd year and +)
Information-seeking research items Sample 1st/2nd 3rd ta
year year and
+
Surfing on the Web 4.11 3.99 4.31 -3.36*

Online library catalogue (books) 3.18 2.92 3.64 -5.14*
Tracking strategies 2.83 2.66 3.12 -4.34*
General press 2.70 2.82 2.50 3.15**
Online catalogue for scientific journals
2.70 2.41 3.21 -6.33*
Library personnel support 2.64 1.97 2.22 3.00**
Other universities’ online catalogue 2.06 2.19 2.02 ns
Online catalogue - end of year works 2.33 2.12 2.68 -5.62**
Bibliographic databases 2.15 2.03 2.37 -2.83**
Table of contents of electronic journals
1.82 1.54 2.30 -7.53**
Scale: 1 = “do not know” to “5 = “I always use”; ta Value of t for t-test; *p<0.001; **p<. 005
Table 10 shows that third year students (and above) use significantly more the
web, online library catalogue for scientific journals and books. They also mobilise
tracking strategies and bibliographic database or electronic journals. Compared to
younger students, they tend to diversify their information-seeking strategies. Younger
students seem to be mainly oriented towards two main sources: research engines and
networking with colleagues. They ignore journals or official databases and privilege
general press versus other online tools (mainly online catalogues for books).
Online catalogues for books and scientific journals are also more used by older
students than younger ones and this holds for both types of disciplines. It appears also
that asking help from lectures is more important to hard sciences students than to soft
sciences students at both stages of the curriculum.
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Table 11. Students’ Use of Various Information Sources by Discipline and by

Seniority
Information-seeking 1st/2nd 3rd
(selected) items year year and +
Hard Soft t Hard Soft t

Online library catalogue
(books) 2.31 3.44 -7.17* 3.28 4.42 -5.42*
Online catalogue (scientific
journals) 2.13 2.64 -3.54* 3.01 3.66 -2.97*
Surfing on the Web 4.02 3.95 ns 4.53 3.85 4.85*
Assistants/lecturers’ help
2.69 3.39 2.65** 3.06 2.34 4.06*
Other students/mates help
3.38 3.12 2.24*** 3.27 3.02 ns
Tracking strategies 2.69 2.64 ns 2.98 3.40 -2.28***
*= p<0.001; **p<.01; ***p<.05
Table 12. Web’s Role by Seniority

Use the Internet for… 1st/2nd year 3rd year + t
Overall view of the subject 2.94 3.33 4.23*

In-depth information 2.57 2.51 ns
Complementary information 2.94 3.06 ns
Scale: 1 = “Never/Rarely” to 4 = “Regularly”; *p<.0001; ns = not significant
Table 13. Web’s Role by Discipline and by Seniority

Use the Internet for… 1st/2nd 3rd year +
Hard Soft t Hard Soft t
Overall view of the subject

3.07 2.83 2.05* 3.46 3.04 3.10**
In-depth information 2.61 2.53 ns 2.70 2.08 3.73***
Complementary
information 2.96 2.92 ns 3.20 2.75 3.18***
Scale: 1 = “Never/Rarely” to 4 = “Regularly”; *p<.05; **p<.005; p<.0001
Returning to the role of the Internet in information-seeking strategies of students,

Table 12 shows that older students use the Internet to gain an overall view of a new
subject more often than younger students. Looking at the hard/soft dichotomy again
(Table 13), it appears that older/hard sciences students are more heavy users of the
Internet than soft sciences students: the former use it more extensively than the latter
on several dimension (overall view of a subject, in-depth information and
complementary information-seeking).
These data tend to show that students not only diversify their sources of
information as time goes by but that they also deepen their seeking behaviour.
Conclusion
This study examined the use of various information sources by undergraduate

students in relation to their academic duties. Undergraduates across various disciplines
do value the Internet and make extensive use of the medium when confronted with
assignments and reports. The Internet appears to be an important source when facing
an entirely new topic and acts as a trigger for further research whatever the field of
224
study. Students chose to use the web as an entry point to the information and then
shape their strategy (including other resources) according with what can be defined as
a goodness of fit criteria taking into account the suitability of the tool with disciplinary
contents and content related constraints.
Although both hard and soft science disciplines involve a mix of different
information-seeking strategies there are differences in the relative importance of these
methods. Hard sciences students show a strong preference for the Internet as an
information resource (without neglecting books and scientific journals), whereas soft
sciences students are more literature-oriented (without neglecting the Internet). These
patterns are reinforced with seniority.
The hard and soft contraposition give thus an important insight in the
understanding of the extent to which the disciplinary has an effect on searching
behaviour such as looking for information, in terms of preference and variety of
sources.
Information seeking seems to be far beyond the simple and univocal use and
“abuse” of the web, replacing and supplanting traditional or informal resources.
Students via the integration of different tools (the library, the mates, the teaching staff,
etc) build an information seeking-strategy that corresponds more to a structured
mosaic than to a monochrome paint where one main source has replaced the others in
an uncritical way.
References
Divleko, J. and Gottlieb, L. (2002), “Print Sources in an Electronic Age: A Vital Part of the
Research Process for undergraduate Students”, The Journal of Academic Librarianship,
Vol. 28, N°6, 381-392.
Flick, U. (1998), An Introduction to Qualitative Research, London, Sage.
Selwyn, N., Gorard, S. and Furlong, J. (2005), Adult Learning in the Digital Age. Information
Technologies and the Learning Society, London, Routledge.
Slaouti, D. (2002), “The World Wide Web for academic purposes: old study skills for new?”
English for Specific Purposes, 105-124.
Whitmire, E. (2002), “Disciplinary Differences and Undergraduates’ Information-Seeking
Behavior”, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology,
53(8), 631-638.
Acknowledgements
This research was made possible by a fellowship of the Interuniversity Attraction

Poles Program P5/26 – Scientific Federal Affairs.
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226
The Role of Simulation Learning
in Higher Education
21
in
Higher Education
Margarida Pinheiro, University of Aveiro
T
his article is part of a research programme on the role of simulation in
vocational degrees. The main objective of our study is to analyze the role
played by simulation in the learning processes of vocational higher education.
Although this article is restricted to a conceptual reflection on the issue of
simulation in teaching and learning in vocational degrees, it seems important to
introduce the context where this project was initiated, so the reader will better
understand the scientific and educational concerns behind this particular way of
organizing learning.
A case study approach will be used, to describe and ascertain the impact of the
Professional Project, as a Project Based Learning (PBL) type methodology in the
learning of accounting, at ISCA-UA. The perspectives of employers, academic staff,
students and graduates will be triangulated.
In May 1996, ISCA-UA introduced a course called Professional Project in the
syllabus of its degree in Administration and Accounting. The new course has the
duration of a semester (3rd year, 2nd semester) with 8 tutorial-type hours per week. The
idea of creating this new type of teaching methodology was initially related to the
difficulty of having tutorials with a great number of students, on the one side, and the
need for practical preparation for the graduates, which would satisfy as much as
possible potential employers, on the other side.
Taking the opportunity that the school was restructuring the degree, and putting
aside the idea of having traineeships within the syllabus (which would entail finding
placements for around 160 students per year), the idea of simulating the business
reality within the school arose. The basis of the Professional Project lays in a
simulated market of virtual enterprises, which small groups of students must manage
an undertaking. This led to the inclusion of the course Professional Project in the
degree syllabus, and it is this simulation project, implemented in ISCA-UA since the
academic year 1997/98, which is the subject of our study. As a result of a critical
227
analysis of the results obtained in previous years, the Professional Project has changed
along the years, trying to consolidate its strengths and minimize its weaknesses.
The Pedagogical and Methodological Frame of the Professional Project
Taking a different view of more and more adjusting of new graduates to the
market needs, the Professional Project turns up in ISCA-UA, as a big bet in learning
how to do inherent to polytechnic schools. This vision reflects new learning models of
acquiring competences where learning how to learn emphasizes learning rather than
teaching (Machado, Inácio, Fortes, & Sousa, 2001).
The objectives of Professional Project refer to the pursuit of a wide interface
between academic and professional environments, involving different working areas
in a multidisciplinary perspective. As a final synthesis, it is acquainted with a practical
and interactive view of entrepreneurial contexts, increasing abilities, attitudes and
competences previously identified with the graduate in accounting profile.
In acting as professionals and upon reflection on the needs of their practical
actions, students will feel the need to theoretically justify their choices, either stressing
interdisciplinary or turning to teachers support. This impels interactive learning among
students, leaving to teachers a moderator role in a debate where the student is the
leading actor. Being the aim of the Professional Project the applied integration of
knowledge in a global perspective, capable of intensifying professional, personal and
social skills in the future graduates, it seemed obvious to think over the
methodological frame of the syllabus. As an answer to that problem and fitting in new
emergent methodologies, the Professional Project runs in a simulation and virtual
environment, following a PBL methodological type either in a project based learning
mode or in a problem based learning way.
In all this interactivity, the methodological strategy of the Professional Project
centers itself in learning rather than teaching, providing student with a discovery and
experimental environment, where the role-played by teachers and students is inverted.
In fact, the traditional tasks of the teacher as a knowledge transmitter and of the
student as a passive receiver, takes no place in Professional Project. In this simulation
project, students must seek out the information they need as an answer to their
problems, while teachers guide them through the process. On the other hand,
interdisciplinarity becomes an essential and cross-sectional element, permitting that
different subjects could be seen in an integrated way, which is vital for the full
exercise of relation ship between different knowledges’.
As mentioned by (Machado, Inácio, & Sousa, 2001), the nature of this new course
emphasizes facilitated learning, which withdraws from the emphasis in teaching in the
so called traditional methodologies, to centre itself on learning. The importance of the
Professional Project is recognized by the Chartered Accountants Association (CTOC),
as it has the same objectives that this association has, by requiring its associates to
have had contact with real business situations before they can join as members. The
association considers that the candidates who have done Professional Project are
dismissed of the traineeship demanded by the association before a person can join it as
a chartered accountant.
As the research developed and reviewing the literature on teaching and learning a
need was felt to review other subjects, such as: the mission of higher education,
traditional and modern teaching methods, how these concepts affect the curriculum,
how PBL can improve learning, and the role of simulation in learning. From these
228
in Higher Education
explanations of the state of the art about teaching methodologies and learning
processes, some questions arise.
Do the students that attend the Professional Project considerer this PBL
methodology an attractive profile in the sense of reaching more efficient learning at
the same time they are improving performances and motivations?
Does the academic staff involved consider this methodology as aggregating
different knowledge, developing a logic thinking structure that make students able to
apply previous information to deal with problems at the same time it helps improving
their performance as teachers?
Do the employers feel that the profile of a graduate has change his tune as a result
of the implementation of the Professional Project, namely in increasing efficiency?
Are the graduates who have attended Professional Project more skilled than the ones
who haven’t?
Despite the fact that there are not any known studies on the impact of PBL-type
methodologies in Portugal, in the particular case of a Professional Project, the
anecdotal evidence, in general, is that the Professional Project has had a positive
impact and it is a well established method. In particular in the vocational degrees of
accounting, simulation has good possibilities to become institutionally recognized as
an important training method. However, this process of innovation seems to result
more from exercises of benchmarking, and the belief sustained by empirical evidence
of economy of resources, than in solid scientific evidence. That is why we think
appropriate the main objective of this paper: to analyze the impact of simulation in the
teaching and learning processes.
For all the above, it seemed extremely pertinent and urgent the proposed theme,
and its contribution to knowledge on the learning and teaching methodologies in
higher education, in order to obtain a better understanding of curriculum organization
and management.
Conceptual Framework
Higher Education
Although the idea of higher education has a history, it has developed over time,
emerging from its institutional forms in classical Greece and in the medieval ages, to
be articulated in written form in successive versions in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. While there are definite links between the successive formulations of the
idea, each version has to be understood in its own age (Barnett, 1994).
The Greek idea of higher education is clearly represented in Plato’s dialogues.
From the key elements in Plato’s idea, we emphasize knowledge as a particular view
of an observed world, where it is possible to see through the conventional knowledge
of appearances to a new realm of unchanging knowledge. In this searching for truth,
the way forward lies in critical dialogue where the pupil learned not through the
master’s didactic instructions, but through the technique of asking and answering
questions (Barnett, 1994).
Extending the Hellenic idea of higher education, the university, as a higher
education institution, ascends to medieval ages at institutions underneath roman
church (Amaral, 2000). (Barnett, 1994) refers to essential features of the idea of the
medieval university. First, universities were democratic because they were open to all
229
that wanted to know in a participated way. Secondly, each foundation constituted a

stadium generale and the guild of students and masters were joint participants
whatever their specific level of competence. By these, universities were seen to
warrant an independence from the rest of society.
As (Carvalho, 1995) reports, there was an underlying axiom that what counted as
knowledge required demonstration, and one of the key methods to do so, was based in
critical and structured discussions, organized in two parts: the lectio and the disputatio.
In the opinion of (Barnett, 1994), the same conducting wire of the idea of higher
education in ancient Greece and in medieval ages, still extends in the early XIX
century, with Cardinal John Newman. The Cardinal set out his ideas in a series of
Discourses on the Scope and Nature of University Education. Newman considered that
a university education should form a connected view of things as a net of
interconnected subjects, conceiving knowledge as its own end more than being useful.
In order to be able to offer this larger view, the university had to take a generous
approach to a great sort of domains by teaching all branches of knowledge. But this
breadth has two fundamental implications: on one hand it requires a new curricular
organization and on the other hand it calls for an active and auto-reflective learning
process. In this act of reflection, it was important for the student to retain a proper
conception of the relation of the parts to the whole, gained through self-reflection on
what is taken for knowledge.
The closeness between Newman’s idea of a university and Plato’s conception lay,
then, in a continuing process of intellectual reflection on what had already been
perceived. Another point of the conducting line, stated by (Barnett, 1994), considers
the university’s possibility to play a role in the reconstruction of a more human society
following the twentieth-century world wars, but based on a more unitary and
purposeful conception of knowledge. (Jaspers, 1959) considered that the modern
university had four main functions: research, teaching, professional education, and
transmission of a particular kind of culture.
In parallel with Newman, (Jaspers, 1959) considered that the different disciplines
constituted a single cosmos of knowledge, and so the university could not arbitrarily
restrict the range of knowledge in which it was interested. The Jasper’s idea of
knowledge linking up theoretical knowledge with practice of experiment, approaches
the idea of (Weber, 2003). In fact, (Weber, 2003) assumes the possibility of objective
knowledge, since it extracts symbolical subjects from the facts of empirical
knowledge.
(Barnett, 1994) stands up that the four sets of ideas just outlined have to be
understood in terms of their own history and culture and the social interests they
represent. In spite of that, this author believes that there are certain recurring themes,
such as knowledge, truth, reason, wholeness, dialogue and criticism.
Although those recurring themes appear in the different ideas of higher education,
different organizational models can be stated. (Ruivo, 1994) and (Scott, 1995) identify
three dominant strands within the European university tradition.
These are the knowledge model, represented historically by the Humboldtian
university in Germany, which placed graduated study and research at the heart of
higher education; the professional model, represented by France’s grandes écoles,
which concentrated on producing professional workers and, in particular, state
functionaries; and the personality model, centered on Oxford and Cambridge, which
aspires to initiating students into a liberal intellectual culture.
Differences between America and Europe are also significant because
recognizably mass higher education emerged first in the United States. As a result,
230
in Higher Education
(Neave, 2000) adds the American model with its paradoxical combination of extensive
state regulation and strong commitment to the market.
Remembering the characterization of post-fordism by (Scott, 1995), as a
dismantling of a nation state and of useful knowledge, the post-fordist perspective
grasp the meaning of new technological, economic and organized qualifications as
well as new ways of working layouts. As (Amaral, Magalhães, Rosa, Santiago, &
Teixeira, 2002) states, Portugal followed the post-fordism trend of other European
countries, and over the last thirty years the pattern of the relationship between higher
education institutions and the state and society has been changed (Neave & van Vught,
1991).
In Portugal, one can also see the rise and political deployment of the concept of
stakeholder. But the Portuguese higher education system is characterized by two main
drifts: the polytechnic and the university. And the situation of polytechnics is very
different from that of the universities, because from the start polytechnics schools
were considered to have a closer connection with the economic and industrial
situation. In this way and historically, polytechnic schools enabled a more specialized
teaching of narrow flank (in opposite to a wider flank ministered in universities),
providing a closeness with professional jobs, in an entrepreneurial vision. As a
consequence, the knowledge production and diffusion shows important changes as the
prevalence of the mode 2 of knowledge over the mode 1 of (Gibbons et al., 1994), and
the entrepreneurialisation of services.
The university in Portugal was institutionalized in the reign of king D. Dinis, by
the year of 1288, as a will to educate an intellectual elite for the nation. Later and as a
result of the political changes occurred, it was felt necessary to know more about the
needs of workmanship. The answers took the form of a report called Le Project
Régional Méditerranée, in the late 60s, which clearly showed the urgent need of
Portugal for technical education.
It was the beginning of a vocational guidance as a diversification for higher
education. This institutional vocation distinguishes between two different logics: on
the one hand and in the university education we have the know and the know how in
sequential terms in a medium or long term vision; on the other hand and in the
polytechnic education we have at the same time the know, the know how and the do.
After ‘Bologna’ we can affirm that the core missions and values of higher education
are not only the mission to contribute to the development of the knowledge society but
also to the internalization of a culture’s quality.
Although the early idea of polytechnic schools was mainly oriented to supply
regional needs, many of the curricula pour over workmanship. With this perspective,
(Amaral et al., 2002) identify the idea of higher education in polytechnic schools with
a sweeping assertion of a specific identity longing for defining his own space of
activity. Setting in an international context and encouraged by a knowledge society, it
is necessary to think over higher education mission ((Amaral et al., 2002) and (Simão,
Santos, & Costa, 2002)).
This assemblage of studies was of use to circumscribe a set of problems, inducing
us to think in a broader set of questions. In particular, and after these considerations,
we felt a need to explore how the concepts we analyzed are reflected in higher
education methodologies.
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Teaching Methods
In medieval times the teaching methods were basically based in two moments: the
lectio (when the teacher read out loudly a text at the same time he annotated it) and the
disputatio (when there was a confrontation of the pros and cons). The role played by
the learner was a passive one at the same time that the teacher was the one who knew
everything. It was a magisterial way of teaching. Later the concept of modern teaching
methods identifies not only the theoretical contents’ transmission but also the hands on
experience.
The teaching portfolio project commenced by the American Association of Higher
Eeducation (American Association for Higher Education, 2003) in the early 1990s
could be considered the starting point for recognition that, within universities,
different disciplines combine generic aspects of teaching in ways quite specific to the
discipline (Neumann, 2001).
Some recent studies have highlighted disciplinary differences not only in types of
teaching, but also in hours of contact and preparation time, as well as in research
supervision and undergraduate teaching loads. Lecture, tutorials and seminars,
laboratory practices, field trips and practice are the main teaching modes within
universities. The lecture method started in medieval ages seems to pervade all
disciplines as the dominant mode of teaching.
An understanding of teaching processes involves culture’s knowledge and
context’s knowledge in which teaching occurs, as well as attitudes of academics and
students about teaching, educational goals, values, philosophies and orientations and
also academics perceptions of the curriculum and assessment issues (Neumann, 2001).
Learning to learn has become part of the skills agenda. The position is developed
that learning to learn, to be truly effective within a changing world, involves a far
greater depth of personal learning than skill development alone. The model of learning
to learn that has been developed requires the learner to be involved in a self-reflexive
process of learning, motivating a conscious examination of his learning processes. It
involves learners in formulating new ways of understanding reality, of interacting with
others and of perceiving their own identities.
(Rawson, 2000) writes that more than this, the learner needs to understand how
these processes, and therefore the resulting models, might be changed. This involves
capabilities like the development of critical spirit, the ability to think constructively
under the pressures and limitations of life, or the produce of self-understanding.
Although skills, for example those of communication and debate, might be
developed and used, the view of learning to learn that has been argued for involves a
far deeper and much more personal learning processes. This will surely provide a
much sounder basis for lifelong learning and for a learning society than the acquisition
of a skill set.
As we are concerned more and more with the knowledge society we want to
become, teaching and learning methods includes other competences that induce every
citizen to be aware of its personal growth. That involves a will for life long learning
within a social vision. To encourage this level of learning, (Rawson, 2000) reports that
this view of learning to learn embraces more than solely intellectual activity. It
involves awareness of individual learning styles, and understanding and dealing with
personal perspectives and aspects of self. The learning involved not only covers the
development of the whole person but also requires her involvement. This personal
development illuminates an holistic view of the nature of significant learning, and the
engagement of feelings, attitudes and values.
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Given the diverse public that today attends university and given the heterogeneity
of its scientific knowledge, motivations, and professional projects, it is urgent to
emphasize active learning, which sits in the discovery and resolution of problems, and
supports the auto-capacity of students for their own learning, reinforcing their sense of
autonomy and thinking. In those strategies and conscious that the success of learning
depends on various variables that promotes student’s harmonious development, the
teaching models used at university level will have to be new models in particular those
involving new technologies. The technologic revolution implied a revolution at the
learning level, which involves competencies as flexibility, change adaptation,
sociability and commitment.
(Nyhan, 1994) synthesizes the information emanated from the report of the
Eurotecnet inquiry of 1989, about new learning methods capable of developing new
abilities of self-learning. One of the major ideas is that the technological revolution is
intrinsically linked with knowledge and learning revolution. The inherently connection
is unmistakable in the working standard demanded, which requires an efficiently
combination of technological, organizational and entrepreneurial events. And this
involves the up growth of competences like flexibility, sociability, engagement or
fitting to change.
So and within the new challenges faced by universities, it is included in the
competencies profiles required at leaving university not only training in a certain area
of knowledge that allows professional flexibility, but also personal and interpersonal
development, leadership capacities, and psychic and social maturity. All this
development should promote autonomous learning on the part of the student in order
that he manages a greater degree of success in his learning (Gonçalves, 2002).
(Morandi, 1997) defends that more than localized in relation to a time, the
traditional pedagogic methods are localized in relation to a mentality. Generically, we
will assume a method as a traditional one when it centers itself on teaching rather than
learning. To (Nyhan, 1994), this abilities cannot be acquired by traditional
methodologies once they get hold of working experience but can be acquired with the
learning by doing of (Cowan, 2000), (Kolmos, 1996), (Fink, 1999) and (Powell,
2000).
In these new methodologies, the role now played by the teacher is totally different
from the traditional role. He is no longer a master, to become a co-partner and a
facilitator. He will be a partner given his necessary involvement in the professional
and personal life of the student, and facilitator given his global vision of the path to
follow in solving the problem. The comfortable traditional role played by the teacher
seems to no longer exist, to give place to new challenges enfolding hazard and
commitment. In this acting, educators must have much more active and synchronized
capacities of organization and management, either in technical and scientific subjects
or even in human resources (Caspar, 1994). The student has now an active role as the
teacher becomes a guide.
But if the previous reflection carries us to the analysis of higher education
methodologies, it also brings us to the interrogation of knowing how these concepts
affect the curricula.
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Curriculum
The changes in the system of a vocational education are based on the idea that the
curriculum should focus more on competencies. The transition from a subject matter-
based curriculum to a competency-based curriculum, make schools to be redesigned as
workplace environments and as places for lifelong learning.
Concomitant to these changes, vocational education is becoming more and more
characterized by programs and curricula focusing on the competencies needed for
successful job performance, such as learning to learn, interactive skills and
communication skills, information processing, problem-solving and reflective skills.
On the other hand, in this era of significant change, where we witness a growing
cultural and scientific openness, the rapid new information technology development
has promoted a globalization phenomenon with new social demands. In this
perspective, it is imperative to adapt the educational systems to this new reality,
motivating new forms of curricular development. This means, that to face this new
challenge, the school cannot resume its role to a mere transmission of knowledge, but
it has to face a restructuring, which will allow it to give more diverse and
heterogeneous answers to a society who is more demanding, informed and competitive
(Morgado, 2000).
According to (Jackson, 1992), the problem of the definition of the concept of
curriculum is that it does not hold a single meaning. This author presents an historical
perspective of the concept developing underlying conceptions to different points of
view.
Although curriculum can assume a variety of meanings there is some consensus to
the components of curriculum: objectives, contents, assessment and learning
processes. Thus, the curriculum should describe the goals to be attained, select the
material to teach, propose teaching methods, and include an assessment plan of the
learning that it purports to develop (Ribeiro, 1998).
Despite other opinions we claim the social nature of the curriculum as an
integration of different skills that leads to efficient performances for a citizen personal
and professional life. The answer to what schools should teach encompasses
knowledge, competencies development and ways of integrating that knowledge in
such a way that the curriculum must provide the access to knowledge in a lifelong
vision (Roldao, 2000a).
To (Roldao, 2000a) this new social differentiation will be the great discrimination
of the future, as practical life demands an intelligent congregation of knowledge. Also
(Harpe, Radloff, & Wyber, 2000) and (Rawson, 2000) voices’ their opinion in defense
of the need of curricular changes from a vision solely concerned with objectives and
subjects to a new proposal based in competences that conceive the student as an hole
and active part in his own learning process. Changes in the undergraduate curriculum
are related to these shifts and might be expressed in terms of traditional and emerging
curricula. If until the mid-twentieth century, the role of the traditional teacher was just
to execute the curriculum (programme of study), where the pedagogical relationship
sat on a mere transmission of knowledge, today that relationship has changed.
This new relationship between the teacher and the curriculum, in which the
teacher needs to decide and act according to the contextualization of different
situations that arise, allows the teacher to make his own curriculum management.
Thus, the new competencies that the student is supposed to acquire will demand new
roles from the teacher ((Roldao, 1999) and (Tavares, 2000)).
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The next question then, is to find out what learning methodologies should take
place to carry out the new curriculums.
PBL Methodologies
PBL-type methodologies are an example of these modern teaching methods,

centered on the student-learning experience. In our work we will use the abbreviation
PBL for project-based learning, assuming that other types of PBL methodologies can
include problem-based learning.
PBL is both a teaching and learning method with its own logic, based on cognitive
theory. The main idea beyond both project work and problem-based learning is to
emphasize learning instead of teaching so as the most important innovative aspect of
PBL is the shift from teaching to learning. In fact, PBL is concerned with both what
students learn and how they learn it. Consequently, the task of the teacher is altered
from transferring of knowledge into facilitating to learn(Kolmos, 1996).
PBL learning, especially when given fuller scope as problem-based education, has
a built-in capacity to respond to the challenge of giving some problems the place that
their importance merits in real life. It enables discovery – by both learners and
teachers – of whatever is most important in the improvement of knowledge and
understanding.
Under the social nature of the concept of curriculum asserted by (Morgado, 2000),
(Paraskeva, 2000), (Ribeiro, 1998), (Roldao, 2000b) and (Tavares, 2000), student’s
development aims to provide him with a life learning process almost as a philosophy
of life. With this standpoint and remembering that the core mission of higher
education crosses over professional and social integration, we can understand that new
ways of socialization are under way. Within the social vision of the curriculum which
leads us to the profile we want to develop for each higher education student, we can
define PBL as a learning methodology for a purpose and with a purpose made to fit
each one measure. This means that also the teacher is no more the master of the class
but has to develop new skills to support learning. Like in a game the teacher is
comparable with a coach, which means that he is neither a team player (he is not a
student) nor a leader (he doesn’t assume a magisterial role).
As (Ribelles, 2000)states, the main two points that better explain what is not the
objective of higher education, are that training for a particular job and to assure that
the graduate students have acquired a determined level of knowledge in a particular
branch, are not the objective of higher education.
Instead, the education at the university should make the student able to develop
his career in various possible directions, at the same time that he should learn how to
acquire new knowledge during the whole professional life (Powell, 2000).
(Powell, 2000) adds some others characteristics to the graduate profile of a student
that made use of a PBL learning methodology. This author refers the strong
motivation, the ability of learning how to learn, the better teamwork and learning
partnership with each other and with staff, the understanding of syllabus in the context
or the trained to work with agreed deadlines. PBL aims to speed up the process and
efficiency by placing learning in a functional context. Learning in context enables
students to organize their long term memory for ready retrieval. Such an educational
strategy has proven valuable not only in enhancing problem-solving capability, but in
the acquisition of such skills as the holistic approach and self-directed learning.
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Also (Cowan, 2000) believes that although, chronologically, assessment follows

both teaching and learning, it makes good sense in curriculum development to begin
by working out how students are going to be assessed, and even by planning
assessment in full detail and check out intended assessments against learning
outcomes. So, it is inside this interactive environment between the learning outcomes
and the desired profile and in an opposite to a chronological way that (Cowan, 2000)
makes use of the terminology hidden curriculum to touch on the assessment process.
Other advantages of a PBL methodology includes learning team collaboration,
learning to listen, and participation in interdisciplinary discussion. The student
becomes socialized as colleague and professional as he learns not only the value of his
own way of knowing, but also to obtain and accept information from various others
sources, at the same time he learns to question others critically, and to obtain feedback
on his own learning outcomes. The method, being radically different from the didactic
tradition, demands a different mind-set regarding learning objectives, process and
methods of evaluation.
As (Donner & Bickley, 1999) refers, the role played by the student in a PBL
environment is an active one as he can formulate working proposals in order to solve
the problems he faces. (Margetson, 1998) alludes to PBL methodologies as a support
of real professional situations where lately the student can integrate.
In short and if there is an agreement among the authors of the advantages in the
use of a PBL methodology in simulating environments, the next step is to discuss
about simulation processes.
Simulation
Like (Cowan, 2000), (Kolmos, 1996), (Morgado, 2000), (Nielsen, 2000),

(Paraskeva, 2000), (Powell, 2000), (Ribeiro, 1998), (Ribelles, 2000), (Roldao, 2000b)
and (Tavares, 2000), also (Dowling, 2002) avers that knowledge is, in fact, socially
constructed.
As already mentioned, in a traditional classroom curriculum is presented part to
whole, with emphasis on basic skills. Students are viewed as empty vessels into which
knowledge is poured. In a traditional classroom, teachers behave in a didactic manner,
disseminating facts and correcting answers. Strict adherence to a fixed curriculum is
highly valued and activities rely heavily on textbooks and workbooks. In a traditional
classroom, assessment of student learning is viewed as separate from teaching and
occurs almost entirely through testing (Dowling, 2002).
In a constructivist classroom, learning is structured around primary concepts,
whole to part, with emphasis to the sum total. Students are viewed as thinkers with
emerging theories about the world. Lessons are not arbitrary, but built on issues
relevant to the student. In a constructivist classroom, teachers behave in an interactive
manner, mediating the environment for students, like a guide on the side, not a sage on
the stage (Dowling, 2002).
As we have already discussed, the knowledge based economy demands new skills
from employees, and new virtual learning environments from educational institutions.
Long ago, different types of institutions specialized in different types of learning
and knowledge. For instance, in work environments, practical knowledge was
important, and learning by doing was essential. The institutional vocation of different
schools made it necessary to provide hands on experience. On the other hand,
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academic environments traditionally focused on theory and concepts rather than on

practice.
In part because universities could not afford to recreate the workplace and
environment and infrastructure, they were largely confined to teaching theory, and the
practical training of employees was left up to the workplace. As a lot of schools could
not afford to recreate the workplace environment needed to perform like it, and
because traineeship was often impossible to achieve as it was difficult to find enough
work placements for all the students, new learning pedagogies were adopted.
So and in (Dillinger, 2001) opinion, the core of the problem is redefining the
mission of the university for the next millennium, putting the focus of change on the
nature of the learning environment. Thus, the new concepts of learning must be
rethought, centering them in the individual characteristics of the learner and
maximizing the learning environment. This urgent need for rethinking the new
learning ways comprehends things as curriculum reform, technological change,
competencies certification or the capacity for solving problems in a working
environment ((Dillinger, 2001), (Dowling, 2002), (Hanna, 1998), (Szczypula,
Tschang, & Vikas, 2001) and (Tschang, 2001)).
The evolution of technologies beyond imagination made possible the storage,
transfer and sharing of information. These new technologies led to new alternatives
for providing education and training. The knowledge management researcher
(Tschang, 2001) stresses that there have been many discussions of knowledge and
learning in various academic fields ranging from psychology and education to
philosophy, and more recently, to management and economics.
According to this researcher, a popular recent distinction in the management
literature has been that of tacit and explicit knowledge. While explicit knowledge is
knowledge that is easily codified into and learnt from objects, tacit knowledge is often
associated with skills learnt by doing. Despite widespread recognition that knowledge
is advanced in scientific and other means, the knowledge taught in a traditional
classroom is still taken to be a fixed stock from which teachers can draw from.
Making use of a management speech, (Tschang, 2001) declares that in the modern
context, knowledge flows are as important as stocks, and learning how to tap in those
flows may be as important as learning about those stocks.
As a result in knowledge societies, rapid responses are needed to widely varying
situations, so knowledge may be required to be supplied on demand. Thus, knowledge
has to be at the finger tips of organizations or people, and people have to learn how to
access this knowledge rapidly and efficiently.
All these leads to an important issue that is to know how we can integrate
workplaces into universities’ learning environments. Like (Dillinger, 2001) says, it is
fundamental to change in the direction of bringing to the classroom the situations of
the real world, not only to accompany social change, but furthermore to lead the
knowledge society in the era of information. That means that instead of putting more
reality into the learning universities will need to put more learning into reality.
But with the advent of newer ideas on learning and with the development of knew
technologies, we can now recreate certain types of virtual workplaces within virtual
universities. An example is the simulation software that helps along the work place
and academic learning environments to converge in many ways. Thus, technology
makes it increasingly possible to teach both theories and practice in virtual
environments. The pressure on schools to offer experience is aided by workplace
expectations for employees to possess more practical skills. Learning theories and
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continued evaluation of new technologies are increasingly placing strong emphasis on

the growth and development of student-centred learning (Tschang, 2001).
The new competencies requested of professionals results of an unprecedented
demand for experts who possess the new abilities to create knowledge and new skills
to manipulate technology, data, information and knowledge (Szczypula et al., 2001).
From this point of view, it is fundamental the learning how to learn of (Szczypula
et al., 2001), which is nothing more than the need to learn during a life time, lifelong
learning, and in different learning environments. Remembering the social context of
learning and as learning interconnects with different personal and professional
experiences of each individual, it becomes vital the growing interdisciplinary syllabus.
That fact raises the question of curriculum restructuring, as the syllabus needs to
contemplate the new required competencies (Hanna, 1998).
The same opinion is shared by (Forcier, 1999), that believes that drill and practice
and simulation are instructional strategies that constructivists can apply in a student-
centred environment. These strategies can gain attention, stimulate recall of prior
learning and present new information in ways that approximates real life situations at
a more concrete level.
New technologies can provide virtual education systems with comparative
economic advantages over traditional education, as well as flexibility and access to
more sources of knowledge. An example is the simulation software. The context of a
simulation study literally means executing the random events as they would occur in
real life free of limitative elements as time, security or risks. A simulation can present
a sample of real life situation and can offer genuine practice at solving real problems
unhampered by danger, distance, time or cost factors (Forcier, 1999).
Simulations can call for decisions made by the student. The computer is an useful
tool to manage this technique. At the same time, simulation is effectively student
centered enabling the student to react to a situation and make choices while the teacher
selects appropriate materials and prompts students to discover concepts. This student-
centred environment provides a climate for discovery learning to take place or for
newly acquired skills and concepts to be tested.
A sophisticated simulation can present the facts as rules of a situation in a highly
realistic manner without the limiting factors of time, distance, safety and cost and then
can adjust these factors to respond to interaction by the student. High levels of
cognitive skills are involved in the synthesis of facts, rules and concepts in solving
problems. Simulations, lending themselves to group use, also promote social
interaction. In a constructivist model, simulation software may be suggested by the
teacher as a way for the student to develop a particular skill or concept in a manner
that is close to a real life situation.
In problem solving strategies the computer can provide background knowledge
and can offer a tool to explore solution strategies. It can organize and manipulate
information, allowing the user to test tentative solutions before adopting the most
appropriate. In this manner, the curriculum favours the integration of disciplines to
foster richer learning environments.
Data Analysis
Along the investigation various research strategies were engaged namely the case
study of the Professional Project. Further and among social sciences methods
ethnography was also employed.
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The case study research is but one of several ways of doing social sciences
research. Each strategies includes peculiar advantages and disadvantages, depending
on the type of research question, the control the investigator has over actual behaviour
events and the focus on contemporary phenomena. In general, case studies are the
preferred strategy when how or why questions are being posed, when the investigator
has little control over events, and when the focus in on a contemporary phenomenon
within some real life context. Such explanatory case studies can also be complemented
by two other types, exploratory and descriptive case studies.
In this case study design, we took a single case (the one of the Professional
Project in ISCA-UA) with more than one unit selected. The embedded case study
design has Professional Project, in global, as the major unit and students, academic
staff, employers and graduates as minor units. Being the researcher a member of the
teaching staff it was possible the direct and extended contact with the social actors of
the present investigation. Putting emphasis on different modus operandi, the
ethnography method selects two main central techniques: observation and participant
observation.
The information gathered closed to the students and graduates was acquired
through a questionnaire device while the information gathered closed to the employers
and academic staff was acquired through an interview device. All of the
questionnaires were anonymous and all the interviews were not identified all through
the research program.
Although participation was voluntary we took a 96% rate of responses with the
students and a 48% rate with the graduates. Nevertheless, it is useful to remember that
students were still at school as the greatest part of the graduates was already working
with none or few ties inside university. Besides, the questionnaire was sent to all the
graduates from ISCA-UA who had Professional Project since its beginning while only
the students that were in school in the year of the investigation, get it the process.
What concerns academic staff and employers only the teachers with more than
three years experience in Professional Project or those who took part in the
coordination team were included in the investigation. For the employers and as ISCA-
UA did not possess a database of graduates’ employers, the sample that was took was
representative not in the sense of being statistical significant but in the sense of being
qualitatively significant.
It is to bear in mind that data tend towards mainly to describe and evaluate the
impact of a PBL learning methodology type as well as a simulation learning
methodology in a higher educational vocational degree.
However and before we put on data analysis, it is necessary to remember that
different tools of information assemble calls for different handling analysis. In this
way, the student and graduate outcomes were reported with the SPSS v13 that
provides a powerful statistical analysis and data management system in a graphical
environment. On the other hand, the employers and academic staff outcomes were
reported with the QSR N6 software for qualitative data analysis designed as a toolkit
based on coding text documents transcripts and analyzing and exploring that coding.
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Conclusions of the Data Analysis
Students Data
In the students’ data report the new learning methodology proposed by the
Professional Project revealed to be an interactive learning methodology indeed.
Students referred the model as student centered, stressing professional, personal and
social competences’ development.
As a rule and in their opinion, the new model helps on a learning partnership into
and inter students group, witnessing the learning to learn and carrying out some
stimulus and motivation. However students revealed that there are some aspects that
must be improved. In this case it is important to keep on endowing Professional
Project of strategies that more and more impels undergraduates in an enduring and
reflexive learning able to a further profound knowledge in teaching and learning
processes.
From the students’ point of view the Professional Project fulfill a global,
continuous and applied vision of useful learning for future professional life. Also
students agree that the learning model of Professional Project intensify social skills
mainly in working teams, social relations and change of experiences with
professionals. Furthermore students also agree that the learning model of Professional
Project intensify personal skills mainly in critical analysis, time management and task
planning. According to students the Professional Project allows subject integration
explained all through the curriculum as well as it makes it able to suit new
experiences. The Professional Project methodology stimulates a guided learning
leading to new skills. Another conclusion respects to the nature of the learning
methodology. In the students’ data report the new learning methodology proposed by
the Professional Project reveals to incite students’ motivation allowing them to
recognize knowledge procedures.
Graduates Data
As with the students also in the graduates’ data report the new learning
methodology proposed by the Professional Project revealed to be an interactive
learning indeed. Graduates referred the model as student centered, stressing
professional, personal and social competences’ development. As a rule and in their
opinion, the new model helps on a learning partnership into and inter working groups,
witnessing the learning to learn necessary throughout life. However graduates
revealed that there are some aspects that must be improved. In this case it is important
to keep on endowing Professional Project of strategies that more and more impels
undergraduates in an enduring and reflexive learning able to a further profound
knowledge in teaching and learning processes.
From the graduates’ point of view the Professional Project fulfill a global,
continuous and applied vision of useful learning for professional life. In what concerns
professional success, and generally speaking, graduates are aware that professional
success depend upon innumerable factors extrinsic to merely professional aspects.
Another conclusion of the graduates’ data analysis concerns the eventual
dissimilarities between graduates with and without Professional Project. In the
graduates’ perspective and speaking in professional terms, the difference was not
notorious.
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As well as students, graduates also agree that the learning model of Professional
Project intensify social skills mainly in working teams, social relations and change of
experiences with professionals. Furthermore students also agree that the learning
model of Professional Project intensify personal skills mainly in critical analysis, time
management, task planning, decision base and working methods. According to
graduates the Professional Project allows subject integration explained all through the
curriculum as well as makes it able to suit new experiences. The Professional Project
methodology stimulates a guided learning leading to new skills. Furthermore,
graduates confirm the development of Professional Project in a real life environment.
Another conclusion respects to the nature of the learning methodology. In the
graduates’ data report the new learning methodology proposed by the Professional
Project reveals increased students’ motivation allowing them to recognize knowledge
procedures.
Teachers Data
In the teachers’ data report the new learning methodology proposed by the
Professional Project revealed to be an interactive learning indeed. Teachers referred
the model as student centered, stressing professional, personal and social
competences’ development.
As a rule and in teachers’ opinion, the new model helps on a learning partnership
into and inter students group, witnessing the learning to learn and carrying out some
stimulus and motivation among students. However teachers revealed that there are
some aspects that must be improved. In this case it is important to keep on endowing
Professional Project of strategies that more and more impels undergraduates to assume
successful attitudes based not only in professional skills but also in personal and social
ones, as well as in engagement and motivation.
Also teachers point out to an enduring and reflexive learning able to a further
profound knowledge in teaching and learning processes. From the teachers’ point of
view the Professional Project fulfill a global, continuous and applied vision of useful
learning for future professional life. On the other hand, and though teachers states that
Professional Project makes students potentially more suited for being successful, they
also declare that it is an advantage only in the beginning of their careers.
As well as students and graduates, also teachers agree that the learning model of
Professional Project intensify social skills mainly in working teams, social relations
and change of experiences with professionals. Furthermore, teachers also agree that
the learning model of Professional Project intensify personal skills mainly in critical
analysis, time management, task planning, decision base and working methods. As
graduates, teachers also stress the real life environment of Professional Project,
recognizing all the advantages that come from it.
In the teachers’ data report the new learning methodology proposed by the
Professional Project revealed enduring challenges that stimulates on them
synchronized and actual technical and scientific abilities.
Another significant conclusion from this investigation respects to dissimilar
approaches taken by teachers with professional experience and academic ones. In this
double vision, the different trends reflect in strategic and orientation sights. As a
suggestion, teachers refer the need to choose among them those that most identify with
the innovative spirit of Professional Project opposite to traditional learning methods.
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Another conclusion respects to the nature of the learning methodology. In the

teachers’ data report the new learning methodology proposed by the Professional
Project reveals to incited students’ motivation allowing them to recognize knowledge
procedures. Fairly to students’ performance, teachers’ opinion is that, in general, they
have a reasonable and even good performance.
Employers Data
Essentially professional skills revealed to be a surplus value in the employers

point of view. According to the employers’ data report the Professional Project
methodology enhance contextual learning with the clearly advantages that come from
that. Nevertheless the undoubted growth of professional skills is not followed by
personal and social competences up growth. As a rule and in employers’ opinion,
personal and social skills seem not to be developed with Professional Project
methodology.
In particular employers assert a positive dissimilarity between employees with
Professional Project in comparison with others workers. As with teachers’ opinion,
one of the advantage tips pointed out by employers is the easier insertion of
Professional Project graduates. Being a clearly advantage in the beginning of
professional activity, it is going to drive away as time goes by.
Contrary to students, graduates and teachers, and in terms of social and personal
skills employers do not notice special differences between Professional Project
graduates and others. On the other hand, employers emphasize the larger number of
generic skills of Professional Project students comparing to other employees without
that experience. However and in spite of all the proceeding advantages and
recognizing that employees from ISCA-UA generally fulfil the employers
requirements, there are still some improvements to do namely in a rearrange of
employers needs. In general and fairly to employee’s performance, employer’s
opinion is that their performance is positively different from those employees without
Professional Project experience, although it is needed a better one in order to satisfy
employers increasing needs.
Suggestions for Further Research
In order to generalize the acquired conclusions and according to (Rose, 1993) and
(Yin, 1994) it is implicit to think about literal facsimile experiences in order to
confirm and to wrap up a theory. In this way it seems motivating to replicate the
analysis of a similar model of entrepreneurial simulation close to other’s higher
education institutions. Equally, it seems worthwhile a researcher triangulation of the
Professional Project in ISCA-UA especially at a later date aiming to analyze
subsequent fine-tunings judgments. In a later stage, we recommend a database
production of graduates’ employments endeavor an upgrade of ISCA-UA’s
information. In view of these references it would possibly give us a better idea of
market real demands. And last but not the least it seems crucial to produce a
systematic model of companies’ needs appraisement in order to adjust in (almost) real
time the Professional Project model.
242
in Higher Education
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Teaching
245
246
Graphical Representations of Mathematical Ideas in
Primary School
22
Graphical Representations of Mathematical
Ideas in Primary School
Tatjana Hodnik Cadez, University of Ljubljana
R
epresentation of mathematical ideas either with mathematical symbols,
graphical representation or representation with concrete material is crucial
for communication of mathematical ideas.
We differentiate between internal (mental images) and external
(environment) representations. Cognitive development is based on a dynamic process
of intertwining mental images and environment. This means that a successful process
of learning is an active formation of knowledge in the process of interactions between
external and internal representations.
Internal representations, known also as cognitive representations, can be defined
as mental images which correspond to our internal definition of ‘reality’. Internal
representations are defined as mental images or mental presentations (not
representations): something that does not have its original, inner world of experiences.
External representations consist of structured symbolic elements whose role is an
‘external’ presentation of a certain mathematic ‘reality’. The term ‘symbolic element’
signifies elements which are chosen to represent something else. We define the thing
that ‘represents’ another one as a symbol. In mathematics classes pupils are introduced
to three different types of symbolic elements or external representations: concrete
(didactic) material, graphical illustrations and mathematical symbols. In the following
sections, we will be dealing with graphical representations in mathematics classes.
Graphical Representations
Graphical representations in mathematics in primary schools are most commonly

represented when illustrating mathematical ideas. Mathematical textbooks, workbooks
and other learning material are full of graphical representations which differ in
imagination, originality and propriety. Some are even questionable from the
mathematical point of view and didactically inappropriate.
247
Graphical representations build kinds of bridges between concrete representations

and representations with mathematical symbols. Heedens (1986) presented a bridge
leading from concreteness towards abstractness as the bridge of graphical
representations which are either semi-concrete or semi-abstract (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Bridge between Concrete and Abstract Representations (Heddens, 1986)

CONCRETE GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATIONS SEMI-CONCRETE SEMI-ABSTRACT SYMBOLS
REPRESENTATIONS REPRESENTATIONS
Semi-concrete graphical representations are the ones which graphically represent a

concrete experience which can be either real or imaginary. Semi-abstract
representations are the ones which represent a semi-concrete representation with
graphic symbols. For example, a concrete representation of addition to 10 is
representation with apples; a semi-concrete representation is representation with
drawn apples and a semi-abstract representation uses for example circles instead of
apples (Hodnik Cadez, 2004).
The type of graphical representations depends on the nature of mathematical
concept (semi-concrete representation in subtraction to 1 000 is senseless) and on the
concrete representation used by a teacher (structured, unstructured) discussing a
certain concept.
Graphical representations as well as concrete ones differ greatly, especially in the
content of the message they carry. A pupil finds some graphical representations simple
and others complicated. Semi-concrete representations cannot be defined as simpler
compared to semi-abstract representations since the pupil can find them very complex
or seems to hardly recognize their mathematical message. On the other hand, semi-
abstract representations can be very simple, such as the example in the picture 2, or
more complex, such as a number-line which is a type of semi-abstract graphical
representations.
Examples of Graphical Representations in Arithmetic Classes in Slovenia
Calculation in Slovenia is based on explicit understanding of the place value

system which is seen as the basis of knowledge of numbers. The chosen examples of
graphical representations are based on the place value system as well and are supposed
to help the pupil to get to know and use mathematical algorithms.
Let us look at the discussion of the concept ‘number’. A concrete representation of
the number is all countable objects around us. But we do not count everything
together. We can only count objects which have a certain characteristic in common
and differ in some way at the same time what makes this group of objects countable.
This way we can count together balls, colour pencils and pictures, but we cannot count
together pictures and balls because in this case it would be hard to end the sentence,
“We counted 13 …” 13 of what? Graphical representations of numbers are mostly
illustrations of objects, animals and persons which pupils write down with
mathematical symbols or numerals.
Graphical representations are not used only for illustration of mathematical
concepts but for illustration of certain mathematical symbols as well. These
representations are there to help pupils remember a certain mathematical symbol
easier. Pupils adopt the concept represented by a symbol even before it is introduced
248
Primary School
as a symbol. Adopting the concept and learning how to write it down with a symbol is
going on at the same time. It is not possible to exclude the fact that by adopting a
mathematical symbol for a certain concept, pupils learn about that mathematical
concept as well.
Let us take the representation of the mathematical symbol ‘>’ as an example. For a
concrete representation of this mathematical symbol, we can use a hand puppet
representing a bird which wants to grab two piles of cubes, one consisting of 3 and the
other one of 5 cubes, with its beak at the same time. When it opens its beak, it first
grabs the pile of 3 cubes and then the pile of 5 cubes. The other way around would be
practically impossible. A bird’s beak opened on the left side is represented by the
mathematical symbol ‘>’, for example 4>2. A bird’s beak opened on the right side is
represented by the symbol ‘<’, for example 3<5 (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Graphical Representation of Introduction of Symbols '>' and '<'
In relation to the mathematical concepts (is less than, is greater than, is equal to)
and their respective symbols, different or complex representations can be used as well.
The example shown in figure 3 is an example of a complex representation which on
the one hand represents a number (pile of cubes) that pupils have to turn into a
mathematical symbol which means to write it down with a digit. On the other hand
this kind of representation requires a comparison of two numbers and a recording of
the relation with a mathematical symbol. A successful handling of graphical
representations and turning them into mathematical symbols is therefore crucial for a
proper handling of mathematical symbols while it is essential that pupils know
symbols for the relations ‘is less than’, ‘is greater than’ and ‘is equal to’ if they are to
meet our interpretation of the representation.
Figure 3. Transition between Representations
249
Graphical representations lead us to mathematical symbols since mathematical

meaning can be communicated not only through language and concrete
representations but through mathematical symbols as well.
From the mathematical point of view, the interpreter who in our case is the pupil
has the most important role in graphical representations which are presented in such a
way that they make the pupil more acquainted with a mathematical concept, an
algorithm and a symbol. How does the pupil interpret different graphical
representations? Do graphical interpretations really help to him in learning
mathematics? Is interpretation of graphical representations easy and obvious? We tried
to find answers to these questions by conducting a research which is presented in the
following section.
Research
Purpose
The research was carried out in order to find out how successful pupils are in
interpreting graphical representations of addition/subtraction.
Methodology
When planning this pedagogical research, we decided on a qualitative research

which we supplemented with a quantitative research methodology. We collected
quantitative data with the help of mathematical tests and qualitative data on the basis
of interviews with pupils.
We studied the role of an individual pupil learning mathematics. The individual
pupil as the interpreter of mathematical representations was the centre of our research.
Participants
At two primary schools in Ljubljana, we randomly chose 20 pupils from the third
grade (13 boys and 7 girls) to participate in our research. They all had regularly
attended the first two grades of primary school and had adopted the arithmetic
operations to 100.
Their parents have acknowledged their children’s participation with written
permissions.
Experiment
We prepared graphical representations of addition and subtraction for pupils.

Before making final decisions regarding the tasks, we asked a group of 40 female
teachers and two male colleagues working in the field of didactic of mathematics to
solve them in order to get objective criteria for correctness of pupil’s interpretations of
graphical representations of the arithmetic operations and to ensure intersubjectivity of
the evaluation of interpretations. In other words, this means that we decided on tasks
which our experts had interpreted the same or very similarly. For example, if we
presumed that a certain graphical interpretation presented subtraction, for example 47-
24=23, and if the teachers and the two colleagues interpreted this graphical
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Primary School
representation in the same way, then the task was chosen for the pupils. We did not
expect an identical record of the arithmetic operation, but allowed different ones as
well. In the example 47-24=23, we accepted the record 47-10-10-4=23 as a correct
one. What we found important was an agreement of the choice of the arithmetic
operation and an agreement of calculation parts (defining the subtrahend, the
calculated difference in subtraction and the sum in addition - the addends in addition
can be defined very differently but have to be in accordance with the picture which is
then reflected in the calculated sum).
We chose 54 graphical representations of the arithmetic operations for the pupils.
We concentrated mainly on addition and subtraction, but we added some tasks on
multiplication and division as well. The choice of tasks intended for assessing pupils’
interpretations of graphical representations was based on systematic treatment of the
arithmetic operations in mathematics in Slovenian primary schools. Even though there
is no written rule of gaining knowledge and skills of the arithmetic operations,
Slovenian teachers are very systematic in teaching arithmetic. This systematic
approach is clearly seen in addition and subtraction which we analysed in detail.
Therefore we are going to present the systematic approach of these two operations in
detail as well.
Methodical Steps in Learning Addition in the First Three Grades of Primary School
Pupils start with adding up to 10 without carrying (for example 3+4) and then with
carrying over 10 (for example 7+4). Before the introduction of carrying, pupils learn
to add numbers up to 10 (for example 4+ =10), are acquainted to two-digit numbers
which are introduced as adding numbers from 1 to 10 to 10 (for example 10+4) and
learn how to calculate up to 20 without carrying (for example 13+6). In the latter step,
we apply analogy method: since we know that 3+6=9, we therefore know that
13+6=19. In the process of teaching, we apply different illustrative material, but the
most important one is a number-line.
Later on pupils start adding to 100. First they add tens (for example 20+30), then
they add one-digit number to two-digit number without carrying (for example 23+5)
and add one-digit number to two-digit number in order to get tens (for example 46+4)
which is the basis for adding one-digit number to two-digit number with carrying (for
example 36+7). After that comes addition of tens to an optional two-digit number (for
example 34+20) and addition of two two-digit numbers without carrying (for example
34+51). At the end comes addition of two two-digit numbers by carrying units (for
example 37+48).
Methodical Steps in Learning Subtraction in the First Three Grades of Primary

School
Methodical steps in learning subtraction are very similar to the steps in addition
presented above. First pupils subtract without borrowing (for example 7-2) and then
with borrowing (for example 13-8). Before introducing subtraction with borrowing,
pupils subtract two-digit numbers between 10 and 20 to get 10 (for example 14- =10)
and subtract numbers between 10 and 20 without borrowing (for example 14-2).
Later on pupils start subtracting to 100. They start by subtracting tens (for
example 60-30), then they subtract one-digit number from two-digit number without
borrowing (for example 23-2) and then one-digit number from two-digit number in
251
order to get tens (for example 46-6) which is the basis for subtracting one-digit
number from two-digit number with borrowing (for example 36-7). After that comes
subtraction of tens from an optional two-digit number (for example 34-20) and
subtraction of two two-digit numbers without borrowing (for example 34-21). At the
end comes subtraction of two two-digit numbers by borrowing units (for example 67-
48).
We have to stress that pupils mainly had difficulties adding/subtracting with
carrying/borrowing which is understandable since a successful addition/subtraction
requires a good numerical intuition and a good knowledge of the decimal system.
When choosing graphical representations of addition and subtraction, we followed
the described methodical steps. We did not follow all of them since there would be too
many tasks per one pupil. We decided on the ‘representatives’ of the calculation types
to 100. For addition tasks we chose the following calculations (individual calculations
will be marked with a1, a2, a3, a4, a5 and a6 and these marks will be used later on):
a1: 4+2 (addition of two one-digit numbers without carrying),

a2: 8+4 (addition of two one-digit numbers with carrying),
a3: 32+4 (addition of a one-digit number to a two-digit number without
carrying),
a4: 28+5 (addition of a one-digit number to a two-digit number with
carrying),
a5: 25+43 (addition of two two-digit numbers without carrying),
a6: 28+34 (addition of two two-digit numbers with carrying).
Each of the above listed calculations was presented to the pupils with the help of
three different graphical representations:
1. Graphic representation (G1 later on) with its elements from an everyday
life (semi-concrete representation).
2. Graphic representation (here in after named “G2”), whose elements are
short sticks (notional equivalents of Dienes’ blocks), which the pupils came
acquainted with during their work with concrete material (a semi-concrete
representation).
squares (also cubes) are placed in such a way, that they represent both of
the addends and the procedure of the calculation (in the assortment, which
illustrates the rules of the place value system, the squares are notional
equivalents of Dienes’ blocks), which the pupils also came acquainted with
during their work with concrete material (semi-concrete representation).
During subtraction we chose the following calculations to ascertain the pupils’

interpretation of the graphic representations (the individual subtraction calculations
will be marked as a7, a8, a9, a10, a11, a12. These marks will also be used here in
after):
a7: 9 - 4 (subtraction of two one-digit numbers without the borrowing),

a8: 14 - 6 (subtraction of one one-digit number from a two-digit number with
the borrowing),
a9: 38 - 8 (subtraction of one-digit number from a two-digit number without
the borrowing),
252
Primary School
a10: 32 - 5 (subtraction of one-digit number from a two-digit number with

the borrowing),
a11: 47 - 24 (subtraction of two-digit number from a two-digit number
without the borrowing),
a12: 23 - 17 (subtraction of two-digit number from a two-digit number with
the borrowing).
Each of the listed calculations were introduced to the pupils with the use of three
different graphic representations (each type of the representation will be presented
with an example for the calculation a12: 36 - 17):

objects found in everyday life (semi-concrete representation) (Figure 4).
Figure 4. G1 for the Calculation 36 - 17

small sticks (notional equivalents to Dienes’ blocks), which the pupils
came acquainted with during their work with concrete material (semi-
concrete representation) (Figure 5).
squares (also cubes) are placed in such a way, that they represent both of the
numbers and the procedure of the calculation (in the assortment, which
illustrates the rules of the place value system, the squares are notional
equivalents of the to Dienes’ blocks) which the pupils also came acquainted
with during their work with concrete material (semi-concrete representation)
(Figure 6).
Figure 5. G2 for the Calculation 36 – 17
Figure 6. G3 for the Calculation 36 – 17
253
We reviewed different textbooks in order to find suitable assignments, especially

with the graphic representations G1. We reviewed all Slovene mathematical
textbooks, some Italian, English, German and Polish in order to get as variegated
selection of graphic representations as possible. It turned out, as we anticipated, that
the graphic representations in individual textbooks do not vary drastically.
We met four times with the pupils for the first part of the research. The tasks were
divided into four sets (the order of the tasks was random). Each pupil received a set of
tasks and pieces of paper, on which he or she first circled a word (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division) he thought, best described the picture and then
wrote the calculation next to the picture. It took from 45 to 90 minutes for the pupils to
finish an individual set. 20 pupils were solving the tasks, as many as were included in
the research. They were divided into groups of 5. This enabled us to monitor their
work as they solved the tasks and asked for explanations of the individual
interpretations if we did not understand them.
As was already mentioned, the pupils solved 54 tasks. 48 tasks or graphic
representations were the most important for our research.
Research Questions
• Are the pupils equally successful in interpreting graphic representations

of addition and subtraction?
• Are there differences in the pupils’ interpretation of individual graphic
representations G1, G2, G3 (especially for the subtraction and addition)?
• Are there differences in the pupils’ interpretation of graphic
representations G1, G2, G3 considering the type of calculation –
calculation with or without the process of transition (especially for the
subtraction and addition)?
• Which are the most common mistakes in the pupils’ interpretation of
graphic representations G1, G2, G3 of the addition and subtraction?
Hypotheses
• There are no significant differences between the pupils’ interpretation of

the graphic representations of addition and subtraction. The pupils
interpret both the graphic representations of addition and subtraction
equally good.
• There are no significant differences between the pupils’ interpretations of
graphic representations G1, G2, and G3 for addition. The pupils interpret
the semi-concrete representations G1, G2, and G3 for addition equally
good.
• There is a significant difference between the pupils’ interpretation of
graphic representations for subtraction G1 and the other two G2 and G3.
The interpretations of semi-concrete interpretations of graphic
representations for subtraction G1 proved to be the most challenging
tasks for the pupils.
• There is a significant difference in the pupils’ interpretations of graphic
representations, which represent calculations with and those, which
represent the ones without the process of transition. This applies equally
to the process of addition as well as subtraction. The pupils were more
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Primary School
successful in interpretation of calculations without the process of

carrying/borrowing. This applies to both the addition and subtraction.
Results
General Findings
We agreed on the following evaluation criteria while reviewing the pupils’

finished results: the pupil received one point for every successful completion of the
task and zero points, if the result was false. The following table and the histogram
show the total number of correct interpretations of graphic representations of
calculations, considering the type of the calculation (calculations from a1 to a12) and
according to the method of representation (G1, G2, and G3) of all 20 pupils (Table 1).
Table 1. The Number of Correct Interpretations of Pictures Considering the Type of

the Calculation (Calculations from a1 to a12) and Considering the Method of
Representation (G1, G2, and G3). N=20 pupils
G1 G2 G3
18
16
14
12
Pravilne interpretacije
10
0
a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 a9 a10 a11 a12
G1 12 7 17 8 14 12 13 7 15 10 16 9
G2 12 13 14 9 10 9 13 14 15 13 14 13
G3 10 11 12 9 8 11 14 11 15 15 14 12
Naloga
The results show, that the pupils were most successful in interpreting the semi-
concrete representation G1 for the calculation 32 + 4. There were 17 correct results,
which give us an 85 % success rate at this assignment.
We can name two significant reasons, why the pupils were most successful in
interpreting this picture. The first reason would be, this being the calculation, which
255
belongs to a group of calculations without the process of transition. Pupils usually

have fewer difficulties in solving this type of calculations. The second reason is purely
a speculative one, it is most surprising, that the highest “success rate” had the
assignment, which is the only one with a picture of a child performing (or a motion
indicating) the calculation with balls. Perhaps the picture helps the pupils to identify
themselves with the child and thus find the interpretation easier. We should state at
this point, that virtually no similar interpretation can be found in the textbooks.
However, this is merely a comment to the results; a proper method should be used to
ensure the reliability of the statement.
The interpretation of calculation representations 8 + 4 and 14 - 6 with the semi-
concrete method G1 proved to be the most challenging for the pupils. There were 7
correct results, which give us a 35 % success rate at these tasks (Figure 7).
Figure 7. Semi-Concrete Representations of the Calculations 14 - 6 and 8 + 4, which

Proved to be the most Difficult Interpretation Assignment for the Pupils
A commentary to this result: pupils found the interpretation of semi-concrete

representations G1 for subtraction particularly difficult. If we take a look at the picture
above, which represents the calculation 14 - 6 (there were 14 sweets altogether, we ate
6 of them, how many do we have left), we can see, that the method of subtraction is
indicated in a special way. The elements, which the pupils had to subtract, were not
crossed out as in the case with the graphic representations of subtraction, marked G2
(with small sticks) and G3 (with cubes). The process of subtraction is indicated in
another way. The end result was shown, which forms a basis on which we must
determine the event, which lead to current result. The pupils often interpreted this
representation as 8 - 2 = 6 or 8 - 6 = 2 (5 pupils), 8 + 6 = 14 (4 pupils), 8 + 6 = 12 (1
pupil), 9 + 5 = 14 (1 pupil), other solutions were also possible. For example: 14 - 10 =
4, 4 + 8 = 12 (1 pupil), 8 × 6 = 48 (1 pupil). The results showed, that pupils, who
wrote the calculation 8 + 6 = 14 answered the following question “what is the result”
in the following way: “there are 14 altogether”. However, they could not answer the
additional question, “14 of what”. The interpretation would have been considered
correct, if the results showed that they counted the wrappings. As they counted the
wrappings to the sweets, the interpretation could not be considered correct.
With the interpretation of the picture, which represents the calculation 8 + 4 = 12
(Figure 7), the pupils mostly used subtraction with the assignments, which illustrated
the process of addition (not considering the type of representation) and where the
addends were indicated with different colours (as is visible in the picture 14: 4 blue
and 8 red circles). The pupils added, that they subtracted because “they are red”. If we
look at their interpretations of this representation we notice the following false results:
11 - 8 = 3 (1 pupil), 12 - 3 = (2 pupils), 4 × 8 = 32 (2 pupils), 8 – 4 = 4 (4 pupils) and
12 – 4 = 8 (4 pupils).
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Primary School
Prior to the thorough analysis of the pupils’ interpretations of graphic

representations, let us first take a look at the following table, which represents the
pupils’ success with the individual representation G1, G2, and G3, especially with
addition and subtraction (Table 2).
Table 2. The Success with which the Individual Pupil solved the Representation G1,
G2, and G3 (Especially for Addition and Subtraction). The Individual Pupil had been
marked with a Capital Letter
G1(+) G2(+) G3(+) G1(-) G2(-) G3(-) ∑(+) ∑ (-) ∑ (+) % ∑ (-)%
A 2 0 0 1 1 0 2 2 11,1 11,1
B 4 4 5 0 0 0 13 0 72,2 0,0
C 4 5 4 6 6 5 13 17 72,2 94,4
Č 3 5 4 0 0 1 12 1 66,7 5,6
D 0 3 4 2 6 5 7 13 38,9 72,2
E 3 2 1 3 1 3 6 7 33,3 38,9
F 1 1 3 0 0 0 5 0 27,8 0,0
G 1 0 2 1 0 0 3 1 16,7 5,6
H 3 4 4 4 5 6 11 15 61,1 83,3
I 2 2 1 5 6 6 5 17 27,8 94,4
J 4 5 5 5 6 6 14 17 77,8 94,4
K 6 3 4 5 6 6 13 17 72,2 94,4
L 3 0 0 6 6 4 3 16 16,7 88,9
M 6 5 3 5 6 6 14 17 77,8 94,4
N 6 6 3 4 6 6 15 16 83,3 88,9
O 4 3 2 4 6 6 9 16 50,0 88,9
P 3 4 3 4 5 5 10 14 55,6 77,8
R 6 6 6 6 6 6 18 18 100,0 100,0
S 4 4 3 5 6 6 11 17 61,1 94,4
Š 5 5 4 4 4 4 14 12 77,8 66,7
Revision of the Hypothesis
Comparison of the Pupils’ Success in Interpreting the Graphic Representations of

Addition and Subtraction
We concluded that the pupils interpret the graphic representations of addition and
subtraction equally successful; respectively there are no significant differences
between the interpretations of the representation of the two calculation operations.
Hypothesis: There are no differences between the pupils’ interpretation of the
graphic representation of addition and subtraction.
The pupils interpret the graphic interpretations of addition and subtraction equally
successful.
Thus our hypothesis, that there are no significant differences between the
interpretation of graphic representation of addition and subtraction can be kept (t=l,
22; P=0.24; sp=19).
257

Addition and Subtraction with and without the Process of Transition
We concluded that the pupils are less successful with the interpretation of the
graphic representation of addition and subtraction with the process of transition than
the graphic representation of addition and subtraction without the process of transition.
Graphic representations of addition and subtraction with the process of transition are
more complex due to the process or algorithm of the calculation with the transition,
which the pupils must get familiar with and is the cornerstone of the graphic
representation (Table 3). Calculation with the transition is by all means much more
complex that calculation without it.
Table 3. The Success of the Individual Pupil’s Interpretation of Calculations with and
Calculations without the Process of Transition (al+a3+a5: The Sum of the Correct
Interpretations of the Assignment with Addition without the Transition, a2+a4+a6:
The Sum of the Correct Interpretations of Assignment with the Calculation with the
Transition, a7+a9+a11: The Sum of Correct Interpretations of Assignment Including
Subtraction without the Transition, a8+a10+a12: The Sum of the Correct
Interpretations of Assignment Including Subtraction with the Transition)
Addition Subtraction
∑ G1,G2,G3 ∑ G1,G2,G3 ∑ G1,G2,G3 ∑ G1,G2,G3
U a1+a3+a5 a2+a4+a6 a7+a9+a11 a8+a10+a12
A 1 1 1 1
B 7 6 0 0
C 8 5 9 8
Č 8 4 1 0
D 5 2 8 5
E 4 2 6 1
F 3 2 0 0
G 2 1 1 0
H 4 7 8 7
I 3 2 9 8
J 6 8 9 8
K 6 7 9 8
L 2 1 8 8
M 8 6 8 9
N 7 8 8 8
O 5 4 9 7
P 8 2 8 6
R 9 9 9 9
S 5 6 9 8
Š 8 6 9 3
Hypothesis: There is a significant difference between the pupils’ interpretations

of the graphic representations, which represent equations with the transition and the
representations, which represent equations without it. This is true for the process of
addition as well as the process of subtraction.
Thus our hypothesis, that there is a significant difference between the pupils’
interpretation of graphic representation of calculation with the transition and the
258
Primary School
calculations without it can be kept (t=2.13; P=0.05; sp=19 (for addition), t=3.26;
P=0.004; sp=19 (for subtraction)).

Addition
We presumed that the pupils interpret the graphic representations of addition G1,
G2, and G3, that is semi-concrete representations equally successful. In
representations G1, G2, and G3, it is the process, represented by the elements of
representations which is important and not the elements themselves. With the semi-
concrete graphic representations it is thus not important whether addition is illustrated
with everyday objects, with small sticks or with squares.
Hypothesis: There are no differences in the pupils’ interpretation of graphic
representations of addition G1, G2, and G3.
Thus, our hypothesis, that there are no significant differences in the pupils’
interpretation of graphic representations G1, G2, and G3 for addition, can be kept
(G1G2: t=0.45; P=0.66; sp=19, G2G3: t=1.06; P=0.30; sp=19, G1G3: t=1.07; P=0.30;
sp=19).

Subtraction
We presumed that the pupils will be less successful in interpreting the semi-
concrete representations G1 for subtraction than with the semi-concrete
representations G2 and G3 for subtraction. The process of subtraction with G1 is
illustrated with an event. In order for the pupil to correctly interpret the representation
G1 he or she must first determine the beginning of the event, the end result and use the
appropriate process of subtraction in order to write down the event which took place.
With the representations G2 and G3 the change is always illustrated in such a way,
that the subtrahend is crossed out.
Hypothesis: There are significant differences in the pupils’ interpretation of
graphic representation G2 and G3 for subtraction.
Thus the hypothesis that there are significant differences in the pupils’
interpretations of the representations G1 on one hand and the interpretations G2 and
G3 on the other hand can be kept (G1G2: t=2.18; P=0.04; sp=19, G1G3: t=1.99;
P=0.05; sp=19, G2G3: t=1.16; P=0.79; sp=19).
Conclusion
Graphic representations, as well as concrete and symbolic representations, do not

“represent” themselves, they need an interpreter. There is a variety of graphic
representations in mathematical curriculum; the interpreter is a pupil, who establishes
a mental interaction with the proposed graphic representation. The pupils’
interpretation of the graphic representation is linked with his or hers understanding of
the mathematical concept represented by the representation. The way in which the
concept is represented by the graphic representation also plays an important role. We
were able to conclude, that the pupils find it easier to solve graphic representations of
addition (they also find addition to be the easiest). The biggest obstacle for the pupils
259
in subtraction are the semi-concrete representations, which reflect the subtractions in

everyday life (they had been marked G1 for the needs of the research). This is in fact
an interesting finding; one would presume that a close interaction of the mathematical
curriculum with everyday life the pupils would find these assignments including
graphic representations to be the easiest. We suspect the problem lies in the translation
of the concrete representation into graphic ones. During the process of teaching and
studying mathematics we understand the concrete experience, linked to the pupils’ life
and the translation of this representation into a graphic representation as something
natural. Usually we do not stop to think that graphic representation also needs an
explanation, a dialog, a “dynamic” interpretation and that the pupils’ understanding of
graphic representation would be easier to understand, if he or she were given a chance
to create these sort of representations by themselves. We must not presume, that the
pictures in mathematics, which are often very colorful and interesting always serve
their purpose. The representations in mathematics do not always form a mental link
with the pupils’ understanding of mathematical concepts. Next to concrete, graphic
and symbolic representations in mathematics, we must mention the speech, which is
also a representational system and is treated in a close relation to all previously listed
representations.
Literature
Davis, R. B. (1984) Learning Mathematics: The Cognitive Science Approach to Mathematics

Education, London & Sydney: Groom Helm.
Dufour-Janvier, B., Bednarz, N. (1987) Pedagogical Considerations Concerning the Problem of
Representation. In: Janvier, C. (ed.) Problems of Representation in the Teaching and
Learning of Mathematics, Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 109-122.
Hodnik Čadež, T (2004) Children’s interpretation of arithmetic operation within a theory of
representational mappings. In: Lazaridou, A., papanikos, G. T., Pappas, N. (eds.)
Education. Athens: Institute for Education and Research, 305-314.
Heddens, J. W. (1986) Bridging the Gap between the Concrete and the Abstract. Arithmetic
Teacher 33(6), 14-17.
Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1992) Beyond Modularity: A Developmental Perspective on Cognitive
Science, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
Palmer, S. E. (1978) Fundamental Aspects of Cognitive Representation. In: Rosch, E., Lloyd,
B. B. (eds.) Cognition and categorization, Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 259-
303.
von Glasersfeld, E. (1987) Preliminaries to Any Theory of Representation. In: Janvier, C. (ed.)
Problems of Representation in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics, Hillsdale:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 215-225.
260
Historical Development of Geography Education in Turkey
23
Historical Development of Geography
Education in Turkey
Nurcan Demiralp, Gazi University
A
s the geography in Turkey has a history of change so does the geography
education. Especially during the Ottoman Empire the studies which started
with mathematical geography and marine geography has continued ever
since and nowadays includes every aspect of modern geography and modern
geography education.
In this study, we have classified the historical development of geography
education under three topics, which are;
9 Historical Development of Geography and Geography Education in Turkey

9 Today’s Geography Education in Turkey
9 The Problems of Geography Education in Turkey and Possible Solutions
Historical Development of Geography and Geography Education in Turkey and

Studies in These Fields
Although there has been many studies on the geography of Turkey the most
important ones are the First Geography Congress in 1941 and then the studies made by
Hakkı Akyol in 1943 and by Sırrı Erinç in 1973.
In Akyol’s studies Turkey’s geography was studied in terms of political periods,
according to the political regime that was in effect during his studies and classified
under three headings; autocracy, constitutional monarchy and republic. However,
Erinç dealt with the physical development of Turkey’s geography such as
geographical views, concepts, applied methods, research materials and geographical
techniques. Erinç (1973: 3) has stated that studying the geography under the headings
which he suggested would make it possible to observe the improvements with all their
causes and basics.
According to Erinç there are four periods in the development of geography.
Before Modern Geography: Before 1915

Leaders of Modern Geography and The First Steps: 1915-1933
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The Establishment and Organization of Modern Geography: 1933-1941

The Rise of Turkish Geography: 1942-1973
Before Modern Geography: Before 1915
In 1915 studies have been done to reorganize and renew the higher education
establishment called the “Coğrafya Darülmesaisi”, a Geography Faculty in Istanbul.
According to Erinç, (1973: 5) these studies were considered to be the precursors of a
big step and even the turning point in the course of establishment of modern
geography in Turkey.
The geography education in Turkey, before 1915 and generally in the XIX.
Century, did not go any further than naming places, giving statistical data or drawing
maps by memorization. The geographical society was far away from doing national
research and could not even analyze the international studies properly (Erinç, 1973: 5-
6).
During this period in several schools with different levels, long hours were
dedicated to geography education and geography teachers from overseas were
employed for military purposes. Another improvement in this period is the
participation in international congresses, such as in Paris in 1835 and in London in
1895. We can see that writers, many of whom being military staff, have written
interesting geography books.
In 1915, when the Turkish geography was compared with the international
standards, in terms of concept and methodology, it had become clear that we were far
behind. Notably, with Germany and France there was a regression of at least one or
two centuries. During this period the Turkish geography was thought to be;
• The memorization of some city names, many of which were wrong due
to the shortage of good drawn maps,
• Listing the names of mountains and rivers and
• It was thought that some descriptions of a place would be enough to
learn about its geography.
Also map drawing and geography was thought to be the same thing and whoever
draws the best map was thought to be an important geographer. It is possible to say
that this period of the Turkish geography is very similar to the times before the
Classical period (1800–1859) in European geography, which was represented by
Humbolt and Ritter and equally similar to the times near the end of XVII. and XVIII.
century. However during this era, in the improved European countries, the basics of
modern geography were already established by important geographers and its subjects,
methods and aims were set. In fact during this era important geographer such as
Banse, Ramsay, Frech, Hoerness, Philippson, Grund and Cvijic had done and were
doing field research according to the basics of modern geography in the Ottoman
Empire (Erinç, 1973: 7).
The period before 1915 is seen as a period where the Turkish geography is far
away from modernisation and was under a regression. Erinç (1973: 8) thinks that we
need to look at the causes of the problems during this era and states this with these
words.
262
“We need to seek the causes of the problems in the fact that Turkey
was closed to the improvements of the Western science world due to
the period’s political and social regime, and the decision taken about
the non usage of main sources but the usage of second and even third
degree sources towards the end of the period.”
The Leaders of Modern Geography and the First Steps: 1915 – 1933
This period is the one where the Turkish geography has made important
preparations in the way of the establishment of scientific geography and has taken its
first steps. The first precursors of this important era were Saffet in 1913 and Faik Sabri
Bey in 1915, who have put together educational books using French resources and
although the books were lacking information even of that era, they were prepared
according to the modern standards and this was thought to be a big step in the field of
geography.
The reason why 1915, as a beginning date and 1933 as an ending date of this era
were chosen is that because the Faculty of Geography of Istanbul was the only
geographical research institute in Turkey at that time. During this period, the faculty
had gone through radical reorganizations and thus had decided on important aims,
which were to play an important part in the establishment and improvement of modern
geography in Turkey and to educate hundreds of young geographers.
During the 1915’s in the Geography Department in Istanbul lessons such as
natural and human geography, Islamic and Turkish geography and regional geography
were delivered via manner and practice. For example, Associate Professor E. Obst,
invited from Germany had given lessons on human geography, the Ottoman Empire’s
Geography and geographical methods. Thanks to E. Obst, in this period a library with
a rich variety and different kinds of research equipment were dedicated to the
Geography Education Department and they had the chance to meet with the scientific
physical geography that is dependent on research.
At the beginning of 1920’s, which is the beginning of the Republic era, the
Faculty of Geography was almost without any field research or experiments and was
only about plain teaching. In such an era where field studies were alienated, big efforts
were made to bring the modern geography techniques of the West in to Turkey and to
raise young people in the field of geography in its right place to teach.
During the first years of the Republic, because the Geography Department of the
Faculty did not have employees who were fully equipped with research skills and
experience, foreign teachers were invited in order to meet the needs of the faculty and
to organize the activities in the research department.
In this period it is a fact that not only human geography but also the physical
geography was literally neglected, as the faculty was under too much influence of
geology and stayed that way for a long period of time.
During this era very few articles and research findings about the Turkish
geography were published in the Geography Department of the Arts and Sciences
Faculty. These few articles and research that were published were more about the
physical geography and human and economical geography were neglected.
The ‘Turkish Geography’ published in 1926 by Hamit Sadi Selen was a very
important step. This work indicates a very important and a very successful step by
263
means of the application of human and economical geography to the geography of

Turkey in a systematic way.
In short, this era which we define under the heading of ‘The leaders of modern
geography and the first steps’ has continued with these properties until the Faculty of
Geography of Istanbul went under a real reform and became a university.
The Establishment and Organization of Modern Geography: 1933-1941
Two geography institutes that gave a modern geography education in the same
level as the international level, were established, one being in Istanbul and the other in
Ankara. With this new step the modern geography was introduced with research
examples which included the usage of concept, research, aim and methodology.
During this period, in order to introduce the ways of modern geography into the fields
of geographical research, geographical terminology, educational geography, the First
Geography Congress (1941) was conducted. In this congress decisions were taken to
establish the Turkish Geography Institute, to make it possible for Turkish geographers
to participate in international congresses and do presentations and to increase the
numbers of scientific geographical press.
The new staff list of the Istanbul Institute of Geography, which was established
with the reform in 1933, included names like Besim Darkot, Ahmet Ardel, Ali
Tanoğlu and Cemal Arif Alagöz. It would be quite right to define these geographers as
the first professional generation who were educated according to the modern views in
this field and who had chosen geography as a job.
The second faculty of geography which was up to the level of a university was
established in the Geography Department in the Faculty of Humanities in Ankara in
1935.
The most important event in this era, where the Scientific Turkish Geography was
organized and established, was the First Geography Congress (6-21 June in 1941),
where many of the problems of the science of Turkish geography were discussed and
thus important decisions were taken. The main purpose of the First Geography
Congress, was expressed with the words of President of the Ministry of Education
Hasan Ali Yucel, who said “The aim is to give geography lessons in a way that is
more realistic than today in all levels of schools while trying to improve the science of
geography in our country in a suitable way”
In the light of the decisions taken in the congress; one text book system, although
it had its disadvantages was introduced to the Middle Schools, a list of geographical
terms was made, modifications according to the modern geography was made in the
geography curriculum, the aim of giving an importance to the Turkish geography was
achieved, and while all this in order to “end the complexity and incoherence in the
geography education”, the geographical regions of Turkey were determined. The most
important decision taken in the congress was to decide to establish the ‘Turkish
Geography Institute’ and for the institute to publish a magazine. The Institute was
officially established in 12 March 1942 and the first Turkish Geography Magazine
was published in April 1943. With this new step the speeding up and coordination of
the scientific studies in the Turkish geography was achieved while a big obstruction
was cleared out of the way, which was not having a scientific geography magazine to
display the research results to the whole country and the world.
This period (1933–1941) shows itself with the Turkish geographers getting into
the scientific research areas and starting publishing. Studies that covered different
264
research subjects to the publishing of school books were made. Mean while, we can
see that during this period, employees of the Geography Department of Istanbul
University were working to publish books. Books such as “Common Geography Class
Notes” by Akyol (1940), “Mapping Lessons” by Darkot (1939), “Climatology
Lessons” by Ardel (1941), “Energy Resources” (1941) and “Agricultural Life I:
Agriculture in Mid Climatic Countries” by Tanoğlu (1942) can be given as examples.
The Rise of Turkish Geography: 1942-1981
Although Sırrı Erinç has studied this period from 1942 to 1973, by most of the
geographers, for example, Koçman, İzbırak, Karabağ and Şahin, the period of the rise
was studied between 1942 and 1981.
The main characteristic of this period is the progress, improvement and rise of the
Turkish geography in all aspects.
During this era,
• The geography faculties that were already in existence were made stronger
by the joining of new teachers,
• The research activities were significantly increased,
• The research subjects were improved by means of including areas and
subjects that were never considered until that date,
• The research departments within the geography institutes were established,
• The number of scientific research organization were increased,
• Articles of the Turkish geographers started to be published in foreign
magazines
• We were given opportunities to speak in international meetings and
• The characterisation of the Turkish geography had begun to be stronger
and more dominating in its own field.
In short, the Turkish geography was raised to an international level and sometimes
to a level even higher than that. In a research comparing the European Universities in
the field of geography, made by the European Council in 1960’s, it was concluded that
the geography education teaching and researching system in Turkish universities was
a model for all the European universities.
In this period, the establishment of an institute under the Department of
Geography of Istanbul University and the publishing of two magazines, one in Turkish
and one in English are two very important steps in the improvement of the Geography
Department. These magazines were named the Istanbul University Geography
Institute Magazine and Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of
Istanbul International Edition. Thanks to this opportunity it was possible to publish the
results of researches which were increasing day by day. Especially with the help of the
Review, it was possible to make the world recognize the Istanbul Geography
Department.
In this era the teachers in Istanbul Geography Institute had given importance to
the publishing of books that were being used to teach in universities. With this
approach lack of books were completed with new books covering each field of
geography and even sometimes two books in one field with a different approach to the
subject can be seen.
265
During this period the lesson hours in the Istanbul Geography Department were
increased and completely new subjects were given a place in the programs while
important changes in the teaching of some subjects were introduced.
Mean while, the main improvements in the field of education were; the beginning
of teaching of new subjects in detail and the important improvements in the teaching
techniques of these subjects.
The period which the Turkish geography went under, until 1973 was described by
Erinç in these words; “starting from scratch and showing an unbelievable
improvement and thus making the Turkish Geography reach to the international level”
Izbırak (1976: 42) has evaluated the period between 1942–1976 as “the Rise of
Turkish Geography” just like Erinç. Izbirak has also concluded that improvements
such as; books and articles about research and maps, magazines and geography
meetings were held in universities in Istanbul and Ankara and the numbers of Turkish
geographers with the knowledge of modern geography way of thinking and
methodology had gone up.
The education systems of the geography departments that were only found in four
universities in Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir and Erzurum up until 1981 were changed with
the Turkish Council of Higher Education, YOK and many institutes of education were
transformed into universities. Thus the geography education in Turkey was widely
spread. This act of transforming many institutes to independent universities provided
new opportunities for research as well as making them easier to conduct. However
these beneficial approaches were not carried in the desired level, and thus the speedy
progress from the preceding period had stopped and many obstructions and factors
that prevented the progress had come up.
When it was evaluated by many scientists (Kocman, 1999: 8, Sahin and Karabag,
2005: 203), the period up to 1981, was seen as the period where the geography
education was widespread, many new geography departments were opened, the
academic staff had been improved and a lot of publishing had taken place, however
despite all this in this period the improvement of geography had stopped and the
international qualities were not met.
Today’s Geography Education in Turkey
Since 1981, geography education has been given in two kinds of universities,
which are the Faculties of Arts and Science, with a 4 year educational period and
Faculties of Education, with a 5 year educational period. The Faculty of Arts and
Science gives an education mainly with the purpose of educating people to be
researchers or to work in different job sectors. People who graduate from this type of
education can take special educational courses and become teachers after completing
these courses. On the other hand the students in the Geography Department of Faculty
of Education take basic geography lessons for the first 3 and a half years and
educational courses for the later one and a half year making 5 years of education in
total. Today, 19 universities in total provide geography education, with 12 of these
being Faculties of Arts and Science and 7 being Faculties of Education. These
universities are shown in Table 1.
Students who graduate from either of these departments can enter a central exam
and can be appointed as teachers to different levels of education system.
266
Just like there was in the past, today there are problematic areas in the geography
in all levels of education, may that be in primary schools, in high schools, in Faculties
of Arts and Sciences and in Faculties of Education.
Table 1. The Institutes of Geography in Turkey
University Faculty
1 Afyon Kocatepe University Uşak Faculty of Science and Literature
2 Afyon Kocatepe University Faculty of Science and Literature
3 Ankara University Faculty of Language History and Geography
4 Atatürk University Faculty of Science and Literature
5 Atatürk University Faculty of Education
6 Balıkesir University Faculty of Science and Literature
7 Çanakkale 18 Mart University Faculty of Science and Literature
8 Çanakkale 18 Mart University Faculty of Education
9 Dicle University Faculty of Education
10 Dokuz Eylül University Faculty of Education
11 Ege University Faculty of Science and Literature
12 Fırat University Faculty of Science and Literature
13 Gazi University Faculty of Education
14 Istanbul University Faculty of Science and Literature
15 Sütçü İmam University Faculty of Science and Literature
16 Marmara University Faculty of Education
17 19 Mayıs University Faculty of Science and Literature
18 Selçuk University Faculty of Education
19 100. Yıl University Faculty of Science and Literature
Total 12 Science and Literature
7 Education Faculty
267
The Problems of Geography Education in Turkey and Possible Solutions
Before we classify the problems of the geography education under different kinds
of headings we need to know that these problems increased significantly in 1981,
when many new geography departments were established under the YOK law, in a
very short time and without the basic foundations. The geography departments that
were already in existence during that time and the establishment of these new
institutes without good programming, without adequate teachers and without adequate
technological opportunities, created such important problems that they can still be
seen in today’s educational system.
These problems can be classified under such headings:
¾Financial and Technological Deficiency

¾The Problem of Unemployment
¾Application Deficiencies
¾Inadequacy in the Text Books
¾ Inadequacy in the Programs
Financial and Technological Deficiency
Today, the technological supplies either in universities, primary schools or in high

schools are not fit enough when today’s technology is considered. In the universities,
because the laboratories with technological equipment and the internet are not good
enough for research and applied geography education, we can not conduct studies or
research in the fields of remote sensor, geographical information system (GIS) and so
on. This situation not only obstructs the new and modern steps in the geography and
geography education but also prevents us from following the progress of the scientific
researches made in the world. This problem of the universities, primary schools and
high schools should immediately be taken into consideration and new resources
should be found to end the financial and technological problems.
The Problem of Unemployment
In Turkey, especially after 1981, too many students were accepted to the new
geography and geography education institutes and were educated without any
planning. The graduates educated to be geographers or geography teachers aim to
work with the government as teachers, which is almost the only option. Thus the
government having limited vacancies many candidates are left unemployed. For this
problem to be solved students in the Faculty of Arts and Science should be educated to
be researchers rather than teachers and should be hired in different fields such as the
municipalities, state planning organizations, transportation, agriculture and
information technology. Further more the quota of Faculty of Education should be
pulled down and ones who are accepted should be raised to become more qualified
students.
268
Application Deficiencies
Today geography lessons in universities, primary school or high schools are

conducted with almost no field work or practice. This problem is caused due to both
the deficiency of financial and technological opportunities and the inadequate
importance given to the applications and practices in learning. The teaching staff
either in universities, primary schools or high schools are not equipped well enough
with the field experience, and this causes students to be left without this experience
and thus not to be educated well enough. The education system should be designed in
a way that combines theory and practice in all levels of the education.
Inadequacy in the Text Books
There are serious issues about the text book in all levels of education. The
resources used or suggested in universities have inadequate and some time wrong
knowledge and are not up to date with new information. It would be beneficial if the
books that are being used in the universities, are written with care and if they would
go through an evaluation process before being suggested. Further more the
publications of new books should be speeded up, they should be written according to
the new program of primary and middle schools published in 2005 and teachers and
students should be advised in the right direction.
Inadequacy in the Programs
In the 19 universities with geography departments in Turkey, different programs

with different contents and lessons are being conducted. Especially programs that do
not include enough practice and lessons that are far away from up to date information
cause individuals to be far away from the ability of conducting research and synthesis.
These programs should be reconsidered to include opportunities to do more research
and practice and should consider the students to be the centre of education.
Conclusion
As seen with this study, in which we have covered the historical development of
geography education and today’s geography and its problems, it is clear that big
improvements have been progressed since the establishment of the Turkish Republic.
However, in spite of the increase in the numbers of students since 1981, there is a big
loss in the field of education and publication. To solve this problem studies in the
scope of ‘Bologna procedure’ are under way and efforts to increase the quality and
competition are being made. In primary and middle school education important steps
about programs, books, new education and teaching techniques and technological
equipment are being considered.
269
References
Akyol İ. Hakki 1943a. Son Yarım Asırda Türkiye’de Coğrafya, III Cumhuriyet Devrinde
Coğrafya, Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, No. III-IV, s.247–276, Ankara.
Erinç Sirri 1973. Cumhuriyetin 50.Yılında Türkiye’de Coğrafya, Başbakanlık Kültür
Müsteşarlığı, Cumhuriyetin 50. Yıldönümü Yayınları: 11, s.1–62, Ankara.
Izbirak Reşat 1976. Türkiye’de Son Yarım Yüzyıl İçinde Coğrafya Alanında Gelişmeler,
Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih Coğrafya Fakültesi Yayını, No.257, s. 29–44, Ankara.
Koçman Asaf 1999. Cumhuriyet Döneminde Yüksek Öğretim Kurumlarında Coğrafya
Öğretimi ve Sorunları, Ege Coğrafya Dergisi, sayı: 10, s. 1–14, İzmir.
Şahin Salih & Karabağ Servet 2005. An Evaluation of Geography and Geography Education
in Turkey, 2 Geography in European Higher Education, Changing Horizons in Geography
Education, Torun.
Coğrafya Dersi Öğretim Proğramı (9. 10. 11 and 12.sınıflar), 2005. Gazi Kitabevi, Ankara.
270
Teaching Children Basic Concepts of Geography and Map Activities in
Early Childhood Education through the Environment and Literature
24
Teaching Children Basic Concepts of
Geography and Map Activities in Early
Childhood Education through the
Environment and Literature
Havise Gulec, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University
&
Nilgun Metin, Hacettepe University
O f all the disciplines, geography is most closely linked to the human senses
and to survival. Even before he (she) can walk a child must prepare a map af
his environment, a complicated map, using his mental abilities as well as his
eyes and his sense of touch. It is a map not drawn on one level, but on several all at
once, certain of the dimensions being social and emotional. Some of the abilities
necesasary to perceive the environment are inherited; there is evidence that also that
young children carry within them from the beginning an awareness of depth and
height and their attendant dangers, evidence also that people who have been blind
from birth are able to draw quite accurate pictures of objects they can never have seen
(May,1985).
Educators are interested in how children learn and at what ages children can be
taught various content, concepts, and skills. Geography educators have a special
interest in children’s development of spatial skills; children need these skills to
navigate in large-scale and small-scale environments and and to make and use maps.
Blades, Sowden, and Spencer (1995) had previously held the traditional Piagetian
view that children younger than 7 years of age would have poor or no ability to use
maps. To test their theory, they placed four objects in a room. Children were then
given a map, which used symbolic representations of those objects and asked to walk
to a specified object using the map. Their study found that three-and four-year-olds
were able to use the symbolic representations of objects in a room (Schoenfedt, 2001).
Priddle and Rubin (1977) studied the spatial abilities of four-and-a-half-year-old
children and found that spatial concepts such as understanding one’s place in relation
to other objects could be taught to preschool children.
271
Although we normally think of maps as combinations of lines, shapes, colors and

symbols, maps can also be described, as pictures that are much smaller than the areas
they represent(Van Cleaf, 1985).
Geograpy is about making maps; its very name reveals the heart of the subject and
tells us that it is concerned with depicting the surface of the earth. Maps are the
shorthand of the geographer. If we consider the nature of a map we can see some of
the skills required in its making and understanding. A map implies the recognition of
the points of the compass, north, south, east and west; if it is held upside down it does
not make sense. The essence of a map is that it reduces a large space to a small and
manageable one, while keeping the relationship between features like villages,
railways and rivers constant.(may,1985).
Although we normally think of maps as combinations of lines, shapes, colors and
symbols, maps can also be described, as pictures that are much smaller than the areas
they represent (Van Cleaf, 1985).
Block maps, picture maps and drawn maps are appropriate for children to
construct. Providing activities in each of the three categories will help children
gradually move from a concrete to an abstract understanding of map reading (David
Van Cleaf).
Teachers of preschool, kindergarten, and primary-grade children have a universal
mandate to focus on developing the literacy and numeracy skills of their pupils.
Young learners can and should learn geography, too. Thus, teachers can add the
development of geographic literacy to their classrooms.
Literature and social studies teaching have demonstrated a persistent, attractive
connection (McGowan, Erikson, and Neufeld,1996). Literature comes nearer to
achieving this goal than most other resources, for even audiovisual materials may not
explicitly convey the smells, tastes, and other sensations of a place as well as high-
quality literatüre. Literatüre bridges the gap between geographically distant worlds
and gives children a better understanding of how and where people have lived in the
past and present, and how they might live in the future (Hannibal and Vasiliev, 2002).
In this study, the methods of teaching the basic concepts of geography, such as
location, place, human-environment interaction, movement, and region, to the children
by using the the picture books, gaining the ability of preparing a map by using the
environment and increasing their interests to the geography in the early childhood
education are stated. Moreover, the results getting from these practices have been
commented.
Location
The theme of location tells us exactly where in the world something is, as well as
why things are located in particular places. The fundamental questions of location are:
Where is it? How can they find their way home...? Although young children cannot
distinguish longitude, or perhaps even left and right, they can tell the shape of the
body and how much space it takes up, tell where the different body moves and rests
and realize how the voice is a part of the body (Hannibal and Vasiliev, 2002) .
Relative location is simply telling the position of some object in relation to one or
more other objects. When teachers help children learn their street addresses, they are
helping children learn about absolute location, a definite spot on Earth. Teachers can
use maps and globes to locate the settings of the stories they read to and with the
children (Schoenfedt, 2001).
272
Chıldren Book: Mehmet’s Home (Gulcin Alpoge). This book is about the
adventures of Mehmet who wants to go to the city from the village for visiting his
aunt.
Some questions have been asked of the children as an activity after the story.
• Where does Mehmet want to go with his dog?

• Where is Mehmet now?
• How can Mehmet go to the city where his aunt live?
Places
Place, the second theme, helps children answer the guestion, “What is it like
there?” Places are special and unique because of their physical (naturally occurring)
and cultural (man-made) features. Schoenfelt. Places may have a lot in common, but
no two are exactly alike. They may be as small as an armchair or as big as the
universe. The physical and human characteristics of any given place can tell us a lot
about where people live, why they settle there, and how they use natural resources
(Hannibal and Vasiliev, 2002) .
Educators and parents can read some story books to the children in order to
develop the children’s place concepts. The children are able to comprehend the
physical and the cultural dimension of the places by these books. Besides the books,
some pictures are also used for the aim of teaching this theme to the children. The
children paint some pictures about their close environment such as the neighbours and
a close farm.
Children Book: Mehmet’s Home (Gülçin Alpöge)
1. Do a city and a village look like each other?

2. Are there any differences witht the lifes of the people who lives in
cities and villages?
3. Are the buildings in a city and a village different from each other?
The children stated correctly the differences of a city and a village. Besides, they
gave extra informations. Barış said that there are a lot of dolmush but there isn’t any
policeman in villages. Buğra explained that he likes village more than cities.
Human and Environments
The third theme investigates how humans change their environment as well as
how the environment influences human behavior. The interrelationships include
interaction that occurs between and among places (Hannibal and Vasiliev, 2002) .
This theme helps children understand that people adapt the environment to meet
their needs or sometimes adapt their lives to meet environmental needs and realities.
Teachers can help students make sense of what they are learning by helping them
develop a network of connections that tie the new context to pre-existing knowledge
and beliefs in their prior experience. Children can bring in current photographs of
themselves as babies (Schoenfedt, 2001).
273
Children Book: Mehmet’s Home Evi (Gülçin Alpöge)
• How does Mehmet feel when he goes to the city from the village?
• What changes in Mehmet’s life when he comes the city?
Movement
The fourth theme focuses on how people, things, ideas, products, and information
move from one place to another. The most common movement children see is people
travelling every day to work and to school (Hannibal and Vasiliev, 2002) .
The theme helps children answer the question, “How do people, goods, and ideas
get from one place to another?” Children love to hear stories about foreign places,
learn words and songs in a forign language, and receive postcards from around the
world or even from another town in the same state. All of these activities can be used
to help children developed geographic literacy (Schoenfedt, (2001).
Children Book: Earth (Çevremiz Dizisi, Ya-Pa). This book is about a teddy-bear
which visits some planets by several spaceships. Especially some informations about
the earth are given in the book.
The children are paid attention to the cases below:
• The teddy-bear goes to the earth by a UFO.

• It sees oceans, rivers and mountains.
• The teddy-bear travels a desert by a camel.
It is talked to the children about their travels and the travel machines. One of the
children expressed that he had travelled by plane before and he claimed that he
claimed that he had seen some spacemen in the air. While another child said that he
had travelled by ship, the other mentioned he had gone for a holiday by a big bus.
Regions
The fifth theme is region, Which can answer the question, “How are places
alike?” A region is an area that has one or more common factors found throughout it
(Schoenfedt, (2001).
The world can be defined in terms of region- physical and cultural characteristics
that make places alike and different. Physical regions may have a particular type of
climate, natural features, or plant life. A cultural region has some common culture and
history that distinguish it from other nearby regions. Questions about how human
actions modify the physical environment, how physical systems affect human systems,
or about the changes that occur in the meaning, use, distribution, and importance of
resources, are all what teachers should address in the teaching of geography in the
early childhood classroom (Hannibal and Vasiliev, 2002) .
The children are asked some questions from the book called “The Earth” in order
to identify the characterictic features of some places such as the equator, deserts,
oceans or mountains which are in the book;
• What do you think about the weather in deserts? What kind of clothes
do people living in deserts wear? Moreover, it is talked about in which
274
continent do the deserts occur most?.

• How is the mountain in which the teddy-bear travels ? Does it look like
the mountains that you have seen before?
It is talked about in which continent do the deserts most occur?. The deserts have
been shown the children from a model of the earth and the charecterictics of the
deserts are discussed. Moreover, it is spoken about differences between deserts and
poles.
Maps
Block Maps
Similarly, three-dimensional objects such as blocks can become symbols for

objects on children’s maps. Blocks can be stacked to make tall buildings or arranged
to make an airport. Still other objects can be added, such as small cars, airplanes and
dolls, to make the product more realistic (Van Cleaf, 1985).
It is possible to make use of a lot of different materials in order to increase its
effect while making a block map.
In this study, we talk to the children about their school building at the beginning.
• It is asked some questions such as in which part of the city is your school?
• How many floors has your school got?
• How does its surrounding look like?
• Where is your classroom in the school building?. After that, the children
build their school building with wooden blocks. While they were building it,
the adults were guiding them. For example, the adults were guiding them by
asking that what they had seen in the school garden, or they said “ Lets think
all together!
• What can we put in the school garden? The children built the school
building in cooperation and they shared their ideas with each other. The
male children especially are more eager than the females. Oğuz said that
there was a small lake near the school and he added that this lake had been
frozen.Why had the lake frozen? They showed different places such as
dining hall or their classroom in their school model. The roads around the
school are talked about. Then, there was a conversation about what they see
while they are going to school from their houses. It is observed that when
the question ‘what do they see on the right and the left side of the school
gate’ had been asked, they answered it from their own point of view.
What do they see in the school road and which buildings do they see? The
buildings around the school was given attention and it is discussed why these
buildings were built?
Picture Maps
To construct picture maps, children place pictures of items on some type of
275
background, like paper, poster board or flannel board.

Preschoolers may enjoy cutting items out of magazines to decorate and furnish
houses that the teacher has previously outlined on paper backgrounds. Kitchen items
can be placed in the kitchen area and living room furniture placed in another room to
resemble their own homes.When children are able to draw and cut out pictures, they
can construct their own picture maps. For example, preschool and kindergarten
children can draw pictures of objects found at their favorite park, cut them out, and
place them on plain poster board (Van Cleaf, 1985).
Drawn Maps
Young children can also draw their own maps of areas familiar to them. Children
can draw pictures of their classrooms, the playground, their backyards or their
bedrooms. Drawing these maps may help children develop an intuitive understanding
of relationships between objects in the environment and their own two-dimensional
drawings (Van Cleaf, 1985).
Before having painted pictures, the children are asked about their classes. The
distance among the materials in the classroom, their right or left position or their
position of up and down are mentioned. After that, the children painted a Picture of
their classroom. The children were painting their pictures by speaking to each other.
They shared their ideas and observed the others. Especially in Barış’s picture the
location of the materials in the classroom was drawn correctly.
Drawing a Map ( Inside the school building)
At first, inside the school building is discussed, especially about the stairs, and the
corridors.Whether the corridors or the stairs are dangerous for the children ? are they
suitable for the crowds or not? The children are asked if they were teachers, what
would you do in order not to crash the children with each other in the corridors. They
replied this questions like “I would call their families.”, ‘I would call their families
and I want them to give lessons about this.”, “I would call the head of the school”. It is
observed that they especially think about those in charge of the children and they dont
think of changing the building. Then they paint inside the school building.
Conclusion
The children’s books are effective for the education of geography in early
childhood education. A child can improve his geography knowledge by listening
although he cannot read them. They are able to discover new places, locations even
the place in which they live. Moreover, the environment is a perfect field for the
geography education. The children can discover further places by having their close
environment as a starting point. Therefore, getting increased the interests of the
environment of the children is a vital subject.
276
Reference
Hannibal, M.A.Z., Vasiliev, R., and Lin Q., (2002).Teaching Young Children Basic Concepts
of Geography:A Literature-Based Approach, Early Childhood Education Journal, 30: s,
81-86
Schoenfedt, M., (2001). Geographic Literacy and Young Learners. The Aducational Forum.
66:1, 26-31
Cleaf, D.W.V., (1985). The Environment as a Data Source: Map Activities for Young
Children. Social Education. 49:2, 145-146
Priddle, R. E., and K. H. Rubin.1977. A Comparison of two methods for the training of spatial
cognition. Merril-Palmer Quarterly 23(1):57-65
Mays, P.1985. Teaching Children Trough the Environment. Hodder and Stoughton. Great
Britain.182-224
277
278
The Place of Design Education in Handcraft Education in Turkey and
Contemporary Approaches
25
The Place of Design Education in Handcraft
Education in Turkey and
Ozlem K. Alp, Gazi University
&
Melda Ozdemir, Gazi University
T
oday, it will be quite difficult attempt to give a valid definition of handcraft.
This difficulty is due to two main reasons. The first reason is that the term
‘art’ belongs to a wide and indefinite area. The second reason is the difficulty
to define the boundaries and characteristics of arts made by hand. For
example, painting is also an art done by hand, but it does not take place in the field of
handcrafts. Here, the term of ‘handcraft’ may be arts applied by hand to objects
carrying artistic value (unique, particular and creative), functional and convenient for
its own time.
In this frame, to have a realistic vision of the reasons and solutions for problems
of design in handcraft education, it is inevitable to cover areas of art, functionality,
modernity and tradition in the definition of handcrafts.
The conception of art is the target of several different definitions, due to its nature
showing up in wide areas. It has common acceptations that the definition of art has the
terms of creativity, esthetics, design and distinction. If so, art is esthetic, creative,
designed with distinctive languages or behaviors to be used by people to express
emotions, thoughts and needs for adapting and balancing with their environment. No
doubt, handcrafting contains the terms of distinction, creativity, designed and esthetics
which are pronounced by artistic dimension in this definition.
Another conception is the functionality. The conception of functionality
containing compatibility for the usage and purpose actually covers the conception of
compatibility for the time. Because, anything incompatible with the time, means that it
has already lost its functionality. The dimension of functionality expressing the side of
the need for handcrafts contains several basic problems such as material and technique
compatible for the function that later will be mentioned in its education.
279
As a conception, modernity is people’s and societies’ absorption and

implementation of the fulfilled values of the time being. Every society creates its art
and artists from the dynamics of that society in its own time. Therefore, the language
of art and artist is the language of that time. Thus, handcrafts are born from the
dynamics of its own society, lives its own time, changes, transforms.
Since handcrafting is founded on cultural inheritance and accumulation, it displays
a traditional character. But tradition carried from past to our day by its nature, grows,
and transforms like other living organisms. Traditional crafts transform during its
journey from the past. In this transformation, incompatible properties of the tradition
for modernity are spontaneously eliminated. Usable and fittest properties of tradition
survive. This evolutionary process actually defines the path of handcrafting from
tradition to future, to some extent.
As Fischer’s opinion, “the whole art is conditioned by time, and only at extent of
reflection of thoughts, wishes, needs and hopes of a certain time, they represent
humanity. But art overcomes even this limit, and it creates such a moment having the
ability of continuous development of humanity in a historic instant (FISCHER; 1993,
12). This prediction is valid for the problems regarding the survival of handcrafts, too.
To search the dynamic sides of handcrafts that have survived up to now, to predict and
understand the out of date sides of them by looking at past from today, will be the first
basic step on the bridge from tradition to future.
This point of view for conceptions of handcrafts and tradition also covers the
problems of education, promotions, protection and survival of handcrafts. Of course,
this is the problem of institutions and professionals related with handcrafts, rather than
the people who are real owners of handcrafts and traditions. In the other words, the
problem is institutional. People transform handcrafts through the natural process by
living the evolutional process brought by life itself. On the contrary, it seems to us
that, related departments in the universities stay outside of this process.
Anatolian nationalities are most typical examples of the natural process mentioned
above. Anatolia has great richness in terms of handcrafts, owing to its ethnical, social,
religious, geographical and cultural characters of its history of people, with
settlements going back to BC 6800. Anatolian peoples have felt the influences of
numerous communities and cultures, and by mixing and melting processes through
centuries. Therefore, the rich cultural inheritance of Anatolian people has been
reflected in handcrafts.
Handcrafting products naturally reflecting life style and intelligence of Anatolian
people are the products created from its own life dynamics and without any imitation
as material, function, design, esthetics and time. As long as this natural process is
going on in life, it is inevitable to take a look at the education of handcrafting which is
an important part of institutional dimension of handcrafts.
In Turkey, so far, institutionally, officially and privately, so many works,
researches, publications, congresses, symposiums and projects have been done in the
field of handcrafts. Especially, the subjects of promoting, preserving, propagating,
technique, production and marketing problems, preventing degeneration, and
education of handcrafts have been the main concerns. Although day by day
propagation of these activities is promising, owing to problems caused by
inconvenient auditing and communication, and not enough and wrong education, it
looks like the point arrived is far from what it should be.
As in other fields, in handcrafting field too, education and teaching (program,
method, media, technology, etc.) processes cause one of the fundamental sources of
problems.
280
Handcraft education in Turkey takes place in Vocational High Schools and

Universities among the institutional education system. When it is paid attention to
the institutions submitting handcraft education at the level of university, there are
totally 63 of Vocational High Schools educating handcraft technicians and issuing 2-
year diploma. In addition to that, there are in total 26 handcraft departments under
the related faculties issuing 4-year diploma. These handcraft departments submitting
4-year diploma education take place under three different types of faculties. The first
of them is Traditional Turkish Handcraft Education Departments of Fine Arts
Faculties. Number of these departments is 22, and they educate handcraft specialists.
Another field of specialty is Handcraft Education Departments of Education
Faculties educating teachers for Vocational High Schools. The number of these
departments in whole Turkey is only two. Finally, there is a department named
Village Handcrafts.
Therefore, it looks like it is worthy to investigate the education and teaching
programs regarding handcrafts education taken by young students under the base of
four-year diploma.
Handcraft education departments submitting four year diploma education in
Turkey is the focus of this research, looking at three departments in particular,
educating different types of specialists.
Targets and Programs of Education and Teaching
Target and Course Programs of Gazi University Vocational Education Faculty

Handcraft Education Department
The target of Handcraft Education Department is to educate the teachers to teach

at the related fields of conventional and extension types of education institutions and
to supply the needs for handcraft specialists of public and private enterprises. The
department is established by submitting four year diploma education branches of
Decorative Arts Education, Embroidery Education and Textile Weaving and Knitting
(See Table 1).
Target and Course Programs of Ankara University Home Economy High School
Handcraft Education Department
Handcrafts Department has been established by having a place in the field of

science and technology, realizing rapid development, and submitting better,
contemporary and active education to increasing number of students. In this
department, to educate personnel from raw material to marketing, able to stop
degeneration, equipped with contemporary knowledge in design and application have
been targeted. Graduates of this department, equipped with all theoretical and practical
knowledge in the field of handcrafts, management, ability of using computer,
applications and designing, can be employed in various areas. As they can work for
Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Ministry of Industry and Commerce, Cooperatives
related with handcrafts, Ministry of Agriculture, related banks, holiday villages,
municipalities, ethnography museums, companies of souvenir item production and
marketing for tourists. They can establish their own enterprises (See Table 2).
281
Table 1. Gazi University Vocational Education Faculty Handcrafts Education

Department Course Programs
DECORATIVE ARTS EMBROIDERY EDUCATION TEXTILE WEAWING AND
Course Hours
Course Hours
Course Hours
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT KNITTING EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT
I. SEMESTER
Turkish Language Turkish Language Turkish Language
Principles of Ataturk and Principles of Ataturk and History Principles of Ataturk and
History of Revolution of Revolution History of Revolution
Foreign Language (English) Foreign Language (English) Foreign Language (English)
Usage of Basic Computer Usage of Basic Computer Usage of Basic Computer
Technologies Technologies Technologies
Introduction to Profession Introduction to Profession of Introduction to Profession of
of Teaching Teaching Teaching
Field Technology Field Technology Field Technology
Introduction to Handcrafts Fiber and Dye Technology Fiber Technology
Basic Weaving Techniques Fundamental Art Education I Basic Knitting Techniques
Basic Knitting Techniques Embroidery Drawing Design I Basic Embroidery
Techniques
Fundamental Art Education Fundamental Art Education I
I
II. SEMESTER
Turkish Language Turkish Language Turkish Language
Principles of Ataturk and Principles of Ataturk and History Principles of Ataturk and
History of Revolution of Revolution History of Revolution
Foreign Language (English) Foreign Language (English) Foreign Language (English)
Fundamental of Computer Fundamental of Computer Fundamental of Computer
Sciences and BASIC Sciences and BASIC Sciences and BASIC
Programming Language Programming Language Programming Language
School Experience I School Experience I School Experience I
History of Turkish Calculative Works and Wire Thread Technology
Ornamental Art Breaking Techniques
Basic Embroidery Fundamental Art Education II Basic Weaving Techniques
Techniques
Fundamental Art Education Embroidery Drawing Design II Introduction to Handcrafts
II
Fundamental Art Education
II
History of Turkish
Ornamental Art
282
III. SEMESTER
Technical Foreign Technical Foreign Language Technical Foreign Language
Language
Folklore Science General Management Folklore Science
Development and Learning Development and Learning Development and Learning
Leather Technology Edge Ornamenting Techniques Textile Machinery
Used in Embroidery I Knowledge
Doll Techniques I Chinese Needle Techniques Dye and Finishing
Technology
Knowledge for Flower Needle Techniques (Knot and Textile Surfaces Without
Arrangement Hoop Work) Weave
Fashion Painting I Machine Knowledge Knitting Techniques I
Technical Drawing History of Turkish Embroidery Turkish Ornamenting
Art Motives
Basic Sewing Techniques Basic Sewing Techniques
IV. SEMESTER
Language
Planning and Evaluation in Finance Calculations in Planning and Evaluation in
Education Production Education
Basic Leather Techniques Planning and Evaluation in Weaving Technology I
Education
Doll Techniques II Edge Ornamenting Techniques Vegetative Knitting
Used in Embroidery II
Flower Making Techniques Embroidery Techniques for Design Principles in
Machines I Weaving and Knitting Arts
Mold Preparation Computer Aided Embroidery Knitting Techniques II
Techniques Practices
Turkish Ornamenting Fashion Painting
Motives
Fashion Painting II Mold Preparation
Techniques
V. SEMESTER
Language
Teaching Technologies and Teaching Technologies and Teaching Technologies and
Material Development Material Development Material Development
Leather Surface Gold and Silver Thread Weaving Technology II
Ornamenting Techniques Embroidery Techniques (Maras
Work Techniques)
Hat Making Techniques I Antep Work Techniques Carpet Knowledge
Bride Head and Bouquet Embroidery in Machine Cloth Analysis
Techniques I
Exhibition Graphics Plane Fluff Weaving
Traditional Turkish Textile Restoration
Handcrafts
DECORATIVE ARTS EMBROIDERY EDUCATION TEXTILE WEAWING AND

Course Hours
Course Hours
Course Hours
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT KNITTING EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT
283
VI. SEMESTER
Language
General Management Class Management General Management
Class Management Special Teaching Methods I Class Management
Special Teaching Methods I Field Research Techniques Special Teaching Methods I
Leather Dress Accessories I Turkish Work Techniques Carpet Drawing Design
Hat Making Techniques II Fantastic Embroidery Natural Dyes
Techniques
Attachment Design White and Openwork Field Research Techniques
Techniques in Machine
Field Research Techniques Computer Aided Design
Dye and Press Techniques
VII. SEMESTER
Finance Calculations in School Experience II Finance Calculations in
Production Production
School Experience II Special Teaching Methods II School Experience II
Special Teaching Methods Graduation Thesis Special Teaching Methods II
II
Leather Dress Accessories Design for Traditional Handmade Carpet Making
II Embroidery by Hand
Traditional Cap Design Design for Traditional Textile Dye and Press
Embroidery by Machine Techniques
Graduation Thesis Elective Graduation Thesis
Elective Exhibition Graphics
Elective
ELECTIVE COURSES
Oral and Written Oral and Written Expressions Oral and Written Expressions
Expressions
Photography Basic Weaving Techniques Hand Embroidery
Principles of Decoration Exhibition Graphics Photography
Fashion Painting Photography Leather Accessory
Basic Sewing Techniques Basic Fashion
KnowledgeTemel Moda
Bilgisi
VIII. SEMESTER
Quality Control Guiding Guiding
Guiding Teaching Practices Teaching Practices
Teaching Practices Design for Turistic Embroidery Weaving and Knitting
by Hand Production
Leather Space Accessories Design for Turistic Embroidery Quality Control Techniques
by Machine in Textile
Decorative Goods Computer Aided Design
Production
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Table 2. Ankara University Home Economy High School Handcrafts Education

Department Course Programs
III. IV. Elective V. Elective
SEMESTER SEMESTER Courses SEMESTER Courses
Computer Silk warm Wooden
Drawing Aided breeding Research Works
Technique Drawing Techniques Techniques
Design
Motives in Fundamental Art Law Computer Leather Art
Handcrafts Weaving Aided Product
Techniques Design
Fiber Fundamental Mythology Botanic Traditional
Technology Knitting Knitting Dressing
Techniques
Materials Tourism Rural Dye Other
Science Information Sociology Technology Elective
Courses**
Principle of Folklore Other Cooperatives
Design Science Elective
Courses**
Fundamental Technical Museum and
Management English* Exhibition
Techniques
Fundamental Professional Technical
Art Education Application English*
Technical Foreign Professional
English* Language Application
Professional Elective Elective
Application Courses Courses
Foreign
Language
Elective
Courses
Drawing
Technique
VI. Elective VII. Elective VIII. Elective
SEMESTER Courses SEMESTER Courses SEMESTER Courses
Workshop Ottoman Hand Felt Hand Weaved Book
Management Language Weaving Applications Carpeting Cover Art
Batik Doll Making Quality Soil Works Restoration China Art
Performing Control in and
Techniques Handcrafting Preservation
in
Handcrafted
Products
Botanic Dye Photography Macramé Turkish Jewelry Metal
Ornamentation Manufacturing Work
Art Techniques Techniques
Marketing in Other Elective Project I Other Elective Project II Other
Handcrafting Courses** Courses** Elective
Courses**
Kilim and Presentation Seminar
Plane Technique
Weavings
Belt Weaving Technical Writing
English* Techniques
Technical Graduation Technical
English* Thesis English*
Professional Elective Graduation
Application Courses r Thesis
Elective Elective
Courses Courses
285
Table 3. Mimar Sinan University Fine Arts Faculty Traditional Turkish Handcrafts
Department Course
I. SEMESTER II. SEMESTER III. SEMESTER IV SEMESTER
Fundamental Art Fundamental Art Book Cover Design I Book Cover Design II
Education I Education II
Professional Professional Fundamental China Design I China Design II
Fundamental Education II
Education I
Ottoman Turkish Ottoman Turkish II Ottoman Turkish III Ottoman Turkish IV
I
Turkish Turkish Ornamental Experimental Weaving Experimental Weaving
Ornamental Drawings II Techniques I Techniques II
Drawings I
Technical Technical Drawing Carpet, Kilim, Old Cloth Carpet, Kilim, Old Cloth
Drawing Perspective II Drawing Design I Drawing Design II
Perspective I
History of Traditional Art Carpet Production Carpet Production Techniques
Turkish and Conception Techniques I II
Oriental Art
History of History of General Art II Ceramics Technology I Ceramics Technology I I
General Art I
History of Turkish China and Turkish China and Ceramics History of Turkish Carpet Art
Culture Ceramics Art I Art II
Sociology of Art Miniature I Pathology of Writing Works Pathology of Writing Works II
I
Miniature II Miniature III
Old Writing and Calligraphy Old Writing and Calligraphy
Design I Design II
Book Ornamentation Design Book Ornamentation Design II
I
Restoration of Turkish Restoration of Turkish Interior
Interior Design I Design II
History of Turkish Book Cover
Art
Professional Restoration I
Traditional Weaving
Techniques and Materials
Knowledge
V. SEMESTER VI. SEMESTER VII. SEMESTER VIII. SEMESTER
China Design III China Design IV China Design V China Design VI
Book Cover Book Cover Design IV Book Cover Design V Book Cover Design VI
Design III
Professional Independent Design I Independent Design II Book Ornamentation Design V
Restoration II
Carpet, Kilim, Carpet, Kilim, Old Cloth Carpet, Kilim, Old Cloth Carpet, Kilim, Old Cloth
Old Cloth Drawing Design IV Drawing Design V Drawing Design VI
Drawing Design
III
Old Writing and Old Writing and Old Writing and Calligraphy Old Writing and Calligraphy
Calligraphy Calligraphy Design IV Design V Design VI
Design III
Ottoman Turkish Ottoman Turkish VI Ottoman Turkish VII
V
Preservation and Preservation and Repair Marbling
Repair for for Written Documents II
Written
Documents I
Book Book Ornamentation Miniature V
Ornamentation Design IV
Design III
Miniature III Miniature IV Paleography II
Schools in Paleography I
Turkish
Calligraphy Art
Decoration Theories
Principles and Methods of
Restoration
286
Mimar Sinan University Fine Arts Faculty Traditional Turkish Handcrafts

Department Targets and Courses
This department established by five art branches, have targeted the realization of
designs to satisfy the needs for today and future by starting from the traditions through
education and teaching. In these designs, it is aimed to keep individual creativity in the
first raw, especially far from imitative and conservative approaches. Actions have
been supported by theoretical courses and activities. At the same time, the programs of
this department, knowledge and ability have been given to the students on
preservation and restoration of cultural objects in our country (See Table 3).
Before criticizing the programs given above, it is understandable that common
points in targets of handcraft education departments covers the conceptions of design,
function, modernity and creativity. Hence, it is obvious that course programs are
needed to realize these targets. As the result of this clarification, in the realization of a
handcraft, the design occupies the most basic part. Because, the word of design
contains the conceptions of material, technique, function, form, esthetics and
modernity, as well. When taking a look in the light of these predictions:
1. Theoretical courses to establish a theoretical background for applied courses of

related departments in Gazi University and Ankara University are quite
insufficient. They are either missing or are ‘electives’. They are supposed to
establish theoretical background and sources such as esthetics, history of art,
history of civilization, contemporary art evaluation, etc. But they are deficient.
The related departments programs of Mimar Sinan University look theoretically
more sufficient. It is not possible to educate a handcraft designer or teacher who
has no consciousness of history of art, uninformed of universal civilization,
formation of cultural products, and even his/her own culture and art data. On the
other hand, the course of esthetics is an important background course to be taught
in all art departments and branches as compulsory. Esthetics is not a phenomenon
inherited by birth. It submits a structure that it is taught and it develops as being
taught. As Erinc expresses, discovering and orienting of esthetic concerns is only
available by art education (ERİNÇ; 1995, 82). Another importance of
recommendation for students to take esthetics courses especially in the first two
semesters, is making them recognize the reasons of esthetics pleasures and values
attached on youngsters.It is quite difficult to reject artistic values and esthetic
pleasures, like human dependent philosophical values, if they were already
attached. In short, two arguments can be shown for this prediction. The first, not
to quit easily habits by nature of human, and the second one is mind not evolved
enough to see this mistake (ERİNÇ; 1995, 83).Esthetic values form the most
important step of degeneration of handcrafts. Because, primarily a unique and
creative design takes place inside the boundaries of esthetics. Correct learning of
these values shall spring artistic values to handcrafts.
2. On the other hand, the course of Fundamental Art Education is the most basic
applied course which has to be given in all departments teaching design and art
oriented programs. But insufficiency of design courses (drawing, various painting
techniques, drawing techniques, technical drawing, perspective, etc.) to support
this course in all programs given above shows that students have been educated in
design incompletely and weakly. It looks very difficult to imagine a strong
drawing from a designer who has no perspective and drawing background. The
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continuity and correlative integration of courses is the basic in art education. In

forming this correlation, while establishing theoretical background at one side,
and through tight unity of applied design courses at the other side, students will
establish the anxiety of artistic creation by creating, living, thinking, correlating,
auditing and analyzing. Fundamental elements such as point, line, form, color,
texture and measure are esthetical design elements in Fundamental Art Education.
Establishing links of these elements by coming side by side on different materials
is realized based on certain principles. Fundamental design principles expressed
by rhythm, competency, oppositeness, dominancy, balance, unity, etc., act as
supportive and orienting role in using fundamental design elements. Every
arrangement is established by combining fundamental design elements with
fundamental design principles in various forms (SALDIRAY; 1979,
YURTSEVER; 1988, GUNGOR; 1972, ISINGOR; 1986, JAUJMARSZ; 1968,).
Fundamental design principles are used in every step of handcraft design, from
material selection to technical analysis according to the selected material and
establishing form. During this process, theoretical information together with
works in visual area exists in a certain sequence and organization. Behaviors and
consciousness are oriented by establishing the connections between objects and
reality (SAN; 2003, 24).
3. Elective courses in related departments of Gazi University take place only in
senior class. Elective courses should be extended to all semesters and should be
assorted. Elective courses in the other two universities can also be more assorted.
Thus, students can be supported by elective courses covering all art branches such
as ceramics, sociology, philosophy of art, drama, music, museology, etc.
4. It is a progress having the courses of Folklore Science and History of Turkish
Ornamenting Arts in some of the programs. These two courses should be
compulsory in all handcraft departments of our country. These courses will be
base for handcraft specialists to make field works after graduation.
5. Fashion Painting course given in the third and fourth semesters in Decorative Arts
Education Branch of Handcraft Education Department of Gazi University
Vocational Education Faculty Vocational is not a compulsory course for
mentioned department. Instead of this course, supportive courses such as Three
Dimensional Design, Knowledge and Usage of Materials in Handcrafting will be
more useful in orienting students toward three dimensional works and promoting
them to search for different materials and their abilities, and sensitivity of working
on material, supporting the logic of fundamental design of handcrafting.
6. In programs, after the first and second semesters, courses based on drawing and
design does not take place. Instead, more technical teaching program appears.
Whereas, in art education, technique is a tool at most. How perfect is technique, it
can not go beyond workmanship unless integrating with function, material,
esthetics, time and creative design. Therefore, design courses should continue
without interruption from freshmen to senior classes in the quality of supporting
technique and knowledge of how to use material and improving creativity.
7. Except related department programs of Ankara University, not having the courses
based on project causes disconnections between school and life. In art education,
contribution of functional projects improving artistic thinking methods, and
convenient and coordinated creativity for the target is numerous. Tradition is
steady and it wants continuity of the form. On the contrary, by the support of
projects having new openings and ecologic as well, it will be easier to reach at
contemporary designs from tradition to future. Especially by the projects done
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with public or private institutions, conventional steady thoughts, activities and

forms are energized.
8. Absence of applied courses regarding expedition of nearby places and field works
in related departments of all universities appears contradiction with the principle
of learning in art education by watching and living. Students will have possibility
of investigation people handcrafts in place by expeditions especially at handcraft
rich places. In the same way, in the courses regarding field researches, handcraft
students will learn the philosophy of life, art and goods of people who are the real
creators of handcrafts, materials and techniques of product manufacturing, and
esthetic values of people by living in rural areas.
9. In handcraft design education, it should be compulsory to get the use of
computers which is the most important development of our century. Computer
course does not take place in related programs of Gazi University except
Embroidery Branch. As well as reasonable saving of especially time and effort by
computer aided design programs, the use of computer will supply great
contribution in possibility variations in design, new visual effects, and creativity
in the process of try and error.
Conclusions and Recommendations
It will be seen that quite different programs are taught in handcraft education in
Turkey today when investigating the teaching programs of related departments of
three universities. It shows that these differences contain different visions and
interruptions in cooperation process in mentioned field rather than educating different
graduates for different areas.
In the direction of critics regarding the handcraft education programs, it seems to
us that the need for integrity and reconstruction of universities is obvious. In this
meaning:
1. Handcraft departments in different faculties of all universities in Turkey should

take place under Fine Arts Faculties with the name of Traditional Handcrafts.
Pedagogic formation courses for candidates to be handcraft teachers should be
provided by related education faculties in senior class. Handcraft education which
is based on art education, can be realized in a convenient art atmosphere. Thus,
esthetic, art and creation consciousness of handcraft students of fine art faculties
will be supported by the media. Students will be aware of not being workers, but
taking place in the field of esthetics.
2. Serious differences between the course programs of handcraft education
departments display the necessity of coordination between mentioned
departments. This coordination should establish a common denominator, not to
establish tight rules to stop the departments’ initiatives. At the same time, it has
the importance of establishment of quality and standard in handcraft teaching,
defining the targeted type of graduates.
3. In the programs, having the compulsory courses such as History of Art, History of
Civilization, Esthetics, Contemporary Art Evaluation, Conceptual Art, etc, will
provide big benefits in preventing imitations and degenerations. The conception
of modernity which is important in the dimension of carrying handcrafts from
tradition to future, can be possible through recognition the level of art and
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esthetics today. When teaching traditional process of art (through the dimensions
of techniques, materials, functions, subject, form, esthetics and time) to handcraft
students, it is expected from them to carry this process to contemporary
applications. Students who don’t have background for the contemporary
applications, and who are not equipped with philosophy and theory on today’s
dynamics of art are, will reflect the traditional process by imitations or
degenerations, and can not improve it. Therefore, taking place of Conceptional
Art or such types of courses in the programs will help students to earn wider
visions. “…conservative trend of form against dynamic changes of genuine…”
(DOGAN; 1975, 234) can be removed only by concepts and recognitions, in the
other words, by orienting to genuine. When it is thought that one of the most
important troubles of handcrafting in Turkey is degeneration and imitation,
another base of this trouble is the trouble of form, material and genuine, meaning
that the trouble of design. To create a new form and to remove or transform old
forms require new and wider vision, questioning, brain storming, critics, analysis,
synthesis, wondering, scientifically researching, freedom and courage.
4. Hours for design courses weighted drawing, besides for the theoretical courses in
the programs should be increased, and the continuity of these courses should be
provided in four year program as supporting each other. New materials, new
methods and technologies should be covered in these courses. The genuine of an
esthetical design can be realized by a specific vision followed by specific design.
When it is looked through this frame, handcrafting should be handled with
material, function, design, esthetics and time dimensions, and should be evaluated
through the meaningful integrity and compound of these items.
5. In handcrafting education, critics should be given on how to and why to traditions
formed General name of this is consciousness of memory. Students will be able to
fill the concept of tradition as much as they are able to criticize traditions under
which conditions, through which processes, when and how they are formed. This
memory of recognition is an important step to be a society, too. Only by this way,
students can understand today’s art and fix tomorrow’s art. Whoever is not able
recognize past, today and tomorrow, he/she can not go for new creations. At this
point, imitations start in handcrafts. Imitations are insolvability and collapse.
Imitations are inability to recognize today and incompatibility in time. This is the
case regarding consciousness. Therefore, courses covering the critics of tradition
should take place in the programs.
6. “Free Workshop Courses” improving creativity and free express should take place
in the programs. Not to be free is the leading factor barricading creativity. “Free
Workshop Courses” encouraging and applied in any case such as free thought,
free vision, free material, free technique, etc., will orient students toward new
horizons.
7. Technical courses taking place in handcraft education programs are important.
Because, the design of products covered in handcrafting is usually not formal, but
structural. Therefore, technical analysis of esthetic design is also required. In the
courses teaching techniques, esthetics should be thought together with material
and function, and creation styles should be encouraged.
8. Project courses absolutely must take place in handcrafting education programs. In
these courses, applied, compatible with environment and functional projects
should be realized. Projects should be realize especially on the base of regarding
sectors, and students should continue their education in life, besides academic
education. Project works will motivate students, and improve creativity and
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functional thought. Integration of forms sourced from real needs with

environmental conditions, and balance among material, manufacturing, function
and design require compatibility with life. Thus, project works in programs should
be the centre of activities.
9. Courses regarding applied field works should take place in the programs. These
courses will establish for the students to form an experience to recognize the
philosophical, social, economical and artistic genuine of handcrafts of people.
As a conclusion, when considering the individual inside and country wise services
such as education, teaching, projects, exhibition, publication, etc. of educational
institutions whose programs investigated above, it is obviously seen that works on
handcrafting are dense. On the other hand, in handcraft education in Turkey with such
a wide scope, in spite of giving services for the same mission in general, due to not
having a common working principle among educational institutions and their
programs, and unneeded repeats have negative effects to improving this field. Design
concept which is fundamental in handcraft education should be restructured in
programs.
Designers, specialists and teachers of handcrafting educated by the activities of
educating and teaching in the related branches of Universities will be individuals
determining the future of handcrafting in Turkey, to some extend. Therefore, the
mission of universities is to be able to catch not the contemporary one, but able to see
beyond the time, and able to construct tomorrow from today. Through this vision,
according to us, reconstructing academic staff and works establishing a common
denominator in integrity in the field of handcrafting will be a basic step to solve the
problems regarding the mentioned field.
References
Doğan Mehmet H. Estetik. Gerçek Yayınevi, İstanbul, 1975.

Erinç Sıtkı. Kültür Sanat. Çınar Yayınları, İstanbul, 1995.
Fıscher Ernst. Sanatın Gerekliliği. Çev. Cevat ÇAPAN, V Yayınları, Ankara, 1993.
Güngör Hulusi. Temel Tasar. AFA Matbaacılık, İstanbul, 1983.
Işıngör Mümtaz. Resim I Temel Sanat Eğitimi Resim Teknikleri, Grafik Resim. Türk Tarih
Kurumu Basımevi, Ankara, 1986.
Jaujmarsz, M. Basic Design. Reinhold Aublishing Corp. New York, 1968.
Saldıray S. Gözlemsel Çözümsel Yöntemle Yeni Düzen Yeni Biçim. İstanbul Devlet Güzel
Sanatlar Akademisi Yayınları No: 87, İstanbul, 1979.
San İnci. Sanat ve Eğitim. Ütopya Yayınları, Ankara, 2004.
Yurtsever H. Uygulamalı Estetik. Bura. Tek., Ankara, 1988.
291
Figure 1. Student Work on Leather in Handcraft Education Department of Gazi

University Vocational Education Faculty

Figure 3. Student Work on Doll in Handcraft Education Department of Gazi

University
292

University
Figure 5. Student Work on Plant Knitting in Handcraft Education Department of Gazi


293

Figure 8 Student Work on Book Cover in Traditional Turkish Handcraft Arts

Deparment of Mimar Sinan University
Figure 9 Student Work on Hand Weaving in Traditional Turkish Handcraft Arts

Deparment of Mimar Sinan University
294
Figure 10 Student Work on Ceramics in Traditional Turkish Handcraft Arts
Figure 11 Student Work on Ceramics in Traditional Turkish Handcraft Arts
295
296
The Importance of Education on Sustainability of Turkish Handicrafts
26
The Importance of Education on
Sustainability of Turkish Handicrafts
Feryal Soylemezoglu, University of Ankara
&
Sema Ozkan Tagi, University of Ankara
&
Zeynep Erdogan, University of Ankara
H
andicrafts may be defined as occupations that arise from the desire of
meeting people’s basic needs, which can be made by simple tools that
requires effort and creativity. Among the most important features are that it
is a source of income; it may raise the life style of the family, utilizing
their leisure time and labor; utilizes agricultural raw material and wastes; increase
tourism incomes; and conveying our surviving traditions to next generations.
Moreover, handicraft products present features of the culture .
Anatolia has been center of many types of handicrafts. Carpet, rug, and fabric
weaving, shoe-making, making kitchen utensils, agricultural tools, musical
instruments, and architectural elements, wood carving, making beads, jewelry and
accessory, making fur and pelt, making Turkish traditional shadow play figures,
basketry, furniture, production of tile and ceramics are some of the handicrafts that
easily recur to the mind which were made in Anatolia. Today, some types of these
handicrafts are extinct, and production methods of some of them have been changed or
decreased. Therefore, sustainability is important for the transfer of handicrafts to the
next generations.
Handicraft products are the elements that reflect the cultural heritage best. In
addition to their functionality for usage, they also carry a cultural identity. It is
important for us to look after our own values in this day as all the countries in the
world have inclined towards production and consumption of one model as a result of
globalization. Kongar (2000) indicates that globalization in the cultural field has two
different and opposite effects. He says that its first effect is toward creating one model
consumption culture and that artistic and literal activities contribute to create this “one
model culture”. He states that the second effect of globalization in cultural field will
strengthen nationalism movements by supporting different identity allegations and
formations. He reports that in addition to traditional distinctions like differences in
297
language, religion, race and sect, tribe, scholar and likewise, all kinds of beliefs are
accepted and “different identities” are developed by protection. He also indicates that
the productions in the field of art and literature will also be functional in emphasizing
different identities in addition to being a one-dimensional consumption society.
Like any field, importance of education in handicrafts cannot be ignored. Forming
a part of Turkish culture, transferring this culture to the next generations, ability of
producing high-quality products is possible through the existence of conscious and
educated people. The only way of doing this is education in every level of handicrafts.
In this paper, the situation of handicrafts in our country and existing teaching
systems will be explained. Moreover, the importance of education in providing
continuity of handicrafts will be discussed.
Present Situation of Handicrafts
Anatolia where many cultures lived in history has been a center for various
handicrafts. Anatolia’s geographic situation has a great effect on its prominence as an
important handicraft center. Being a passageway for centuries between Asia, Europe
and Africa continents, trade ways such as Spice Road and Silk Road passing over
Anatolia has been a great advantage for the communities that lived here. Many
handicrafts had developed to meet the needs of people who pass from this region with
the aim of transportation and accommodation.
Esberk (1939) and Arlı (1990) classify handicrafts according to the raw material
as follows;
1. Handicrafts with fiber raw materials: Woven materials like carpet, rug,
hand weaved cloth, tablet weavings “carpana”; knitted materials like
sock, sweater, headgear; felt products made by using animal fibers like
wool, mohair, rabbit wool, goat hair. Knitted articles and felt products
such as carpet, rug, hand weaved cloths, knitting types like tablet weaving,
sock, knitted pullover, headgear made by using animal fibers like wool,
mohair, rabbit wool, goat hair.
2. Hand-woven clothes such as canvas, curtain, covering, hand block printing
products like handkerchief, headscarf, tablecloth made by using vegetable
fibers like cotton, linen, hemp.
3. Handicrafts with wood raw materials: tools that are used in production of
handicrafts like hand printing blocks, looms, rope spinning tools; tools that
are used in agriculture and transportation like wagon, oxcart, threshing
sled, yoke; kitchen utensils like mortar, spoon; daily usage tools and
accessories such as rosary, Turkish bath clog, bibelot, cigarette holder,
pipe, walking stick; architectural elements such as door, window, lock;
musical instruments such as flageolet, drum.
4. Handicrafts with stone raw materials: architectural elements such as
gravestone, fountain, and pool; daily usage tools and accessories such as
necklace, bracelet, belt, ring, cuff link, rosary, cigarette holder, pipe,
walking stick.
5. Handicrafts with earth raw materials : Pots and pans, tile and ceramic
goods such as vase, bowl, crock, flowerpot.
6. Handicrafts with metal raw materials : architectural elements such as door
knockers, locks; kitchen utensils such as knife, tea and coffee sets, vase,
298
wall plate; instruments of heating up such as stove, shovel, tongs;

harnesses such as horseshoe, chain, collar; agricultural tools such as
pickax, shovel, rake; gold and silver jewelry.
7. Handicrafts with glass raw materials: Evil eye beads, kinds of stained
glass, jewelry and accessories, vase.
8. Handicrafts with leather and animal waste raw materials: Garments such
as shoe, glove, hat, boot; daily used goods such as belt, bag, cigarette case;
production of fur and pelt, binding, shadow play characters.
9. Handicrafts with thin branch, stem, tree ribbons raw materials: Daily
usage goods such as basket darning, furniture production, bag, mat, beach
ground cloth, packsaddle.
In the XXI. century some types of these handicrafts became extinct. For others
their production methods have been changed,while production of some have been
decreased and regressed. Immigrations from villages to cities, abandoning using some
of the handicrafts, increase in population, augmentation of using machines parallel to
technological developments, changes in habits, fashion movements, decreases and
variations in raw materials are important factors that lead to the decline and
disappearance of handicrafts. Today, youth interest to handicrafts is regressed along
with regression of handicrafts. There is the danger of losing many branches of
handicrafts with their master workmen in many regions.
Handicraft Education in Turkey
Handicraft education in Turkey used to be based on the relation of master

workman-master-builder-apprentice. This method was used in Anatolia for many
centuries. Master workman used to teach his/her knowledge and skill as a hands-on
teaching about any one of handicrafts practically to the apprentice who started
working in his/her young age. Acquisition and application of every stages of
handicraft by the apprentice could last many years. The apprentice could have been a
master workman when he/she gained the adequacy to make all the handicraft goods
fully and alone. One of the features of this system is keeping the handicraft production
techniques generally as a secret. Production techniques used to be taught to the
apprentice and kept going with him/her.
Today, the education and teaching of handicrafts vary and generally can be
grouped as; master workman-apprentice relation, courses at workshops and education
in formal education institutions.
1. Acquisition through master workman-apprentice relation: In this system

young men/women learn handicrafts by seeing them from their seniors and
applying them. While acquisition through this way was widespread in the
past, today, it keeps going in some handicrafts. The interest of youth is
decreased by the regression of handicrafts. The number of master workman
who work on handicrafts today which are on their way to extinction such as
making packsaddles, blacksmith, coppersmith, wood carving, felt
production. These master workmen find it difficult to find apprentices.
2. Education carried on at workshops and at homes: this is the system that is
used generally for the handicrafts such as carpet knitting, rug knitting, and
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cloth weaving. It is the education given by the marketers of the handicrafts.

Those people give the tools and instruments required to produce the
demanded handicrafts and teach the participants. Education towards making
participants acquire professions in the fields of handicrafts such as carpet
knitting, rug knitting, cloth weaving, sewing, embroidery, wood carving,
stone embroidery, tile-making, ceramics is carried on by public institutions.
Handicraft courses are being organized by the Ministry of Agriculture and
Rural Affairs, Ministry of Industry and Trade, Ministry of Culture and
Tourism, Ministry of Justice, Municipalities, foundations and associations,
institutions of Ministry of National Education. There are professional
acquisition courses organized by Ministry of National Education for people
from every age group and education level. The courses that are related to
handicrafts are wood carving, ceramics and tile making, glass embroidery,
textile, carpet and rug knitting, cloth weaving, embroidery of precious
stones and metal, sewing and embroidery. The ones who attend these
courses can establish their own businesses or some of them work at
workshops.
3. Handicraft education in preschool, primary school and high school:
handicrafts courses are carried on by Ministry of National Education in
some schools that are connected with preschool, primary school and high
school. But the Ministry of National Education does not have any consistent
education system for culture and handicraft courses. While these courses
exist in the curriculum in some years, they are removed in other year’s
curriculums. An amendment in primary school education is just being
made. Beginning from the next education and teaching term, handicraft
courses will be removed from the primary schools’ curriculum. Even
though there are activities like music, painting in preschool education
institutions, fewer places are given to activities related to traditional
handicrafts. While 1-2 hours of handicraft courses were taking place in
primary schools during the past years, this course was removed today. High
school education is carried on as general high schools and vocational high
schools. Students attending those schools are striving to enter a university.
To have a bachelor’s degree in Turkey, one has to enter a general exam.
More than one million of high school graduates or students that will
graduate are preparing for the central exam to enter university. Therefore,
there is no handicraft course in general high school education curriculum.
Students’ interest in these subjects is extremely low. In vocational high
schools, vocational education in various fields is being given. In the field of
handicrafts hand weaving, embroidery, knitting, jewelry, glass work,
textile, ceramics, doll making, leather accessory making departments exist.
In our country, the ones that don’t want to have a bachelor’s degree and the
ones that want to have a profession in a short time specially prefers these
schools.
4. Education of two-year degree, bachelor’s degree and graduate: Education
periods of departments that are related to handicraft are 2 or 4 years.
Vocational high schools are giving 2 years education. Vocational education
programs are applied towards various profession groups. These schools
where handicrafts education is also given are generally concentrated in the
places where handicraft centers exist. Programs of vocational high schools
that give education in handicrafts are: carpet and rug, handicrafts, jewelry
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and jewelry design, leather work, tile design, architectural decorative arts,
carving of gems and metals, applied jewelry technologies, stone carving
and traditional handicrafts. In these schools, the students have intensive
applied courses. In addition, they have training about workshop
management, administration and accounting. The ones who graduated from
these schools can establish their own businesses or can find jobs in other
enterprises. There have been faculties and one institution of higher
education that give bachelor’s degree education on handicrafts.
The education of handicrafts has been carried out in Vocational Education

Faculty, Vocational Common Education Faculty, Industrial Arts Educational Faculty,
Technical Educational Faculty, Fine Arts Faculty and Home Economics Faculty. In
the Faculties, there have been departments of decorative arts, embroidery, textile and
knitting, artificial flower making-knitting and weaving; in fine arts faculties,
departments of calligraphy, ornamenting, miniature, tile, carpet-rug and ancient fabric
patterns. The ones who graduate from Educational Faculties become teachers. The
ones who graduate from Faculty of Fine Arts work generally on design.
Because of the number of the institutions that offer graduate education on
handicrafts in Turkey, an increase in the number of graduate thesis MSc and PhD level
has increased. The graduate studies carried out in Turkey aim to examine locally the
handicrafts which continue.
Yazıcıoglu (2000), has stated that the main aim of the handicrafts graduate
education is to follow technological progress, use the latest technology, determine the
requirements arisen from the developing technology, and design a sufficient and
required handicraft product in order to meet these requirements, and to determine the
type of production and eventually to produce it.
It has been known that the problem of unemployment is among the most important
problems. In order to create employment opportunities areas, European Union has
policies to support family, small and medium size enterprises. In Turkey, handicrafts
are one of the area that can create solution for unemployment problem.
One of the most significant features of handicrafts is that it provides income.
Another feature is that each member of a family –woman, man, child, elder people,
can be involved in any phase of the production through handicrafts. Also, disabled
individuals can get involved in the production. Therefore, the state should apply
encouraging policies in order to support family entrepreneurs, and small and medium
size entrepreneurs.
In the world, the effects of the globalization in the cultural field are very
interesting. Kongar (2000) indicates that the first effect of the globalization in cultural
field is that it forms a unique consumption culture in whole world. Individuals are
conditioned to wear the same kind of clothes, and consume the same kind of clothes,
and consume the same type of food without making any discrimination of religion,
language, race and belief.
The variety of handicrafts is important in this matter. Handicrafts vary depending
on the culture and the geography of where it is located. Raw materials, production
methods, products are different from each other. With this aspect, handicrafts may
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become more than a model, and become functional by adding aesthetic to objects that
people use.
The state should have a policy for handicrafts education. While handicrafts
education was made through master workman-apprentice relation, today an increase in
the number of the handicrafts education programs in the institutions is noted. But there
has been a decline in the number of the handicraft courses that are offered by public
institutions. To increase the number of the handicraft courses and participation, it is
important to increase the quality of the courses and to obtain good quality products.
Increasing the market possibilities of the products will lead to an increase in the
demand for courses.
Oguz (2002) also indicates that production and marketing of handicrafts is not
within the aims of institutions that give handicraft education. He says that the products
obtained from the given education are appreciated only in exhibitions, and production
and marketing is left in the care of private organizations such as foundations,
companies.
Handicraft education should start at preschool period. It is easier for children of
that age group to learn cultural values. Especially the handicrafts that children can do
and wish to do may be determined and applications in this field may be started.
Primary school is also known as to be a period when the learning skills and
creativities’ of children are higher. It is easy for them to understand cultural values.
These courses, which also comprise handicrafts both in preschool and primary school
terms (8 years), are important in point of designating their future profession and
preferences. For these reasons art education should be focused on.
Basic aim of graduate studies is to determine the past and the present situation of
handicrafts. Determining the handicrafts that are about to become extinct, and that are
already extinct, uncovering their production methods and products are important in
point of documentation of these handicrafts. Graduate study is one of the most
appropriate methods of documentation based on scientific methods. Doctorate study is
important in point of usage of technology in handicrafts, determination and
development of designs towards new needs and development of production methods.
Acquisition of good quality products will be provided by the researches directed to
improving the quality of raw materials and tools. Moreover, the sustainability of
handicraft products can be made possible by marketing.
References
Arlı, M. 1990. Köy el sanatları (Village Handicrafts). Ankara Universitesi Ziraat Fakültesi
Yayınları :1185. Ankara Türkiye.
Eşberk, T. 1939. Köylü el sanatlarının mahiyeti ve ehemmiyeti (True nature and importance of
villagers’ handicrafts). Yüksek Ziraat Enstitüsü Çalışmalarından sayı: 44. Recep Ulusoğlu
Basımevi. Ankara Türkiye.
Kongar, E. 2000. 21. Yüzyılda Türkiye (Turkey in the 21. century). 26. Basım. Remzi
Kitapevi. Büyük Fikirler Dizisi:101.İstanbul Türkiye.
Oğuz, Ö. 2002. Ulusal kalıtın küreselleşmesi ve Türk el sanatları (globalization of national
cultural heritage and Turkish handcrafts). Milli Folklor Dergisi.sayı:54. 5-10.
Yazıcıoğlu, Y. 2000. Lisansüstü düzeyde el sanatları eğitimi (Handicraft education in
graduate education level). Bildiriler. Ulusal ev ekonomisi kongresi. 29-32. Ankara
Türkiye.
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Biotechnological Foods-Sustainable Development: Sustainable
27
Biotechnological Foods-Sustainable
Development: Sustainable
Oguz Ozdemir, Ondokuz Mayıs University
&
Yasemin Ozkan, Ankara University
&
Ozlen Ozgen, Ankara University
O
wing to the developments of the recent years in genetics and gene
technology, by changing genetic structures of plants and animals, species
which yield more and better quality products and which are resistant to the
negative environmental conditions genetically modified organisms can be
developed. Thus genetically modified (GM) foods can be obtained from them.
It is evident that since the production of the first biotechnological food, the GM
food products have aroused interest increasingly in the world and have been supplied
for consumption extensively. As a matter of fact, the agricultural production based on
genetically modified organisms had reached 70 million hectares by 2003 (Cetiner
2004). This great increase shows the growth rate of the agricultural biotechnology
sector including biotechnological foods. As far as the kinds of biotechnological foods
supplied for world consumption are concerned, they consist of a wide range of
agricultural products which are resistant to agricultural pesticides and herbicides, such
as soybean, corn, cotton, colza, potato, tobacco, rice and tomato and the foods which
are the derivatives of these products (Ozdemir 2003). Due to the endless potential it
has, the biotechnological agriculture is characterized as the second agricultural
revolution, namely the “green revolution”, after the revolution of the modern
agriculture (Erdmann et al 2003).
The researches which have been conducted and the experiences which have been
acquired since the introduction of the production of biotechnological foods indicate
that the spread of the consumption of the aforementioned products may have a series
of ecological, economic and socio-cultural disadvantages as well as the possible
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negative effects on human and animal health. Today’s ongoing uncertainties and
worries about the effects of modern biotechnological products on human health and
natural environment make the production and consumption of the foods in question
one of the controversial subjects of the sustainable development.
As a result of the efforts made to stop the environmental damage which was
accelerated in the 1970s, the term “sustainable development” became a current issue
to establish the balance between the human activities and the environmental protection
through the “United Nations Our Common Future” report, also known as “Brundtland
Report”, in 1987. The sustainable development, which is accepted as the most vital
project of the age, is most simply defined as meeting the needs of today’s generation
without risking the needs of the future generations (Erdmann et al 2003).
The sustainable development approach is based on the idea that all activities
concerning world resources, including food production and consumption, are to be
made ecologically and socio-economically sustainable. The ecology dimension
suggests the structure, functioning and protection of ecosphere; the economy
dimension suggests the stable economic development based on the sustainable use of
the resources; the social dimension suggests the fair distribution of the opportunities
of life on earth within a nation, between nations and between generations. In this
sense, the sustainable development approaches have three bases in accordance with its
content, which are briefly “ecological supportability”, “economic supportability” and
“social justice” (Zimmermann and Brunner 2005).
Certainly, to achieve the aims of the sustainable development project, the
consumption patterns need to be made sustainable. That is why sustainable
consumption has become the basic factor on the way to the sustainable development.
The sustainable consumption has three basic factors, “ecological sustainability”,
“economic sustainability” and “social justice,” just like the scope of the sustainable
development. In addition, the principles of the strategy which will realize the
sustainable consumption are “sufficiency”, “efficiency” and “consistency with
nature.” The principle of “sufficiency” means calculating the individual cost-benefit
correctly at the stage of consumption preferences. The principle of “efficiency”
suggests getting the maximum efficiency from the minimum resource. The principle
of “consistency with nature” suggests using substance and energy resources in
accordance with the supportability of nature, ranging from food production to
recycling consumption wastes (Erdmann et al 2003). When the aforesaid principles of
the sustainable consumption are assessed in general, the sufficiency principle
corresponds to social sustainability aim; the efficiency principle corresponds to
economic sustainability aim; and the consistency with nature principle corresponds to
ecological sustainability aim.
It is indisputably true that humanity’s current condition is unsustainable in terms
of the general nutrition style. On the other hand, how the spread of the consumption of
biotechnological foods will effect the current unsustainable state is the main one of the
frequently disputed subjects.
In this study, the increasing consumption of biotechnological foods is investigated
in terms of the above-mentioned basic components and the strategic principles of the
sustainable consumption and we try to find out its possible effects. Finally, we
propose a model for the sustainable consumption education which can contribute to
the training of human resource that is required by the transition from unsustainability
to sustainability.
Unsustainability and its Indicators
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As far as the general history of human beings’ nutrition style consisting of food
production and consumption is concerned, it can be said that two main stages have
been lived: the transition to the settled irrigated agricultural production and the
transition to the modern agricultural production of cultured plants using industrial
inputs (Sisli 1994). The improvements in agricultural production forms made it
possible to obtain more product in a unit of area. However, it is stated that the increase
in the efficiency achieved through the modern agriculture has reached its limit.
Moreover, it is claimed that as a result of the decreased biological diversity due to the
intense use of fertilizer and pesticide and the pressure of the monoculture agriculture,
the product efficiency has been declining (Altan et al 2000).
Just at this stage, it is clear that they started to cultivate genetically modified
plants to overcome the stagnation in the product efficiency which is limited by
biological conditions. The biotechnological agricultural production form, which has
become widespread very rapidly in the past twenty years, is shown as a means of
solving the nutrition problem of the world.
To understand to what extent the nutrition problem can be solved through
biotechnological foods, first of all, the current nutrition condition should be clarified
and how sustainable it is should be discussed.
When we have a general overview of the food production form, it is evident that
vegetable foods are obtained by intensely using such industrial inputs as fertilizers and
pesticides and animal foods are obtained by using those plants as feed. It is said that
people mostly consume “resource-intense” animal products like meat and milk, which
require the use of lots of cereals, water and energy and of the average daily calorie
need, approximately 350 calories is met by vegetable products and approximately 850
calories is met by animal products (Gardner et al 2004).
There is a circular interaction between vegetable and resource-intense animal food
production form, which requires the intense use of industrial inputs and the
consumption patterns. Through this interaction, they support each other (Halweil and
Nierenberg 2004).
When the consumption form is taken into account in terms of the wide consumer
group’s nutrition style in the world, it is obvious that most of the consumed foods are
industrial and resource-intense animal products. It is an undeniable fact that these
consumption patterns bring a considerable amount of cost to the health, ecological,
economic and socio-cultural areas. On the other hand, it is stated that the industrial
production which requires the advanced technology and the use of intense resource
and correspondingly the consumption system and style make it difficult for consumers
to know about the way of the food production and processing and thus eliminate the
observability of the foods (Gardner et al 2004).
In addition to malnutrition, the existence of a huge gap between the regions of the
world in terms of the food distribution causes a big problem.
In this framework, the fact that the third world countries can only use 20% of the
world resources though they have 80% of them (Herde 2005), 12% of the world
population who lives in North America and West Europe accounts for 60% of the
individual consumption expenditure in the world and 1/3 of the world population who
lives in South Asia and Central and South Africa accounts for 3.2% of it (Gardner et al
2004) and according to the 1997’s data, the supplies which are used during the food
production weigh 51 tons per capita in the EU, 80 tons per capita in the USA and 45
tons per capita in Japan clearly shows the huge gap between the regions in relation to
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nutrition. According to the researches, in the industrial countries, 2500 calories out of
4000 calories on average consumed daily is used, but the rest, 1500 calories, is lost or
turns into fat (Erdmann et al 2003).
This situation indicates that the consumers in the developed countries use up so
much food that most of the world population can not have even the minimum amount
of food. It is suggested that the excessive food consumption in the developed countries
reduces the quality of life by increasing the obesity, as well as the socio-economic cost
it brings to the world (Gardner et al 2004).
On the other hand, this nutrition style leads to the environmental degeneration to a
great degree. The fact that although the ideal “ecological footprint” per capita that
nature can bear is 1.9 hectares of land, today the average ecological footprint has
reached 2.3 hectares in the world and 9.7 hectares in the USA clearly indicates the
ecological pressure caused by the human population who is constantly consuming
(Gardner et al 2004).
The fact that the extreme rate of energy and additives used during the current food
production, processing, distribution and consumption increases the emission
considerably indicates another dimension of the ecological pressure on nature caused
by the prevailing nutrition style. In this sense, it is pointed out that 85% of global
warming derives from the consumption of animal products (Herde 2005).
When we have a look at the development of humanity’s nutrition style, we realize
that last century the technological advancements led to produce more than demanded
and to supply more than necessary. It is estimated that despite this amount of food
supply, about 30 million people are in danger of hunger every year and 1 billion
people suffer from malnutrition (Erdmann et al 2003). Consequently, although food is
produced more than needed; in other words, food supply has set a world record; an
important part of the world population does not have the food safety due to the
malnutrition pattern and the imbalances between the regions.
When the amount of money which is spent on the consumption of luxurious goods
in the world and the cost which is necessary to improve the quality of humans’ lives
are compared, the following table appears:
Table 1. The Comparison of the Annual Expenditure on Luxurious Goods and the
Amount of Money to Buy Some Basic Necessities of Life (Gardner et al 2004)
Product Annual expenditure Socio-economic aim Necessary annual
investment
Cosmetics 18 billion dollars For all women, health 12 billion dollars
care of reproduction and
physical care
Pet food consumed in 17 billion dollars Ending the hunger and 19 billion dollars
the USA and Europe malnutrition
Perfume 15 billion dollars Universal literacy 5 billion dollars
Sea voyages 14 billion dollars Clean drinking water 5 billion dollars
for everyone
Ice-cream in Europe 11 billion dollars Vaccination of each 1,3 billion dollars
child
When the overall state of the current food production and consumption, which is
explained above, and the table, which shows the cost of the consumption of luxurious
goods, are taken into account together, it is obvious that the sustainable development
is not in accordance with the ecological, economic and social necessities and the
strategy of sustainable consumption is not in accordance with the principles of
efficiency, sufficiency and consistency with nature.
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It is estimated that there are 1.7 billion consumers in total in the world, roughly
half of whom live in the developing countries and the number of these global
consumers will be 2 billion in 2015 and 9 billion in 2050 (Gardner et al 2004). When
this expected increase in the number of the consumers is taken into consideration, it
can be stated that the current unsustainability situation concerning the food production
and nutrition style will deepen more and more.
Biotechnological Foods, Sustainable Development and Consumption
Due to the effects of the rapid advancements in genetics, a transition to the

biotechnological agricultural and animal production has been initiated to increase the
product efficiency lately. The biotechnological agricultural production which is
characterized as second green revaluation differs from the previous ways of food
production radically. While in the previous agricultural production structure, in order
to get more product in a unit of area the environment was made more productive
through irrigation, fertilization and pesticide application, in the biotechnological
agriculture, the genetic structures of culture plants which will be sowed directly are
modified. They try to overcome the limiting effect on efficiency of ecological
conditions by the biotechnological agriculture.
Vegetable and animal products coming from genetically modified organisms are
considered as biotechnological foods. Because gene transfer is more common in
plants, most of biotechnological foods are supplied to consumption as crop and
vegetable products. It is evident that in the past twenty years, the cultivation of
genetically modified plants and correspondingly biotechnological foods have become
prevalent rapidly.
On initiating the biotechnological agriculture, the cost of production decreased
considerably and the efficiency increased. In this framework, the fact that the
agricultural production based on genetically modified organisms, 99% of which
belongs to the USA, Argentina, Canada, Brazil and China, has increased 30 times
since 1997 and it expanded from about 1.7 million hectares to 53 million hectares in
2001 (Kefi 2002) and to about 68 million hectares in 2003 (Çetiner 2004) shows the
growth rate of the agricultural biotechnology sector consisting of these products. In
2001, of the genetically modified plants which were cultivated, 63% was soybean
(33,3 million ha), 19% was corn (9,8 million ha) and 13% was cotton (6,8 million ha)
(Çetiner 2004; Topal 2004). When we have a look at the characteristics of the
genetically modified organisms which were produced, again in 2001, the resistance to
herbicides came first with 40,6 million ha and the resistance to pesticides with 7,8
million ha followed it (Çetiner 2004).
The increasing prevalence of cultivating genetically modified organisms and
correspondingly the widespread consumption of biotechnological foods bring about a
series of disadvantages and worries ranging from endangering human and animal
health to spoiling natural environment.
The risks for human and animal health which can be caused by the consumption
of biotechnological foods make the phenomenon “food safety” a current issue. For
about 10 years, some health problems which have appeared during the consumption of
foods obtained from genetically modified organisms have turned the attention of
people all over the world to this issue and the safety of these products has become a
popular controversial subject. There are some serious doubts that when the antibiotic-
307
resistant genes of the bacteria in the genetically modified organisms are transferred to
humans and animals, the host bacteria can develop resistance to antibiotics, the
consumption of biotechnological foods can produce a harmful effect on the immunity
system and they can have allergic and toxic effects (Jutaprint 1996; Prakash 2000; Ho
2001; Topal 2004). However, the worries about the consumption of biotechnological
foods mostly arise from the fact that the “harmlessness” of these products has not been
proven yet and the effects they will show in future are not known now.
On the other hand, the experimental researches which have been conducted for
years indicate that biotechnological foods can lead to the environmental damage in
several ways. “Gene escape” into environment from genetically modified plants is the
main environmental risk from the cultivation of genetically modified plants (Ho 2001;
Raybould and Gray 1993).
It is found out that gene escape into the ecosystem from genetically modified
organisms can result in the degenerated characteristics of other species (Altieri 2001) ,
the damage to the living things which are not aimed at ( Ho 2001), the regained
resistance of weeds and pests (Altieri 2001; Ho 2001), the decrease in the biological
diversity in time and the pollution of the ecosystem of water and soil ( Jutaprint 1996).
Moreover, it is believed that there are some potential risks concerning the food chain
which may appear in future.
In addition to the disadvantages about human health and the ecosystem which may
be caused by the spread of the consumption of biotechnological foods, it has socio-
economic costs which can not be ignored. The socio-economic disadvantages of
biotechnological foods are caused by the fact that the biotechnological food sector is
very suitable for the monopoly of multinational firms. In this context, the socio-
economic outcomes of the spread of biotechnological foods are affected by the fact
that several types of genetically modified plants are patented by producer firms and
developing countries become dependent on these foreign firms, natural culture plants
and biological diversity disappear due to the widespread one-type production, local
agricultural and animal production systems are ignored and thus worsen and consumer
preferences are forced in favour of biotechnological foods (Madeley 2003; Ozsoy
1995).
On the other hand, it is stated that getting rich content and more product from
genetically modified plants can be effective to overcome the food insufficiency in the
third world countries. It is suggested that particularly the cultivation of genetically
modified rice, which is described as golden rice and enriched by vitamin A, can be
helpful to overcome food insufficiency (Erdman et al 2003; Herde 2001). However, as
it is exposed through the research data in the previous part, the hunger in the third
world countries is caused by the extreme imbalance in the food distribution due to the
different regional development levels rather than food insufficiency. Therefore, as
long as the structural problem of food distribution is not solved, the production of
biotechnological foods can not help the social justice.
Another cause of the socio-economic cost of the spread of biotechnological foods
is the ecological risks from the cultivation of gene-transferred plants. If we take into
account the fact that economic goods and services which are produced are mostly
dependent on natural resources, the dimensions of socio-economic losses caused by
the environmental effects of the spread of biotechnological foods will become more
evident.
To understand how sustainable biotechnological foods are in terms of health,
ecology, economy and society, the advantages and possible disadvantages of these
foods should be studied in relation to the criteria of the sustainable development and
308
similarly sustainable consumption. To make nutrition style sustainable, above all, it

should be in agreement with the ecological, economic and social aspects of the
sustainable development as well as it should be healthy. In this framework, the
sustainability of biotechnological foods in terms of ecology, economy and society is
only possible when the sustainable consumption is in agreement with all three
principles, sufficiency, efficiency and consistency with nature.
The consumption of biotechnological foods in relation to the sufficiency principle
does not help to overcome the unsustainable condition at all. When we take into,
consideration particularly the fact that the production and distribution of
biotechnological foods are formed by multinational companies’ economic interests, it
can be stated that the consumers who choose these products suffer loss according to
the cost-benefit calculation. On the other hand, it can be suggested that since the
production of biotechnological foods requires less pesticide and fertilizer, the
consumption of these foods is in accordance with the sufficiency principle. However,
when the resistance genes of genetically modified plants transfer to agricultural pests,
they regain resistance. It is pointed out that as a result of the regained resistance of
these pests, the economic loss may be unpredictable. From this point of view, it is not
possible to say in the long run biotechnological foods are in accordance with the
sufficiency principle.
When the consumption of the foods in question is assessed according to the
efficiency principle, a controversial issue appears. Being able to produce
biotechnological foods using gene technology at a lower cost at first glance indicates
that the consumption of these products is in accordance with the efficiency principle.
Nevertheless, when we approach the issue in view of the idea that the agricultural
production of the foods in question will spoil the ecosystem of soil and reduce the
biological diversity in future, it is evident that in the long run it will not be efficient
due to the considerable amount of environmental and corresponding economic cost it
will bring about.
Finally, when the consumption of biotechnological foods is assessed according to
the principle of consistency with nature, it can be said that a controversial issue
appears from this angle, too. In view of the fact that the cultivation of biotechnological
plants reduces the use of fertilizers and pesticides and thus reduces the environmental
deterioration caused by them, it can be said that the foods in question are in
accordance with the principle of the consistency with nature. However, it is estimated
that the transfer of the resistance genes of genetically modified plants to pests and
other species may cause an unavoidable ecological deterioration. Besides, since the
experimental researches have manifested that the cultivation of genetically modified
plants results in the decrease of biological diversity in natural environment, the upset
ecological balances and the polluted ecosystems etc, the consumption of the
biotechnological foods is not in accordance with the principle of consistency with
nature.
When this assessment of the consumption of biotechnological foods in terms of
the sufficiency, efficiency and consistency with nature principles of the sustainable
consumption is taken into consideration, it is obvious that these foods can not meet the
ecological, economic and social necessities of the sustainable development and thus of
the sustainable consumption.
On the other hand, the fact that there are some signs that biotechnological foods
have disadvantages to human health and above all, they have not been proven
harmless yet, as well as the current general nutrition style is not suitable for human
309
health as it was pointed out earlier signifies the unsustainability of the consumption of
these foods in relation to human health.
To sum up, it is predicted that the unsustainable state of the current general food
production and consumption can worsen through the spread of the consumption of
biotechnological foods.
Transition from Unsustainability to Sustainability: Sustainable Consumer

Education
Overcoming the unsustainable state of the current nutrition style and making it
gain a sustainable quality surely depends on the radical change in the food production
structures and food consumption patterns. Forming sustainable consumption patterns
has a potential to lead the food production structures to sustainability. If this fact is
taken into account, we definitely reach the sustainable consumption education.
Just like in the formation of all human behaviours and acts, certainly, education
has a principal function in providing sustainable consumption behaviours and
accepting conscious consumption form. In fact, at the United Nations Rio Summit and
then at the Johannesburg Summit, the conclusion that the existence of educated
humans was the basic condition of the sustainable life on earth clearly showed the
important role of education in this matter. Particularly, in the fourth section of Agenda
21, one of the important outputs of the Rio Summit, it was emphasized that the
sustainable consumption patterns would have a determining role in the sustainable
development and its way would be paved by the consumption education (Alvesleben
1998).
In recent years, to gain consumers sustainable consumption behaviours, lots of
researches have been done and various projects have been carried out. In a
comprehensive research which was conducted in Germany, it was emphasized that the
sustainable consumption education should focus on developing an “ecological life
consciousness” which would create a radical transformation in consumption and
nutrition structure (Erdmann et al 2003). In order to develop an ecological life
consciousness and appropriate behaviours, educational processes are to be based on
the values, “ecological supportability” in other words environmental justice,
“anticipative development” and “social justice” within nation, between nations and
between generations, which correspond to the dimensions of the sustainable
development (Stoltenberg and Adomssent 2004). The understanding of integrity in
accordance with the principles of sufficiency, efficiency and consistency with nature
as well as the health, ecology, economy and society dimensions of the sustainability
has to be put into effect so that educational processes can develop ecological life
consciousness.
To be able to prefer the consumption patterns suitable for the ecological life to the
unsustainable food production and its patterns, which characterize the consumption
society in which we live, consumers are to be made conscious of the stages in relation
to food from production to supply to the market. In this context, the sustainable
consumption education is to first aim at developing the necessary consciousness and
understanding of the reasons why the process of food production, supply to the market
and preference is unsustainable in terms of human health, natural environment and
socio-economic structure. In other words, the basic aim is to develop the
understanding of the “tracebility” of the food chain from food production to waste
disposal, which is described as “from field to fork” and the consciousness of the fact
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that this is the basic consumer right. Only in this way, each individual can perceive
his/her role as a consumer in general food production and consumption and realize
that he/she can be determinant to change it for the better.
Through the sustainable consumption education, consumers should become
sufficiently conscious of the possibilities and probable risks of biotechnological foods
in relation to general food production and consumption. Only in this way, it is possible
for consumers to comprehend whether biotechnological foods may offer a solution to
the unsustainable condition of the general nutrition style.
The third basis of the sustainable consumption education is to understand the
effects of the consumption of modern biotechnological foods on ecosystem, economy
and social areas in the system logic and thus to develop a life style supported by
attitudes and values securing the consumption preferences in accordance with the
sustainable life. To create this change, which needs a long period of time, the
innovative educational processes based on experiences should be realized.
The innovative educational principles based on experiences, which can change
consumers’ perception and awareness of nature radically, are to direct the processes of
sustainable consumption education. From a wide perspective, these principles are as
follows (Zimmerman and Brunner 2005):
• “Interdisciplinary Information Acquisition” for the Sustainable Consumption:

In several dimensions to inform consumers about the advantages and
disadvantages of the consumption of biotechnological foods in relation to the
current nutrition style.
• Integration: The integration of the disadvantages of the consumption of
biotechnological foods to human and animal health, natural environment and
socio-economic structure from the viewpoint of the sustainability of life.
• Constructive Education: On the basis of past experiences, to enable the
discovery of the effects of consumption preferences on the future of life.
• Innovative Education:
a. Anticipative Education: Providing anticipations about the

future results of the consumption of biotechnological
foods in relation to the current nutrition style.
b. Participative Education (doing and experiencing): During
the educational processes based on experiences
concerning the consumption patterns, to enable to
understand the importance of the nutrition style from the
viewpoint of sustaining life through active participation
and experimentation.
These educational principles clearly demonstrate that the effectiveness of the

sustainable consumption education depends on the process of the practice-centered
participative education. This method enables consumers to fulfil the requirements of
the conscious consumption in terms of “knowing”, “assessing and “behaving” and to
play roles in food production and consumption suitable for the ecological life.
Discussion and Suggestions
311
It is an undeniable truth that the current nutrition state is not sustainable from the
viewpoint of the continuity of natural resources and correspondingly the existence of
human life. Besides the wrong and unconscious consumption habits, the excessive and
unhealthy consumption style prevailing in the developed countries at the cost of the
third world countries’ being in danger of chronic starvation is the most concrete
indicator of the fact that the current nutrition style is unsustainable in every respect.
At this point, it can be suggested that the spread of biotechnological foods, at first
glance, has a positive potential to overcome the food insufficiency in the world and to
decrease the effects of the modern agricultural production on the ecosystem. However,
a general assessment with regard to the basic principles of the sustainable
consumption shows that the biotechnological foods in question do not provide any
solution to overcome the unsustainability of the nutrition style and thus life style; on
the contrary, have a potential of danger to deepen the current situation.
Making the sustainable consumption patterns widespread, which is regarded as
one main way to realize the sustainable development, depends on the proper and
effective educational processes serving this purpose. Certainly, the sustainable
consumption education will become effective only if it creates a general consciousness
and awakening which will bring a radical change in the consumption patterns in
accordance with the ecological life. Through the sustainable consumption education
which will be realized effectively in this way, in addition to the short-term benefits of
the nutrition style based on biotechnological foods, consumers can become conscious
of the risks which the increase of the foods in question can bring to natural
environment and human life and accept the sustainable consumption patterns. The way
to the protection of natural environment while developing and correspondingly to the
increase in the quality of all humans’ lives is paved by giving the sustainability
characteristic to the consumption patterns and to the production and life style in
relation to this through the educational processes.
Taking all these into consideration, the following suggestions as to the processes
of the formal and informal education can be made to gain the food production and
consumption a sustainable quality:
• The basic consumption education is to be based on a spiralling and integral

programme from the preschool period till the end of the higher education.
• The processes of the formal and informal education are to be enriched with the
participative experiences to enable the comprehension of the food chain,
described as “from field to fork”, to secure the consciousness of the ecological
life in relation to it and to create a political awakening with regard to the food
distribution in the world.
• In this framework, the consumer education is to be performed as an
indispensable component of the general democracy education.
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“ Nachhaltige Landwirtschaft” : Welche Wege führen zum Ziel? http://www.uni-kiel.de/
agrarmarketing/lehrstuhl/nachhaltigerkonsumdlg.pdf
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Biyoteknoloji Genetiği Değiştirilmiş Organizmalar ve Gıda Güvenliği Konferansı Notları,
İstanbul 2004.
Erdmann, L., Sohr, S., Behrendt, S., Kreibrich, R. (2003) “Nachhaltigkeit und Ernährung”,
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Özel Konu: Tüketim Toplumu. Worldwatch Enstitüsü, TEMA:75-95.
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Themenschwerpunkt:Nachhaltigkeit von sozio-ökologischen Systemen Discussion paper
Nr. 20/05, Oktober 2005, http://www.ztg.tu-berlin.de/pdf/Nr_20 _Herde.pdf
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313
314
Media, Materialism and Socialization of Child Consumers
28
Media, Materialism and Socialization of
Child Consumers
Ozlen Ozgen, Ankara University

&
Aybala Demirci, Gazi University
&
Ayse Sezen Tas, Ankara University
S
cientific research concerned with children as consumers started in the 1950s
with the publication of some studies including brand loyalty and conspicuous
consumption and in the 1960s, researchers expanded their scope of inquiry to
include child’s understanding of marketing and retail functions, influence on
parents in purchasing decisions, relative influence of parents, siblings and peers on
consumption, public policy concerns about marketing and advertising to children
(John 1999). Research on consumer socialization of children started in the mid-1970s
of the 20th century and has accelerated during recent years.
In 1974, Scott Ward defined consumer socialization as “processes by which young
people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes relevant to their functioning as
consumers in the marketplace” (Ward 1974). The definiton of Ward guided
researchers and the emerging field of study examining consumer socialization of
children. During recent years, researchers have examined different dimensions of
consumer socialization of children, including their knowledge of consumer market,
decision making skills and abilities, and the effects of socialization agents. Also they
explored consumption motives and values.
One of the most important concerns about consumer socialization is that
consumer societies encourage children to focus on material goods as a means of
achieving personal happiness, success, and self-fulfillment. Concerns of this nature
have escalated as evidence has become available pointing to a heightened level of
materialism among children. Direct expenditures and purchase influence for children 4-
12 years of age have virtually increased, as have marketing efforts to this age group
(McNeal 1998, John 1999).
This study aims to examine questions concerning consumer socialization in
relation to materialistic values and mass media, especially television commercials and
provide detailed knowledge for parents, consumer educators and public policy makers.
315
Theoretical Perspectives for Consumer Socialization
The period from birth to adolescence contains dramatic developments in cognitive

functioning and social maturation. For children and adolescents, cognitive
developmental perspectives appear to be most applicable to explanations of consumer
socialization and behavior. Two major theories of cognitive development are Piaget’s
theory of intellectual development and Ausubel’s learning theory (Moschis 1987; John
1999).
Piaget’s theory proposes that learning occurs through interaction between the
child and the environment. Piaget describes four main stages of cognitive
development: sensimotor (from birth to 1,5 years), preoperational (two to seven
years), concrete operational (seven to eleven years), and formal operational (eleven to
fourteen). As children move from one stage to another, they are assumed to be
developing and integrating various intellectual skills, which have taxonomical
relationship to each other (Moschis 1987). Very important differences exist in the
cognitive abilities and resources available to children at these stages, including
preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages of most interest to
consumer researches (John 1999).
Ausebel describes cognitive structure related to concepts and propositions
arranged in hierarchical structures. Ausubel proposes that meaningful learning can
best be promoted by the use of general ideas that, once learned, are expected to
provide a potentially meaningful set of anchoring ideas under which subsequently
presented subordinate knowledge can be subsumed. Ausubel places a major emphasis
on sequential transfer. Ideas must be first identified and taught in order of abstraction
or generalizability, with the more abstract ideas taught first, followed by the teaching
of more specific concepts. In the context of consumer socialization, Piaget’s theory of
early childhood education would lead one to conclude that it would be very difficult to
teach consumer socialization to preschool children because they are expected to be at
a preoperational level of development. Contrary to Piaget, Ausubel’s theory proposes
that preschool children can be taught these abstract concepts through utilization of a
sequence going from general ideas to more specific concepts and facts (Moschis
1987).
Social learning models of consumer socialization differ from developmental
models with respect to the emphasis and importance of environmental forces-that is,
socialization agents. While cognitive developmental theories view the individual as
playing an active role in the socialization process, with socialization agents being
rather passive, social learning perspectives view the individual as playing a rather
passive role, with the socializers being more instrumental in shaping attitudes and
behaviors (Moschis 1987).
The consumer socialization stages descriptions are related to cognitive and social
development of children. Preoperational children tend to be perceptually bound to
readily observable aspects of their environment. The perceptual stage (ages 3-7) is
characterized by a general orientation toward the immediate and readily observable
perceptual features of the marketplace. These children exhibit familiarity with
concepts in the marketplace, such as brands or retail stores, but rarely understand them
beyond surface level. Very important changes take place, both cognitively and
socially, as children move into analytical stage (ages 7-11). This stage contains some
of the most important developments related to consumer knowledge and skills. The
reflective stage (ages 11-16) is characterized by further development in several
dimensions of cognitive and social development. Knowledge about markeplace
316
concepts such as branding and pricing becomes even more nuanced and more complex
as children develop more sophisticated information processing and social skills (John
1999).
Consumer Socialization of Children and Media
The child consumer has been viewed not as one market, but as three rolled into
one-primary market for certain goods and services, a future market for all goods and
services, and a market of influencers giving directions to parental purchases (McNeal
1992).
Economically, the children have various demands and a certain purchasing
power to satisfy such demands. Psychologically, the children have needs and they are
capable of reflecting such needs in the market. Sociologically, the children are
consumers who perform a set of collective activities, defined as consumer roles, and
they are expected to show a natural development in line with other social
characteristics as they grow older. Commercially, the children are consumers who
plan purchasing activities, who collect pre-purchase information, who realize the
purchase activity, who usually spend their own allowances and who make the after-
purchase evaluation (McNeal 1979).
The most important feature of children’s consumer socialization is that it begins
at a very young age. Previous research has demonstrated that children play an
active role in consumption. McNeal (1979) showed that the children who assume
the role of consumer at the ages of 4-5 years begin to become conscious consumers
at the ages of 9-10 years and take their place in society as full consumers at
around 12 years of age.
Through repeated shopping trips with parents, young children learn about
products, stores, and money. This learning process is called consumer socialization
and is influenced by developmental and environmental factors. Developmental factors
include cognition involving information-processing notions of memory, recognition,
and recall and psychosocial factors of identification and peer conformity.
Environmental or contextual factors include socialization agents such as peers, family,
and mass media (Derscheid et al. 1996).
The environmental influences of media including TV, videos, and books allow
children to imitate different personalities and act out fantasies while they construct
their identity from media role models (Guber and Berry 1993).
Children learn their consumer behavior mainly from parents and marketers.
Parents are children’s primary socialization agents who introduce and indoctrinate
them into the consumer role (McNeal 1992).
Family influences on consumer socialization seem to proceed more through
subtle social interaction than purposive educational efforts by parents (Ward 1974).
They try to teach their kids some of the ins and outs, pros and cons, dos and don’ts of
being a consumer (McNeal 1992). Parents appear to have few educational goals in mind
and make limited attempts to teach consumer skills. Given the more important nature
of family influences, researchers have turned their attention to general patterns of
family communication as a way to understand how the family influences the
development of consumer knowledge, skills, and values (John 1999).
But marketers play an important part in children’s consumer socialization and they
bombard the children with informative and persuasive messages (McNeal 1992). No
socialization agent has received more attention than mass media especially television
317
advertising. The effects of advertising to children suggests possible outcomes that are
favorable to marketers who focus on children as any one or more of three markets. As
a primary market, advertising may produce a purchase and favorable attitudes. As an
influence market, advertising may cause the child to inform and persuade the parent,
who in turn may buy the product and/or form favorable attitudes toward it. As a future
market, advertising produces liking and other favorable attitudes that can trigger
behavior toward a product at a later time (McNeal 1992).
Advertising towards children has been roughly divided into three stages. In the
first stage, advertising influences children to buy products and /or to get parents to
make purchases. In the second stage, parents consider the product at the
recommendation of the child. In stage three, the attitudes of the child and parents that
have been induced by advertising and purchase behavior determine their future
bahavior toward advertised product (McNeal 1992).
The evidence to date provides strong support for the influence of television
advertising on children's product preferences and choices. Despite the obvious
importance of advertising as a socialization agent, much could be learned by
examining other aspects of mass media and marketing. In the realm of mass media,
efforts to understand the influence of television program content, in addition to
television advertising, would be welcome. Television programming pictures
messages about the way products are used, the typology of people who use these
products, and the social context of consumption (John 1999).
Parents and other people can both influence children’s television viewing
behaviour. They may influence how much children watch television generally or more
specifically, affect what types of programmes children watch. This in turn can control
the impact television has on children by limiting the extent to which they watch
certain types of programmes. In addition, the strength of impact of particular TV
shows can be affected by parental intervention (Gunter et al. 1997).
There are numereous studies which indicated that all children are influenced by
the commercials on television intended for children and that the programmes related
to children were the most effective means of advertisement (Munn 1971; Frideres
1973; Donohue 1975; Rossiter 1979; Özgen and Gönen 1989). Frideres (1973) has
indicated that among the children from middle and low income levels, between the
ages of 5-8 years, 78% first knew of a toy from television. Burr and Burr (1977)
have stated that children between the ages of 2-10 years watch television for an
average 3-4 hours per day and that the demands of the children have a role in
purchases. They also determined that the relationship between the ages of
children and their recognition of products advertised on television was not
significant, whereas the relationship between the recognition of the product and the
frequency of watching television was significant.
There are some evidence that children between the ages of 4-12 years incline
towards excessive consumption under the influence of television commercials and
are active in evaluating the information they get from such commercials,
chronological age is not a good indicator for a child's comprehension of the contents
of a commercial. The role of the family and the close social environment with respect
to socialization is an important factor in the intellectual capacity of a child to
understand commercials (Tokgöz 1979).
In another study, children were examined as consumers in order to understand
their current role in the marketplace. The findings showed that watching TV and
shopping were some of the main interests/activities, and most children gave
importance to brand and considered TV commercials when making a purchasing
318
decision. The finding obtained in this research indicated a rapid maturing in the
consumer socialization process, similar to the findings of other researchers (Özgen
2003).
Consumer Socialization of Children and Materialism
Consumer socialization involves more than the acquisition of knowledge and skills
related to the consumer role. It also includes the learning and adoption of motives
and values related to consumption activities. Though a variety of motives and values
might be transmitted, the interest of consumer researchers has been on undesirable
outcomes of the socialization process, including orientations toward conspicuous
consumption, nonrational impulse-oriented consumption, and materialism (John 1999).
The concept of materialism has been defined as “the importance a consumer
attaches to worldly possessions and at the highest levels of materialism, such
possessions assume a central place in a person’s life and are believed to provide the
greatest sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction” (Belk 1985).
Ward and Wackman (1971) define materialism as “ an orientation which views
material goods and money as important for personal happiness and social progress”.
Richins and Dawson (1992) define this term as representing “a mind-set or
constellation of attitudes regarding the relative importance of acquisition and
possession of objects in one’s life. For materialists, possessions and their acquisition
are at the forefront of personal goals that dictate ‘ways of life’. They value possessions
and their acquisition more highly than most other matters and activities in life”.
The relevance of materialism to consumer behavior is discussed. Materialism is
advanced as a critical but neglected macro consumer-behavior issue. Measures for
materialism and three subtraits-envy, nongenerosity, and possessiveness (Belk 1985).
Possessiveness has been defined as “the inclination and tendency to retain control
or ownership of one’s possessions”. Nongenerosity has been defined as “an
unwillingness to give possessions to or share possessions with others”. Envy is likely
to focus on another’s possessions, while jealousy focuses on one’s own possessions
(Belk 1983, Belk 1984, Belk 1985).
Ultimately, the rationale for studying differences in materialism is that the
resulting knowledge and measurement may be useful for examining the human and
social impact of this neglected aspect of consumer behavior (Belk 1985).
One of the foremost issues involving materialism that needs to be addressed is
whether materialism is a positive or a negative trait. A second major issue involving
materialism that is of relevance to consumer research is whether marketing creates
materialism or exacerbates it. A third issue involving materialism is whether
materialism is an essentially egoistic trait that opposes altruism and other such
prosocial behaviors as sharing. A fourth major issue involving materialism is its
impact on interpersonal relationships. It has been pointed out that in raising children,
we tend to elicit desired behaviors by giving, withholding, and withdrawing such
material rewards as food, toys, and other gifts that adults give to children. Using these
consumption items as rewards may encourage materialistic motivations. A final issue
involving materialism is whether it contributes to the enhancement and maintenance
of a positive self-identity (Belk 1985).
Understanding the effects of advertising to children, and when and how such
materialistic values form has been the central focus of consumer socialization research.
Research suggests that children clearly value the possession of material goods from a
319
very young age, sometimes favoring them above all else (John 1999). There are some
evidence that materialism was a relatively important trait, varying on marginally with
age, despite the numerous developmental changes taking place as a child gets older
(Archenreiner 1997). McNeal (1965) has indicated that the money concept was
formed around the age of 5 years; receipt of a regular allowance and saving began
usually at 7 years of age and by the age of nine the child was a practising consumer.
Ward and Wackman (1972) have stated that children mainly bought food stuffs at an
early age, that this tendency lessened as they grew up, that the children between the
ages of 5 and 7 years spent their money on various games and toys, and that children
of 11-12 years tended to buy clothes. By understanding the social significance of goods,
consumption symbolism and interpersonal relationships, materialistic values crystallize
by the time children reach fifth or sixth grade (Goldberg et al. 1997). Desires for
material goods become more nuanced as children progress through elementary school,
with material goods becoming aligned with social status, happiness, and personal
fulfillment (John 1999).
Robertson et al. (1989) made a cross-cultural study of TV-viewing behavior of
children in three age groups (3-4, 5-7 and 8-10 years old) and the generation of both
product request to parents and parent-child conflict. In this research, a model of
viewing and response patterns was hypothesized and cultural factors were investigated
across 84 American families, 118 Japanese families and 65 British families. Findings
showed that family communication patterns indicated that Japanese children were
significantly less demanding than British children, significantly less communicating
than both American and British children and significantly less independent than
British children, who were significantly less independent than American children. It
was found that Japanese children demonstrated lower levels of TV viewing than the
others did, and Japanese and British children made fewer purchase requests than
American children. Moreover, researcher stated that the higher the level of TV
viewing, the greater the frequency of parental requests and the greater the resulting
parent-child conflict.
Goldberg et al. (2003), developed a Youth Materialism Scale, for 9-to-14-year-
olds. The findings suggest that more materialistic youth tend to shop more and save
less. They are most interested in new products and most responsive to advertising and
promotional efforts. Parents who are more materialistic tend to have children who are
more materialistic. This study also reveals a modest negative relation between
materialism and liking for school and school performance. From a managerial
perspective, the “youth money scale” may be of value in helping to identify and target
highly materialistic youths. They are the ones most susceptible to adversitising and
promotion and most interested in new products. They tended to shop more often and
save less, and among those who held a job, the more materialistic youths earned more
money. The most materialistic youths wielded more purchase influence, both directly
and indirectly with their parents, who viewed them as more expert with regard to
products. These youths expected their parents to spend more money on them for
Christmas and for their birthdays. It remains for future research to assess the degree to
which the highly materialistic youths are trendsetters and opinion leaders among their
friends and peers.
320
Conclusion
One of the crucial approaches to the consumer behavior is the general

conceptual framework of socialization. The fact that child consumers watch
television commercials with interest can result in their desire for certain goods. As
an emerging value, materialism helps explain the consumer behavior of youth.
Therefore, television commercials have a particular importance in relation to
consumption behaviors and materialistic attitudes of child consumers.
Information about this subject is critical for better understanding how materialistic
attitudes develop and the role mass media influence has on these attitudes. This paper
can be valuable for parents, consumer educators and policy makers to establish
relevant consumer education strategies. Consumer education should focus on ways of
helping children to become responsible adult consumers. It should include the
acquisition and use of consumption skills, and knowledge related to consumption
patterns, consumer rights and responsibilities.
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322
A New Approach to Consumer Education in Secondary Schools in Turkey
29
A New Approach to Consumer Education in
Secondary Schools in Turkey
Eda Purutcuoglu, University of Ankara
&
Meltem Bayraktar, University of Ankara
I
n our increasingly global economy, all consumers are influenced by
multinational advances in technology and communications 1 . Empowering the
consumer in the 21st century is a key theme. Consumer education, along with
effective regulation and access to good quality advice and information are
essential components of a thriving social and economic culture 2 . Wells and
Atherton 3 note that consumer education is concerned with the skills, attitudes,
knowledge and understanding needed by individuals living in a consumer society such
that they can make full use of the range of consumer opportunities present in today's
complex marketplace 4 . They also note that “consumer education benefits society as a
whole by creating more active and better informed citizens” 5 . It plays a key role in
consumer empowerment, helping consumers gain the skills, attitudes and knowledge
they need to be able to gear the choices they make as consumers to their economic
interests and to protect their health and safety 2 (p.97). It is recognized that this form
of education needs to be provided at all life stages to empower young through to older
consumers to enable them to lead confident, healthy, independent lives 2 (p.98).
Consumer education aims to
1. protect the interests of consumers,

2. promote an understanding of the systems and structures within the
marketplace and
3. contribute to society as a whole by creating more active and
informed citizens, leading to a more even balance of power between
the producer and the consumer.
Consumer education comprises three general areas: (a) consumer decision-making

(external and internal factors affecting consumer decisions as well as the stages of the
323
decision-making process); (b) resource management (personal finance, buying skills

and conservation); and (c) citizen participation (consumer protection and
advocacy 4 .Within the area of consumer decision making, learners are encouraged to
identify their needs and wants and to examine how their own attitudes, advertising,
and information availability affect their decision making and consumer behaviours 5 .
Traditional consumer education is needed for improving consumers’ position and
protecting consumers’ rights and interests. It is also needed for promoting social
civilization and social progress 6 . Consumer education programmes in secondary
schools are meant to create and increase consumer awareness and enhance life and
decision-making skills among the youth. These programmes need to reflect today’s
complex and dynamic marketplace. The aim of consumer education programmes is to
empower students to act as discriminating consumers capable of making informed
choices and to practise their rights and responsibilities 7 . In Turkey, consumer
education appeared quite late but has become more popular in recent years. This paper
presents the importance, current situation and experiences of consumer education and
to understand consumer education needs among adolescents in secondary schools in
Turkey.
Consumer Education needs in Market Economy
With the development of a market economy, more brands and varieties of goods
and services are available to consumers. The consumer markets have greatly changed.
Especially today, rapidly developed science and technology penetrate into consumer's
daily lives through numerous new products and services. This situation requires
consumers to be intelligent and understand modern consumption knowledge 8 . So an
empowered consumer will use information and take advantage of the competitive
market by being knowledgeable, confident, assertive and self-reliant 9 . Thus, it is
necessary to educate consumers to improve their consumption knowledge bases and to
raise their self-protection consciousness so that they can become more competent and
smart consumers 8 .
Given that reality, students should develop an international perspective just to
operate as informed citizens; for those hoping to compete successfully in the
internationalized economy, such a perspective will be essential. However, preparing
students for the global marketplace is no easy task 1 . Schools may be considered as a
societal institution which has the purpose of educating human beings to enable them to
act in home and society 10 . Current programs of study in consumer fields need to
review curriculum so as to increase preparation of students for becoming global
consumers as well as employees with international companies. Curricula should
provide a solid base for assessing international consumer issues and related policy
options 1 .
Consumer education has always been part of the curriculum for home economics
to a greater or lesser extent. The aim of education is “to further the pupils” acquisition
of knowledge, skills, working methods and ways of expressing themselves and thus
contribute to the all-round personal development of the individual pupil. The overall
aim is that pupils and students obtain active competencies in a number of fields or
become empowered to act as citizens in a democratic society 10 . Despite the
importance of consumer education and citizenship education in contemporary
324
societies, there has been little attempt to bring together the studies of these two fields
to understand the developments in which they share an interest
A citizen is a responsible consumer, a socially aware consumer, a consumer who
thinks ahead and tempers his or her desires by social awareness, a consumer whose
actions must be morally defensible and who must occasionally be prepared to sacrifice
personal pleasure to communal well-being.
The role of consumer-citizenship education is to help people appreciate their roles
and responsibilities as individual consumers at the same time as thinking about the
consequences of their actions on other citizens, communities and societies 4 (p. 209).
It would enable students to gain an appreciation of the links between the values and
principles of a democracy, often seen to be at odds with each other 4 (p. 210). In sum,
many consumer education programmes reflect the need that results from the changing
consumption levels to improve consumption quality 8 .
Recent Development of Consumer Education in Turkey
In recent years the changing role of young people within the family and their
activity in the marketplace has increasingly captured the attention of marketers.
Adolescents are impulsive while having a strong impact on the marketplace and are
directly targeted by business and advertising initiatives as sustainable buyers for the
present and future. At the same time, as noted by Lachance 11 the youth play a very
important role in today’s society and market because they spend large sums of money
purchasing goods and services 7 . Unfortunately, young people lack skills – or
competence – with regard to numerous aspects of consumption. In fact, their behaviors
seem to show several deficiencies, among which the analysis of their needs before
buying. They show a low level of consumer knowledge in some fields, such as
personal credit and finances. They would be vulnerable because of their low level of
experience and their strong permeability to exterior influences like fashion and the
opinion of their peers. Their high level of materialism and their lack of judgment make
them very sensitive to the influence of the media. Many young adults even admit
themselves “not knowing how to consume” 12 . According to the 2006 Household
Labor Force Survey of National Statistics Institution in Turkey, 15 year olds and over
form approximately 72 % of the whole population 13 and according to population by
age group, 2000, young people between 15 and 25 years of age made up 21% of the
whole population, and emerged as an important consumer group in the marketplace 14 .
The purchasing power of young people is felt, not only through their direct purchases,
but also through a significant influence on the family’s and friends purchases. This
situation requires that young people act as intelligent consumers and understand that
modern consumption works so it is necessary to educate young people as consumers
to improve their consumption knowledge base so that they can become more
competent and intelligent consumers.
The rights of the consumer in Turkey are guaranteed by the 1982 Constitution.
Article 172 of the Constitution stipulates that “The State takes protective and
informative measures for consumers and encourages self-protective initiatives of the
consumer.” Thus, the chambers, associations, foundations and other professional and
voluntary organizations started to participate in activities related to protection of
consumer rights after 1982. Furthermore, in 1995, Law No. 4077 for the Protection of
325
the Consumer was passed and this was a great stride in consumer protection. Under
this law, consumers have acquired certain rights and various organizations have been
established for the purpose of protecting and informing the consumers. These
organizations are the Committee of Advertisements, Consumers’ Council and the
Arbitration Council for Consumer Problems.
The universally accepted eight basic consumer rights, which have also been
adopted by the EU countries in reference to consumer protection policies, are also
recognized by Law No. 4077. The amendment proposal prepared with the objective
of harmonization with the 13 directives concerning the EU Consumer Law and more
effective protection of the consumer in the face of developments in social and
economic life has drastically changed the basic law 15 .
In Turkey consumer education programmes were recently introduced in schools
by the National Education System. In our formal education systems, consumer
education is not a single discipline in its own right, but an inter-disciplinary subject
covering many areas. Although, there is at present no specific consumer education
course there are opportunities to teach consumer education in other areas of the
curriculum, such as home economics, religion, culture, and moral education, and life
knowledge. Also, in 1993, consumer protection clubs were introduced in primary and
secondary schools. Besides, it is known that there were many studies done for
different kind of consumers, students and teachers concerning consumer protection,
consumer education and information by the universities, mass-media, consumer
organizations and some public associations like The Ministry of Industry and Trade.
Results of Some Research Related to Consumer Education
The results of numerous studies in Turkey showed that consumers lack of

knowledge of consumer rights and responsibilities, and consumer protection law but
they have positive attitude toward participating in consumer education programmes
and consumer organizations. Consumers also found that activities of government to
protect consumers were insufficient in Turkey 16,17 ,18 .
The other research on secondary school students in Ankara revealed a strong need
for education in the consumer area to help young consumers to cope with the
competitive and complex environment that the market offers them. An overall
evaluation of the research results indicates that the students do not have sufficient
knowledge of economic resource management, consumption- related concepts,
consumer rights and responsibilities and awareness of environmental protection.
Overall, it was determined that the students on the upper rungs of the socio-economic
ladder were more knowledgeable than those at the lower levels, and the females were
more knowledgeable than the male students. The results of the study revealed that
female students have a greater knowledge of consumer rights and consumer protection
law than male students, while male students have a greater knowledge of consumer
responsibilities than their female counterparts. It was also noted that the students had
associated themselves with the values of a consumer society and appeared to lack the
will to protect the environment.
326
How to Improve Consumer Education in Turkey?
Turkey started consumer education approximately 30 years ago. But there are still
some problems on consumer education in Turkey. It is difficult at present to put
consumer education into the courses of schools and universities all round. Thus we
need:
Encourage government to take actions. The services of consumer

education should be considered as one of consumers' rights. We should
consider it as an important component of people's quality education.
Consumer education plays an important role in human development and
social progress. We should treat consumer education in a strategic
perspective and consider it would benefit the economic and cultural
development of the country. Consumer education should be conducted
by organizations and institutions at various levels, especially by
government sector 8 .
There is a need for greater partnership working, both at national and
local level in order to make consumer education more widely known and
practiced in Turkey. Working together, the national organizations could
develop a mechanism for gathering evidence and information; find a way
to work more effectively with the wider education community; build
consensus around the important issues; jointly plan how best to get the
message across and co-ordinate activities. At local level, trading
standards services and Citizens’ Advice have a role to play in supporting
educators and community groups and in stimulating consumer education
activities 2 .
Mobilize the whole society to undertake consumer education. Consumer
education is not only the work of government or consumers' associations,
but also that of the whole society. We should take effective measures to
mobilize the whole society, including individuals, companies, non-profit
organizations, mass media, and other organizations, to support consumer
education in different ways 8 .
Consumer education provides life skills needed by all to function
effectively, and it is pertinent that all citizens, especially youth, should be
empowered with these skills 7 . The consumer economics program at the
schools should provide an international focus in many courses. The
cultural experiences have helped students better evaluate consumer
policies by giving the students an understanding and appreciation of
individuals from another country. Because an integrated curriculum
ideally provides students with opportunities to learn about global
consumer issues, analyze policies, and participate in activities designed
to help students propose solutions. Follow-up learning through a study
tour or service learning experience should improve student’s readiness
for careers in the global economy 1 .
Consumer educators should conduct consumer education workshops to
reinforce and create awareness of consumer rights and responsibilities
among all students 7 . Consumer education must be tailored for the
particular interests, levels of skill and knowledge and needs of the
various groups, both in terms of the message and in deciding what media
327
to use. Any strategy should consider communication with schools and

the business community 2 .
Educators must develop curricula that help prepare students for this kind
of world. In order to help students operate as informed citizens and
compete successfully in the internationalized economy, the curriculum
should provide mechanisms for the application of formal, analytical
training 1 .
Combine consumer education with consumer protection. Using real cases
to conduct consumer education will make it more vivid and effective. We
should make great efforts to conduct consumer education so as to
enhance consumer's awareness of market economy and consumer's rights
and interests, especially in the countryside and less developed regions.
Increase the international cooperation. We should learn from other
countries' experiences and improve our work. We should also increase
the international cooperation in this field, such as participating in
international activities on consumer education, holding international
conferences, undertaking international cooperative research projects on
consumption economics and consumer education, and conducting
experiments on consumer education in Turkey with the help of experts
from other countries 8 .
Consumer education should begin earlier in school and the teaching be
better adapted to their age and their concerns. According to them, besides
school, parents should guide the children in their consumer patterns and
teach them the right questions to ask 12 .
Consumer education curricula designed to teach students how to be
effective consumers should emphasize:
• Socially desirable consumer acts;

• Knowledge about consumer legal rights and responsibilities;
• Skills for budgeting and managing economic resources;
• Rational aspects of consumer decision-making process;
• Social responsibility; and
• Ecological responsibility
Consumer educators should also know that the greatest need for consumer
education in school appears to exist among students from lower socio-economic
levels. Furthermore, male students appear to lag behind female students on consumer
decision making and budgeting, the legal rights of the consumer and consumer
protection law, while female students have a greater need than male students to
increase their knowledge about consumer-related concepts 6 .
Consumer education should also take account of essential differences

between different sectors of the population, in particular with regard to
age and education.
Consumer education in schools should therefore be approached through
regulated teaching channels, even if complementary initiatives are also
introduced in the area of informal teaching. It is important for
programmes and projects to be developed to improve cooperation
between national and local authorities in the area of education, improve
328
cooperation between centers, and the increase the involvement and

motivation of school children.
Consumer education initiatives should also be extended to higher
education and specialised training, in order to open up training to even
more people. It is therefore essential that universities are involved, by
including consumer issues on curricula 19 .
References
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need for an issue and policy focus. Advancing the Consumer Interest, 12, 11-15.
Brennan, C. & Ritters, K. (2004). Consumer education in the UK: New developments in
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Turkish secondary school students. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 28, 443-
453.
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programı kapsamının belirlenmesi üzerinde bir araştırma. Yüksek lisans tezi (Basılmamış),
Ankara Üniversitesi, Ankara: Turkey
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(Basılmamış), Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara: Turkey
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Economic and Social Committee, ISSN: 1015–9487.
330
Assessment
331
332
Assessment of Student Performance and Complex Tasks for
Web Page Design
30
Assessment of Student Performance and
Complex Tasks for Web Page Design
Ayfer Alper, Ankara University

&
Baris M. Horzum, Ankara University
R
ecently evaluation forms of the assessment tools are beginning to change.
According to Krajcik, Czerniak and Berger (1999), traditional questions
would fail to assess the multimode of ideas that students learnt. By asking
traditional questions we are not able to show how students could apply their
knowledge and skills to everyday life and how they could design and plan
investigations. A rubric can be implied to assess students performance that is based on
observations of the students’ work in classroom, group report and portfolio, personal
reflective reports, and an exhibition at the end of the course—posters, multimedia
presentations and the artifacts. A rubric is valuable to both the instructor and the
student as a quick and clear summary of performance levels across a scoring scale.
Instructional rubrics provide feedbacks to the students about the process and also
clarify how they can be assessed at the end of the product. At the beginning students
are informed about the criteria of assessments and discuss with them. During
assessment of products students get feedbacks by considering these criteria.
Many experts believe that rubrics improve students' end products and therefore
increase learning. When teachers evaluate papers or projects, they know implicitly
what makes a good final product and why. When students receive rubrics beforehand,
they understand how they will be evaluated and can prepare accordingly. As a guide to
grading our students rubric also assesses their work process during the production of
the projects.
Although the format of an instructional rubric can vary, all rubrics have two
features in common: 1) a list of criteria, or “what counts” (for example, purpose,
organization, details, voice, and mechanics often are what count in a written essay) in
a project or assignment; and 2) gradations of quality, with descriptions of strong,
middling, and problematic student work (Andrade, 2000). A rubric implies that a rule
defining the criteria of an assessment system is followed in evaluation.
The list of criteria serves to test for all the components and what is expected from
students. The criteria lists of rubric include not only points of the scale but also
333
evaluation of “what students do” during the process of the development. In most of the
project based studies, tutors can only evaluate the end products; however, they also
evaluate the whole process of the student work by rubrics.
The gradations of quality allow students to spot weakness in their writing,
development and practicing and give them concrete ways to improve their
shortcomings (Andrade, 2000). Briefly rubrics should include the quality evaluation
components of the end products.
As Andrade (2000) mentioned that rubrics should be;
• Easy to use and to explain

• Support teachers’ assessments and students’ learning
• Provide informative and improvement feedback
• Provide formative evaluation
• Support the development of skills
• Provide effective, detailed and higher order skills
In order to develop an effective rubric the following steps should be considered:
• After analyzing the contents of the course, select the ideal

study/project topic for course
• Search the related topic studies and find some good and bad examples
• Discuss these examples with students and allow them to make
brainstorming about related topic.
• Make a list of criteria with everybody’s agreements
• Determine the gradations of quality
• Form a rubric draft and discuss it.
• Ask the experts and revise the rubric again.
• Design the weights of the rubric for each item.
There are two different kinds of rubric: The first one is analytic that assesses the
end product, and the second one is holistic rubric that assesses student work as a
whole.
Holistic rubrics are constructs that contain different levels of performance that
describe the quality, quantity, or quantity/quality of a task. This type of rubric requires
that the assessor determine which level is the “best fit” for the student’s project,
investigation, or assignment. On the other hand analytical rubrics are constructs that
consist of criteria that are subdivided into different levels of performance. Typically,
each row begins with a cell that states the criteria to be assessed and each adjacent cell
describes a different level of performance for that criteria. To increase the clarity of an
analytical rubric, each criteria topic can be subdivided into more concise statements
and then followed by the related performance descriptions (Luft, 1997).
Analytical rubrics are constructs that consist of criteria that are subdivided into
different levels of performance. Typically, each row begins with a cell that states the
criteria to be assessed and each adjacent cell describes a different level of performance
for that criteria. To increase the clarity of an analytical rubric, each criterion topic can
be subdivided into more concise statements and then followed by the related
performance descriptions (Luft, 1997).
Jonassen, Peck, and Wilson (1999) recommend rubrics as tools for assessing
complex performance in a way that gives input and feedback to help improve the
334
Web Page Design
performance. Rubrics have become increasingly popular in educational technology as

a means of assessing the quality of complex tasks such as digital portfolios (Goldsby
and Fazal, 2001) and web page creation (Chenau, 2000). On the other hand, Roblyer
and Wiencke(2004) mentioned three kinds of analyses to explore the rubric’s
reliability and validity. As an assessment tool for the complex performance, its
validity and reliability should be evaluated. The aim of this study is to explore the
HTML rubric’s reliability and validity by considering the process of web pages
development and end products.
The Study: Methodology
The rubric used in this study was designed for HTML course of freshmen to
assess their performance for web page design process and end products.
Performance Task
Freshmen students who attend Computer Education and Instructional Technology

Department of Ankara University were participants of this study. At the beginning of
the Information Technology in Education Course, instructor explained about the usage
of the HTML tags. After 8 weeks training, students were administered an exam that
includes 25 questions related with HTML. After students designed their own web
pages by using HTML tags, HTML rubric was administered to 48 students. In addition
to assess project development process, instructors discussed with students how they
design their web pages. In this way the points of view and thinking styles of students
could be observed when developing web page process. At the end, shortcomings of
students and alternatives of web pages designing with HTML were discussed.
Construction of the Rubric
Rubric for HTML was developed that includes criteria and gradation qualities.
Basic HTML criteria include 6 subtitles that are text format, page order, links, tables,
lists and frames.
• Text Format includes two items: font-size and style-color.

• Page Order includes three items: picture, background picture or color,
margins or paragraph space
• Links contains four items: links to inside or outside of the site, links to
the picture, anchor, change of link colors
• Table includes two items: creating border, border grids and colors,
• Lists include one item: ordered, unordered, definition lists
• Frames include two items: left-right-top or bottom frame, link to target.
Gradation qualities include two subtitles that are design principles and general
appearance.
• Design principles include five items: Wholeness, balance, stress,

alignment, proximity, picture and text layout
335
• General appearance includes six items: picture quality, uploading web

site, navigation, coherence, resolution, visual and auditory support.
Scoring Rubric
After completing the projects, students and instructors discussed how they design
their web pages. In addition each web page evaluated for each criterion and qualities
to scoring rubric. Students were assessed by criteria scoring and what they did during
the development of web pages. Finally they got total score from 25 items of the rubric.
The scores of the students are between 33 and 97 points; the mean of the score is 79
point.
Reliability
Rubrics can be developed by two different reliability methods/procedures that are

inter-rater and intra-rater. Inter-rater reliability refers to the concern that a student's
score may vary from rater to rater. Students often criticize exams in which their score
appears to be based on the subjective judgment of their instructor. Intra-rater
Reliability factors that are external to the purpose of the assessment can impact the
manner in which a given rater scores for student responses. Inter-rater reliability is a
rater may become fatigued with the scoring process and devote less attention to the
analysis over time. Intra-rater Reliability is one manner in which to analyze an essay
exam is to read through the students' responses and make judgments as to the quality
of the students' written products (Moskal & Jon, 2000).
In order to analyze reliability of rubric many articles (Baker & Abedi, 1996;
Newell, Dahm & Newell, 2002 ve Roblyer & Wiencke, 2004) suggest ‘inter-rater’
reliability. On the contrary Moskal and Jon (2000) stated that both of inter-rater and
intra-rater are required.
In this research we use both of them. Participants of this study developed web
pages in two different courses. During the Information Technology in Education
Course, HTML was applied to design web page. In another course named as
Application of Internet Software, web pages were designed by using Dreamweaver.
Validity
There are two different validity methods suggested for rubrics. In order to obtain
indications of the rubric’s concurrent validity: Pearson correlations were done between
the rubric scores and the post-course evaluation scores. Another one is suggested by
Moskal & Leydens, which has three types of evidence which are commonly examined
to support the validity of an assessment instrument: content, construct, and criterion.
The achievement test and correlation of the rubric is compared for the first types
of the validity of the rubric. By using this method rubrics can be valid as other types of
valid and reliable achievement tests.
Rafilson(1991) explains three evidence of validities (content, construct and
criterion);
• One of the evidence of the other validity is content-related evidence

refers to the extent to which a student's responses to a given assessment
336
Web Page Design
instrument reflects that student's knowledge of the content area that is of

interest. For example, a history exam in which the questions use complex
sentence structures may unintentionally measure students' reading
comprehension skills rather than their historical knowledge.
• Other are constructs and these are processes that are internal to an
individual. An example of a construct is an individual's reasoning
process. Although reasoning occurs inside a person, it may be partially
displayed through results and explanations. When the purpose of an
assessment is to evaluate reasoning, both the product (i.e., the answer)
and the process (i.e., the explanation) should be requested and examined.
Construct-related evidence is the evidence that supports that an
assessment instrument is complete and only measuring the intended
construct.
• The final type of evidence is criterion-related evidence. This type of
evidence supports the extent to which the results of an assessment
correlate with a current or future event. Another way to think of
criterion-related evidence is to consider the extent to which the students'
performance on the given task may be generalized to other, more
relevant activities.
In this study both evidences of content; construct, criterion and correlation of

achievement test and rubric were analyzed.
Results
Table 1. Example of an Item from the HTML Rubric

Subtitle Item Criteria Point
1 2 3 4
Text Format Text Text font, title, Text fonts are Text font Text font, title,
font subtitles and text suitable but and size are subtitles and
and size are not others are not suitable. text size are
size suitable for web suitable for suitable for web
pages web pages pages
In order to explore the rubric’s reliability and validity, two kinds of analyses were
done. These included calculating the following: alpha levels across ratings of the
Information Technology in Education course, correlations between overall rubric
scores and achievement test scores.
For reliability the ‘cronbach alpha’ of the rubric that includes 25 items and
administered to 48 participants from the Information Technology in Education Course
was calculated (.85). Another ‘cronbach alpha’ was also calculated (.91) from other
course named as Application of Internet Software. The purpose of the assessment can
impact on the manner in which a given rater scores, the participants who attend
Information Technology in Education Course responses were analyzed and its
‘cronbach alpha’ value was also calculated again (.81). These results indicate high
consistency of rating across student raters with in each application.
337
The validity of the rubric in table (2) indicates that the correlation of achievement
test and rubric is significant at the .05 level. Since there is a positive relationship
between them, the rubric can measure as similar as achievement test.
Table 2. Correlation between rubric and Achievement Test

Total Test
Rubric Pearson Correlation 1 ,328(*)
p. ,023
N 48 48
Achievement Test Pearson Correlation ,328(*) 1
p. ,023 .
N 48 48
Interpretation and Conclusion
In project based studies, traditional assessment methods can not demonstrate how
students could design and plan their investigations. For this reason another assessment
tool such as rubric is required to evaluate both the process of development and end
product. It is accepted that reliability and validity are the most important properties of
the assessment tool. In many rubrics this analysis may be neglected before assessment
of the studies. Therefore all rubrics should be reliable and valid.
In this study HTML rubric was developed for web page design courses. In order to
administer this rubric for web page design courses, its validity and reliability were
analyzed. The correlation of achievement test and the HTML rubric is significant at
the .05 level that indicates good concurrent validity. High inter-rater reliabilities on
rubric scores for web page design courses indicate that results are consistent across
students who use the HTML rubric to rate interactive qualities.
As a result this study provides a valid and reliable HTML rubric for web page
design courses and instructors. It is suggested that this rubric can be adapted for other
markup languages such as XML and VML and also other script based languages such
as PHP and ASP.
References
Baker, E. L., and Abedi, J. (1996) Dimensionality and Generalizability of Domain-independent

Performance Assessments. Journal of Educational Research 89(4): 197–205.
Chenau, J. (2000) Cyber Traveling Through the Loire Valley. Learning and Leading with
Technology, 28(2): 22–27.
Goldsby, D., and Fazal, M. (2001) Now Thet Your Students Have Created Web-based Digital
Portfolios, How do You Evaluate Them? Journal of Technology and Teacher Education
9(4): 607–616.
Goodrich, A.H.(2000). Using Rubrics to Promote Thinking and Learning. Educational
Leadership.February,13-2
Jonassen, D., Peck, K., and Wilson, B.Learning With Technology: A Constructivist
Perspective. Columbus, Ohio: Prentice Hall/Merrill, 1999.
Krajcik, J., Czerniak, C. & Berger, C. (1999) Teaching children science: a project-based
approach (New York, McGraw-Hill College).
Luft, J.(1997). Design your own Rubric. Science Scope.February, 25-27.
338
Web Page Design
Moskal, Barbara M. & Leydens, J.A (2000). Scoring rubric development: validity and
reliability. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 7(10). Retrieved March 7, 2006
from http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=10. This paper has been viewed 47,623
times since 11/6/00.
Roblyer, M.D. and Wiencke, W.R.(2004). Exploring The Interaction Equation: Validating a
Rubric to Assess and Encourage Interaction In Distance Courses. Journal of Asynchronous
Learning Networks,8(4).
339
340
Comparing Students’ Readiness for E-Examinations in
2004 and 2005
31
Comparing Students’ Readiness for
E-Examinations in 2004 and 2005
Eva Jereb, University of Maribor
&
Igor Bernik, University of Maribor
T
here is an increasing interest in the use of computer-based learning and
computer assisted assessment in higher education. Educators today can take
advantage of the Internet, especially the Web, to enhance interactivity of
courses. Provision of robust network infrastructure is a prerequisite to this new
excitement, but such requirement is often readily satisfied in most developed regions
of the world (Chung, 2005). In the context of education, Plous (2000) points out that
the Web is convenient, time-saving, suitable for assignments, appealing to students,
and able to reach a larger audience. Accordingly, offering distance learning courses
using the Web is becoming an established practice in higher education, which is
literally a global phenomenon.
There is no doubt that e-learning is growing. Draves (2002) stated that about half
of all learning will occur online in the 21st century. The use of the term e-learning is
growing rapidly and is frequently used interchangeably with terms such as: online
education, virtual learning, distributed learning, networked learning, Web-based
learning, and also open and distance learning. Despite their unique attributes, each of
these terms fundamentally refers to educational processes that utilise information and
communications technology to mediate asynchronous as well as synchronous learning
and teaching activities (Jereb and Šmitek, 1999; Naidu, 2002). A multitude of
definitions of e-learning already exists in literature. For many authors the adoption of
electronic media in a learning scenario is already sufficient to constitute e-learning
(see e-Learning Consultant 2003). This definition is clearly too broad. We suggest the
use of definition stated by Tavangarian and others (2004) to emphasise the new and
different aspects of e-learning as compared with traditional learning: “We will call e-
learning all forms of electronic supported learning and teaching, which are procedural
in character and aim to effect the construction of knowledge with reference to
individual experience, practice and knowledge of the learner. Information and
communication systems, whether networked or not, serve as specific media to
implement the learning process.”
341
An increasing amount of interest is also being paid to an area closely connected to

electronic learning - the electronic examination, also known as computer-assisted
assessment (CAA). Electronic examination can take place locally-in classroom or
away from the examining institution. A remote electronic examination is conducted
with candidates at a location separate from the examining institution using the Internet
for communications. Candidates respond to questions by typing or dragging their
answers into text boxes for uploading to the institution. In an asynchronous
examination candidates download the exam paper from the web site, prepare their
answers off-line, and reconnect to the examination web site at the end of the set time
period. In a synchronous examination candidates remain connected to a server for the
duration of the examination period (Thomas et al., 2002). The last is also characteristic
of the e-examination in the classroom at the examining institution.
With rising numbers of candidates to be examined, the prospect of grading the
exams automatically promises faster, cheaper and more consistent grading (Shermis et
al., 2001). Even if automatic marking is not used, capturing candidates’ answers
electronically has potential benefits in legibility and comprehension for graders. There
are advantages, too, in security, with papers being held electronically and only being
released to candidates shortly before the designated start time of the examination. In a
distributed system, as commonly found in distance education, electronic examination
has the potential for speeding up the whole examination process from the transfer of
student answers to markers, standardisation of answers, to the consensus on the final
grades.
We must be aware that all of knowledge cannot be examined electronically. In
cases where students must master theoretical and practical knowledge and show some
manual skills e-exams had to be combined with other types of exams or completely
left out. For example brain surgery exam can be divided into three parts. In the first
part where the theory is examined the e-exams could be used. The second part where
the students are confronted with a study case also the computer assisted assessment
can be used for simulation of solving the problem. And the third part where surgery
skills are examined the students must be monitored in a study or a real situation. Of
course we must not expect that all of the teachers are going to switch to e-exams
wherever this is possible but it is necessary to support and motivate those who are
willing to.
The potential for cheating remains a concern for some which may explain the
limited use of online assessment (Booth et al., 2003). Therefore electronic
examinations taken under supervised conditions have been implemented. But we are
also interested in pursuing the use of examinations in less formal settings, particularly
at home. Such environments are similar to those in which distance education students
normally study and avoid the need to attend unfamiliar locations that increase student
anxiety.
For better implementation of electronic examinations at the Faculty of
Organisational Sciences University of Maribor regardless of location and
synchronisation we investigated the readiness of students to take this kind of exams.
The survey was carried out twice; once in the year 2004 and once in the year 2005.
The results of the survey and comparison of the students’ readiness for taking e-exams
in the year 2004 and 2005 are shown later in the article. Next for better comprehension
the methods of research are described, including brainstorming, categorizing,
modelling, and questioning.
342
2004 and 2005
Methodology
According to the study programmes renovation at the Faculty of Organisational

Sciences we defined four possible alternatives for taking exams:
• No e-examinations. Examinations should be oral or written on paper.

• Use e-examinations for instant tests and classic tests for final exams.
• Combining electronic and classic examinations.
• E-examinations only. In classroom or remote, asynchronous or
synchronous.
On the base of these alternatives the questions for the survey were gathered and
categorized. In this process the students from the Faculty of Organisational Sciences
who also collaborated later in the survey were involved. The process was supported by
GDSS GroupSystems (see more in Kljajić et al., 2000; GroupSystems, 2005).
GroupSystems solutions help teams accelerate the knowledge process and generate
results faster. The software gathers implicit knowledge and enables productivity
without information overload.
Brainstorming was used to collect the questions, which would help us select the
right alternative. Brainstorming stimulates creativity by passing ideas randomly and
anonymously between participants, allowing them to add their own contributions as
inspiration takes them. We raised the electronic brainstorming activity with next
question: "Why would you like/dislike to have e-examinations in your learning
process?" We received 83 answers and sorted them with the Categorizer function (see
Figure 1). Categorizer helps a group sort ideas and descriptive comments. Ideas can
then be easily and quickly sorted into categories. As a result of the categorizing
activity we got 12 questions. These questions were then transformed into statements
for the survey. On the basis of these statements a questionnaire was designed (see
Appendix 1).
Figure 1. The Methodology of Researching Students’ Readiness for E-Examination
343
After the statements were set and the questionnaire designed the survey among the
students of the Faculty of Organisational Sciences was carried out. First testing was
performed in the year 2004 and second in the year 2005.
Analysis of survey results will enable us to choose the right alternative for taking
exams in the renovated (modernized) study programmes.
In the next part of the article the results of the survey and comparative analysis
between the students’ opinions in the year 2004 and 2005 is shown.
Results
In the year 2004 a total of 54 students (20 females and 34 males) participated in
the study. Ages ranged from 21 to 44 years, with a mean of 27 years and 5 month
(M=24,4 years for females and M=29,2 years for males).
In the year 2005 a total of 173 students (107 females and 66 males) participated.
Ages ranged from 20 to 50 years, with a mean of 25 years and 6 month (M=26,36
years for females and M=24,71 years for males).
The results of both surveys made in 2004 (see more Jereb & Bernik, 2005) and in
2005 showed that students are prepared to take exams electronically. The results are
shown in Table 1 and Figure 2. There were no essential differences among the
particular statements. As seen in Table 1 almost half of the students in the year 2004
and more than 40% in the year 2005 strongly agreed with replacing classic written or
oral exams with e-exams (S1) and one third was veering to it. One of the main reasons
is probably the possibility of immediate feedback (S2), as was confirmed by four fifths
of the students. One third of the students strongly agree that e-examinations are far
more interesting than classic examinations; e-examinations attract and motivate them
more (S3). One third of the students also strongly agree with time limitation of e-
examinations (S4). They think time should be limited to reduce cheating, to raise
motivation and to reduce fatigue because of long lasting tiring examinations. Maybe
we can point out the negative thinking about results evaluation objectivity (S5) which
is even stronger in the year 2005 and less fear of the computer technology (S6) in the
year 2005. The latter could also be the reason for growing interest in e-examinations.
We assume that better presentation and explaining of e-learning and e-testing on the
basis of the 2004 survey results also contributed to the growth of the interest in taking
exams electronically. Students do not think that e-examination is straining and tiring
(S7). More than half of them strongly disagree with statement 7. Students think that
the up-to-date technology enables good control over examinations and reduces
cheating (S8). More than 40% of students think that knowledge should be tested
instantly with help of e-examinations (S9). Students showed enthusiasm about the
possibility to take exams away from the school (S10) and anytime (S11). This is a
result of the social trend; lack of time and need of adaptability. It is interesting that
when given choice between classic and e-examination (S12) only about 39% in the
year 2004 and 36% in the year 2005 of students would choose e-examination without
second thoughts although almost 50% (S1, 2004) and more than 40% (S1, 2005)
strongly agreed with the replacing of classic tests. We think this is because students
are afraid of new challenges and are not familiar with the new method of testing.
Because of the survey results we decided in accord with our management to start
using a combination of electronic and classic examinations for the next generation of
students. We will try to introduce e-examinations in all fields, where possible.
344
2004 and 2005
Table 1. Comparing Results of the Year 2004 and 2005 by Statements

Strongly Agree Æ Strongly Disagree
1 2 3 4 5
2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005
S1 48,10% 42,20% 35,20% 30,64% 11,10% 14,45% 1,90% 5,78% 3,70% 6,94%
S2 77,80% 76,88% 14,80% 12,72% 1,90% 2,89% 0,00% 4,62% 5,60% 2,89%
S3 29,60% 31,21% 46,30% 35,26% 11,10% 12,72% 3,70% 12,14% 9,30% 8,67%
S4 29,60% 29,48% 29,60% 25,43% 13,00% 19,65% 20,40% 15,03% 7,40% 10,40%
S5 42,60% 36,99% 29,60% 21,39% 14,80% 21,97% 7,40% 13,29% 5,60% 6,36%
S6 37,00% 17,92% 18,50% 24,86% 11,10% 14,45% 14,80% 21,39% 18,50% 21,39%
S7 9,30% 4,05% 1,90% 12,72% 14,80% 10,40% 20,40% 21,39% 53,70% 51,45%
S8 24,10% 29,48% 37,00% 28,90% 14,80% 15,61% 9,30% 9,25% 14,80% 16,76%
S9 40,70% 42,77% 29,60% 24,86% 13,00% 13,87% 9,30% 11,56% 7,40% 6,94%
S10 77,80% 79,77% 13,00% 13,29% 3,70% 1,16% 0,00% 4,05% 5,60% 1,73%
S11 72,20% 72,83% 16,70% 14,45% 1,90% 5,20% 1,90% 4,05% 7,40% 3,47%
S12 38,90% 36,42% 31,50% 25,43% 18,50% 16,76% 1,90% 9,83% 9,30% 11,56%
Figure 2. Comparing Students’ Responses about E-Examinations

E-exam response 2004 and 2005
5
2004
2005
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Statem ent
Conclusion
The supportive role of information-communication technology in education is a

well-established concept. Students have the opportunity of studying at home or in a
virtual classroom without time pressure; they can study at the time most appropriate
for them. The question is are they also able and willing to take exams electronically at
school or remote from the school in a virtual classroom or at home?
Our research confirmed that students would like to introduce e-examinations. The
most important factors, which contribute to the positive relation towards e-
examination, are immediate feedback and freedom of choice of place of examination
345
regardless whether exams are running synchronously or asynchronously. So a student

can take an exam whenever he or she is ready to. Thus participation in exams requires
less effort, and there is less fear and examination anxiety, therefore the students are
more relaxed.
Students also stated negative opinions about e-examination in the year 2004
mostly because they were afraid of technology and were not familiar with the methods
of e-examinations. In the year 2005 the percentage of students who feared
information-communication technology was much lower. Students have also some
doubts in time limitation and do not know whether e-exams are good or bad for them.
According to the results we decided to use e-examinations by most cases where
this is possible. To ensure the appropriate performing of e-exams and to reduce
students’ fear we will start with the combination of electronic and classic testes. By
that we hope to increase students’ trust in e-examinations and reduce fear from
novelties and enable a fearless performing of e-tests also to those who are afraid of up-
to date technology. The next step in our research is a pilot e-testing.
References
Booth, R., Clayton, B., Hartcher, R., Hungar, S., Hyde, P., & Wilson, P. (2003) The
development of quality online assessment in vocational education and training. NCVER,
Australia.
Chung, (2005) Sage on the Stage in the Digital Age: The Role of Online Lecture in Distance
Learning, Electronic Journal of e-Learning 3 (1), 1-14.
Draves, W.A. (2002) Teaching Online. LERN Books, Wisconsin.
E-Learning Consultant (2003) Glossary. Retrieved January 10, 2005, from http://www.e-
learningsite.com/elearning/glossary/glossary.htm#e.
GroupSystems (2005) Retrieved January 5, 2005, http://www.groupsystems.com.
Jereb, E., & Bernik, I. (2005) Electronic examinations: student readiness. In A. Szücs and I. Bø
(eds.), Lifelong E-Learning, Published by the European Distance and E-Learning
Network, 526-531.
Jereb, E., & Šmitek, B. (1999) Using an electronic book in distance education, Informatica, 23,
4, 483-486.
Kljajić, M., Bernik, I., & Škraba, A. (2000) Simulation Approach to Decision Assesment in
Enterprises, Simulation, 75, 4, 199-210
Naidu, S. (2002) Designing and Evaluating Instruction for e-Learning. In P.L. Rogers (ed),
Designing Instruction for Technology-Enhanced Learning, Idea Group Publishing,
London, 134-159.
Plous, S. (2000) Tips on creating and maintaining an educational World Wide Web site,
Teaching psychology, 27, 1, 63-70.
Shermis, M.D, Mzumara, H.R, Olson, J., & Harrington, S. (2001) On-line Grading of Student
Essays: PEG goes on the World Wide Web, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher
Education, 26, 3, 248-259.
Tavangarian, D., Leypold, M.E., Nölting, K, Röser, M, & Voigt, D. (2004) Is e-Learning the
Solution for Individual Learning? Electronic Journal of e-Learning 2, 2, 273-280.
Thomas, P., Price, B., Paine, C., & Richards, M. (2002) Remote electronic examinations:
student experiences, British Journal of Educational Technology, 33, 5, 537-549.
346
2004 and 2005
Appendix 1
Questionnaire
students' readiness for taking electronic exams
Computer plays an important roll in educational process today. It is used for solving
different problems or tasks by teachers and students or simply as a learning
instrument. Of course using electronic media for teaching and learning is not
reasonable if teachers and students are not ready to use it. With help of this
questionnaire we are trying to find out whether students are ready to take exams
electronically or not. Thank you very much for your help by answering the questions.
Instructions: In the first part of the questionnaire please mark your gender and write
down your age. In the second part use the next Likert scale:
1 - I strongly agree
2-7 - Elements in between
9 - I strongly disagree
It will be probably difficult to decide at some statements. If so, please choose the
statement closest to your opinion. By filling out the questionnaire pay attention to the
consistency of the answers.
Example:
1. Immediate feedback is one of the main 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

advantages of e-examination.
If you mean that immediate feedback is one of the main advantages of e-examination
you will round number 1 »I strongly agree«. Contra wise if you do not agree at all you
will round the number 9 »I strongly disagree«. All statements in between are also
possible.
The questionnaire is anonymous.

Thank you very much for your cooperation!
I.part
1. Gender: M F
2. Age: _____________
3. Have you ever take an exam electronically? Yes No
If yes, how many times: _________________
347
II.part
I strongly disagree
I strongly agree
Statements
_____________________________________________________________________
S1: I would replace classic written or oral exams 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

with e-exams. (where possible)
S2: Immediate feedback is one of the main 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

advantages of e-examination.
S3: E-examination is far more interesting than 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

classic examination, it attracts and motivates me.
S4: E-examinations should be time limited. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
S5: E-examinations ensure objective 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

evaluation of results.
S6: E-examinations require a high level of computer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

knowledge.
S7: E-examination is straining, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

it would make me too tired.
S8: One of the advantages of e-examinations is 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

less possibility of cheating.
S9: Knowledge should be tested instantly with help 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

of e-examinations.
S10: E-examinations could take place remote 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

from the school.
S11: E-examinations could be carried out anytime, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

according to individuals.
S12: If I could choose between classic and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

e-examination I would choose e-examination.
My opinion about e-examination:

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
348
Democratisation of Grading Knowledge and the Extension of Authentic Forms of
Knowledge Assessment in Primary School in Republic Slovenia
32
Democratisation of Grading Knowledge and
the Extension of Authentic Forms of
Knowledge Assessment in Primary School in
Republic Slovenia
Ivanus Grmek Milena, University of Maribor

&
Javornik Krecic Marija, University of Maribor
A
lot of articles and publications have been published lately, warning about the
problem of examination and grading knowledge. A special movement has
been established for “the new culture” of examining and grading knowledge,
resulting from up-to-date understanding of examination and grading
knowledge. It mainly stresses:
- the shift from examination of content to the aim-and-process

oriented examination and grading,
- formative examination of knowledge that enables learning from
mistakes and encouraging meta-learning,
- extending the ways and manners of examination and grading
knowledge,
- improving teachers’ examination and grading knowledge and
- cooperation of the pupils in the process of examination and grading
knowledge. (Razdevsek Pucko 2002, p. 4-5).
We should not forget that examination and grading knowledge brings about also
some complicated social and inter subjective relationships. None of the school
practices has such strong formative effects as examination and grading knowledge,
besides here the authoritarian relationships are as intensively shown as nowhere else
(Rutar Ilc, 1996, p.5, Strmcnik, 2001).
In the contribution we will focus on one of the segments of this new culture of
examination and grading knowledge, namely the process of democratisation of
349
knowledge grading. Z. Rutar Ilc (1996, p. 6) points out that the “different culture of
examination and grading knowledge should be taken as a potential for democratisation
of the relationships between the state and teachers and the teachers and pupils.”
The other view we were interested in was the extension of application of the
authentic forms of knowledge assessment among teachers.
Democratisation of the Grading Process
Democratisation of the grading process was supposed to be seen in:
- arrangements between teachers and pupils about the content and

the way of grading knowledge,
- arrangements between teachers and pupils about the criteria and
the grading categories for individual examination of the contents
(common positioning),
- arrangements between teachers and pupils about the exact dates
and conditions of grading,
- possibility of self-grading and common debating about teacher’s
grades,
- possibility ob repeating ill-preformed examinations,
- possibility of complaints and arbitration of grades.
Further on we will describe in short why it is important to arrange the content of

the examination and grading knowledge and define common criteria and the exact
time of examination and grading knowledge.
The arrangements about the content of the examination and grading knowledge
and the criteria introduces moments of consultations, dialogs and negotiations and
enables the opening of the educational place for two-way opinions shift (Rutar Ilc,
1996, p. 6). B. Low and G. Withers (1990, according to Rutar Ilc, 1996) think that
pupils’ participation in the curriculum as well as in the examination improves the
validity of the process and links it more directly to the advancement of an individual.
In this case we talk about more rights, increased commitment and responsibility of the
pupils. The shift from passive learning to co-operative atmosphere and interactive
learning is therefore important. The introduction of the arrangements launches also a
number of objections resulting from the presumption that this way of working
weakens the teacher’s authority and leads to the confusion and anarchy. These
objections cannot be accepted because the authority is not taken away from the
teachers, but there are fewer possibilities for authoritarianism. As Z. Rutar Ilc (1996,
p. 6) believes that through arrangements the expert authority is brought into force and
is more convincing and effective than the authority based on power, self-will and fear.
The announcement of the examination and grading knowledge contributes to the
democratisation of the relationship between pupils and teachers and to the engagement
of the more active relationship of the pupils towards learning and examinations.
According to Z. Rutar Ilc (1996, p. 7) pupils are more responsible for their successes
or failures because they are warned about the examination or even more they arrange
it and have a definite possibility to be prepared. Because of this and also other factors
it therefore makes sense to arrange also oral examination in advance. Unannounced
oral “questioning” is accompanied with a number of weaknesses: pupils are forced
into continuous preparedness, usually for most of the subjects at the same time, which
350
is quite a burden for them. The question is how strong is the argument of those who
are in favour of unannounced grading and claim that this for the benefit of regular
learning. We know that for the pupils it is easier and faster to learn about similar
subjects and texts. Teacher that encourages pupils to cooperate during the lessons and
connects learning, teaching, examining and grading knowledge has the possibility to
get some qualitative feedback information during the process about a pupil’s
advancement (Marentič Požarnik, 2000).
Authentic Forms of Knowledge Assessment
Knowledge assessment, which stimulates the best results and is done inside a
classroom uses qualitative records, it is motivating and time consuming. It can be said
that in this case the assessment is different, more genuine and authentic. It is thus the
assessment which presents the integral part of a lesson and it is not stimulated from
the needs of measurement only, as this is the case with various tests. Here are some
forms: self-assessment, practical assessment, group assessment, pupils' portfolio,
authentic tests etc.
It is not easy to tell when and in what extent authentic forms of knowledge
assessment should be used in school. Implementing authentic forms means greater
connectedness of learning, teaching, knowledge examination and assessment since
teachers using these forms become more aware of how pupils are progressing and
learning. ( Razdevšek-Pučko, 1996, Marentič Požarnik, 2000)
Teachers’ attention thus redirects itself from the final results of learning into the
process of learning. It must be stressed that the use of authentic forms of knowledge
assessment does not mean an exclusion of classical forms of knowledge assessment.
Authentic forms may be occasionally combined with classical forms, for example
standardized tests can be combined with simultaneous observation of pupils’
achievements ( e.g.a folder of pupil's achievements) which stimulates the process of
learning and teaching.
The Research
The Aim of the Research
With an empirical research we were examining to what degree we could talk

about the democratization of grading knowledge and the extension of authentic forms
of knowledge assessment in primary school in the Republic of Slovenia.
The research was interested in:
- the differences between the assessment of teachers and pupils with

regard to the democratisation of the grading process and
- the differences between the teachers of the Slovenian language and
teachers of mathematics in the frequency of using authentic forms of
knowledge assessment.
351
Methodology
Basic Research method
In the research, the descriptive and causal non-experimental methods of the

pedagogical research were used (Sagadin, 1993).
A Sample
• 98 teachers were included in the research who teach in the seventh and eight
grades of primary schools. 46 teachers in the sample teach the Slovenian language
(46.5%) and 52 teachers teach mathematics (52.5%).
• 345 pupils attending the seventh and eight grades of primary school were also
included in the research.
• At the level of inferential statistics both samples present a simple random sample
out of the hypothetical statistical set.
The Data Collecting Process
We collected the data from teachers and pupils by using anonymous

questionnaires (Ivanuš Grmek, Javornik 2003), consisting of combination (7) of four-
graded descriptive evaluation scales.
Data Processing
Following the rules of using parametrical tests, descriptively expressed values

were transformed into numerical values (always=4, frequently=3, sometimes=2,
never=1).
The data was processed with statistical programme package SPSS. To check the
differences among the groups (teachers and pupils, teachers of the Slovenian language
and teachers of mathematics) T-test of variance homogeneity has been used (Leven
tests). Where the presumption about variance of homogeneity was not justified we
considered the result of approximate method of t-test.
Results
Democratisation of the Grading Process
From the table 1 we see that the presumptions about the homogeneity are not
justifiable. Therefore we took into consideration the result of the approximate method
of the t-test. In all of the items the results show the statistically characteristic
differences (on the level P = 0.000) in judging the frequency of appearances of
individual characteristics of the democratisation of grading between the group of
teachers and pupils. Namely, the teachers estimate that the listed characteristics of
grading knowledge of the Slovene language are frequent. According to the
arithmetical medium all of the items are (with the exception of the commonly defined
criteria, where x = 2.67) in the area of always. On the other hand the pupils estimate
that the listed characteristics are less frequent.
352
Table 1. Differences between the Assessment of Teachers and Pupils with Regard to
the Democratisation of the Grading Process at the Slovene Language Lessons
Proof of
Proof of the
homogeneity
differences of
arithmetical
medium
n x s F P t P
Teachers and teachers 46 3.74 0.53

pupils discuss the 45.032 0.000 10.888 0.000
grading content pupils 345 2.68 1.05

grading methods pupils 345 2.84 1.15

pupils form the
14.167 0.000 8.259 0.000
grading criteria
together pupils 345 1.40 0.75
teachers 46 3.65 0.64

Teachers
42.535 0.000 9.120 0.000
announces grading
pupils 345 2.63 1.10
teachers 46 3.67 0.60

Teachers supports
27.181 0.000 9.276 0.000
the grade
pupils 345 2.72 1.00
Possibility for teachers 46 3.83 0.53

pupils complaints 56.135 0.000 13.519 0.000
about the grade pupils 345 2.44 1.24
teachers 46 3.61 0.71

Possibility to
9.388 0.002 4.391 0.000
rectify the grade
pupils 345 3.10 0.94
Similar to the results of the Slovene language are the results of mathematics (table
2). Because the presumption about the homogeneity was not justifiable we took into
consideration the result of the approximate method of the t-test. It showed, similar to
the Slovene language results, the statistically characteristic differences (on the level P
=0.000) between the teachers and pupils in judging the frequency of individual
characteristic of grading knowledge. Teachers, however, statistically characteristic
more often than pupils mention the presence of all the listed characteristics at grading
mathematics knowledge.
From the arithmetic mediums we can also see that the teachers, the same as with
the Slovene language, estimated the frequency of commonly defined criteria for the
grades ( x = 2.58) in average the lowest, while all the other characteristics according to
their opinions always appear (if we transfer the arithmetical mediums into words).
To sum up: the opinion differences between teachers and pupils were expected.
Namely, the teachers according to some other researches (for example Steh Kure
353
2001) gave socially more welcome answers to the questions about the activities, where
they are more responsible themselves (and grading knowledge is definitely one of the
most powerful tools in hands of teachers which give them possibilities of self-will
over mutual good and can become the place of putting forward teachers’ authoritative
demands) and therefore preserved their good self-image.
Table 2. Differences between the Assessment of Teachers and Pupils with Regard to
the Democratisation of the Grading Process at the Mathematics Lessons
Proof of homogeneity
Proof of the
differences of
arithmetical medium
n x s F P t P
teachers 52 3.69 0.81
Teachers and
grading content pupils 345 2.75 1.08

grading methods pupils 345 2.90 1.17

pupils form the 58.946 0.000 7.769 0.000
grading criteria
pupils 345 1.31 0.67
together
teachers 52 3.37 0.86

Teachers 15.286 0.000 5.657 0.000
announces grading
pupils 345 2.61 1.13
teachers 52 3.73 0.45

Teachers supports 47.489 0.000 13.452 0.000
the grade
pupils 345 2.63 0.98
Possibility for teachers 52 3.79 0.67

pupils complaints 58.409 0.000 12.874 0.000
about the grade pupils 345 2.36 1.13
teachers 52 3.38 0.80

Possibility to
5.029 0.025 1.629 0.108
rectify the grade
pupils 345 3.19 0.98
Nevertheless this large divergence between the assessments of teachers and pupils
about the frequent appearances of the characteristics, which show the democratisation
of grading knowledge, leads us also to the questions about the reasons for that. It is
possible that teachers in their own conceptions think that they consider all moments of
the democratisation of grading knowledge, but within their own comprehension and
experiences. For example they can tell to a pupil a grade for the knowledge shown and
are sure that this is at the same time also a sufficient feedback information to a pupil
about his/her knowledge. However the numerical grade is not clear and exact feedback
information about the quality of knowledge.
354
Analysis of the Extension of the Use of Authentic Forms of Knowledge Assessment

Among Teachers
It can be seen from the table 3 (according to mean values) that the listed authentic
forms of knowledge assessment are rarely used by teachers in practice. In most cases
the average estimation of occurrence is quite low. If we put it into words it can be said
that assessment of students’ work (e.g. papers) appears frequently ( x = 2.72) at the
Slovenian language while the other forms of knowledge assessment do not occur or
just occur rarely.
Table 3. The Results of Statistical Significances of Differences in Mean Values of the

Frequency of an Individual Authentic Form of Knowledge Assessment among
Teachers of the Slovenian Language and Teachers of Mathematics
Test of variance Test of mean
differences
of homogeneity
n x s F P t P
mathematics 52 1.50 0.62
Assessment based teachers
2.983 0.088 -0.906 0.368
on portfolio Slovene 46 1.64 0.81
teachers
Assessment of teachers
0.726 0.397 -5.411 0.000
students' work Slovene 46 2.72 0.65
teachers
3.088 0.083 -3.135 0.002
homework Slovene 46 1.69 0.66
teachers
solving out 0.213 0.645 -0.279 0.781
practical problems Slovene 46 2.46 0.82
teachers
Assessment of the teachers
results of team 1.452 0.232 -2.125 0.037
work Slovene 46 2.15 0.78
teachers
Students' self- teachers
3.403 0.069 -2.361 0.021
assessment Slovene 46 2.36 0.84
teachers
It can be seen that among the teachers of the Slovenian language and teachers of
mathematics the authentic forms of knowledge assessment are more frequent among
teachers of the Slovenian language than among teachers of mathematics. The results
of t-test show that teachers of the Slovenian language, statistically significant, more
355
frequently than teachers of mathematics assess students’ work (e.g. papers) (t= -5.411,
P =0.000), assessment of homework (t = -3.135, P = 0.002), assessment of team work
(t = 2.125, P =0.037) and they do take into consideration students’ self assessment (t
= -2.361, P = 0.021).
The reasons for not using authentic forms of knowledge assessment can be
teachers’ unawareness and unfamiliarity with authentic forms, teachers may be
reluctant to change their ways of knowledge assessment and one of the reasons can
also be The Rules on knowledge assessment and grading paper, which does not
specify and deal with authentic forms of knowledge assessment individually.
Findings and Conclusion
The purpose of this contribution was to show the moments of democratisation of

knowledge grading in our primary school. Although many foreign authors report about
positive (Low, Withers 1990, Joffe 1990, according to Rutar Ilc 1996) effects of this
kind of practice, the usage of dialogues, consultations and negotiations also brought
about a number of objections arising from the presumption that this kind of method
leads to the decline of teachers’ authority. Rutar Ilc (1996) warns that this does not
take teachers’ authority away, but the chance for their authoritarianism is reduced.
Besides the argument for larger two-way opinion shift in practices are also the pupils’
experiences in participating at the agreements and taking over their part of
responsibility and obligations at the learning process (the same).
According to the results of our research, which showed the obvious differences in
assessments between the groups of teachers and pupils about the frequency of listed
characteristics, we may also doubt about the consistent democratisation of the grading
process in our primary schools. Maybe we are not aware enough, as Z. Rutar Ilc
(1996, p. 6) warn that “increasing pupils’ participation: their individual control over
learning, insight in the criteria, negotiations, inclusion in accrediting procedures… are
the practices, which give pupils the increasing power, lessen the repetitiveness,
competitiveness, tensions and possibility of unfounded comparisons and at the same
time enlarge the motivation.”
Another aspect that we were interested in was the extension of authentic forms of
knowledge assessment among teachers. It was found out that individual forms of
knowledge assessment occur very rarely, but they are more frequent among teachers
of the Slovenian language than among teachers of mathematics.
Bibliography
Ivanuš Grmek, M. Javornik, M. (2003). New Culture of Checking and Assessing the
Knowledge. From: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00003441.htm
Marentič Požarnik, B. (2000). Psihologija učenja in pouka (The Psychology of Learning and
Teaching). Ljubljana: DZS.
Pravilnik o preverjanju in ocenjevanju znanja ter napredovanju učencev v osnovni šoli (Rules
amending the Rules on knowledge assessment and grading and students' progress to a
higher class standing in elementary schools). From http://www.mszs.si
Razdevšek-Pučko, C. (1996). Drugačne oblike preverjanja in ocenjevanja znanja. (Educational
Changes and Assessment). Sodobna pedagogika, 47 (9-10), 411-419.
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Razdevšek Pučko, C. (2002). Nacionalni preizkusi znanja in sodobna pojmovanja preverjanja

in ocenjevanja znanja (National Examination and Contemporary Concepts of Testing and
Assessing). Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 33 ( 2), 4-10.
Rutar Ilc, Z. (1996). Drugačna kultura preverjanja v praksi (New Culture of Testing). Didakta,
5 (26/27), 3-7.
Sagadin, J. (1993). Poglavja iz metodologije pedagoškega raziskovanja (Studies in the
Methodology of Educational research) Ljubljana: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo in
šport.
Strmčnik, F. (2001). Didaktika. Osrednje teoretične teme (Central Theoretical Themes).
Ljubljana: Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete.
Šteh Kure, B. (2001). Pomen kvalitativnega raziskovanja pri preučevanju kakovosti
izobraževanja (The Importance of Qualitative Research in Studying the Quality of
Education). Sodobna pedagogika, 52 (2), 82-98.
357
358
Part 3
Initial Teacher
Training
359
360
Research into the Attitudes of Inservice and Preservice Teachers of Early Childhood
Education towards their Profession and Professional Self-Esteem
33
Research into the Attitudes of Inservice and
Preservice Teachers of Early Childhood
Education towards their Profession and
Professional Self-Esteem
&
Durmus Aslan, Cukurova University
P
rofession is an activity concept that arises as a result of partitioning in work
related to social, economical and technological structures and taking
responsibilities in social and economic life as individuals due to public
demands (Sonmez at al. 2000). ‘Profession’ has significance in expressing
and defining both the individual himself and his life. The individual takes place in
society, earns money and plans his future by his profession. The profession of an
individual seriously affects his character. While a profession in harmony with
personality makes one’s character stronger, the contrary can make him quite
uncomfortable. Likewise, an individual who has a suitable profession is supposed to
be more successful and effective while an individual who has an unsuitable profession
is likely to endure conflicts and dissatisfaction (Arıcak & Dilmaç 2003, p.1).
Teaching is one of the most important professions that arises as a result of social
life and partitioning in work and has significance in the continuation of social life. The
biggest effort of all nations today, in which fast developments and changes are seen, is
to educate qualified individuals who can meet the demands the period dictates.
Education is the most effective way in reaching this goal and teachers are the most
important part of it (Kuran 2002, p.253). However, it is impossible for an education
system to be succesful if the teacher is inadequate no matter what education
programmes, methods or equipments are used (Basal & Taner 2004, p.483).
The significance of teachers is more obvious in the early childhood education. The
teacher is more important than any equipment and programs in the early childhood
education. The teacher is most probably the first one to welcome and spend time with
a child who has left his parents for the first time. The teacher is the person who loves,
accompanies and solves problems in the eye of the child (Oktay 1999, p.218).
Teachers who take part in the early childhood education are people who spend most of
361
their time with children and children have confidence in their teachers who are in
contact with them and share their enthusiasm. This is the reason why it is important
for an early childhood education teacher to communicate with children easily and well
(Poyraz & Dere 2001; Koksal Akyol & Kocer Ciftcibası 2005).
A child in the early childhood period, who spends most of his time with his
teacher, takes the attitude and the behaviour of his teacher as a role model and imitates
him. Under these circumstances, the character and the attitude towards the profession
of an early childhood education teacher becomes significant (Argun and Ikiz 2003,
p.413), because teachers’ attitudes towards their profession have great roles in
committing their professions successfully (Erdem, Gezer and Cokadar 2005, p.471).
There are many factors in Turkey which affect the attitude towards teaching.
Some factors are likely to be more effective when studies are examined. The most
important ones are teacher appointments, salaries and the societal points of view about
teachers. Especially in Turkey, the appointments based on different criteria in different
periods greatly affect the professional attitude of teachers (Ustun 2005, p.447).
Professional self-esteem is as important as attitude towards the profession for a
teacher to be successful. Professional self-esteem is the respect a person shows to the
profession he has (Arıcak 1999, p.94). Profesional self-esteem is a prerequisite to
professional suitability and satisfaction as well (Arıcak ve Dilmac 2003, pp.1-2).
When studies on attitudes towards the profession and professional self-esteem in
Turkey are examined, it is seen that these are mainly based on the attitude of
preservice preschool teachers towards the profession. According to Tanrıöğen’s
(1997) research done on his students in the faculty, it is seen that the attitude of the
students towards the profession is not based on the programme or the class they
attend. According to Üstün’s (2005) study conducted on preservice preschool teachers
of different branches, it has been observed that the attitudes of the preservice early
childhood teachers towards the profession is lower scores than those of other
branches. Moreover, it has been noted that the attitude of preservice early education
teachers towards the profession also differs according to the reasons why they choose
the profession. Some other research shows that these reasons are the belief of
preservice early childhood teachers that this is the right choice for them and they have
the professional pre-knowledge. In addition, the school they graduated, their
professional expectations and interests also affect their decisions (Üstün et.al. 2004;
Argun and İkiz 2003). Although most of the research is based on preservice early
childhood teachers, Zembat and Bilgin (1996) point in another piece of research that
teachers who chose their professions willingly pay more attention and display a more
positive attitude. Erden’s (1994) research compares the attitudes of inservice and
preservice preschool teachers, showing that there is not a considerable statistical
difference between them.
It has been noted that there are only a few studies conducted on preservice early
education teachers’ perception of professional self-esteem. In one of Arıcak ve Dilmaç
(2003)’s studies on professional self-esteem, it has been determined that the class
attended plays a role on professional self-esteem and that the final graders have more
self-esteem in comparison with the freshmen. In addition, it has been noted that the
preservice early education teachers who are happy with the subject they are studying
have more professional self-esteem than those .
Research in general has concentrated on preservice early education teachers and
their professional attitudes. There is hardly any research on professional self-esteem.
Furthermore, it has been noted that there is not enough research making comparisons
between preservice and inservice early childhood education teachers. Additionally, it
362
is believed that a study on preservice and inservice early childhood education

teachers’ professional attitudes and their perception of professional self-esteem will be
beneficial for the field in terms of educating teachers and arrangement of inservice
training programmes. This study has aimed at examining whether the different levels
of the professional attitudes and perception of professional self-esteem of preservice
and inservice early childhood education teachers differ according to different variables
or not.
Method
Participants
One hundred and twenty seven (N =127) inservice and preservice early childhood
education teachers constituted the sample for this study. Sixty-seven (n = 67) of all
participants were inservice early childhood education teachers working at stand-alone
public kindergartens in the province of Adana in Turkey, whereas 60 (n = 60) of the
participants were junior and senior early childhood education students enrolled in the
Department of Early Childhood of Education at Cukurova University.
Demographic information about inservice and preservice teachers were gathered

using a Personal Information Form. Inservice and preservice teachers’ attitudes toward
their profession were assessed using the “Professional Attitudes Scale”, which was
developed by Özgür (1994). “Professional Self-Esteem Scale” (Arıcak 1999) was used
to measure inservice and preservice teachers’ perception of professional self-esteem.
Professional Attitudes Scale, which is a likert-type measuring instrument, consists of
33 items, 20 of which are positive and 13 negative; whereas, Professional Self-Esteem
Scale, which is also a likert-type measuring instrument, consists of 30 items, 14 of
which are positive and 16 negative. These items are graded as “I totally agree” 5, “I
agree” 4, “No comment” 3, “I disagree” 2 and “ I totally disagree” 1. The negative
items are graded in the reverse manner. The highest grade that can be received from
the Professional Attitudes Scale is 165, whereas the lowest is 33. Likewise, the highest
grade that can be received from the Professional Self-Esteem Scale is 150, whereas the
lowest is 30.
Data Analysis
Independent Samples T-Test, Variance Analysis, and Pearson Correlation

Coefficients were used to analyze data related to professional attitudes and
professional self-esteem.”Tukey” of the Post Hoc tests has been used to find the
source of the difference in multiple comparisons. All the analyses were done by
utilizing the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) (Büyüköztürk, 2002).
363
This research has been aimed to evaluate preservice and inservice early childhood
education teachers’ professional attitudes and their perception of professional self-
esteem according to different variables. The results obtained from the study are
introduced in the tables below.
Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and ANOVA Results of Inservice ECE

Teachers’ Scores on Professional Attitudes Scale and Professional Self-Esteem Scale
in Relation to Reasons why Inservice ECE Teachers Decided to Become Teachers
Scale Reasons n X SD
Professional Desire to be a teacher 40 141.10 10.11
Attitudes Familial reasons 15 132.80 15.00
Scale Work conditions 12 140.25 14.11
Total 67 139.08 12.37
Desire to be a teacher 40 130.75 12.43
Professional
Familial reasons 15 115.66 20.93
Self-Esteem
Work conditions 12 129.25 15.88
Scale
Total 67 127.10 16.27
Sum of Means Significant
Scale Source df F P Differences
Squares Square
Professional Between groups 771.21 2 385.6 2.64 .O79
Attitudes Within groups 9328.25 64 145.75 -
Scale Total 10099.46 66
Professional Between groups 2549.18 2 1274.59 5.46 P<.01 A-B
Self-Esteem Within groups 14937.08 64 233.39
A: Desire to be a teacher B: Familial reasons
When Table1 is examined, it can be seen that the ones who chose this profession
because they are willing to, got 141.1 points and the ones who chose because of the
work conditions got 140.25 in Professional Attitudes Scale. Likewise, it can be seen
that the ones who chose this profession because they are willing to, got 130.75 points
and the ones who did so because of the work conditions got 129.25 in Professional
Self-Esteem Scale. It has been stated that the ones who chose this profession on their
parents’ demands got the lowest scores in both scales. Furthermore, according to the
results of Anova analysis, the reason for choosing this profession causes no
considerable difference between the scores of Professional Attitudes Scale (P>.05),
whereas it does in Professional Self-Esteem Scale (P<.01). According to Tukey
analysis, that has been done to find out which groups cause the difference, there is a
considerable statistical difference between the ones who chose this profession on their
own will when compared to the ones who did so on their parents’ will. The results
show that professional self-esteem of the ones who chose this profession on their own
will is higher than the ones who did so on their parents’ will. We can say that the ones
who chose this profession on their own will take up this profession more and show
more positive attitudes when compared to the ones who did so on other individuals’
will. Some research about the profession of teaching shows that the reason for
choosing this profession affects the attitude towards the profession, and individuals
who choose to become a teacher have more positive views about their jobs. (Zembat
and Bilgin 1996; Ustun et al. 2004; Ustun 2005).
Table 2 shows the average scores the preservice early childhood education
teachers obtained from Professional Attitudes Scale and Professional Self-Esteem
364
Scale, the standard deviations and the anova results based on the programmes of the
schools they graduated from. According to the Anova test results, the programmes of
the schools they graduated from cause no considerable statistical difference on the
scores received in Professional Attitudes Scale and Professional Self-Esteem Scale.
This is likely to happen because the programmes of different schools are similar to
each other’s. Individuals who are graduated from the departments of early childhood
education, child development and education, child development and early childhood
education in Turkey work as a teacher in early childhood education branch. When the
courses and their contents are examined, it can be seen that the education programmes
in the schools are similar. This may be the reason why there is no significant
difference between the attitudes of teachers graduated from different departments
towards the proffession and their perception of professional self-esteem.
Table 2. Means, Standard Deviations, and ANOVA Results of Inservice ECE

in Relation to Type of Undergraduate Program Inservice ECE Teachers Graduated
From
Scale Groups n X SD
Early Childhood Education 29 140.34 12.60
Child Development and
Professional 16 140.43 11.48
Education
Attitudes Scale
Child Development and Early
22 136.45 12.81
Childhood Education
Total 67 139.08 12.37
Early Childhood Education 29 127.48 17.18
Child Development and
Professional 16 127.37 15.56
Education
Self-Esteem
Child Development and Early
Scale 22 126.40 16.28
Childhood Education
Total 67 127.10 16.27
Sum of Means
Scale Source df F P Significant
Squares Square
Differences
Between groups 227.51 2 113.75
Professional
Within groups 9871.94 64 154.24 .738 .482 -
Attitudes Scale
Total 10099.46 66
Professional Between groups 15.95 2 7.98
Self-Esteem Within groups 17470.31 64 272.97 .029 .971 -
Apart from the findings shown in tables 1 and 2, the Anova test results have
revealed that whether early education teachers are senior, or they work full-time or
part-time do not cause any considerable statistical difference on the scores received in
Professional Attitudes Scale and Professional Self-Esteem Scale. (P>.05). This result
can be evaluated in favourable terms from the viewpoint of performers of the
profession.
365
Table 3. Means, Standard Deviations, and ANOVA Results of Preservice ECE

in Relation to Type of High School Program Preservice ECE Teachers Graduated
From
Scale Groups n X SD
Regular High School 35 129.25 12.22
Professional
Vocational High School 10 142.4 10.27
Attitudes Scale
Anatolian High School 15 129.33 14.19
Total 60 131.46 13.20
Regular High School 35 111.60 16.28
Professional
Vocational High School 10 127.70 20.32
Self-Esteem
Anatolian High School 15 112.66 22.93
Scale
Total 60 114.55 19.39
Sum of Means Significant
Scale Source df F P
Squares Square Differences
Between Groups 1434.51 2 717.25 4.61 .014 A-B
Professional
Within Groups 8854.41 57 155.34 B-C
Attitudes Scale
Total 10288.93 59
Professional Between Groups 2087.01 2 1043.5 2.96 .06
Self-Esteem Within Groups 20097.83 57 352.59 -
A= Regular High School, B= Vocational High School, C= Anatolian High School
Table 3 shows the scores received in Professional Attitudes Scale and Professional
Self-Esteem Scale according to the high school type they have graduated from. When
the table is examined , it can be determined that the graduate of vocational schools
have received the highest score from Professional Attitudes Scale( X =14.4) and
Professional Self-Esteem Scale (127.7). The Anova test results show that the type of
high scool that preservice ECE teachers graduated from do not result in negligible
differences in the scores of Professional Attitudes Scale, whereas, the difference is
considerable in the scores of Professional Self-Esteem Scale. The results of the Tukey
analysis, carried out to determine from which groups the difference arose indicated
that; when vocational school graduates are compared to standard high school
graduates, the difference has been in favour of vocational school graduates and when
vocational school graduates are compared to anatolian high school graduates, the
difference has been in favour of vocational school graduates. All of the vocational
school graduates in the sample are graduates of the department of “child development
and education”. The reason for the considerable differences in scores can be that these
students have idealized to become a teacher and received education in this field.
Table 4 shows that preservice ECE teachers who voluntarily chose to become a
teacher got the highest scores on both scales (Professional Attitudes Scale 136.61
points and Professional Self-Esteem Scale 124.44 points). The Anova tests suggest
that reason why preservice ECE teachers chose to become a teacher has important
effects on the scores they received from the Professional Attitudes Scale and
Professional Self-Esteem Scale. (P<.01). As a result of the Tukey analysis carried out
to determine between which groups the differences occur, it has been observed that:
between those who voluntarily chose to become teachers and those who did so for job
security, the difference is in favour of those who voluntarily chose to become a
teacher; and between those who voluntarily chose to become teachers and those who
did so in accordance with their families’ will, the difference is in favour of those who
voluntarily chose to become a teacher. As can be seen in ECE teachers, preservice
ECE teachers who have voluntarily chose to become a teacher also have a higher
366
professional self-esteem and professional attitude. This can be explained in terms of

their taking the profession more seriously. The study conducted by Üstün (2005), in
which the reasons for preservice ECE teachers’ choosing to work as ECE teachers
were examined, also supports this finding.
Table 4. Means, Standard Deviations, and ANOVA Results of Preservice ECE

in Relation to Reasons why Preservice ECE Teachers Decided to Become Teachers
Scale Reasons n X SD
Professional
Job security 14 123.07 6.91
Attitudes Scale
Total 60 131.46 13.20
Professional
Job security 14 100.85 15.20
Self-Esteem
Scale
Total 60 114.55 19.39
Sum of Means
Scale Source df F P Significant
Squares Square
Differences
Between Groups 2165.30 2 1082.65 7.59 P<.01 A-B
Professional
Within Groups 8123.62 57 142.52 A-C
Attitudes Scale
Total 10288.93 59
Professional Between Groups 7693.75 2 3846.87 15.13 P<.01 A-B
Self-Esteem Within Groups 14491.09 57 254.23 A-C
A= Desire to be a teacher, B= Job security, C= Familial reasons
Apart from the findings shown in Tables 3 and 4, the influence of having a teacher
in the family and the grades they attend do not result in considerable differences in the
scores the preservice ECE teachers received from the Professional Attitudes Scale and
Professional Self-Esteem Scale (P>.05). However, the following factors have a
considerable difference on the scores received from the two scales: their graduation
status, whether they contemplate of working as a teacher or not, if so, whether they
care about being successful or not (P<.01). Those preservice ECE teachers in the
following conditions got high scores: Those who are happy with the department they
are in (Professional Attitudes Scale 134.82 pts, Professional Self-Esteem Scale 122.42
pts); those who want to work as a teacher upon graduation (Professional Attitudes
Scale 133.27 pts, Professional Self-Esteem Scale 118.52pts); those who think they will
be successful if they work as a teacher (Professional Attitudes Scale 134.5pts;
Professional Self-Esteem Scale 117.86pts). In the research conducted by Arıcak ve
Dilmac (2003), it was found that the difference in the level of professional self-
esteem of preservice ECE teachers who are happy with the department they are in, and
who are not, is statistically in favour of those happy.
Table 5. T-Test Results of Inservice and Preservice ECE Teachers’ Scores on

Professional Attitudes Scale and Professional Self-Esteem Scale
Scale Groups N X SD df t p
Professional Attitudes Inservice Teacher 67 139.08 12.37 125 3.35 P<.01
Scale Preservice Teacher 60 131.46 13.2
Professional Inservice Teacher 67 127.10 16.27 125 3.96 P<.01
Self-Esteem Scale Preservice Teacher 60 114.55 19.39
367
Table 5 shows the t-test results of inservice and preservice ECE teachers in the
Professional Attitudes Scale and Professional Self-Esteem Scale. Inservice teachers
have received higher scores in comparison to preservice ECE teachers: Professional
Attitudes Scale (139.08) and Professional Self-Esteem Scale (127.1). The t-tests
results show that the difference is significant. (P<.01). The reasons for this difference
may have stemmed from the following facts: inservice ECE teachers (on the sampler)
work in a metropol, they have all the social facilities, they get paid for what they do;
preservice ECE teachers, on the other hand, may have worries resulting from the fact
that they may not be appointed to ECE teaching upon graduation and even if so, they
may have to go to a remote place. In addition, other factors as explained as follows
may also have affected the results. Inservice ECE teachers working in the field are
more experienced in preparing educational programmes and they know more about
children as they spend time with them; and also they get pleasure from the results of
the education they perform .
Table 6 shows that, for inservice ECE teachers, there is a high level, positive
meaningful correlation between the scores of Professional Attitudes Scale and
Professional Self-Esteem Scale (r=.766, p<.01). When the Table is examined, it can be
seen that, for preservice ECE teachers, too, there is a high level, positive meaningful
correlation between the scores of Professional Attitudes Scale and Professional Self-
Esteem Scale (r=.609, p<.01). This situation shows that if an individual has a positive
attitude towards his profession, then his professional self-esteem is also high; and vice
versa. The fact that an individual with a positive perception of the profession will also
have a positive attitude to it can be evaluated as a favourable state. In accordance with
this belief, Arıcak ve Dilmaç (2003, pp.1-2) also asserts that professional self-esteem
is a prerequisite of professional harmony and satisfaction.
Table 6. Pearson Correlation Coefficients between the Scores of Inservice and

Preservice ECE Teachers on Professional Attitudes Scale and Professional Self-
Esteem Scale
INSERVİCE ECE TEACHERS Professional
Self-Esteem Scale
Pearson Correlation .766
Professional Attitudes Scale Sig. (2-tailed) .001
n 67
PRESERVİCE ECE TEACHERS Professional
Self-Esteem Scale
Pearson Correlation .609
Professional Attitudes Scale Sig. (2-tailed) .001
n 60
The data obtained in this research shows that the level of professional attitudes
and professional self-esteem amongst inservice ECE teachers is higher than those of
preservice ECE teachers. The factors such as the programme studied at school,
professional seniority and working full or part-time do not result in much difference in
the level of professional attitudes and professional self-esteem of teachers. It has been
determined that the level of professional attitudes and professional self-esteem is
higher within those inservice and preservice teachers who voluntarily chose to become
368
a teacher than those who became a teacher upon their families’ will, or job conditions.
Whether there is a teacher in the family or not and the grade inservice ECE teachers
are in did not result in differences in the level of professional attitudes and
professional self-esteem¸whereas, the level of professional attitudes and professional
self-esteem was considerably high in those who were happy with their departments,
who wanted to work as a teacher upon graduation and who believed that they would
be successful as teachers.
In the light of the research findings, the following can be recommended;
• In the higher education institutions educating ECE teachers, preservice

ECE teachers can be supported to develop a positive professional attitude
and high professional self-esteem.
• In-service training programmes can be arranged by the Ministry of
National Education for inservice ECE teachers to support them to develop
a positive professional attitude and high professional self-esteem.
• The research has been restricted to the inservice and preservice teachers
within the province of Adana; a similar study can be conducted on greater
scale.
• Research to determine the effects, on teachers’ professional attitudes and
perception of professional self-esteem, of variables such as whether they
like children or not, the type of school they work in and the region they
work in can be planned.
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Tutum ve Algılarına Etkilerinin İncelenmesi [The Effects of The Schedule of The Early
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with a Group]. Marmara University, Institute of Educational Science, Doctoral Thesis.
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Değişkenler Açısından Benlik Saygısı ile Mesleki Benlik Saygısı Düzeylerinin
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Mezun Oldukları Lise Türü Ve Mezuniyet Dereceleri Arasındakiİlişki [Academic
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370
Evaluation of Attitudes of Teachers to Attending a Certificate
34
Evaluation of Attitudes of Teachers to
Attending a Certificate Program towards
Profession of Teaching
Semra Erkan, Hacettepe University

&
Elif Ustun, Hacettepe University
eaching is among the most important occupations for raising the qualifications
T of individuals who shape the future of a nation. One of the most significant
factors for the developing nations like Turkey in reaching the levels of
developed nations is the well – educated and qualified human resource. In this
respect, the importance of educating teachers in Turkey is an indispensable fact.
It is possible to talk about a multi dimensional process in the individual’s
inclination to an occupation and choosing it (Kuzgun, 1987). Individuals become self-
actualizing persons at one point by means of their occupations. If a person’s
occupation is suitable to his talents, their interests ensure that his personality
development and his social adaptation are healthy.
Experts working on this issue state that individuals choose an occupation not with
an instant decision, but is based on the patterns they have formed and developed for all
their lives (Polly and Jimmy, 2002).
Doing studies on the individual’s job preferences, Sharf (1992) indicates that the
personality traits of the individuals forming the occupational group are similar to each
other, and unlike the individuals in other occupations.
One of the most important elements in teacher education is how to educate
students to become qualified teachers. At this point, the qualifications of the teacher
candidates and their compatibilities with the occupation become important (Adıgüzel,
1998).
In this respect, several researches have been made in order to assess the socio-
cultural, academic and psychological features of the students who prefer teaching as a
job.
The duty to train teachers belongs to the Faculties of education. In Turkey,
Faculties of education have been in a process of reconstruction since 1994 and
departments with a target of educating qualified teachers needed in our country have
371
been established within these faculties, pursuing educational programs in accordance

with the needs since 1996. The aim is to meet the country’s requirement more
effectively and efficiently thanks to these educational programs (Günçer, 2002).
In this respect, the “Program of Teaching Certificate” has started to be given by
the Faculties of Education with a purpose of fulfilling the teacher needs in Turkey. It
can be said that mostly the graduates and current students of Department of English
Language and Literature, Department of American Culture and Literature, Department
of Translation and Interpretation attend this certificate program as well as the students
studying various majors in universities teaching in English language.
Recently, teaching has become a rising value in our country. Hence, it is essential
to ascertain the determinants of the students, involved in the certificate program of the
Faculty of Education,who prefer teaching as a job; since the factors in job preference
will reflect the individuals’ effectiveness in that job and his/her satisfaction, as well.
The attitudes of the students attending the certificate program, towards teaching, is an
indicator of how this occupation is perceived by the candidates. The researches that
are made into the attitudes of the teacher candidates will be able to contribute to
generating the educational policies regarding raising qualified teachers. That’s why, it
is vital that such researches be made. Thus, considering this necessity, the attitudes
towards teaching of the students participating in the Program of Teaching Certificate
are examined in this research.
Methodology
The qualitative research method was used in this study. The population of the
survey includes the teacher candidates attending the teacher certificate program of
Faculty of Education at the Hacettepe University in 2004-2005. All of these
candidates constitute the sample of the research.
The data is collected by “Personal Information Form” as well as the “Attitude

towards Teaching Scale”. The “PIF”, developed by the researchers, is composed of
two parts and these parts cover 38 items in total. In measuring the attitudes of the
students towards the occupation, The “AETS” developed by Aşkar and Erdem (1987)
was used. The scale that is a type measuring tool has 10 items, six of which are
positive and four of which are negative. These items were scaled as; “ I certainly
agree”5, “agree” 4, “Undetermined” 3, “Disagree” 2, “Certainly disagree” 1. The
scaling was done reversely in the negative items. The highest grade that can be taken
from the scale is 50 and the lowest is 10. The α coefficient of the scale is 0.80. The
highest mark obtained from the scale is the indicator of the positive attitudes whereas
the lowest mark is the indicator of the negative ones.
The highest total point, 30, which can be acquired by marking the “undetermined”
option of the items in the scale is the indicator of neutral attitudes. The points to be
acquired by this attitude scale and the levels of attitude that are the indicators of these
points are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Levels of Attitudes
372
Negative Positive
10 Points 30 points 50 Points
The most negative attitudes. Neutral attitudes. The most positive attitudes
As it can be understood from Figure 1, the points above 30 refer to the positive
whereas the points below 30 refer to the negative . In other words, the points above 30
acquired by this scale are the indicators of the positive attitudes towards teaching
occupation and the points below 30 are the indicators of the negative attitudes.
The Analysis of the Data
The analysis of the research data has been done by using frequency, t-test and
variance analysis.
Findings and Comment
The findings of the research was dealt with in two groups. In the first group,
personal information of the candidates within the scope of the research was presented
and in the second group the findings and comments regarding their atitudes towards
teaching were given.
a. The personal information of the candidates: When the introductory

information in the Personal Information Form of the teacher candidates who
are in the research sample, is examined, it is found that 72.5 per cent of the
candidates are women while 27.5 per cent are men and 80.4 per cent
between the ages of 20 and 25 while 19.6 per cent are betwen the ages of 26
and 30. It is observed that of the candidates forming the research sample,
52.8 per cent attend the teacher certificate program right after graduating
from university, 22,2 per cent attend the program in the first two years after
graduation and 11.4 per cent of them attend the program four years after
graduating from university. When the contentment levels of the candidates
for attending such a program is examined, it is seen that 46.0 per cent are
fully satisfied, 40.0 per cent partly satisfied while 5.0 per cent are less
satisfied with the program. When the candidates’ replies on the question of
whether they would prefer being a teacher if they were to start their
occupation again, are analysed, it is identified that 76.3 per cent of them
would prefer teaching as an occupation while 23.7 per cent would rather not
to be a teacher. The reasons for attending the program of teacher certificate
are examined, and 44.8 per cent of them have chosen teaching since it is
considered to have job security; 32.8 per cent as it is the job that they want
to perform; and 9.8 per cent of them stated their reason as being unable to
find a job in their own field of study. Are the candidates are being assisted
financially by their parents? All expenses of 72.4 per cent of the candidates
are being paid by their families while 16.1 percent of them are taking money
from their parents for some specific expenses. 11.4 per cent of the
candidates stated that they are not taking money from their families at all.
373
Table 1. The Attitude Point Averages towards Teaching in Accordance to the Age
Ages N x Ss df t p
20-25 255 41.525 6.328 314 -1.121 .263
26-30 61 42.541 6.468
When we look at Table 1 we see the attitude point averages towards teaching in
accordance to the age groups of the sample group.
While the teacher candidates attending the certificate program are mostly within
the age range of 20 and 25, it is found out that the attitude points of the candidates
between the ages of 26-30 towards teaching are higher.
We can say that the teacher candidates were unable to find the job security they
desired in their previous jobs after graduation, therefore the attitude points of the
group aged 26-30 are higher.
Table 2. The Attitude Point Averages Towards Teaching in Accordance to Reasons of

Preference of Teaching
Reasons of preference
N x Ss df t p
of teaching
Easy to find a job 31 38.93 7.58
Want to be a teacher 104 45.92 3.39
Because of job guarantee 141 39.78 5.76 3 28.728 .000
Either
Total 40 39.80 7.85 312
316 315
Similarly, the sample group’s reasons of preference of teaching as an occupation

and their average attitude points towards teaching are seen in Table 2. We can
comment on the results in this table similar to the results of the Table 1. We can say
that the teacher candidates generating the sample group have chosen teaching as an
occupation due to their dissatisfaction in their original major that they had graduated
from and hence they expressed that teaching is the occupation that they desired.
In the studies made in the previous years regarding the teaching occupation
(Ozcan, 1985), it was found out that teaching was among the last preferences of job
choices and the students were unhappy with their original field of study. However; as
a result of the economic crises experienced in Turkey in 2001, the government
appoints only teachers as civil servants due to the saving measures implemented.
Limitations for the other occupations in civil servant posts, may be effective in the
preference of this occupation. Moreover; the working conditions such as working for
shorter periods in a day, the opportunity to get a higher salary in the begining than
from other occupations and the higher number of open posts as teachers of English
can be indicated among the reasons that increase the interest towards teaching
recently.
Table 3. The Attitude Point Averages towards Teaching in Accordance to Gender

Gender N x Ss df t p
Woman 222 41.162 6.599 314 -2.422 .016
Men 94 43.042 5.558
When Table 3 is observed, the average attitude points of the sample group
towards teaching compared to gender can be seen. It is possible to mention that the
attitude points of the male teacher candidates are higher than those of the females due
to job security. The experts working on the issue state that the external factors such as
374
salary, fame are important for the youth but a sustainable salary has more significance
for them (agabeyseva, 1997).
The findings about the demographic features of the students prefering teaching in
various countries that were put forward by Coultas and Lewis (2002) show us that
they are mostly the children of the families from lower or middle class. We can say
that these students prefer teaching as the job opportunities are ready and the salary is
sustainable.
Table 4. The Attitude Point Averages towards Teaching in Accordance to Satisfaction

Satisfied N x Ss df t p
Yes 241 43.68 4.79 314 11.804 .000
No 75 35.41 6.68
Table 5. The Attitude Point Averages towards Teaching in Accordance to Satisfaction

Degree
Satisfaction Degree N x Ss df t p
Very Satisfied 146 44.595 4.710
Satisfied 125 40.192 5.925 4
Hesitant 14 37.857 8.244 311 20.884 .000
Less Satisfied 16 36.562 8.437
Not Satisfied 15 35.600 6.056
Total 316 12731.494 315
In Table 4 and Table 5 the average attitude points of the students towards teaching
and their status of pleasure for prefering teaching as well as their satisfaction degrees
are seen. It is seen that the candidates are mostly satisfied with choosing teaching as
an occupation and in Table 5 the most satisfied group’s average attitude points are
seen to be higher with respect to this.
The Turkey Profile research regarding the teacher candidates of Early Childhood
Education done by Erkan et al. (2002) it was found out that the 75% of the students
that were taken into the sample group prefered teaching deliberately. Likewise, in a
study made by Demirel in 1995, with the teacher candidates in Faculties of Education,
80% of the candidates expressed that they would work in the field that they studied
after graduation.
Conclusion
The data gathered as a result of the research show us that the attitudes of the
teacher candidates toward teaching are high. By the reconstruction of the faculties
educating teachers, teaching has become encouraging for the young people in our
country.
However; doing research regarding the quality of the institutions educating
teachers is essential in terms of the teaching occupation (Williams, 2001).
The studies with regards to the questions of how a better equipped teacher can be
educated and the features of a teacher or educator in 21st century have been ongoing
(Jensen 2000 and Diamond, 2001).
How to educate the teachers that will be educating the qualified human capital of
the 21st century and the kind of programs that will be suitable for educating qualified
teachers should be examined with different kinds of research.
375
References
Kuzgun, Y. (1987). Sosyo Ekonomik Düzey ve Psikolojik İhtiyaçlar. Ankara Üniversitesi

Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 20, 1-2.
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Progressive Teacher Education. Radical Teacher.
SHARF, R.S. (1992). Applying Carrier Development Theory to Counseling.
Adıgüzel, Al, (1998). Öğretmen Yetiştirme Meslek Formasyonu Öğretiminin Öğretmen
Davranışlarına Yansıması. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Harran Üniversitesi,
Şanlı Urfa.
Günçer, M., (2002, Temmuz 14) Öğretmen Eğitiminde Akreditasyon. http://www.yok.gov.tr.
Aşkar, P., ve Erdem, M., (1987). Öğretmenlik Mesleğine Yönelik Tutum Ölçeği. Çağdaş
Eğitim Dergisi. Sayı: 121.
Özcan, A. O. (1985). Ülkemiz İçin İsabetli Olabilecek Bir Mesleğe Yöneltme. İstanbul
Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayınları.
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Etmenler. Uludağ Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Bursa.
Coultas, C.J., ve LEWIN, M. K., (2002). Who becomes a teacher? The characteristics of
student techers in four countries. International Journal of Educational Development.
Volume 22. Issues 3-4, Pages 243-260.
Erkan, S., ve ark. (2002). Okul öncesi öğretmenliği Öğrencilerine Ait Türkiye Profil
Araştırması. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. Sayı 23, ss. 108-117.
Demirel, O. N., (1995). Öğretmenlik Mesleğine Yönelen Eğitim Fakültesi Öğrencilerini Sosyo-
Ekonomik, Psikolojik ve Kültürel Özellikleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Yayımlanmamış
doktora tezi. İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Sosyal Yapı ve Sosyal
Değişme Anabilim Dalı.
Williams, S. H., Osman, A. (2001). Student Teachers Perceptions of A Teacher Training
Program College Student Journal, March.
Jensen, A. M., (1999), Early Childhood Teacher Education Fort he 21 st Century: Not By
Change. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education. pp. 173-174.
Diamond, E.K., (2001). Supporting early childhood teacher: A Reflection on the Kentucky
Teacher Intership program. http://www.findarticles.com/(5.11.2003).
376
The Effects of Self-Efficacy and Epistemological World Views on Preservice
Science Teachers’ Epistemological Beliefs
35
The Effects of Self-Efficacy and
Epistemological World Views on Preservice
Mustafa Sami Topcu, Yuzuncu Yil University
&
Ozgul Yilmaz-Tuzun, Middle East Technical University
P
ersonal epistemologies are defined in two different ways. In one definition,
researchers have viewed epistemologies as developmental stages (King &
Kitchener, 2004; Kegan, 1982; Perry, 1970). In this definition, personal
epistemologies develop in parallel with individual cognitive development. For
example, King and Kitchener (1994) proposed a seven stages developmental scheme
for personal epistemologies. At the first stages of this scheme, children view
knowledge as certain and given by authorities. At a later stage, knowledge is seen as
cumulative constructions of observations but subject to judgment by different
individuals. Researchers, who accept this definition, also see personal epistemologies
as unidimensional constructs in which an individual passes through these stages based
on their cognitive development. In other words, it is not usual for a person to pass on a
later stage of epistemological understanding without accomplishing an earlier stage.
Another group of researchers defined the epistemologies as collection of beliefs
(Schommer, 1988; Schommer & Walker, 1997; Scraw, Dunkle, & Bendixen, 1995).
Schommer (1990) defined the epistemological beliefs as beliefs about the nature of
knowledge. It is argued that individuals may develop epistemological beliefs about the
certainty, the source, the justification, the acquisition, and the structure of knowledge.
These dimensions of epistemological beliefs led researchers to define epistemological
beliefs from multidimensional perspective. Unidimensional theory also accepts that
personal epistemologies are complex cognitive developments and multifaceted. One
difference between unidimensional and multidimensional theory is how people
develop or gain epistemological views or beliefs. Unidimensional theory argues that
people attain different dimensions of epistemological understanding at their cognitive
development. In other words, if a person develops earlier stages of epistemological
understanding, she will also develop later stages. In contrast, multidimensional theory
suggests that if a person develops a dimension of epistemological beliefs, she may or
may not develop other dimension(s).
377
Students’ epistemological beliefs were explored using both quantitative and

qualitative research methods (Perry, 1968; King, 1986; Schommer, 1990).
Schommer’s studies pioneered the quantitative measurement of epistemological
beliefs on multidimensional perspectives. In her studies, Schommer validated the
epistemological questionnaire she had developed. The questionnaire used in
Schommer’s (1990, 1993, and 2004), Schommer, Crouse, & Rhodes’ (1992);
Schommer, Calvert, Gariglietti, & Bajaj (1997) studies has five hypothesized
epistemological beliefs. These hypothesized beliefs are: (a) the stability of knowledge
ranging from unchanging knowledge to tentative knowledge (Certain Knowledge), (b)
the structure of knowledge ranging from isolated bits and pieces to integrated concepts
(Simple Knowledge), (c) the source of knowledge ranging from omniscient authority
to reason and empirical evidence (Omniscient Authority), (d) the speed of learning
ranging from quick or not-at-all to gradual (Quick Learning), and (e) the ability to
learn ranging from fixed at birth to improvable (Innate Ability).
Schommer carried out several studies to validate the questionnaire. In these
studies, generally four factors were obtained but factor names changed according to
the sample characteristics, sample size, and the nature of research. For example, in one
of Schommer’s (1990) studies, she worked with 117 junior college students and 149
university students. Factor analysis generated four factors for this group of students.
Factor 1 was “Ability to learn is innate” (Innate Ability); Factor 2 was “Knowledge is
discrete and unambiguous” (Simple Knowledge); Factor 3 was “Learning is quick or
not at all” and Factor 4 was “Knowledge is certain” (Certain knowledge). Schommer,
Crouse, & Rhodes’ (1992) studied with 424 undergraduate and graduate students.
Schommer’s (1990) questionnaire was reaffirmed to assess students’ epistemological
beliefs. Three factors were generated. Factor 1 was Learning is innate and Quick
(Innate Ability). Factor 2 was knowledge is discrete and unambiguous (Simple
Knowledge). Factor 3 was Knowledge is certain and questionable (Certain
Knowledge).
In addition to validation studies of Schommers’ (1990) questionnaire, there are
several cross-sectional and longitudinal studies about the development of students’
epistemological belief. Schommer (1993); Schommer, Calvert, Gariglietti, & Bajaj
(1997) investigated the development of secondary students’ epistemological beliefs.
Differences in epistemological beliefs among more than 1000 high school students
across the high school years and between genders were examined (Schommer, 1993).
Belief in simple knowledge, certain knowledge, and quick learning decreased from
freshman to senior year. Girls were less likely to believe in quick learning and fixed
ability.
Literature review on epistemological beliefs revealed that there are few studies
conducted to measure inservice teachers’ and preservice teachers’ epistemological
beliefs (Schraw & Olafson, 2002; Tsai, 2002). Similar to these researchers the authors
of this study believe that teachers’ epistemological beliefs are very important in
developing students’ epistemological beliefs and creating effective learning
environments. For example, Schraw and Olafson (2002) argued that if teachers believe
in relativist epistemological view, they will organize their classroom according to
constructivist and inquiry oriented practices. Thus, this learning environment provides
opportunity to students to learn concepts effectively. However in their study they
found that epistemological beliefs were not strongly related to teaching practices. For
instance, even teachers indicated that they believe the effectiveness of student centered
teaching approaches on students learning they preferred to use district wide mandated
curriculum and expository teaching practices. Thus, it is necessary to help teachers to
378
develop essential skills to apply required teaching practices in the line with their
epistemological beliefs. This can be achieved during their teacher education programs.
However, in the first place those beliefs need to be determined.
Similarly the authors of this study also believed that teachers self efficacy and
outcome expectancy beliefs may also be influential in shaping teachers
epistemological beliefs. Bandura stated that in order to perform certain behaviors
people need to posses both beliefs because “people not only expect certain behaviors
to produce desirable outcomes (outcome expectancy), but they also believe in their
own ability to perform the behaviors (self-efficacy)” (Riggs & Enochs, 1990, p. 626).
Gibson and Dembo (1984) emphasized importance of these beliefs for teachers to
have confidence in their own teaching abilities and creating positive outcomes in
students’ learning. In this study authors aimed to investigate the relationships among
these variables.
The issue of self-efficacy has been explored by a number of authors in a range of
settings (Aston & Webb, 1986; Dembo & Gibson, 1985; Riggs & Enochs, 1990;
Lumpe, Haney, & Czerniak, 2000; Woolfolk & Hoy, 1990). In the last decade
researchers in science education have made extensive use of one particular self-
efficacy instrument. That instrument, The Science Teachers Efficacy Beliefs
Instrument (STEBI), was developed by Enochs and Riggs (Enochs & Riggs, 1990;
Riggs & Enochs, 1990). The authors first developed STEBI instrument for inservice
teachers (STEBI A). Later on they revised STEBI A instrument for preservice science
teachers and called its name as STEBI B. One of the strengths of the STEBI
instruments is the theoretical base presented by Enochs and Riggs with regard to why
and how items were authored for the instrument. In their instruments Enochs and
Riggs created two dimensions, self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectancy beliefs,
by using self-efficacy and outcome expectancy components of Bandura’s social
cognitive theory in their instrument, STEBI.
In Turkey there are not many studies about this issue. This study aimed to
determine PSTs’ epistemological beliefs and examine the relationships among
epistemological beliefs, self efficacy, and epistemological world views.
Method
Table 1. Number of Students in each Demographic Variable

Demographic variable Number of students
Gender
Female 246
Male 183
Grades
Freshman 200
Senior 229
Region
Eskişehir 35
Ankara 324
Van 70
379
Sample
SEQ was administered to 429 PSTs who enrolled in freshman and senior classes
of five research universities in Ankara, Eskişehir, and Van. Purposive sampling
strategy was used to gather data for this study. Table 1 summarizes the distribution of
PSTs as a function of gender, grade, and region.
Instruments
Schommer Epistemological Questionnaire (SEQ)
Schommer (1990) developed the SEQ to measure college students’

epistemological beliefs. The questionnaire includes 63 items. For each item, students
can select one of the 5 options (strongly disagree, disagree, undecided, agree, and
strongly agree). There are 12 subsets in the questionnaire. For each subset, the item
numbers differ. The SEQ was translated into Turkish and validated earlier (Yilmaz-
Tuzun & Topcu, 2006).
In her research, Schommer (1990, 1992) studied how 12 subsets presented in
Table 2 could successfully fit with one of the hypothetical dimensions mentioned
earlier. Schommer theoretically put these 12 subsets into their best defined
hypothetical dimensions. During the analysis, she focused to find out the degree to
which these 12 subsets loaded into their hypothetical dimensions.
Table 2. Hypothetical Dimensions and Associated Subsets of the Epistemological

Questionnaire
Subset Dimensions Hypothetical Dimensions
Seek single answers Simple knowledge
Avoid integration
Avoid ambiguity Certain knowledge
Knowledge is certain
Don’t criticize authority Omniscient authority
Depend on authority
Can’t learn how to learn
Success is unrelated to hard work Innate ability
Ability to learn is innate
Learning is quick
Learn first time Quick learning
Concentrated effort is a waste of time
The reliability of the SEQ was measured by inter item reliability for the items
composing each factor ranging from 0.51 to 0.78 (Schommer, 1993). To validate the
SEQ, Schommer carried out numerous studies summarized in the introduction section.
In those studies, she computed factor analysis and often found four or three factors.
These factors were namely, innate ability, simple knowledge, quick learning, and
certain knowledge. She could not find omniscient authority as one individual factor in
any of her studies since the subsets did not load into this hypothetical dimension.
Self-Efficacy Scale
The two scales in the STEBI-B, designed for pre-service teachers, were entitled
Personal Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Scale (self-efficacy dimension) and
380
Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy Scale (outcome expectancy dimension). The

STEBI-B was a 5-choice, Likert-type scale for pre-service teachers. The respondents
in the study completed the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument Form B
(STEBI-B) (Pre-service version) developed by Riggs and Enochs (1990). This
instrument used a 5-choice, 23-item Likert-type scale for pre-service teachers. Riggs
and Enochs (1990) reported that the items in the self-efficacy scale and outcome
expectancy scale had high reliability (0.89 and 0.76). Appropriate changes in the
wording of the items in the instrument were made for the Turkish teachers (Tekkaya,
Cakıroglu, & Ozkan, 2004).
Epistemological World View Scale
This scale focuses on three different epistemological world views Schraw and
Olafson (2002) refer to as realist, contextualist, and relativist. Schraw and Olafson
(2002) selected the terms realist, contextualist, and relativist for research because they
were used most frequently occurring terms across the literature. This instrument used
a 5-choice, 3-item Likert-type scale for pre-service teachers.
Results
Factor Structure of the SEQ
Factor analysis enabled us to determine the number and the characteristics of

factors that could account for students’ responses on the questionnaire. In this
analysis, the subset scores mentioned earlier were computed. The 12 subset scores
were computed with the mean scores of the subset items. The 12 subsets of items were
used as variables in factor analysis.
Table 3. Factor Loadings from Principal Component Factor Analysis

Factor Loadings
SUBSETS 1 2 3 4
1. Can not learn how to learn .727 -.110 .040 .011
2. Concentrated effort is waste of time .671 -.001 .004 .237
3. Avoid integration .657 .120 .225 .046
4. Success is unrelated to hard work .620 .202 -.180 -.133
5. Do not criticize authority .613 .033 .099 -.066
6. Learning is quick .568 .144 -.094 -.115
7. Learn the first time .478 -033 -118 .163
8. Avoid ambiguity -.102 .768 .211 .195
9. Ability to learn is innate .294 .759 -.066 -.180
10. Knowledge is certain .295 -.029 .781* -.075
11. Seek single answers -.321 .192 .646 .037
12. Depend on authority .067 .026 -.032 .925
Eingeinvalue 3.059 1.413 1.056 1.024
% of Variances 25.494 11.774 8.804 8,535
* Pattern of loadings that are not consistent with the hypothesized epistemological dimensions.
With orthogonal varimax rotation and an eigen value that is greater than one (as a
cutoff point for factors) “principal factoring extraction” generated five factors that
account of 54.61 % of the variance. Factor analysis revealed four factor structures in
381
the data. Factors were named on the basis of high-loadings of the subsets. Factor 1
was “Innate ability”, factor 2 was “Certain knowledge”, factor 3 was “Simple
knowledge”, and factor 4 was “Omniscient authority”. Variances associated with
factors and their eigenvalues are presented at Table 3.
Inter item reliabilities for items that compose each factor range from .20 to .60.
Schommer has found this range in her studies between .51 and .78.
Exploring the Relationships among PSTs Epistemological beliefs, Self Efficacy Beliefs
and Epistemological World Views
Multiple regression analysis is used to explain how accurately factor scores

generated for PSTs epistemological beliefs can be predicted from a linear combination
of self-efficacy (factor score 1), outcome expectancy (factor score 2), and
epistemological world view (mean scores). In order to test the assumptions we
checked the normal distribution with the histogram of the standardized residuals,
sample size, multicolinearity (none of the correlations among independent variables
were found as higher than 0.50), linearity. All of the assumptions were not violated for
each of our regression analysis.
To better understand how the predictor variables might be associated with each
factor scores of the SEQ, multiple regression analysis was conducted. To determine
the best model associated with each factor scores of the SEQ, a statistical stepwise
regression strategy was used. In this analysis, predictor variables were inserted into the
model based upon statistical criteria. When a stepwise strategy is used to investigate a
data set similar to that presented in this paper, a regression analysis is initiated with no
variable, and each predictor variable is added to the equation, one at a time, to
determine whether the predictor variable significantly contributes to the regression
equation (Tabachnick & Fidel, 2001).
Only one predictor variable—worldview—contributed significantly to the
prediction of simple knowledge factor scores (Adjusted R2 = 0.008, F (1, 420) = 4.41,
p < 0.05). Beta weight for worldview was found to be 0.102. For innate ability factor
scores three of the predictor variables—self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, and
worldview—contributed significantly to the model (Adjusted R2 = 0.296, F (1, 420) =
59.94, p < 0.01). Beta weight for self-efficacy was found to be -.356, -.258 for
outcome expectancy, and -.235 for worldview. For certain knowledge factor scores
only one predictor variable— outcome expectancy—contributed significantly to the
model (Adjusted R2 = 0.014, F (1, 420) = 7.07, p < 0.01). Beta weight for outcome
expectancy was found to be .129. None of the predictor variables significantly
contributed to explanation of the omniscient authority factor scores.
Discussion
As in USA, the SEQ showed satisfactory results in defining epistemological

beliefs dimensions in Turkey. Turkish speaking researchers can utilize the Turkish
version of the SEQ in their studies. As in USA, the factors we found in this study
clearly indicate that epistemological beliefs are a set of more or less independent
beliefs in Turkish culture. It is not an easy task to determine epistemological beliefs
both qualitatively and quantitatively. As mentioned earlier, Schommer carried out
numerous research with different samples and methods. The results of these studies
revealed different four or three factor names (structures). This shows that it is difficult
382
to expect similar factors structures for different sample characteristics. Thus in this
study context, we found four factor structures. Omniscient authority was not found in
any of the Schommer’s study. But in our sample we found omniscient authority as a
factor. On the contrary to her results, we could not find quick learning in our sample.
The factor analyses of the Turkish SEQ version show similar patterns with
Schommer’s (1990) findings. Our results suggest that multidimensional theory is
more appropriate than unidimensional theory to explain PSTs’ epistemological beliefs.
According to the unidimensional theory, one should expect to see only one factor to
define development of PSTs’ epistemological beliefs. However, similar to
Schommer’s findings, we found five factors instead of one. Thus PSTs’
epistemological beliefs might be considered “as a set of more or less independent
beliefs” (p.500).
Another similarity we observed was the factor structures. In her studies,
Schommer often found four factor structures. Those factors were quick learning,
certain knowledge, simple knowledge and innate ability. In Turkish sample, we found
“omniscient authority” as the fourth factor structure. This is an interesting finding
shedding light on the cultural differences between the two countries educational
contexts. Students in teacher education programs enter their programs with certain
experiences about teaching due to the knowledge gained through their previous
education (McDiarmid, Ball, & Anderson, 1990; Gunstone, Slattery, Bair, &
Northfield, 1993; Hollingsworth, 1989). The way students learn influences their
professional development at their teacher education programs. In the Turkish
educational system, many teachers might have applied traditional teaching strategies;
for example, expository. Those traditional teaching approaches might have led
students to comprehend that science is a body of knowledge discovered by scientists.
The teachers’ role was to deliver this knowledge to the students. That kind of teaching
environment might have distracted our students to critically reflect upon the scientific
knowledge and the ways scientists make their discoveries in any time of their life as a
student. This approach might have been the reason of the ‘omniscient authority’ we
found in our factor structures.
Our reliability analysis showed lower values than Schommer’s findings. Those
differences might have been caused by translation. The Turkish version might have
not captured the full and literal meaning of the original survey. Turkish students might
have understood the items differently from students in USA might have understood.
That is a limitation for almost all translated scales. Replication of this study with
different and larger sample characteristics will improve the characteristics of the
items.
When considering the predictors of innate ability dimension of the SEQ, self
efficacy, outcome expectancy, and world view had a significant (negative)
relationship. This relationships indicated that fewer preservice teachers believe in
innate ability the more they feel confident about their science teaching (self efficacy),
confident about influencing his or her students’ achievement, and the relativist in their
epistemological world view. This finding is really interesting because it is clearly
indicated that preservice teachers believe that they can teach effectively when they
accept their students learning ability is not fixed at birth rather it is ever changing
characteristic of learners and can be developed by teachers effective teaching
practices.
When considering the predictors of certain knowledge dimension of the SEQ, only
outcome expectancy had a significant (positive) relationship. This relationship
383
indicated that preservice teachers feel confident about influencing students’

achievement only when that scientific knowledge as certain knowledge (knowledge is
unchanging) to students. They feel unsure about their students understanding of
science knowledge if this knowledge were thought as always changing scientific
understandings.
When considering the predictors of simple knowledge dimension of the SEQ, only
worldview had a significant (positive) relationship. One would expect that if teachers
believe the effectiveness of the teacher-centered teaching approaches (realist world
view) they also accept that science may be best taught when students memorize the
isolated facts or body of scientific knowledge (simple knowledge).
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386
An Analysis of Science Teacher Preparation in the United States:
Recommendations for a Research Agenda
36
An Analysis of Science Teacher Preparation
in the United States: Recommendations for a
Research Agenda
Herbert K. Brunkhorst, California State University
I
n 1983 the U.S. Department of Education’s National Commission on Excellence
in Education published the report, A Nation at Risk that stated, by the year 2000
students in the United States would be first in the world in mathematics and
science achievement. In June of 1983, The Task Force on Education for
Economic Growth of the Education Commission of the States published a report
Action for Excellence which addressed the need for better science education for
economic reasons. In September 1983, the National Science Board’s Commission on
Pre-college Education in Mathematics, Science, and Technology published its report
titled, Educating Americans for the 21st Century: A Plan of Action for Improving
Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education for All American Elementary and
Secondary Students so that their achievement is the best in the world by 1995. At the
time, these reports indicated a number of disturbing trends including declines in
achievement in science, declines in the number of students pursuing science and
engineering careers, a decline in the number of qualified science teachers, and a
decline in the quality and quantity of American science education compared to other
countries.
In the ensuing years science education started undergoing a series of reforms in
science education including the American Association for the Advancement of
Science’s Project 2061 in 1991, and the National Academy of Sciences National
Science Education Standards in 1996. In September of 2000, the National
Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century better known
as the Glenn Commission produced the report Before It’s Too Late a report to the
Nation. This report, in the shadow of the new millennium, suggested, among other
thing, the establishment of systems to improve the quality of science teaching in
grades K-12, a significant increase in the number of science teachers and an
improvement of their preparation. The report also made recommendations for the
improvement of the working environment of schools to make the profession more
attractive for K-12 science teachers. This report noted that at the time it was written,
there was a convergence of reform efforts including state and national science
standards, developments in the cognitive sciences on how children learn, a
387
demographic shift in the teaching force with a prediction of two-thirds of the current
teaching force planning to retiring in the next decade, and a surplus budget (2000).
In 2001, the Committee on Science and Mathematics Teacher Preparation of the
National Research Council of the National Academies produced a report titled,
Educating Teachers of Science, Mathematics, and Technology: New Practices for the
New Millennium which identified critical issues emerging from existing practices and
policies in teacher preparation in science and mathematics. The report provided an
analysis of the ways in which research, recommendations from professional societies
and practice might be integrated to improve teacher preparation in science and
mathematics. The report articulated a vision that proposed six guiding principles:
• The improvement of teacher education and teaching in science,

mathematics, and technology should be viewed as a top national priority.
• Teacher education in science, mathematics, and technology must become
a career-long process. High-quality professional development programs
that include intellectual growth as well as the upgrading of teachers’
knowledge and skills must be expected and essential features in the
careers of all teachers.
• Through changes in the rewards for, incentives for, and expectations of
teachers, teaching as a profession must be upgraded in status and stature
to the level of other professions.
• Both individually and collectively, two- and four-year colleges and
universities must assume greater responsibility and be held more
accountable for improving teacher education.
• Neither the higher education nor the K-12 communities can successfully
improve teacher education as effectively in isolation as they can by
working closely together. Collective, fully integrated efforts among
school staff and administrators, teacher unions, faculty and administrators
in institutions of higher education, policymakers from local colleges and
universities, parents, and the private sector are essential for addressing
these issues.
• Many more scientists, mathematicians, and engineers must become well-
informed enough to become involved with local and national efforts to
provide the appropriate content knowledge and pedagogy of their
disciplines to current and future teachers.
During the mid-nineties, the National Science Foundation began to fund a variety
of partnerships or systemic initiatives. Though many of these efforts called for
partnerships of one type or another, this committee held that a critical pathway to
achieving these changes would be the establishment of K-16 partnerships whose
integrated programs and activities went well beyond those of most partnerships that
existed during the writing of the report. Since the report’s publication, the National
Science Foundation has instituted the most recent Mathematics and Science
Partnerships (MSP) based on some of the recommendations in the report. Some of the
more pertinent recommendations to this paper include:
388
General Recommendations
1. Teacher education in science be viewed as a continuum of programs and

professional experiences that enables individuals to move seamlessly from
college preparation for teaching to careers in teaching this subject area;
2. Teacher education be viewed as a career-long process that allows teachers
of science to acquire and regularly update the content knowledge and
pedagogical tools needed to teach in ways that enhance student learning
and achievement in science; and,
3. Teacher education also be structured in ways that allow teachers to grow
individually in their profession and to contribute to the further
enhancement of both teaching and their disciplines.
Recommendations for the K-12 Community
1. School districts should “assume primary responsibility for providing high

quality practicum experiences and internships” for prospective science
teachers, including developing and overseeing field experiences and
student teaching. School districts should also cooperate with the higher
education community to provide professional development opportunities.
Recommendations for Higher Education
1. Science, mathematics, and engineering departments at two- and four-year

colleges and universities should assume greater responsibility for offering
college-level courses that provide teachers with strong exposure to
appropriate content and that model the kinds of pedagogical approaches
appropriate for teaching that content;
2. Two- and four-year colleges and universities should reexamine and
redesign introductory college-level courses in science and mathematics to
better accommodate
2. The needs of practicing and future teachers; and,
3. Following a period of collaborative planning and preparation, two- and
four-year colleges and universities in a partnership for teacher education
should assume primary responsibility for providing professional
development opportunities to experienced teachers of science. Such
programs would involve faculty from science, mathematics, and
engineering disciplines and from schools of education.
Recommendations for Professional and Disciplinary Organizations
1. Organizations that represent institutions of higher education should assist

their members in establishing programs to help new teachers. For example,
databases of information about new teachers would be developed and
shared among member institutions so that colleges and universities could
be notified when a newly certified
2. teacher was moving to their area to teach.;
3. Professional disciplinary societies in science, higher education
organizations, governments at all levels, and business and industry should
389
become more engaged partners as opposed to advisors or overseers) in

efforts to improve
4. teacher education; and,
5. Professional disciplinary societies in science, and higher education
organizations also should work together to align their policies and
recommendations for improving science teacher education.
Science teacher preparation in the United States is currently under scrutiny

because of the United States federal legislation demanded in the new Elementary and
Secondary Education Act, better known by its name, “No Child Left Behind.” This
legislation identifies the need for highly qualified science teachers to help students
meet the demands of global competitiveness in the 21st century. Two research
questions of international interest have been identified as arising out of this legislation:
1) What are the characteristics of highly qualified science teachers and the institutions
that prepare them; and, 2) What is the nature and scope of science teacher preparation
and development programs that will effectively prepare students?
In addressing the first research question, it is helpful to refer to two recent position
statements developed by the National Science Teacher’s Association (NSTA), and the
Association for Science Teacher Education (ASTE), formerly known as the
Association for the Education of Teachers of Science (AETS). Both of these
international organizations have identified key characteristics that they see as
identifying well prepared and highly qualified science teachers. These characteristics
include:
1. Deep understanding of science;

2. Understanding of the nature, history, and multiple applications of science;
and,
3. The knowledge, skills, science specific pedagogy, and dispositions to
help all students develop meaningful conceptual understanding of
science.
The last bullet implies that knowledge of science subject matter is most useful
only when it is combined with the specialized knowledge and skills that enable a
teacher to guide student inquiry, use laboratory activities and technology effectively,
and meet the learning needs of all students. The knowledge and skills a science
teacher needs to work masterfully with students’ preexisting attitudes and conceptions
to transform those into meaningful and accurate scientific understanding takes time to
develop.
Science Teacher Preparation in the U.S.
The traditional science teacher preparation program in the U.S. consists of three
elements, however the sequencing of those elements may differ. They are, subject
matter preparation, pedagogical methods including pedagogical content knowledge as
well as knowledge of diverse learners, and some field practicum. Both organizations,
NSTA and ASTE support science teacher education and professional development
programs that provide rigorous preparation, that includes the study of the learning and
teaching of science, carefully crafted clinical practice, and sound knowledge of
science. Excellent science teacher preparation and development is a phased and
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continuous, life-long process. Such teachers should be prepared to meet the needs of
their students and communities, participate in the enhancement of science education,
and grow by participating with others in the science education community. Such
programs should be informed by results of contemporary educational research and
represent a consensus of the professional communities on the nature of desirable
science education. Currently, this consensus is elaborated in the National Science
Education Standards (National Research Council, 1996), Educating Teachers of
Science, Mathematics, and Technology: New Practices for the New Millennium
(National Research Council, 2001), the Standards for Science Teacher Preparation
(National Science Teachers Association, 2003), and the Position Statement on Science
Teacher Preparation and Professional Development (Association for Science Teacher
Education (2003).
The current national priority for systemic approaches to the reform of science
education has led to unprecedented interest in research on the efficacy of science
teacher preparation programs in the United States. Two efforts with which the author
had direct involvement included a team of researchers participating in the Salish I
Research Project conducting a study that tested a series of hypotheses that linked
science and mathematics teacher preparation with science and mathematics teacher
performance, and student outcomes in science and mathematics and a first-ever
collaborative effort by science educators in the then twenty-two campus California
State University System.
The researchers in the Salish I Research Project included faculty and student
research associates from nine institutions throughout the United States who worked
together as a single research team. Other team members included representatives from
partnering agencies including the U.S. Department of Education's Office of
Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), the National Center for Improving
Science Education (NCISE), and the Council of Scientific Society Presidents (CSSP).
The operating norm for the project was collaborative decision-making by consensus.
The researchers in the California State University Science Teacher Development
Project funded by the National Science Foundation included scientists, science
educators, and practicing K-12 science teachers from each of the twenty participating
CSU campuses, an internal evaluator and ethnographer, and evaluators from Inverness
Research Associates, the external evaluator on the project.
How did the collaborative process inform research in science education? The
factors involved in collaborative multi-institutional research as represented in these
two projects, were interrelated in multiple ways. Together they emphasized the
complexity of research to construct realities that can impact science teacher
preparation programs. The emergent area that proved to be the predominantly
unexpected outcome in both projects was the varied use and meaning of the language
used by the research teams at the nine sites in the case of the Salish I Project and the
20 sites in the case of the CSU Science Teacher Development Project.
Developing consensus in science education regarding a theoretical framework that
supports the National Science Education Standards is critical to the education of our
nation's youngsters. Both of these studies suggested that explicitly attending to
communication issues may be a key precursor to developing the necessary theoretical
framework. It further suggests that extending the research paradigms used for science
and mathematics teacher preparation programs to include an action research
perspective has potential to accelerate reform of programs to make them consistent
with today's needs.
391
Recommendations
Inquiry into factors that influenced the implementation of these collaborative

research studies revealed as key factors the extreme diversity in programs and
differences in beliefs about research paradigms among researchers. These key factors
were the aspects of the researchers' contexts that influenced the meanings of words
they used to communicate. Differences in interpretation of words slowed researchers'
progress toward identifying features of science and mathematics teacher preparation
programs that worked. These experiences lead to the following recommendations
(Spector, 1999) for those who will do research on science teacher preparation
programs in the future:
• Build in significant amounts of time to address communication issues;

• Design strategies that explicitly attend to clarifying and negotiating
language issues;
• Examine multiple aspects of contexts in which people operate;
• Identify the paradigms in which people are grounded, watch for paradigm
clashes and confront them;
• Involve communication experts as facilitators for meetings where language
can be negotiated while maintaining a constant vigil for new words that
have not yet been negotiated;
• Define operating norms for the group which include strategies that foster
trust, respect, and the ability to confront each others language and ideas;
• Be aware there is a challenge in using a priori codes: The further the coder
is
o From the data source and the code development, the
more opportunity there
o Is to lose the original meaning and make
misinterpretations;
• Consider that the research process itself may be an intervention for change
and be explicit about that during the planning. Include opportunities to
communicate that which helps build relationships and stimulate change
among respondents; and,
• Remember that interpretation of language is going to drive your findings.
A Model for Research in Science Education
Complex challenges face and science teacher education today. These include, the
teacher shortages in specific science fields and geographic areas, the profound under-
representation of women and minorities in some science teaching fields, the large
numbers of science teachers who leave teaching positions within their first five years
of teaching, the issue of highly qualified teachers in small and/or rural communities
where they may be the only science teacher, and how higher education can increase
both the quantity and quality of science teachers.
How can the science education community address many of these vexing
problems? A research agenda that is guided by an external, shared vision is critical if
any field is to advance its knowledge base and inform practices. Facing the lack of
392
such a vision, the major science education organizations in the United States including
the National Science Teachers Association, the Association for Science Teacher
Education, the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, the National
Science Education Leadership Association, the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, and the Center for Science, Mathematics, and Engineering
Education at the National Academies collaborated to begin the process of establishing
a coherent research agenda to guide science education research efforts in this country.
The Research Agenda in Science Education (RAISE) Project will begin to design a
more robust model for science education research. One major product of these efforts,
a research matrix, will serve as the ‘blueprint’ for identifying and prioritizing research
questions, generating testable hypotheses about science learning and instruction,
incorporating results into a shared knowledge base, replicating studies in a range of
school environments, and scaling up studies on innovations. As a result, policy
makers, educators, and researchers can be more responsive to important needs in
science education, identify and use the best knowledge that has been accumulated,
and, very importantly, develop and apply relevant new knowledge and understanding
in all science education settings.
References
Association for Science Teacher Education. Position Paper on Science Teacher Preparation and
Professional Development. 2003.
California State University Science Teacher Development Project : Final report . National
Science Foundation (Award # 9250027). Washington, D.C. 1995.
National Research Council. National Science Education Standards, Washington, DC: National
Academy Press, 1996.
National Research Council. Educating Teachers of Science, Mathematics, and Technology:
New Practices for the New Millennium, Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001.
National Science Board Commission on Precollege Education in Mathematics, Science, and
Technology. Educating Americans for the 21st Century. National Science Foundation.
Washington, D.C. 1983.
National Science Teachers Association, Standards for Science Teacher Preparation, Arlington,
VA: National Science Teachers Association, 2003.
Secondary Science and Mathematics Teacher Preparation Programs: Influences on New
Teachers and Their Students. The Final Report of the Salish I Research Project, Iowa
Headquarters Staff. The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 1997.
Spector, B and Brunkhorst, H.K., The Salish I Research Project: A Study of a Study and its
Unexpected Outcomes. Unpublished paper. 2002.
United States Department of Education. National Commission on Excellence in Education. A
Nation at Risk. Washington, D.C. 1983.
393
394
Narrative Knowing in the Preservice Development of Teachers
37
Narrative Knowing in the Preservice
Development of Teachers
Carmel Hinchion, University of Limerick
I
n this paper I explore the place of narrative in the pre-service training of teachers
in the University of Limerick, Ireland. I explore especially the area of
autobiographical narrative as a symbolic action for reflective practice with
students of teaching.
I look also at the place of dialogue in narrative understanding, and how the storytelling
self becomes a social self that names and shapes connections through the mediating
power of words.
In this storytelling and dialogue I commit to understanding my own story and how
it finds accommodation with students’ stories and consequently how I develop in my
role as Lecturer in the University.
Narrative Expression and Narrative Reflection
“… we make sense of the world and of our experience in narratives”. 1

Narrative is central to our understanding of the world we live in. It creates
an organising shape to our lives and according to Polkinghorne (1988) “is
the fundamental scheme for linking individual human actions and events
into interrelated aspects of an understandable composite”.
Roland Barthes (1977) opens his “Introduction to the Structural Analysis of

Narratives” by naming the universality of narratives and their variety of expression.
Later he goes on to argue their significant function in understanding the self and
understanding cultural beliefs and values.
The narratives of the world are numberless. Narrative is first and foremost a
prodigious variety of genres, themselves distributed amongst different substances – as
though any material were fit to receive man’s stories. Able to be carried by articulated
language, spoken or written, fixed or moving images, gestures, and the ordered
mixture of all these substances; narrative is present in myth, legend, fable, tale,
novella, epic, history, tragedy, drama, comedy, mime, painting […] stained glass
1
Egan, (1992)
395
windows, cinema, comics, news item, conversation. More-over, under this almost
infinite diversity of forms, narrative is present in every age, in every place, in every
society; it begins with the very history of mankind and there nowhere is nor has been a
people without narrative. All classes, all human groups, have their narratives,
enjoyment of which is very often shared by men with different, even opposing,
cultural backgrounds. Caring nothing for the division between good and bad literature,
narrative is international, transhistorical, transcultural: it is simply there, like life itself.
Ritchie and Wilson (2000) in their book “Teacher Narrative as Critical Inquiry”
talk about narrative as “potential action” and refer to Paulo Freire as someone who
modelled this narrative action. Freire in his work with peasants in Brazil helped them
name and write the words of their lives and in so doing set forth the process of
conscientization, learning or knowing as a process of reflection or action.
In Freire’s (1986) pedagogy the conscientization process enables learners to gain
access to the power of the alphabet. Through articulating the word, learners can then
also gain access to the power to read the world around them, extending the
interpretative power of language and building the possibility for action. We argue that
in teacher education, this process of naming and reading their words gives teachers
access to the power of reflection and interpretation – and thus to resistance and
revision. 1
I propose narrative as a form of expression and reflection for this study. It offers a
flexible frame, a mental scheme as named by Polkinghorne, a universal and varied
language as understood by Barthes, and the power to transform from word to action as
outlined by Ritchie and Wilson.
I propose also to draw on the work of John Dewey and his understanding of
experience as interaction, continuity and situation. By interaction Dewey expresses the
belief that we are individual human beings but individuals who interact and relate to
one another. He believed there is continuity between one experience and another, there
is a history, a present experience and a forward motion. Experience, Dewey contends,
is always contingent on our situation, place and time and therefore is contextualized.
Clandinin and Connelly (2000) use these terms of reference by Dewey (interaction,
continuity, situation) to create a three-dimensional narrative inquiry space, with
temporality along one dimension, the personal and social along a second dimension,
and place along a third.
Using this set of terms, any particular inquiry is defined by this three-dimensional
space: studies have temporal dimensions and address temporal matters; they focus on
the personal and social in a balance appropriate to the inquiry and they occur in
specific places or sequences of places. 2
I will use this three-dimensional inquiry space to trace the web of narrative with
my second year students 2005/2006. These students are part of a four year
undergraduate programme in the University of Limerick, Ireland. They are training to
become teachers of Science, teachers of Wood and Materials Technology, teachers of
Engineering Technology, and teachers of Physical Education. I have twelve week
lecture contact with these students in the second year of their programme – a six week
module on “The Planning and Management of Classroom Learning” and a six week
module on “Reflective Practice” in March and April. These two hundred and fifty
students, as well as large lectures, have ten parallel seminars (in groups of twenty five
students with a facilitating tutor) for each of their two modules. These students also
1
Ritchie & Wilson, (2000)
2
Clandinin & Connelly,(2000)
396
have their first teaching practice experience in second-level schools for six weeks in
March and April.
As can be imagined, personal and social, temporal, and situational dimensions all
impact on my students’ narratives and my narrative in this inquiry space of teacher
development.
The central questions in this inquiry space are:
1. How can my students, when they write and read their narratives of
teaching and learning enrich their developing identity as teachers?
2. How can I as a lecturer with these students enrich my own professional
life and my students’ professional lives through a parallel and
collaborative narrative?
3. How can the process of narrative inquiry develop teaching and learning in
a University setting?
My aim as a lecturer is to encourage and support my students to express and

reflect on their narratives as “becoming students” of teaching. This narrative process is
to be captured in a written portfolio of work. Narrative is:
…fundamentally an activity of mind, a way of gathering up knowledge of
practice, simply, a way of knowing, and of knowing that one knows. A portfolio could
be a unique medium both of narrative inquiry and the means to document and
represent the evidence of the process. 1
As I write this paper my students are on their six week teaching practice so this
inquiry is as yet incomplete. My focus for this paper will be on my students’
autobiographical narratives which marks the beginning of their portfolio of learning
before they go on teaching practice placement. I also, as part of this study, have
tracked my own narrative by writing regularly in my reflective journal.
Autobiographical Narrative
The effort to understand the value of autobiography in education as a research

medium has emerged as a major contemporary discourse, especially since the 1970s.
At times it is attacked by curriculum scholars as being a soft option, lacking rigour and
scholarship. Indeed, Tanner and Tanner (1979, 1981) as cited by Pinar et al (2004)
were so sceptical that they labelled autobiography in education as “mystical alchemy”
and claimed it was “emancipation from research”. Gibbons (1991) also cited in Pinar
et al (2004) dismisses autobiography in education as “solipsistic and purely personal”.
However, writers such as Abbs (1974), Grumet (1990) and Pinar et al (2004) all
espouse the scholarship of autobiographical research. According to Abbs (1974):
[…] how better to explore the infinite web of connection which draws
self and world together in one evolving gestalt than through the art of
autobiography in which the student will recreate his past and trace the
growth of his experience through lived time and felt relationships? 2
1
Lyons, (2002)
2
Abbs, (1974)
397
Also Abbs (1974) writes:
Who am I? How have I become who I am? What may I become in the
future? […] Autobiography as an art of writing, perches in the present,
gazing backwards into the past while poised ready for flight into the
future.
Further according to Bruner (1993) “An autobiography can be read not only as a
personal expression, as a narrative expressing inner dynamics, but a cultural product
as well”.
My own intuition had now been supported by reading other writers who were
convinced by the power and success of autobiographical narrative. However, I took
heed of Ritchie and Wilson (2000) as I began work with my students. “We also
recognize that narratives in teacher education have sometimes been romanticized; after
the initial writing or telling of the story, they often fall short of the next critical step:
critique or problematizing”.
To open my students’ portfolio work I asked them to write an education related
autobiography adapted from Bullough and Gitlin, (2001):
Write an “education related” autobiography, a story of how you came to your
current decision to become a teacher. Identify important people or “critical incidents”
that significantly influenced your decision and your thinking. Consider your
“experience of school”, how school felt, how you best learned and when you felt most
valued, connected and at peace – or least valued, most disconnected?
The purpose of the assignment was to consider the past in order to understand
ideas, values and assumptions about teaching and learning. Our embedded knowledge
can influence our perceptions and actions and I wanted students to reflect on this and
critique it. Tutors encouraged students through this process by supporting their
expression. They offered emotional support and gave supportive strategies to help the
writing process, e.g. questioning prompts, possible structures for the writing
assignment etc. I borrowed from Literary Criticism and Reader-Response Theory by
asking students to capture their story quickly on the left hand side of a journal and
after a period of days to revisit this to redraft or add material. Then later again to
revisit and on the right hand side of the journal to respond to their own story with an
interpretative lens for teaching and learning.
Louise M. Rosenblatt (cited in Garvey, 1989) uses the image of an electric current
to describe this reading process. “The Autobiography” comes into being in the live
circuit set up between the reader and “the text”. In other words the written texts have
been created here by the students but when they respond again as readers to their own
work there is a new recreation with reflection and critique. A story is reconfigured to
understand teaching and learning, to understand the self who will teach. Roland
Barthes advances this premise of reader power when he writes:
Text means tissue; but whereas hitherto we have always taken this tissue as a
product, a ready-made veil, behind which lies, more or less hidden, meaning (truth),
we are now emphasising, in the tissue, the generative idea that the text is made, is
worked out in a perpetual interweaving; lost in this tissue – this texture – the subject
unmasks himself like a spider dissolving in the constructive secretions of its web. 1
1
Barthes, (1975)
398
With permission from my students I include here some excerpts from their
unmasking narratives. Names have been changed to protect student identity. I will
allow these stories to speak for themselves.
1. Out of four teachers in primary school I seem to only remember experiences

with two of them. My third and fourth class teacher was one who stuck
strictly to the book. There was no fun and games in Mrs. B’s classes.
Michael D. Higgins (writer) uses the phrase ‘we did our lessons’ and for
two years that is what I did. As long as I did my homework Mrs. B could
not punish me, so I believed this is the way of all teachers. I think she
thought she was a great teacher – so did I – because everyone had their
homework done, but there was no understanding involved in her classes. I
could have taken the homework from anyone but as long as we had
something, she must have believed we were actually learning. I believed
that I was learning until I realized I actually didn’t understand some subjects
and this was her downfall. For a pupil to think that he/she is learning but
when it comes to exam time realize that the questions are based on
understanding what is one supposed to do? For me now I will take this
experience and make sure it doesn’t happen in any of my classes in years to
come.
2. Geography is a class that I particularly enjoyed when I was at school and I
think that this stems from the fact that I had a good teacher in this subject.
Geography is traditionally a text based subject and in the past (and in some
cases in the present) the information simply read from the book and was
learned without activity or discussion. However, our teacher’s class
involved group discussion, constructing poster presentations, field trips and
even debates on issues such as third world debt. I remember a field trip
which I attended in which we travelled to a river in Armagh to measure the
width, fall of depth, current flow, and slope of the surrounding valley. This
field trip was an important part of our Leaving Cert. paper in this subject.
Although we got soaked we gained first hand experience of how a river
forms from source to mouth. Our teacher always said that when you see
something being done it is easier to understand than reading about it in a
textbook. I share this constructivist approach.
3. I want active learning to feature a lot in my teaching. Writing this
autobiography has given me a chance to reflect and realise what is important
to me as a teacher and what I want to incorporate in my teaching. From my
own experiences, I feel children are more interested when some element of
the class features practical activity. Considering my subject area, a lot of
practical activity will be featuring. However, in saying this, I want to strike
a balance between this and the theoretical aspect of my subject. It is a
personal aim of mine to discover a way in which I can make theoretical
classes more interesting and effective, enjoyable and worthwhile.
4. During my time repeating first class one major critical incident happened to
me which just made me loose any of the self-confidence I had left, which
was not much. I was in school one day when two pupils from my new class
came up to me. One asked me why I was staying back. The other one
blurted out “it’s because my mammy said he is really stupid”. That incident
hung with me for years. My experience of school was pretty much the same
until sixth class. I spent that four years with so much built up anger. I was
399
angry with myself, angry with friends, I was just angry with the world full
stop. The source of this anger was the fact that I was that bit slower at my
school work than my class mates. During this dark patch I found it hard to
interact with my peers. Socially I was borderline periphery amongst my
class. A lot of this was to do with my sporting ability. As usual in schools,
popularity is often based on sporting ability. Dyslexic people more than
often have bad field coordination. I was not an exception. [The above
paragraph describes a very painful time of my school career. Over the two
weeks since I wrote my autobiography I have recalled more incidents like
the one above. A lot of them involved nasty teachers. It made me recall how
sensitive pupils self-esteem is, especially ones with learning disabilities. I
feel that as a teacher it is my duty to keep pupils self-esteem high. I have
studied self-esteem in some books like “Teaching Skills” by Kyriacou.
None of these books can describe the first hand devastation of an un-
thoughtful comment made by a teacher. That is why I feel building self-
esteem is so important.]
5. I would like to be respected, but not feared to the point where students find
me unapproachable. My two primary school teachers were both excellent in
this manner. They were welcoming and approachable and enthusiastic and
promoted our development as individuals while keeping the group interests
in mind also. I would like to use the approach of my better teachers who
used the students’ motivation to keep them working and trying to improve. I
would like them to work by choice, not because they are being forced to. I
am unsure at times about my commitment to teaching, because I always
have returning home to the family farm in the back of my mind. However, I
do feel the need to approach teacher training with the necessary enthusiasm
and good attitude, with a view to starting out as a teacher in the best
possible manner. I hope to set out with a good foundation on which to build
my lesson plans and teaching strategies, whether I teach for ten or thirty
years. I am excited about setting out as a teacher, to take on the learning
experience, and improve with each class. My only fear is that I could be
overwhelmed and not know where to start and to gain control and improve
my class delivery. The best teachers in my experience were the ones who
had and maintained control without constant effort, or becoming
authoritarian.
Student Evaluations
November 2005
• Following the students’ writing of these autobiographies I evaluated their

response to this task. From a cohort of 250 students I received 200 evaluations.
In answer to the question “Did you find writing your Education Autobiography
a worthwhile experience?” the overwhelming majority, ninety-four percent,
answered in the affirmative. I include here a cross-section of the responses
received when asked to develop their reasons:
i. Yes, I did. I felt it made me think about who I am as a teacher and where
I am headed with my value orientations.
400
ii. Yes, it made me focus on why I really want to become a teacher.

iii. Yes, it did make me explore what I think good teaching is and what I
would respond to as a learner.
iv. I think it was worthwhile because it allowed you to retrace your steps
though the education system. It brought out some of my thoughts towards
my teachers and school in general. The reader-response section helped me
to identify strong points and weak points in teaching.
v. I think it was because it helped me see where I took my ideas of teaching
from and it helped me to better understand how I came to decide to take
this path.
vi. Yes it was a worthwhile experience because in order to write it you have
to look deeply at yourself and how you would like to teach. Reflecting is
an important part of teaching and it was a good project.
vii. Initially, I thought it was a “wishy washy” project but once I got started
writing I actually could clearly see why I want to become a teacher and
the people who influenced me in this decision.
viii. I think when your ideas are written down in front of you it is easier to see
what exactly your opinions are on teaching.
ix. Yes, I believe it is worthwhile as it helps us develop reflection skills. As a
student in secondary school we were not required to reflect on much, so I
find it difficult to evaluate lesson plans and teaching methodologies. This
type of exercise will help me.
x. The autobiography brought back a lot of memories but for me these were
very stressful. It was difficult to express personal thoughts and feelings.
xi. No, just a trip down memory lane! Although it made me realise the
motivation behind my former teachers – which is of little use to me.
xii. No, didn’t find this any good as I feel it won’t be used in the classroom.
xiii. I didn’t find the autobiography worthwhile because I already knew these
events well. They were the reasons I became a teacher. I don’t see how I
can be graded on this.
March 2006
In semester two I extended an open invitation at my lecture to students willing

to take part in a focus group. This group would focus on the process of writing
the Education Autobiography in a more in-depth way than the evaluation form.
I deliberately allowed time to lapse so that students could “look back” on the
process to gain a different type of perspective. Ten students immediately
volunteered at the lecture and we met within a week. I taped this one hour
session and acted as facilitator of the group. The following is an account of the
patterns I perceived from this dialogue when I replayed the tape a number of
times.
i. The power of memory is so strong in our lives. It was noticeable in the

dialogue that students became particularly emotive when memories of
humiliation, injustice, hurt and care were remembered from school. The
experience was almost “relived” again. “All the characteristics of the
401
child, worn, defaced, humiliated, huddled in a corner and passed over in

silence, have survived in the fifty-year-old man”. 1
ii. By naming and sharing the experience of schooling in a safe community
of learners there was an enlivened dynamic where the process of teaching
and learning was critiqued. Teaching and learning became focused in our
awareness and we could touch in to our own understanding of what makes
a good teacher.
iii. Past, present and future was linked in developing our story of “becoming”
teachers.
iv. Significance was placed on the relational art of teaching and the
importance of empathy as a quality of teaching.
v. The importance of culture in autobiography was highlighted where there
is a connectedness between person, place and time.
vi. The process of writing was discussed and it was acknowledged that this
was “an easier assignment than usual because it was about ourselves”. It
was also felt that “standing back” from a story for a while helps reflection
and critique.
vii. Students were fearful, especially in the area of classroom management,
and excited all at the same time about their upcoming teaching practice
placement.
Later in thinking about the focus group I wrote the following observations in my
reflective journal. Here are some excerpts:
March 3rd, 2006
Emotion is so powerful in teaching and learning. How can I help my students to

experience and manage emotion? Can I understand and manage my own emotional
world? (…)
I am really amazed at the power of dialogue. I think I managed the facilitation of
this group very well – prompting, encouraging and displaying empathy. There are
definite connections between my counselling work and my teaching work. As teachers
we have to listen and really hear. It reminds me of Professor Stephanie Springgay’s
idea of the “inbetween space”. This space exists between self and other and requires
“compassion” if we are to make connections in this inbetweenness. It also brings to
mind Nicholas Burbules’ belief that we need “communicative virtues” to dialogue
with others. He says we need a “constellation of dispositions” including “patience,
tolerance for alternative points of view, respect for differences, the willingness to
listen thoughtfully and attentively, an openness to giving and receiving criticism, and
honest and sincere self-expression.
Have I got these? How valuable with students!
It is obvious from student feedback that writing their Education Autobiography

was a worthwhile process for the majority. Students felt it enriched their
understanding of their developing professional identity. My own personal and
1
Satre, cited in Abbs, (1974)
402
professional awareness was enriched also. I was put in touch, through the students’
written and spoken words, with the temporal, social, personal and contextualized
spaces students inhabit at this time in their developing awareness of teaching. 1 To be
an effective lecturer I have to strive to know these spaces and also students need to be
supported in understanding these spaces in their journeys as students of teaching.
I also became more aware and more convinced of the value of dialogue and
communicative virtues in Education. According to Burbules:
These virtues comprise the affective and intellectual capacities that enable us to
seek the understanding across differences of belief, value or experience, and as such
are both the means and the ends of a progressive concept of education.
However this progressive concept of education becomes sometimes hampered by
institutional constraints of time, space and structure. The majority of students did not
get to dialogue their narratives, other than those in the focus group, and therefore the
quality of “knowing” became diminished. Assumptions and beliefs about teaching and
learning were not challenged adequately. How can we dialogue effectively with our
students and for what purpose?
I would advocate a re-revisiting of our institutional structures and pose the
questions: “How educative are our relationships within the academy?” and “How can
we model what good teaching is?”
Recently I have set up a small community of learners (the focus group continuing)
to script and re-script our narratives of teaching and learning in dialogue with each
other. I hope to keep this group working collaboratively until students qualify as
teachers after year four of their programme. This group may also help to “theorise
experience” and bridge the gap of the binary divide between school placement and
university. There would be a critical literacy of teacher development through
narrative. Also the inextricable link between personal and professional development
could be explored.
When personal and professional development are brought into dialogue, when
teachers are given the opportunity to compose and reflect on their own stories of
learning and selfhood within a supportive and challenging community, then teachers
can begin to resist and revise the scripting narratives of the culture and begin to
compose their narratives of identity and practice. They begin to author their own
development. 2
This paper is coming to an end for the moment but stories by their natures are
inexhaustible. They process us through experience and reflection, so this story if read
and revisited will become a new story. Bruner (1986) says that narratives unlike
“logico-scientific” language inhabits a realm “of potential, of possibility, of
understanding, contradiction, and silences”. Narratives live in the realm of art – the
creative act of trying to find a truth. This journey does not end. The artist Vincent Van
Gogh in his many self-portraits endeavours to paint the truth of who he is and in a
letter to his beloved brother Theo he writes “It is difficult to know oneself – but it isn’t
easy to paint oneself either”. However, in the very act of putting paint on canvas a
portrait emerges in the creative process. Spoken words and written words offer us a
similar possibility.
1
Clandinin & Connelly, (2000)
2
Ritchie & Wilson, (2000)
403
References and Bibliography
Abbs, P. (1974) Autobiography in Education. London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd.

Barthes, R. (1975) translated by Miller, R. The Pleasure of the Text. New York: Hill and
Wang
Barthes, R. (1977) Image Music Text. London: Fontana Press
Bruner, J.S. (1986) Actual Minds Possible Worlds. Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard University
Press
Bruner, J. (1993) ‘The Autobiographical Process’ in Folkenflik, R., ed., The Culture of
Autobiography. California: Stanford University Press
Bullough, J.R., & Gitlin, A.D. (2001) Becoming a Student of Teaching. New York: Routledge
Falmer
Burbules, N. (1993) Dialogue in Teaching. New York: Teachers College Press
Clandinin, D.J., & Connelly, F.M. (2000) Narrative Inquiry. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Dewey, J. (1938) Experience and Education. New York: Collier Books
Egan, K. (1992) Imagination in Teaching and Learning - The Middle School Years. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press
Freire, P. (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Seabury
Garvey, F.A. (1989) An Approach to the Teaching of Fiction in the Primary School based on
Reader-Response Theory. M.Ed. Thesis, Cork: University College
Grumet, M. (1990) ‘Retrospective: Autobiography and the Analysis of educational
experience’. Journal of Education. 20(3), 321-326
Lyons, N. & LaBoskey, V.K. (2002) Narrative Inquiry in Practice. New York: Teachers
College Press
Pinar, W.F. et al., (2004) Understanding Curriculum. New York: Peter Land Publishing
Polkinghorne, D.E. (1988) Narrative Knowing and the Human Sciences. New York: State
University of New York Press
Ritchie, J.S., & Wilson, D.E. (2000) Teacher Narrative as Critical Inquiry. New York:
Teachers College Press
Van Gogh, V. (1996) The Letters Of Vincent Van Gogh. London: Penguin Books Ltd.
404
The Relation of Literature Teachers in Training to Culture and its Influence on their
Relation to Literary Reading and on the Development of the Subject-Reader
38
The Relation of Literature Teachers in
Training to Culture and its Influence on
their Relation to Literary Reading and on
the Development of the Subject-Reader
Judith Emery-Bruneau, Universite Laval
F
or the past ten years, educational policy in Quebec has prioritized a cultural
dimension in its formation programs with the aim of integrating the approach
toward culture while teaching all disciplines (CSÉ, 1994; MEQ, 1996, 1997a-
b; 2000; 2001; 2003). Because the Quebec Education ministry considers
school to be a place of cultural reference, a circle of “secondary culture” (Simard,
2005), the department insists on the development of cultural competence for students,
teachers and teachers-in-training. Consequently, what will the impact of this policy be
on the formation of teachers?
Furthermore, much recent research in Quebec argues in favour of the importance
of integrating culture at school (Audet & Saint-Pierre, 1997; Bruner, 1996; Falardeau
& Simard, 2005; Mellouki & Gauthier, 2003; Monferier, 1999, Simard, 2003, 2004,
2005; Simard & Mellouki, 2005; Simard, Falardeau, Emery-Bruneau, Cote, 2005;
Zakhartchouk, 1999). Meanwhile, searchers in education have not yet considered the
articulation of the cultural approach within the content of the various disciplines in
their works. Accordingly, in the field of literature, how do teachers in training
perceive their role in the accompaniment and the development of students as subjects-
readers, as critics and as interpreters able to cast a pivotal regard on their primary
culture, spontaneous and immediate, through teaching and learning literature?
In order to fully act their role – as Zakhartchouk calls passeur culturel in French,
which we could translate – as cultural mediator which means departing from the
primary culture of the students – understood as a spontaneous, an immediate culture
from all familiarities, lifestyle, real life interpretations, etc. (Simard, 2004) – and
conducts them to the secondary culture – interpreted as an exceeding, a rational
distancing, an objectification of the primary culture – the teachers must, first of all,
have a reflexive relation to culture. In other words, they have to adopt a critical
distance with respect to their initial conception of an activity, a practice, an object or a
405
cultural phenomenon. In fact, the cultural mediator occupies a position, which favours
emergence of the culture in student life, because the origin of this emergence comes
from the cultural mediator that helps the student to establish a critical regard in terms
of his/her primary culture. Nevertheless, because “culture is not conceived in a sense
of an object, in spite of cultural connection and impregnation, rather a relation to, an
appropriation, a transfer and a factor of judgement” (Simard, 2001, p. 21), it would be
important to find ways to integrate culture, for teachers must establish a constant
integrative, evolutive and reflexive relation to objects, actors, knowledge, know-how
and cultural practices, so as to facilitate an encounter, an appropriation and an
integration within the student. The teacher must be able to consider the subjectivity of
the student and of himself/herself, to arrive at a rational distancing of that subjectivity
and develop as a “reflexive-subject”.
Considering this context, how can we then proceed to form cultural mediators
who will be interpreters and critics of culture without understanding their relation to
culture? What influence does their relation to culture have on their representation of
literature teaching and, more particularly, on the development of the subject-reader?
Could their representation of culture influence their representation of literary reading?
Objectives and Questions Concerning this Research
In this context, our objectives and our questions about our doctoral research are
articulated as such. On one hand, we want to
A- Understand the link between the relation to literary reading of future literature
teachers at college and their representation of student development as subject-
readers in progress.
In order to accomplish these objectives, we will attempt to answer two questions:
1- What is the relation of literature teachers in training to literary reading?

2- How does this relation to literary reading influence their representation of
literature teaching and the formation of a subject-reader?
On the other hand, we want to
B- Study and understand the link between the relation to culture of literature college
teachers in training and their relation to literary reading.
In order to attain these objectives, we will attempt to answer two questions:
1- What is the relation of literature college teachers in training to culture?

2- How does this relation to culture influence their relation to literary
reading?
406
Understanding Relation to Culture
Culture
Culture is a recurrent theme we recognize in the vocabulary of educational science

in Quebec. Frequently used expressions such as “teacher culture”, “student culture”,
“scholar culture” or “cultural dimension”, “cultural heightening” or “approach toward
culture” abound. This theme, polysemic, semantically and ideologically loaded, is
analyzed and defined in many ways, according to the definition arising from the
perspective of anthropologists, sociologists, philosophers, pedagogues or teachers
themselves. It is not our aim to make an inventory of all the definitions – and there are
many! – of the term “culture”, because this, in our view, would be an exercise in
futility. Nevertheless, we prefer to illustrate the dialectic between two visions that
seem a priori opposed, but at the same time appear complementary. This dialogue
between these two cultures will allow us to define what “culture” is and to position
this concept in the dynamics of “relation to”.
On one hand, we recognize the humanist conception called “traditional, individual
and normative” (Forquin, 1989, p. 9). Since the Renaissance, culture has meant work
art, literature, music, science and philosophy. It appears as a culture to be understood
in the principal works of humanity, the cultural heritage of rational beings (Simard,
2004). Based on this premise, we discuss the legitimate culture of the dominating class
(Lahire, 2004). Whether the content has been modified since that era or not, many
people still consider culture as “the set of dispositions and characteristic features of a
“cultured mind”, i.e. the possession of a wide range of knowledge, cognitive and
artistic skills, a sense of the “temporal depths” of human realisations and the
possibility of escaping from pure actuality” (Forquin, 1989, p. 9). Therefore,
according to the conception “traditional, individual and normative”, culture means
whole knowledge acquired which allows the development of refinement in taste,
manners and judgement. Thus, this conception defends the idea of a normative culture,
a culture from the intellectual elite, learned, who possess quantitative encyclopaedic
knowledge and learned knowledge.
On the other hand, we could consider the definition “purely descriptive and
objective developed by socials sciences” (Forquin, 1989, p. 9). Contrary to the
individual pole of humanist conception, culture is perceived in a collective sense,
designating “lifestyles, values, behaviours, attitudes and beliefs of a given society”
(Simard, 2004, p. 124); that is, an ensemble of characteristic features of the lifestyle of
a society, community or group, “including those aspects that can be seen as the most
routine, trivial or inadmissible” (Forquin, 1989, p. 9). Furthermore, in terms of
anthropology, culture is understood as a set of social practices. However, it is
important to be cautious when we use the descriptive conception, because the
sociocultural heterogeneity of societies where homogeneous and foreseeable cultural
capital existed (a concept from the theory of Bourdieu, 1979), now a multicultural
capital, heterogeneous and dynamic, has appeared. Lahire (2004) maintains similar
conclusions where he affirms that there are marked dissonances in individual cultural
practices, regardless of education or social class.
Whereupon, Forquin (1989) indicates that there seems to exist a tension around
the term “culture”, a tension we explain by the confrontation between an individual
facet and a collective one, equally important a confrontation between normative pole
and descriptive pole. However, Dumont (1968), a sociologist from Quebec, does not
407
consider this ideological-semantic conflict as an opposition between the

anthropologist and the humanist conception, but as a splitting of the culture into two
complementary spheres: a primary culture, a given (déjà-là) from which we obtain a
spontaneous interpretation of the world, and a secondary culture, built upon the
primary culture, reflexive and appearing in symbolic practices and systems (Simard,
2004). As Dumont expresses, “the distance and the two poles that define it are what
we must understand by the concept of ‘culture’. This consists of two opposing
federations of symbols, signs and privileged objects, from which the world takes its
form and meaning resulting in a conscience community” (Dumont, 1968, p. 62).
As Simard brings to mind (Simard, 2004, p. 128), antinomy has been observed
between humanist culture and anthropological descriptive and collective culture in the
past, but, nevertheless, “Dumont analyzed this instead as the dialectic between two
cultures, two complementary modes of participation to the culture”. Individual
experience with culture is a dialogue between the reference and spontaneous culture,
the primary culture, and a transformation of its initial conceptions of an object or a
cultural practice, a rational distancing, in other words, the secondary culture. So, in
terms of teaching, it is important that teachers consider cultural references from the
primary culture of their students and attend, as Meirieu (1995) proposed, to the codes,
references, values and stories from which the student inscribes himself/herself as a
“subject”. Considering the particularities in the field of literature teaching, this means
that it is inherent to consider cultural references, the subjectivity and story of the
“subject-reader”.
Relation to Culture
Culture operates through a rational distance of an individual, the objectivity of

his/her subjectivity, in a relation to himself/herself, to others and to the world (Charlot,
Bautier, Rochex, 1992; Charlot, 1997, Falardeau & Simard, 2005). Thus perceived,
culture must be considered not only as a set of constituted objects, but, moreover, as a
dynamic process from which an individual is in relation to himself/herself and to
others, including cultural objects, practices and knowledge, as well. Based on this
principle, the term “relation to culture” means all dynamic relations that an individual
(a subject) has with other individuals, objects, knowledge and cultural practices
(Falardeau & Simard, 2005). Therefore, all subjects necessarily entertain a relation to
culture, in a more or less supported and reflexive manner, because they are in relation
to humans being grouped around a society organized by culture. This relation can vary
depending upon the relations or practices in place, in the case of each distinctive
situation.
As figure one illustrates, culture can be understood as a process of construction
and transformation from which a “situated-subject” is in relation to, one that always
comprehends the world in a certain manner (A), living significant encounters with
actors, objects and cultural practices (B), which lead to a learning process,
conscientious and willing (C), which are integrated in a creative manner to the
structure of individual comprehension. From that process of learning, there results an
appropriation and an integration (D) of certain cultural references which transform the
culture of a subject ( the individual) and his relation to the world (D Æ A’ Æ B’…)
(Falardeau & Simard, 2005, p. 3).
408
Figure 1. Relation to Culture
This loop which represents the symbol of infinity in our Groupe de Recherche
Enseignement et Culture (in English, Teaching and Culture Research Group), directed
by Erick Falardeau and Denis Simard and upon which my doctoral thesis is based, our
conception of learning and culture, understood as a continuous dialogical process,
contextual, within the framework of material and relational circumstances (E)
(Falardeau et Simard, 2005, p. 4).
Teaching Literature: A Dynamic Process of Reception
We believe that if it were possible to form individuals able to develop a reflexive

relation to culture, their relation to literary reading would necessarily be modified;
therefore, we envisage that a consequence of this process would be that they develop
into reflexive subject-readers. In our view, the stakes of the didactic of literary reading
is to form active, autonomous, conscious, interpretive, critical and reflexive readers.
Whereupon, we aim to form subjects-readers who will be implicated in the dynamic
process of reception whereby their subjectivity and their reflexivity will be interactive.
We have suggested that the concept of “relation to” goes hand in hand with the
action of a subject – socially situated – and the sense that he/she gives to this activity.
In the case of a subject situated in the dynamic activity of the reception of literary
texts, we refer to a “subject-reader” that we define as such:
The subject-reader is a human being, social and singular who interacts

with literary reading in terms of sense and value. His/her relation to
literary reading vary from one text to another, because his intertextual
memory, cultural references, background, both personal and academic, his
experience of the world, desires, values and interest, in addition to his
implication, engagement and mobilisation influence the way he/she
represents the literary text in relation to himself/herself. The subject will
develop when he/she mobilises his/her subjectivity moreover adopting a
rational distancing with reading.
Therefore, in this sense, the relation to literary reading means to look for
understanding an ensemble of dynamic activities of reception of a subject-reader with
each literary text with which he/she is confronted and study the sense and value
relation he/she gives them (Emery-Bruneau, 2006). So, to understand the global
activity of the subject-reader, we must equally consider his/her relation to literary
reading as well as his/her relation to culture. In conclusion, we cannot study the
activity of a subject-reader without understanding his relation to culture that influence
his relation to text and to literary reading.
409
Methology Envisaged
Nevertheless, to be able to understand and analyze the relation literature teachers

in training entertain to culture and study the influence of this relation on their relation
to literary reading and on the development of the subject-reader, we will carry out a
qualitative research, by means of a case study, and proceed with a discourse and
content analysis. About twenty second year students registered in the program of
French teaching as first language at the college level will answer an open
questionnaire (in Quebec, students study at an undergraduate level for four years in
order to obtain a bachelor of education, legal qualification to teach… So, we will
interview them in the middle of their degree).
The questions we will ask are:
- According to you, what does culture signify?

- What is the role of the literature teacher in the cultural development of
students?
- According to you, what signifies reading a literary text?
- How do you conceive teaching literary reading? Choose a literary book of
your choice and explain how you could teach the contents to students at
college.
The analysis of the answers will be carried out with the aid of an analysis table
which will illustrate all the different dimensions of “relation to culture”, “relation to
literary reading” and “subject-reader”, i.e. social factors (the social dimension), the
sense attributed to knowledge and their practices (the epistemic dimension) and the
importance of the subject, the individual (the subjective dimension). In addition, semi-
directed interviews will follow involving a few selected subjects (around 8) to further
develop elements approached in the questionnaires.
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Counselling, Energy, Movement
39
Tom Geary, University of Limerick
&
Patricia Cremen, University of Limerick
T
he University of Limerick has offered the Diploma in Guidance Counselling
for the past eight years. This is a part time two-year programme, delivered at
graduate diploma level and which is mainly for teachers working as guidance
counsellors in schools and in adult education centres and education settings
such as VTOS and Youthreach.
The programme has undergone significant changes and developments over the
past eight years as a result of student evaluations, external examiner reports and
lecturers reflecting on their practice.
For the present cohort, 2005/06, the model of assigning core trainers to the
programme has been introduced. The main functions of the core trainers is to teach the
modules which have a personal development component, track student development
and give ongoing feedback as well as end of year reports.
The core trainers observed from previous cohorts that the learning environment for
the personal development modules i.e. Counselling and Theory Practice 1; Theory and
Practice of Experiential Group Processes; and Counselling and Theory Practice 2;
were over-relying on verbal communication and that the group experience was lacking
life and energy. As a result of these observations the core trainers and authors of this
paper made a conscious decision to integrate movement, energy and body work with
an interpersonal and intrapersonal focus, into the future learning environment for
these three modules.
This paper outlines the key themes that emerge from a review of the relevant
literature, from the father figures of bodywork Freud, Reich and Jung to the more
contemporary understandings of body, emotions and behaviour, of Zinker, Rothschild
and Landale. The research methods are outlined with specific reference to the
phenomenological approach to research and sections on access and ethics are
included. Findings from the research include a broad spectrum of vignettes from the
evaluations, observations and student feedback. The discussion comments on key
themes from the literature and the findings, and highlights key questions for course
providers of guidance counselling in the University of Limerick and other institutions.
Finally the researchers focus on a number of core recommendations for the existing
413
programme in the University of Limerick and refer to the implications for similar
programmes other universities.
Research Proposal
These researchers are deeply committed to the experiential learning process and
have observed in their work as trainers that movement and energy are neglected
aspects in the design and delivery of the training programmes in guidance counselling.
The authors through their research to date, believe that the integration of
movement, energy, grounding, centring and sensing into the experiential teaching
methods employed by the core trainers in the personal developments modules for
trainee guidance counsellors, help the trainees go beyond the verbal, cognitive
methods of counselling and equip them with a wide range of competence and skills.
Consequently this research explores the contribution that movement and the
releasing of blocked energy can bring to the learning environment of a group of
trainee guidance counsellors.
The main aim of this research, therefore, is the integration of kinaesthetic,
interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences. The theoretical perspectives, which have
influenced the research, are drawn from: Freud, Reich, Rothschild, Zinker and
Landale.
To date these researchers have endeavoured to integrate a broad range of
movement and activities that invite and challenge the students to see how their
learning can be maximized through milling around, displaying work, stretching,
sequences of gentle movements and role-play.
Our findings to date indicate that, in the majority of guidance counselling courses,
a very heavy focus is placed on theory and interpersonal exchanges. It is our
experience that, as a result of this, kinaesthetic intelligence is often neglected in the
learning community of this programme.
We believe that by addressing this perceived imbalance we could give students in
the course the competence and skills to work with the messages that our bodies can
give to us thereby working with clients in a more holistic way.
Literature Review
The focus on the body and movement is frequently viewed as having its’ origin in
the humanistic understanding of the human person i.e. (counselling, psychotherapy
and education). However it’s roots can be traced to the psychoanalytical understanding
of the human person. This review will focus on the place of ‘the body’ in Freud’s
theory of human development, Reich’s relationship with psychoanalysis and his work
as a founder of the human development movement. It will then examine the more
contemporary views on bodywork in counselling and psychotherapy, referring to
Rothchild’s expression of emotion as an experience of the body, Kolb’s theory on the
transition from rigid cognitive thinking to active experiential learning, Landale’s
views on imagery and finally Zinker’s belief that all creativity begins with movement.
Freud traces, in detail, how the entire psychic apparatus is a development of bodily
sensations and impulses, ‘the ego is first and foremost a bodily ego’. Tottton (2002)
The surface of the body i.e. the skin is a protective organ that gives shape to the whole
body. Freud’s concept of drives and urges are a process of excitement in our organs
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and that the aim of the drive is to express itself through physical manifestation. Freud
encouraged clients into self-sculptured postures that expressed their earlier forgotten
experiences of trauma. The origin of neurosis in psychoanalysis is the contradiction
between the desires of the body and it’s expression in drives and the rules imposed by
society. Sexuality and anger are frequently repressed drives because of the rules and
regulations of society.
Reich shifts the focus from what the client is repressing to how it is being
repressed. He states that ‘just as libido and desire are for psychoanalysis, ultimately
bodily, biological phenomena, so repression – the force that opposes desire – is also a
bodily phenomena, located in the habitual rigidity of the musculature. This focuses
attention not only on rigid thinking process but also our muscular rigidity. The melting
of such rigidity in Reichian work is a slow process focusing the client on their
breathing to support a ‘letting go’ of trembling, facial expression and sounds. Reich
supports his client to express bodily sensation and verbal material.
In 1930 Reich was excluded from the psychoanalytic approach to therapy. From
here he developed his independent approach to psychotherapy. Reich developed a
more invasive form of therapeutic work aimed to work faster to ‘unblock’ the energy
of ‘clients’ so that they would function more effectively. A. Lowen was a major
influence on humanistic psychology combining body–centeredness and positive
attitudes to sexuality, optimistic positivism and anti-intellectual slant. Reich was
optimistic in his belief of the core of the human person. ‘That human beings are at
their core loving and creative’ Totton (2002). This is opposed to most of the Freudian
thinkers; Reich also saw the challenge in dealing with destruction in human behaviour.
He translates Freud’s somewhat vague notion of dammed up psychic energy’ with a
very precise concept of blocked muscular energy. Freud maintained that mental
processes controlled physical forces. Reich held that the view that mental domination
of the body is the root of neurosis.
More contemporary approaches to body work in counselling and in psychotherapy
are found in the work of Rothschild (2000). She states that emotions, though
interpreted and named by the mind, are integrally an experience of the body. This
should not come as a surprise as everyday speech is full of phrases, in many
languages, that reflect the link of emotion and body, psyche and soma. Experiencing
feelings of sadness one might be heard to say ‘I’m all choked up’. Similarly with
happiness ‘I could burst’, disgust ‘she makes me sick’ and shame ‘I can’t look you in
the eye’. Again Rothschild (2000) states that anger can be traced to muscular tension,
particularly in the jaw and shoulders, sadness can be manifest itself as a lump in the
throat, fear can be observed as a racing heart and or trembling in the body and shame
can be experienced as heat rising especially in the face coupled with an averted gaze.
Trainee guidance counsellors, through the skills of observation and noticing, track
their own bodies as a source of information and learning. Observing changes in body
temperature, tightening of muscles, and posture can help them see that different
emotions have different bodily expressions.
Landale (2002) states that the body’s reality is immediate and simple. The
language a therapist uses when engaging with the body’s communication thus has to
aim at getting the client into experiencing their body rather than thinking about it. She
states that engaging the body in personal process work starts simply with ‘what is’
statements such as, ‘you look sad’ or ‘ you seem restless’. The emphasis is on the non-
verbal communication. Therapists may comment on changes of posture or gestures or
physical expression providing ground for exploration and/or an active way of working
with resistance. The author’s aim has been to encourage the trainee guidance
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counsellors to enter into an experiential way of learning through embracing Kolb’s

(1984) experiential learning cycle of experiencing, sharing, processing, generalising
and applying. Once people share from this place of sensing they begin to realise that
they are not unique in a very negative way, but there is a commonality in peoples
experience and an awareness of this commonality supports clients in exploring their
personal processes in greater dept.
Zinker (1978) believes that all creativity begins with movement. The authors take
this on board when building the capacity of the guidance counsellor to work in
different education settings. Their aim is to use movement creatively and in doing so
expand their repertoire of techniques to include when and where appropriate. To
counteract an over reliance on verbal articulation and verbal feedback they integrate
the use of guided imagery, relaxation exercises, art work and sculpting as an integral
aspect of the counselling process. These techniques may be particularly useful with
verbally resistant clients and also have the potential to be used in other developmental
programmes such as SPHE, health promotion, gender studies and life skills
programmes.
The authors drew heavily on guided imagery as a key entry point for working with
trainee guidance counsellors They specifically focused on the connection between the
physical, emotional and imaginative processes as a mechanism to explore the themes
of isolation and belonging, unresolved family of origin issues, assertiveness, anxiety
and thereby heighten the trainee’s self-awareness. Techniques such as breathing, bare-
attention meditation, sensing, tensing, relaxing, sculpting, scanning, grounding,
centring and movement were employed. Landale (2002) states that imagery becomes
especially potent when it is being embodied, in other words when it is being
experienced physically and emotionally. It is a technique, which helps the trainee to
explore resistance and to focus in on those areas in the body in which they are holding
tension. It includes all the various types of imagination, such as visualisation – the
evocation of visual images – auditory imagination, tactile, kinaesthetic imagination
and so on. The authors are insuring that trainees are gently introduced to experiencing
feelings emotions and sensations in a non-threatening way.
Implications for the core trainers of the graduate diploma in guidance counselling
in the University of Limerick is to make explicit the richness of learning that can
emerge from heightening body awareness. The important pieces of work include:
• Being aware of your own bodily reaction to client;

• Breath work
• Employing techniques aimed at to increasing energy. These are many
and varied and include suggesting that the client raise her voice, move
around the room, engage in some repetitive movement, relate to her
feeling, visualize energy flow and direct it; use paints or other art
materials.
• Encouraging physical confidence: This may be improved through
exercise, adjusting body posture, standing up in order be assertive and so
on, grounding exercises and decoding messages from the body.
Body focus work in counselling psychotherapy has evolved from rigid thinking in
Freud, rigidity in musculature in Reich, to strong emotional content and blockage in
the work of Rothschild.
The work of the tutor is to help the trainee observe their own bodily existence, to
heighten awareness of rigid thinking, sensing, feeling and restricted movement and
416
through imagery and polarity work encourage them to explore the opposite to their
habitual rigidity and engage in dialogue between the rigid and the freedom. Guided
imagery, sculpting and artwork are now frequently uses media through with the
learning is taking place.
The authors research focuses on bringing the trainee and ultimately the client to
the awareness that by bringing attentions to particular parts of the body they obtain a
rich source of information and insight and also dispelling the myth that all bodywork
has to be invasive and intrusive.
Research Process
A distinctive feature of this research is that we, as researchers, were part of the
phenomenon, which we were investigating. Our role was that of lecturers and
facilitators in the core modules of Counselling Theory and Practice 1 and 11 and
Theory of Experiential Group Work. These modules had both a knowledge skills and
personal development component. We were deeply engaged in the process
undertaking the roles of designers, planners, teachers and facilitators. The content
included micro skills in attending and listening, theories of personal development and
theory and practice of group process.
The researchers observed themselves in their interactions with each other and with
the trainees and also the student’s interactions with the facilitators and each other.
Whyte (1943,1955 cited in Whelan 2005) states the researcher becomes part of the
community. He attempts to build a description of the structure and the culture a
community through intensive examination, observation and interaction with members
of the group. This places the researcher in the role of an insider. Insiders can see
things and hear things that outsiders cannot. From this level of immersion in the field
that we were investigating, the researchers took the approaches of action research and
phenomenological inquiry as the most appropriate methodology for this research. Mc
Cloud (2001) states that phenomenology is almost a meditative practice, and involves
an ‘indwelling’ in the phenomenon until its’ essential features reveal themselves.
Because of the personal and subjective nature of the research the qualitative and
naturalistic approach seems best suited to the nature of their investigation. They were
discovering meaning from the phenomena they were participating in and researching
as opposed to externally observing and imposing meaning. Mc Cloud (2001)
advocates the study of direct experience taken at face value, which sees behaviour as
determined by the phenomena of experience rather than by external, objective and
physically described reality.
Practitioner based research and phenomenological based enquiry are approaches
to research, which emanate from the qualitative paradigm. Mc cloud (2001) states the
principal source of knowing in qualitative enquiry is the researcher’s engagement in
the search for meaning and truth in relation to the topic of enquiry. It is the struggle,
‘to know’, that generates new and useful insights. This approach to research is well
borne out in the work of Husserl and Schultz cited in Mc Cloud (2001). They
emphasise that this approach to research, (a) places subjective consciousness as the
centre of its activity, (b) that this subjective consciousness is active and lends itself to
the creation of meaning and (c) that knowledge can be gained by a specific type of
reflection.
The work of Whitehead, McNiff and Lomax (2003) cited in Mc Niff and
Whitehead (2005) influenced the work of the researchers in providing them with a
framework for self-study. This approach is cyclical in nature i.e. researchers review
417
current practice and identify an aspect they want to improve, visualise a way forward,
implement it and take stock of the outcome.
Schultz states that an understanding of the behaviour of others is dependent on:
‘The process of typification by means of which the observer makes use of

concepts resembling ‘ideal types’ to make sense of what people do.’ Mc
Cloud (2001)
The researchers, through previous experience of teaching are aware of the ideal
learning situations that they hold as being the optimum for students in the Graduate
Diploma in Guidance Counselling. This ideal picture is an integration of intrapersonal,
interpersonal and body focus work.
The works of Kolb (1984) and Rogers (1961) have influenced the researchers in
their approach to teaching and learning. They are aware of the efforts they have made
in moving from teaching prepositional knowledge to interactive and experiential
learning, which includes the interpersonal. intrapersonal and the affective domains of
learning.
The researchers devised a briefing sheet on the research, See Appendix 1, which
they discussed with the students and subsequently sought their consent to using the
material in the course for research purposes. Students were assured of total anonymity
and understood that their own personal process were confidential to the module
sessions. The researchers explained to them that the data for the research would be
gathered from their own design documents, student written evaluations, and their own
personal reflective journals. They also emphasised that student’s written work from
collage, posters and artwork would be analysed for research purposes. McNiff and
Whitehead (2005) state that you must get permission from those whose learning you
are intending to influence through your educational relationship.
Students we also reassured that the course material would be securely stored in the
University and held for a period 5 years. Reference was made to the Freedom of
Information Act under which students are entitled to retrieve their course material on
request from the relevant department in the University after the relevant period of time
has elapsed.
Students were informed that phase one of the research, which culminates in this
paper, would be brought back to them in summary form, for the purpose of participant
validation.
This research began in May 2005 and will continue to May 2007. Phase one of the
research is specifically looking at the modules, Counselling Theory and Practice 1,
Theories and Skills of Experiential Group Processes and The Residential Workshop.
Phase one of this research culminates with the publication of this report. Phase two
will span Counselling Theory and Practice 11, and the second Residential Workshop
and will conclude in May 2007.
As this piece of research is carried out entirely in one institution, it runs the risk of
not being in a position to make any recommendations or assessing the implications for
similar programmes in other institutions, however, the author’s think it will inform an
ongoing review of our existing programme and it has the potential to link into reviews
of similar programmes within the University of Limerick, such as the MA in
Humanistic and Integrative Psychotherapy and The Graduate Diploma in Health
Education Promotion. Also the researchers believe that it could contribute to reviews
in other institutions.
418
The colleted data was collapsed from the various sources i.e. design documents,
student written evaluations, and the author’s personal reflective journals into specific
categories. The data was subsequently presented with relevant extracts taken from the
various categories. These categories were illuminated with the major themes emerging
from the literature such as, pacing and timing, integrating movement in all phases of
the learning, supporting and encouraging trainees to access their bodies as source of
information and increased self-awareness.
In summary, the research methods adopted by the researchers, which include self,
peer and student overt observation, document search and student evaluations, enable
them to keep an open ended and flexible approach to their enquiry and to observe the
group movements from the initial stage, through to the working stage and finally the
closing stage.
Findings from the Lecturer Design Notes
From their design notes, the researchers have observed, that they have frequently
included:
• Checking the energy levels of the group members.

• Continually observing how movement could be integrated into the
learning .
• Connecting the main theoretical principles to a, thinking, feeling, sensing
dimension.
• Teaching the theoretical knowledge base with the linkages to body
armouring, resistance and melting.
Their notes also highlighted
• The transition from sitting meditation to walking meditation

• To using reports from sub-groups in poster and collage format,
transforming the learning environment into an imagery gallery where
students work was on display
• To students moving about silently observing the work of their own sub-
group and others while at the same time documenting their own learning in
their reflective journals
Other highlights from their design notes
• Challenging students to locate the verbal and emotional energy about a

particular personal theme in their own body i.e. ‘I see that sticking in your
throat’
• Exploration of personal themes of isolation and belonging, unresolved
family of origin issues, assertiveness, anxiety, clichés, roles and games,
through role play, acting out and re-enactment (e.g. student dealing with
issues of vulnerability sought support not only verbally but had the option
to use the facilitator as a person from whom they could receive support i.e.
student physically leaning over and letting themselves go into the arms of
the facilitator)
419
They also noted from our design notes
• That students began modelling the behaviour of the tutors (in particular
from the physical support that they offered to each other).
Extracts from Student Evaluations and Poster Work
These extracts are taken directly from students evaluations and poster work and
the researchers subsequently organised them under certain themes: Creativity,
Grounding, Movement/Energy, /Active Learning, Experiential Learning,
Pacing/Timing.
Theme 1 – Creativity
‘Stretch my skills ‘creatively’

‘Creative approach is vital in counselling’
‘It was totally relevant and provided a ‘breath of fresh air’ in the counselling
experience’
‘Well-structured – Creative exercises very beneficial from a learning
perspective’
‘Role Play – learning/self-awareness’
‘Interesting to see a variety of interventions in use’
‘I like examples/demonstrations/role plays – I find them clear and honest’
Students were very positive and affirming about the range of creative learning
approaches implemented throughout the personal process modules. This is very
reassuring for the facilitators and encourages them to enhance their repertoire and their
skills in these areas.
Theme 2 – Grounding
‘Awareness of what ungrounds us’

‘Stay grounded in the midst of distraction’
‘Use the ‘slowing down’ process’
‘Stay grounded, stay with the client’
‘Grounding is so important!’
‘Ground yourself and be aware of your body language’
The above quotes indicate the centrality of, grounding, breathing and centring and
bare attention meditation, in the experience of the students within module delivery.
The researchers, as trainers, observed student’s progression, in the early days of the
programme, from unease and discomfort when requested to slow down, to acquiring
an appetite for this way of being. The students reported how they were applying this
learning to their work, relationships and other contexts.
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Movement/Energy/Active Learning
‘Body exercises (creative approach) – Reminder that we didn’t do enough of

this’
‘Don’t replicate client’s posture throughout’
‘Body language – be aware of it’
‘Body language and space leave an escape hatch’
‘It was fantastic to have a chance to let loose and break free’
‘Liked the movement in the room’
‘A nervous energy when volunteering – unaware when asked to ‘freeze’ the
moment – got tense’
‘The active participation was very informative’
‘Very good/informative/active learning’
These extracts highlight how the trainee guidance counsellors were learning the
skills of self-awareness and self-observation and in turn applying their insights to
awareness and observations of others, in particular, pupils, clients and adults. It also
highlights the student’s eagerness to engage in movement and energy more frequently.
They highlighted that movement and awareness of their energy brought with them a
sense of freedom and it was highly informative about their own and others process.
Experiential Learning
‘Excellent – using examples – getting the whole group to observe –

participate’
‘The weekend was very organic – evolving to meet people’s needs’
‘A great learning experience’
‘Really enjoyed the content – nice and varied’
‘Modelling very educational’
‘Plenty of variety in approaches taken’
The experiential learning cycle was taught theoretically and the above extracts
highlight how it was applied in the learning environment. Also they demonstrate that
the participants were very receptive to this method of experiential learning. These
quotes highlight that the researchers as facilitators did not fall into fixed routines and
methods of teaching. A variety of approaches were used that were challenging to both
teachers and students alike. The facilitators were no longer cast in the fixed role of
imparters of knowledge but were seen as planners, designers and organisers of
dynamic and challenging learning environments.
Pacing/Timing
‘Very good – moved at pace that suited me greatly’

‘Pacing – very good – moved along nicely but not too quick’
‘This was very empowering – it allowed for much personal development –
without unnecessary obvious strain, stress or over direction’
‘Resistance gone after an enjoyable weekend’
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‘Gentle and supportive’
These quotes emphasise a non-radical approach to bodywork whereby the

facilitators give microscopic attention to each individual and encourage them to build
up their self-support so that they can engage fully with the learning experience. The
facilitators engage with the trainees with their pace in mind.
Discussion
The findings and the literature have generated the following areas for discussion
and highlighted key questions for course providers of guidance counselling in
University of Limerick and possibly other institutions.
Professional and Ethical Issues for Guidance Counsellors around Teaching and
Touch
Professional codes of ethics for educators for post primary and other centres of
education highlight the importance of not making direct bodily contact with students.
Within the Irish education context this is very significant at present, as a broad range
of neglect and abuse issues have emerged from professional groups, who have had the
care of children entrusted to them in residential care settings etc. The authors are
aware that they are conducting this piece of research within this present socio-cultural
context in Ireland. Mindful of this they are convinced that a significant contribution to
body focus work can take place in a safe learning climates where it is never the
educational objective for the facilitator to be in bodily contact with the students.
Bodywork is sometimes seen as synonymous with counsellor and therapists
touching clients but working with the body does not require touch. Rothschild (2002)
refers to the many ways one may work with the body such as integrating important
aspects of muscular, behavioural, and sensory input, without intruding on bodily
integrity. There is a rich repertoire of human experiences i.e. meditation, visualisation,
energizers, self- attending to a part of the body that maybe frozen or neglected to
facilitate this. It would be a great loss to the learning environment if this repetoire of
teaching strategies were to be avoided in the as a reaction to the neglect and abuse of
educators and carers in the past.
Resistance or blocked energy can be manifested by tension in some part of the
body, i.e. posture, by keeping one’s body tight and closed, by looking away from
people when speaking to avoid contact and by speaking in a restricted voice. Corey
(1996). The authors agree with Zinker (1978) when he states that working with
resistance is a very important aspect in counselling and therapy and maintains that
students should be taught to feel friendly with resistance, flow with it, lean into it,
exaggerate it and not to become frustrated with what they may perceive as the client’s
lack of cooperation. He believes that it is the therapist’s job to help clients locate the
ways in which they are blocking energy and help them to use this energy more
effectively. The core trainers dealt with the initial resistance of the trainee guidance
counsellors by gently encouraging them to exaggerate their tight mouth or shaking
legs so that they could discover for themselves how they are diverting energy and
keeping themselves from a living fully. The research findings illustrate that this non-
radical approach to bodywork proved to be very effective in helping them engage fully
with the learning experience.
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The key question for providers of profession education programme in guidance

counselling is, can we go beyond the didactic cognitive methods of counselling to
interactive and body focus experiential learning? The authors while disagreeing the
radical approaches to body work adopted by Reich which involved invasive and
intrusive exercises conclude that this can be done if working from the concepts of the
earlier work of Reich which emphasised trust, sensitivity and graduals and have
generated their learning out of this place of thinking reflecting and practice.
Application
Guidance counselling embraces a person’s personal, social, educational and

vocational world and frequently clients present with levels of anxiety specific to
educational achievement. The application of bare attention meditation, breathing
centering and grounding are transferable methodologies, which the student counsellor
can bring into their specific work environment. SPHE is now a curriculum entitlement
in second level education and this gives the guidance counsellor an opportunity to
engage in group work with pupils thus providing an opportunity to teach meditation
through practice, stretching, energy raising as integral parts of the ten themes in the
SPHE curriculum i.e. self management, self-esteem and study skills. This challenges
the guidance counsellors to acquire the skills of not alone one to one work but equally
as important, class and group work. Guidance Counsellors need to work with
individuals and groups with an awareness of the age, gender and socio economic
appropriateness.
Facilitator’s Background in Bodywork – Professional Training – Confidence in Work
Guidance counsellors who facilitate group work in the areas of SPHE, educational
and vocational programmes, frequently draw from SPHE and career education
resource packs which include elements of body work i.e. meditation, role play,
energizers. One of the challenges this presents is the necessity for the guidance
counsellors themselves to have experienced a broad and deep range of kinaesthetic
and body focus training. The core trainers in the guidance counsellors programme
have themselves engaged in professional development in body focus work from such
centres as the Chiron Centre in London, the Lomi School of Bodywork in San
Francisco USA and have a background in Gestalt Psychotherapy which places a strong
focus on the senses and body armouring. The authors believe that this work is best
engaged with by educators who themselves have experienced bodywork as part of
their own training.
This research has highlighted that; professional and ethical issues for guidance
counsellors can be maintained at the highest level. A broad range of learning strategies
is available to both the guidance counsellors and the student as a resource for teaching
and learning and these are in the domain of sensory awareness and body focus.
The programme in the University of Limerick in Guidance Counselling is based
on the Cascade model i.e. effectively qualified core trainers in body focus work
modelling best practice with the trainees who subsequently work with or facilitate
individuals and groups in education settings with a deep sense of awareness of both
the positive and negative impact of body work.
423
Recommendations
The prerequisites for the core trainers in the guidance counsellors are (a) to have a
level of competence and training in bodywork before introducing it into the learning
environment (b) ongoing training and (c) theoretical knowledge.
The integration of kinaesthetic intelligence with the intrapersonal and
interpersonal should be engaged in with a deep sense of pace, timing and patience.
Contract, group cohesion and climate setting are crucial to the unfolding of the
introduction of bodywork to trainees who are more familiar with cognitive approaches
to learning.
The resistance by trainees to this method of teaching can challenged most
effectively through, sensitivity, empathy, and appropriate humour.
An integrative focus on the teaching of attachment theory, lifespan development
and motivation theory are necessary starting points for the trainees in identifying their
own needs and having these met.
The importance of flexibility in approach to design and planning combined with
observation skills as the course evolves will ensure that the trainee’s process will take
precedence over the plan when necessary.
Conclusion
To conclude, the author’s aim has been to illustrate, how the integration of
movement and energy into the teaching methods of the personal development modules
for trainee guidance counsellors, can be a powerful catalyst for deepening and
enriching their learning experience. They have demonstrated, through their research
findings, that this is in fact is true and that the learning process can only be enhanced
by this method of teaching.
References
Corey, G. (1996) Theory and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 5th Ed. USA:
Brooks/Cole
Kolb, D.A. (1984) Experiential Learning. USA: Prentice Hall Inc.
Landale, M (2002) ‘The use of imagery in body-oriented psychotherapy’, in Staunton, T. Ed.
(2002) Body Psychotherapy, London: Brunner-Routledge, 116-132.
Mc Cloud, J. (2001) Qualitative Research in Counselling and Psychotherapy. London: Sage.
Mc Niff. J & Whitehead, J. (2005) Action Research for Teachers A Practical Guide. London:
Futon
Rogers, C.R. (1961) On Becoming a Person. London: Constable & Robinson Ltd. Rothschild,
B. (2000) The Body Remembers – The Psychophysiology of Trauma and Trauma
Treatment. New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc.
Totton, N. (2002) ‘Foreign bodies: recovering the history of body psychotherapy’, in Staunton,
T. Ed. (2002) Body Psychotherapy, London: Brunner-Routledge, 8-26.
Zinker, J. (1978) Creative Process in Gestalt Therapy. New York: Vintage Books. 1978
Whelan, S.A. (2005) Group Processes – A Developmental Perspective, 2nd ed., USA: Pearson
Education Inc.
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Appendix 1
Research Consent Form

Course: Graduate Diploma in Guidance Counselling, University of Limerick.
Date:
We are currently researching the place and significance of movement, stretching,

breathing, grounding and centering in the Graduate Diploma in Guidance Counselling
Course, at the University of Limerick. We are seeking your consent to allow us, to
refer to how we plan and implement body focus work, in our work with you.
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Part 4
InService
Education
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428
A Research on Nutrition Knowledge Level of Nursery School Teachers in
Ankara, Turkey
40
A Research on Nutrition Knowledge Level
of Nursery School Teachers in Ankara,
Turkey
Ayse Ozfer Ozcelik, Ankara University

&
Fatma Ozgun Ormeci, Ankara University
H
ealth is being defined as “a state of complete physical, mental and social
well-being, not merely the absence of disease and infirmity” by The World
Health Organization (Blair 2001). Nutrition is of primary importance to
anatomical and physiological development and maintenance of the human
body (Wildman and Medeiros 2000). The relationship between good nutrition and
good health is well recognized (Frank et al 2002). Consumption of a healthy diet by
young children is essential to provide for normal growth and development and to
prevent a variety of nutrition-related health problems, such as anemia, growth
retardation, malnutrition, cognitive achievement, obesity, dental caries and chronic
diseases in later life (Contento et al 1995). Among these chronic diseases are obesity,
diabetes, hypertension, aterosclerosis and some cancer types (Kocoglu 1997, Turrell
1997).
The scope of public health nutrition encompasses a wide range of nutrition issues
that affect the health of population, from food production, distribution and
consumption to the prevention of diet-related illnesses. An important focus on public
health nutrition is on the promotion of good health and well being through healthy
eating and lifestyles (Khor 2004). The basis of societal improvement is healthily
grown children. The preschool period is the most important phase in the life of a child
(Merdol 1999). Food behaviors are established very early in life (1-6 ages) and lay the
groundwork for lifelong eating patterns. Opportunities for professionals to help young
children develop nutritionally sound food behaviors have increased with the expanded
enrollment of young children is preschool settings (Lawatsch 1990).
The preschool years are an important time period in a child’s life to develop
positive behaviour and to acquire favourable eating habits. Healthy nutrition in young
429
children will help reduce the risk of obesity, coronary diseases, cancer and other
chronic diseases, and gain healthy nutritional habits (Duyff 2003).
A child’s nutrition is closely related to his/her parents’ socio-economic condition,
environment and the education they receive. During this education process, parents
play an important role in educating the child at home, and at school it is the teachers’
task (Tekgul et al 1986). Nutrition knowledge is one of the factors that affect the
nutritional habits of individuals, families and communities ( Koksal and Kırlı 1988).
Teachers have ample opportunity to influence young people’s eating patterns,
given their close proximity to and repeated contact with students during school day
(Kubic et al 2002). Children begin, in pre-school age, to understand concepts like
nutritive value, nutrient function and the impact of nutrition on health, and their
nutritional awareness correlates with the quantitiy and quality of food (Rasanen et al
2001). A teacher’s being successful in her duty of nutrition education can only be
possible if she herself has nutrition knowledge (Koksal and Kırlı 1988).
This study has been designed and conducted with the objective of determining the
level of nutritional knowledge of nursery school teachers.
Materıals and Methods
The research has been conducted in the center of the province of Ankara. 200
preschool teachers who work in various kindergartens in Ankara agreed to participate
in the research. All the teachers are females.
A questionnaire has been developed to collect the research data. It consists of two
parts. In the first part, demographic information such as the age, education status,
marital status, whether they have children, duration of teaching and whether they have
taken nutrition classes are included. The second part of the questionnaire is a
knowledge survey which contains multiple-choice nutritional knowledge questions
(Table 1), each with four possible answers. The total number of questions is 20. In
order to determine the nutrition knowledge level, each right answer has been assigned
1 point, and each wrong or doesn’t know answer 0 points. (Although “don’t know”
was not in the choices, some teachers have made a note that they do not know the
answer). The total points are 20. The grouping has been made as follows: 8 or below
points, ‘bad’; 9-12 points, ‘medium’; 13-16 points, ‘good’; 17-20 points, ‘very good’
nutrition knowledge levels. The data obtained has been evaluated using SPSS
(Statistical Package for the Social Science). Charts showing the absolute and
percentage values related with each question have been prepared and the required
arithmetical averages have been taken ( X +S). The following factors have been used
as explanatory variables: age, education status, marital status, whether they have
children, duration of teaching and whether they have taken nutrition classes. In the
cases when the chi-square (X2) significance test and chi-square tests are not conducted
as statistical analysis, G statistics has been applied (Kesici and Kocabas 1998).
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Ankara, Turkey
Table 1. Nutritional Knowledge Questionnaire (*Denotes the correct answer)

1. Which of the following is the nutrient whose main duty in the body is growing-repairing?
a) Fats b)Proteins* c) Carbohydrates d) Minerals
2. Which of the following is mono-unsaturated fat?
a) Butter b) Olive oil* c) Sunflower oil d) Soy oil
3. What type of oil should be prefered for health?
a) Butter-margarine b) Olive oil-Sunflower oil*
c) Corn oil-butter d) Margarine-Sunflower oil
4. Which of the following is the cholesterol type known as “good cholesterol” among the public?
a) LDL b) VLDL c) IDL d) HDL*
5. Which of the following is wrong regarding energy requirement?
a) Energy requirement changes according to age
b) Energy requirement is the same for everybody *
c) Body weight affects energy requirement
d) Energy requirement for men and women is different
6. Approximately how many calories is a five year old child’s daily energy requirement?
a) 1500 kcal* b)1200 kcal c) 1000 kcal d)1100 kcal
7. Which of the following types of food contains cholesterol?
a)Apple b) Olive oil c) Egg* d) Pasta
8. Which of the following diseases appear when inadequate iodine is taken in?
a) Anemia b) Rickets c) Goitre* d) Ulcer
9. The deficiency of what vitamin and mineral causes rickets?
a) Vitamin D-calcium* b) Vitamin A-zinc c) Thiamin-iron d) Riboflavine-iodine
10. Which of the following contains Vitamin D the most?
a) Milk b) Fish oil* c) Muttond) Cheese
11. Which of the following pairs of food is the best source for Vitamin A?
a) Cereals-tomato b) Liver-carrot* c) Orange-Potato d) Milk-bread
12. Which of the following contains Vitamin C abundantly?
a) Meat b)Pekmez c) Orange* d) Apple
13. Which of the following food types has got the highest rate of iron absorption?
a) Pekmez b) Bread c) Milk d) Liver*
14. Which of the following diseases appear when inadequate iron is taken in?
a) Rickets b) Tooth decay c) Goitre d) Anemia*
15. Which of the following is not a suitable afternoon snack for pre-school children?
a) A glass of milk, cheese toast b) Linden tee, biscuits*
c) A bowl of muhallebi d) Spinach börek, ayran
16. Which of the following is the four basic nutrition group?
a)“Meats-eggs-legumes”, “milk and dairy products”, “vegetables and fruits”, “sugar and sweets”*
b)“Milk and milk products”, “cereals-bread”, “vegetables and fruits”, “fats”
c)“Meats-eggs-legumes”, “milk and dairy products”, “vegetables and fruits”, “cereals-bread”
d)“Meats-eggs-legumes”, “milk and dairy products”, “cereals-bread”, “sugar/sweets”
17. Which of the following is an example of a balanced lunch menu?
a)Yogurt soup-grilled meatball-salad-bread*
b)Lentil soup-bulgur pilaf-compote-bread
c)Noodle soup-pasta-yogurt-bread
d)Vegetable soup- Olive oiled fresh beans-salad-bread
18. Which of the following nutrition recommendations is errenous?
a) Care should be taken to keep within the limits of body weight
b) Fluorined water should be drunk
c) Consumption of refined sugar should be increased*
d) Variety of food within the diet should be increased
19. Which food type is the most effective on tooth decays?
a) Apple b) Cake* c)Carrot d) Bread
20. Which of the following is a condition for sufficient and balanced nutrition?
a) To eat one’s fill
b) To get a variety of food as much as needed*
c) To eat a lot of meat
d) Planning nutrition depending on family’s daily eating habits
431
Table 2. Demographic Information About Teachers

Variables n %
Age (Year)
≤ 25 84 42.0
26-35 61 30.5
≥ 36 55 27.5
Education
Regular high school 19 9.5
Vocational high school 90 45.0
University related with profession 68 34.0
University not related with profession 23 11.5
Marital Status
Married 106 53.0
Single 86 43.0
Other 8 4.0
Children
Yes 88 44.0
No 112 56.0
Duration of Teaching (Year)
≤5 90 45.0
6-10 54 27.0
11-15 23 11.5
≥ 16 33 16.5
Nutrition Class At School
Took the course 158 79.0
Did not take the course 42 21.0
Total 200 100.0
In this section, demographic information about teachers, the answers they gave to
the nutrition knowledge questions and findings related to their level of nutritional
knowledge have been included.
Demographic Information
The demographic information about the teachers participating in the research is

shown in Table 2.
According to the research findings, 42.0% of the teachers were at the age of 25 or
below, 30.5% between 26-35, and 27.5% at the age of 36 or above. The ages of
teachers ranged between 18 and 50, and the average age was 30.42±8.092. 45.0% of
the teachers involved in the research graduated from vocational schools, 45.5% from a
university or school of higher education (34.0% related to the profession; 11.5% not
related to the profession) and 9.5% from regular high schools. 53% of the teachers
were married, 43.0% were single and 44.0% had children. When their duration of
teaching is examined (Table 2), it can be seen that 45.0% has been teaching for 5 or
less years; and 27.0% for 6-10 years. The proportion of teachers who have taken
nutrition classes at school has been determined as 79.0%.
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Ankara, Turkey
Findings Regarding the Nutritional Knowledge
The number and percentage of the right answers given by teachers to the 20
questions are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Evaluation of Teachers’ Answers Given to Nutritional Knowledge Questions

(n=200)
Correct Incorrect Don’t Know
Questions
n % n % n %
Which of the following is the nutrient
whose main duty in the body is growing- 170 85.0 26 13.0 4 2.0
repairing?
Which of the following is mono-
41 20.5 130 65.0 29 14.5
unsaturated fat?
What type of oil should be prefered for
177 88.5 21 10.5 2 1.0
health?
Which of the following is the cholesterol
type known as “good cholesterol” among 107 53.5 54 27.0 39 19.5
the public?
Which of the following is wrong regarding
161 80.5 36 18.0 3 1.5
energy requirement?
Approximately how many calories is a five
45 22.5 128 64.0 27 13.5
year old child’s daily energy requirement?
Which of the following types of food
173 86.5 26 13.0 1 0.5
contains cholesterol?
Which of the following diseases appear
169 84.5 26 13.0 5 2.5
when inadequate iodine is taken in?
The deficiency of what vitamin and
173 86.5 18 9.0 9 4.5
mineral causes rickets?
Which of the following contains Vitamin D
159 79.5 31 15.5 10 5.0
the most?
Which pair of food is the best source for
157 78.5 32 16.0 11 5.5
Vitamin A?
Which of the following contains Vitamin C
193 96.5 6 3.0 1 0.5
abundantly?
Which of the following food types has got
51 25.5 144 72.0 5 2.5
the highest rate of iron absorption?
Which of the following diseases appear
163 81.5 35 17.5 2 1.0
when inadequate iron is taken in?
Which of the following is not a suitable
60 30.0 135 67.5 5 2.5
afternoon snack for pre-school children?
Which of the following is the four basic
123 61.5 72 36.0 5 2.5
nutrition group?
Which of the following is an example of a
165 82.5 35 17.5 - -
balanced lunch menu?
Which of the following nutrition
136 68.0 47 23.5 17 8.5
recommendations is errenous?
Which food type is the most effective on
176 88.0 19 9.5 5 2.5
tooth decays?
Which of the following is a condition for
186 93.0 12 6.0 2 1.0
sufficient and balanced nutrition?
Protein is essential for body growth and maintenance. Proteins are the building
blocks of the body tissues and organs (Lutz and Przytulski 2001). As can be seen, the
proportion of teachers who know that proteins have a growing-repairing effect on the
body is 85%.
433
There are three types of fatty acid in foods: saturated, polyunsaturated and
monounsaturated. Most food contains all three types of fatty acid but one type usually
predominates. Generally most vegetable (sunflower, soybean, corn) and fish oils are
high in polyunsaturates, while olive oil is rich monounsaturates. The animal fats are
more saturated (Brown 2000). Only 20.5% of the teachers involved in research have
stated that olive oil is monounsaturated.
88.5% of the teachers have answered the question related to fat consumption
correctly, by saying olive oil and sunflower oil should be consumed. The consumption
of saturated fats is a risk factor in the formation of coronary diseases or various cancer
types.
Cholesterol is conveyed through the blood by lipoproteins. The type which carries
most of the cholesterol is called Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL), and the type which
carries little is called High Density Lipoprotein (HDL). The increase in LDL
cholesterol is considered an indication of cholesterol accumulation in the arteries. The
increase in the HDL cholesterol, on the other hand, indicates that cholesterol has been
withdrawn. For this reason, among the public, HDL is known to be “good cholesterol”
and LDL “bad cholesterol” (Baysal 1996). 53.5% of the teachers correctly answered
that HDL is the “good cholesterol”.
The regular working of the body, keeping the body warm and the regulation of
movements are ensured by proper amounts of energy intake. The energy requirement
differs according to conditions such as age, gender, body composition, body frame,
temperature of the environment and diseases (Merdol et al. 1997). The rate of those
who answered correctly by choosing the answer “energy requirement is the same for
everybody” -among the choices “energy requirement changes according to age”,
“energy requirement is the same for everybody”, “body weight affects energy
consumption” and “energy requirement differs according to gender”- is 80.5%.
The average daily energy intake for children between the ages one to ten can be
calculated by a simple formula [1000 + (AGE x 100)] (Köksal and Gökmen 2000).
Accordingly, the daily energy requirement of a 5-year-old child is 1500 kcal. The
question asking about the average daily energy requirement of a 5-year-old child has
been wrongly answered by 64.0% of the teachers, and 13.5% answered that they do
not know.
Cholesterol is found only in animal origin foods such as meat, poultry, fish, organ
meats (liver, brain, and kidneys), dairy products and egg. Plants do not contain
cholesterol (Brown 2000). 86.5% of the teachers have correctly answered this question
by saying that “eggs” contain cholesterol, among the choices of apple, olive oil, eggs
and pasta.
Iodine is a trace element essential for the synthesis of triodothyronine (T3) and
thyroxine (T4) (Köksal and Gökmen 2000, Baysal 2002, Vani and Umesh 2004).
Deficiency of iodine results in hypertrophy of the thyroid gland and termed goiter
(Köksal and Gokmen 2000, Wildman and Medeiros 2000, Baysal 2002). The
proportion of those who know that inadequately taken iodine causes goiter formation
is 84.5%.
Vitamin D deficiency in children is called rickets in which the associated
characteristics results from a failure of growing bone to mineralize (Lutz and
Przytulski 2001, Wildman and Medeiros 2000). Calcium deficiency in children can
contribute to poor bone and tooth development (Lutz and Przytulski 2001). If calcium
deficiency occurs during growing years, poor bone mineralization will occur. Bones
become soft and pliable due to a lack of mineralization. This can result in a bowing of
legs similar to rickets (Wildman and Medeiros 2000). Among the vitamin-mineral
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Ankara, Turkey
pairs “vitamin D-calcium”, “vitamin A-zinc”, “thiamin-iron” and “riboflavin-iodine”,

the percentage of the teachers who answered correctly by saying rickets can be seen in
the lack of “vitamin D-calcium” is 86.5%.
Vitamin D is in very small amounts in natural foods except for fish oil (Baysal
2002). 79.5% of the teachers know that fish oil is the best source of vitamin D.
Vitamin A comes in two forms: preformed vitamin A, retinol, and provitamin A,
carotene which is a yellow pigment found mostly in fruits and vegetables. Retinol is
found in animal foods such as liver, kidney, egg yolk etc. Caroten is found, mainly in
carrots, sweet potatoes, squash and apricots (Lutz and Przytulski 2001). Consequently,
“liver-carrot” pair is the best food pair as a source of Vitamin A and 78.5% of the
teachers have replied so.
Citrus fruits are excellent sources of vitamin C (Lutz and Przytulski 2001).
Among the choices meat, pekmez, orange and apple, the rate of those who have
chosen “orange” as the correct answer is 96.5%, which is the highest rate of correct
answers.
Liver and all types of red meat, eggs, all leguminous seeds, pekmez (a thick syrup
made by boiling down grape juice), green vegetables, tomatoes and edible nuts are
good sources of iron. Two types of iron are found naturally in food: heme iron and
nonheme iron. As 40% of the iron in animal origin foods is heme iron, the rate of
absorption is high (Baysal 2002, Kavas 2003). The question about the iron absorption
has been incorrectly answered by 72.0% of the teachers. While the rate of those giving
the correct answer “liver” is 25.5%, those who know that anemia will result from iron
deficiency is 81.5%.
Breakfast is of great importance for children. Afternoon snack or breakfast, or
both, is served in some schools. Afternoon snack consists of one type of food and a
beverage with it. Milk, ‘ayran’, fruit juice or lemonade can be served as a beverage.
Milk should be included in the afternoon snack menu at least thrice a week. Lemonade
should be used at most every fortnight, alternately with fruit juice. Food types which
can be served with the beverage are savory pastry, sandwiches (cheese, tuna fish, egg,
etc), ‘börek’ or depending on the budget of the institution, ready-made cereals
(cornflakes, etc). If children enjoy having them, milky desserts like ‘muhallebi’ or
‘sütlaç’ can also be given. Snack such as biscuits+linden tea, or cakes+tea is not
appropriate (Merdol 1999). It has been determined that most of the teachers are
misinformed about this topic.
There are four basic food groups; milk and dairy products, meats-eggs-legumes,
fruits and vegetables, cereals and bread (Arslan et al. 2001, Ersoy 2001, Anonymous
2006). 61.5% of the answers provided for the four basic food groups are correct.
For healthy nutrition, a variety of foods and beverages containing all the nutrition
elements should be taken in adequately. For a menu to be balanced, it should include
one from each of the four basic food groups. The menu with Yogurt soup-grilled meat
balls-salad-bread is well-balanced as it contains all four food groups in it (Arslan et al.
2001). 82.5% of the participants have chosen this item.
68.0% of the teachers have correctly answered that the choice “refined sugar
consumption should be increased” is incorrect. It has been suggested that the complex
carbohydrate intake should be increased while refined sugar consumption is decreased
to be healthy.
Bacteria causing tooth decay are naturally found in the mouth, and by feeding on
carbohydrates, they cause acid formation. This acid leads to damage in the enamel,
forming the decay. Chocolate stuck to teeth, waffles, cakes, cookies, biscuits and soft
drinks containing sugar affect the tooth health adversely (Ersoy 2001). Given the
435
choices of apples, cakes, carrots, and bread, the rate of teachers who know that
“cakes” are the most affective (adversely) food on tooth decay is 88.0%.
It has been determined that 93.0% of the teachers participating in the research
have answered the question about the conditions of adequate and well-balanced
nutrition, by choosing the item “taking in various kinds of foods as much as required”.
Level of Nutritional Knowledge
It has been determined that 4.0% of the teachers involved in the research has a
“bad”, 15.5% “very good”, 19.0% “medium” and 61.5% “good” levels of nutritional
knowledge. The points of nutritional knowledge levels of teachers ranged between 7
and 19. The average nutritional knowledge score of the teachers is 14.06±2.529.
Table 4 shows the distribution of the level of nutritional knowledge of teachers
according to their age, education status, marital status, whether they have children,
duration of teaching and whether they have taken nutrition classes.
Table 4. Nutritional Knowledge Level of Teachers Depending on Explanatory

Variables
Bad Medium Good Very Good Total
Variables Statistics
n % n % n % n % n %
Age
≤ 25 3 3.6 21 25.0 48 57.1 12 14.3 84 100.0 X2=5.59
26-35 4 6.5 10 16.4 37 60.7 10 16.4 61 100.0 df=6
≥ 36 1 1.8 7 12.7 38 69.1 9 16.4 55 100.0 p>0.05
Education Level
Regular high school 4 21.1 8 42.1 7 36.8 - - 19 100.0
Vocational high
3 3.4 20 22.2 56 62.2 11 12.2 90 100.0
school
University related G=31.82
1 1.5 6 8.8 44 64.7 17 25.0 69 100.0 df=9
with profession
University not p<0.01
related with - - 4 17.4 16 69.6 3 13.0 23 100.0
profession
Marital Status
Married 5 4.7 20 18.9 64 60.4 17 16.0 106 100.0 G=3.68
Single 3 3.5 15 17.4 56 65.1 12 14.0 86 100.0 df=6
Other - - 3 37.5 3 37.5 2 25.0 8 100.0 p>0.05
Children G=0.38
Yes 4 4.5 18 20.5 53 60.2 13 14.8 88 100.0 df=3
No 4 3.6 20 17.9 70 62.5 18 16.0 112 100.0 p>0.05
Duration of Teaching
≤5 7 7.8 22 24.4 48 53.3 13 14.5 90 100.0 G=20.19
6-10 1 1.8 11 20.4 36 66.7 6 11.1 54 100.0 df=9
11-15 - - 4 17.4 15 65.2 4 17.4 23 100.0 p<0.05
≥ 16 - - 1 3.0 24 72.7 8 24.3 33 100.0
Nutrition Class At School
Took the course 4 2.5 26 16.5 100 63.3 28 17.7 158 100.0 X2=9.40
Didn’t take the df=3
4 9.5 12 28.6 23 54.8 3 7.1 42 100.0 p<0.05
course
Total 8 4.0 38 19.0 123 61.5 31 15.5 200 100.0
When examined according to the age variable, it can be seen that the rate of those
with a good level of nutritional knowledge is the highest in all age groups. The level
of nutritional knowledge does not change according to different age groups (p>0.05).
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Ankara, Turkey
DeCicco and Bergman (1997) have stated in their study that the nutritional knowledge
scores increase in parallel with age.
When the education status is considered, the highest rates of nutritional
knowledge has been determined as medium in high school graduates (42.1%); whereas
it is high in vocational school graduates (62.2%), university graduates related with
profession (64.7%) and university graduates not related with profession (69.6%). The
highest rate of “very good” level of nutritional knowledge is higher in the university
graduates related with the profession, with a rate of 25.0%. It has been determined that
the role of education status is statistically significant for the level of nutritional
knowledge (p<0.01).
As can also be seen in the Table 4, marital status and having a child do not have
influences on the level of nutritional knowledge (p>0.05).
When the level of nutritional knowledge is examined with respect to the duration
of teaching, it is observed that those with a good level of nutritional knowledge are
high in all groups. It has been determined that those with a very good level of
nutritional knowledge in the group have worked as a teacher for 16 or more years
(24.3%); and those with medium (24.4%) and bad (7.8%) levels have been teaching
for 5 or fewer years. The change in the level of nutritional knowledge with respect to
teaching duration is statistically significant (p<0.05). Hacıbeyoğlu (1976) asserts in his
study that as teachers get more experienced professionally, their level of nutritional
knowledge increases, too.
DeCicco and Bergman (1997) have also stated that the scores of nutritional
knowledge increase with the increase in the duration of teaching.
This study has also determined that having taken nutritional classes affects the
level of nutritional knowledge (p<0.05). Among those who have taken nutritional
classes, the rate of those whose level of nutritional knowledge is good and very good
(63.3% and 17.7% respectively) is higher than those who have not taken nutritional
classes (54.8%, 7.1%).
Conclusion
Nutritional knowledge, which is one of the predominant factors on individuals’

nutritional habits, is acquired through education on a large scale. In children’s
acquiring positive nutritional behaviour, the role of school education is as important as
the family influence. This can be achieved by ensuring that teachers have good
nutritional knowledge.
This research has aimed at determining the level of nutritional knowledge of
nursery school teachers. Out of the 20 questions, 13 have been correctly answered by
78.5%-96.5% of the teachers. The study has revealed that most of the teachers possess
a good level of nutritional knowledge. It has been found that education status
(p<0.01), duration of teaching (p<0.05) and having taken nutritional classes (p<0.05)
are influential on the level of nutritional knowledge. The majority of the teachers
(79.0%) have stated that they have taken nutritional classes when they were students.
It should, however, be remembered that for education to be continuing, it should be
repeated. The repetition of the old knowledge and the addition of the new through in-
service training seminars will be beneficial.
437
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A Research on Nutrition Knowledge of Elementary School Teachers:
A Sample of Turkey
41
A Research on Nutrition Knowledge of
Elementary School Teachers: A Sample of
Turkey
Cigdem Sabbag, Private Kecioren Hospital

&
Metin Saip Surucuoglu, Ankara University
&
Ayse Ozfer Ozcelik, Ankara University
&
Lale Sariye Akan, Ankara University
T
he World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as “ a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease and
infirmity” (Blair 2001). Nutrition is the primary condition for growth and
development, being resistant to diseases and living a long and healthy life by
keeping the mind and body work at the highest level (Baysal 1989, Teko 1999). The
relationship between nutrition factors and various health problems has been known
since ancient times. There is a strong relationship between nutrition and diseases such
as obesity, diabetes, hypertension, aterosclerosis, some cancer types and tooth decay.
That’s why illnesses such as chronic diseases, deficiency of nutrient, infections etc.
head the list of important health problems (Yetley and Park 1995, Kocoglu 1997,
Turrell 1997). Leading a healthy life in adulthood is possible if an individual can
develop a regular nutrition habit in childhood and youth (Yağmur 1995). The
education at school is as influential on a child to gain a nutrition habit based on
nutrition principles as the family environment. Nutrition knowledge is one of the
factors that affect the nutritional habits of individuals, families and communities
(Köksal and Kırlı 1988, Glanz 1993). In a piece of research, it has been concluded that
it is beneficial to include nutrition classes in the curriculum (DeCicco and Bergman
1997). Accordingly, nutrition education is crucial for children in primary education
(Martin and Driskell 2001).
441
The objective of nutrition education is to enable individuals and societies to make

best use of the existing foods effectively, economically and according to the principles
of nutrition, and to try to make them acquire good nutrition habits by giving them
correct and real information and to prevent negative nutrition habits. This aim can
only be achieved by changing behaviours so that positive applications are included in
the daily life (Yücecan et al 1994). For a teacher to be successful in nutrition
education, she/he must have adequate knowledge on nutrition (Köksal ve Kırlı 1988).
This study has been conducted to determine nutritional knowledge of teachers
working at elementary education schools.
Materıals and Methods
14 elementary education schools in the town of Kecioren in Ankara selected by

the random sampling method form the area where the research has been carried out.
50% of the teachers working in these schools (128 male and 253 female, a total of
381) constitute the sample.
The research data has been collected by using interview techniques and by means
of a questionnaire. The questionnaire is composed of two sections. In the first part,
demographic information about teachers have been questioned.
The second part of the questionnaire contains 25 multiple-choice nutritional
knowledge questions. Each correct answer has been assigned 3 points, and each
incorrect or ‘don’t know’ answer has been assigned 0 points. The evaluation has been
made out of a total of 75 points. Accordingly, the grouping has been made as follows:
51-75 points, “good”; 26-50 points, “adequate”, and 25 or below points, “inadequate”
nutrition knowledge levels. The data obtained has been evaluated using SPSS
(Statistical Package for the Social Science). Charts showing the absolute and
percentage values related with each question have been prepared and the required
arithmetical averages have been taken ( X +Sx).
Findings and Discussıon
In this section, demographic information about teachers, whether they follow the
news related to nutrition and findings related to the nutritional knowledge of teachers
have been included.
442
A Sample of Turkey
Table 1. Nutritional Knowledge Questionnaire

1. Which element is the building structure of protein?
a) Don’t know b) Nücleic acid c)Amino acid* d)Stearic acid e)Folic acid
2. Which contains the necessary nitrogen for living?
a) Don’t know b) Vitamin c) Carbohydrate d) Protein* e) Fat
3. Which is pure carbohydrate?
a) Don’t know b) Starch* c) Gelatine d) Wheat flour e)Rice flour
4. Which is a soluble vitamin?
a) Don’t know b) Vitamin E c) Vitamin D d) Vitamin C *
e) Vitamin A
5. Which food contains vitamin A (and/or beta carotene) the most? (at the same amount)
a) Don’t know b) Olive oil c) Potatoes d)Carrot* e) Milk
6. Which food contains the highest amount of calcium? (at the same amount)
a) Don’t know b) Mutton c) Cheese* d) Butter e) Bread
7. Which nutrient provides the highest amount of calories? (at the same amount)
a) Don’t know b) Fat* c) Protein d) Carbohydrate e) Vitamin
8. Which food contains the highest amount of protein? (at the same amount)
a) Don’t know b) Cheese* c) Yogurt d) Bread e) Potatoes
9. Which food contains the highest amount of iron? (at the same amount)
a) Don’t know b) Rice c) Hazel-nut d) Pekmez (Boiled grape juice) * e) Honey
10. Which food contains the highest amount of vitamin D? (at the same amount)
a) Don’t know b) Fish oil* c) Milk d) Red meat e) Cheese
11. Which food contains the highest amount of fiber? (at the same amount)
a) Don’t know b) Milk c) Orange juice d) Apple e) Dried beans*
12. Which is an unsaturated fatty acid?
a) Don’t know b) Butter c) Sunflower oil* d) Suet (Animal fat)
e) Margarine
13. How much is your daily energy requirement?
a) Don’t know b) 800-1200 kcal c)1300-1600 kcal d)1800-2500 kcal* e) 3000-4000 kcal
14. Which minerals are in function during the bone and tooth formation?
a) Don’t know b) Selenium+Iron c) Magnesium+ Chrome
d) Phosphorous+Iron e) Calcium+ Phosphorous *
15. Which element carries oxygen in human blood?
a) Don’t know b) Leucocyte c) Hemoglobin* d.)Albumin e) Globulin
16. Which disease does iodine deficiency cause?
a) Don’t know b) Anemia c) Goitre* d) Tooth decays e) Osteoporosis
17. The deficiency of which nutrient causes gum bleeding?
a) Don’t know b) Vitamin A c) Calcium d) Vitamin C* e)Vitamin K
18. Which food is prohibited in the case of hypertension?
a) Don’t know b) Jam c) Brine foods* d) Dried beans e) Yogurt
19. Which food is not recommended for someone with high blood cholesterol?
a) Don’t know b) Mushroom c) Sausage* d) Fish e) Lentil
20. The deficiency of which vitamin causes blindness?
a) Don’t know b) Vitamin A * c. Niacin d) Folate e) Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
21. Which food type is the most effective on tooth decays?
a) Don’t know b) Apple c) Carrot d) Biscuit* e) Milk
22. Which is the best way to lose weight?
a) Don’t know b) Not having breakfast c) Drinking a lot of grapefruit juice
d) Excluding desserts from diet e) Increasing physical activity and decreasing food consumption*
23. Which is the most nutritious nutrient pair?
a) Don’t know b) Sesame oil+Honey c) Sesame oil + Pekmez (Boiled grape juice) * d)
Fat+Jam e) Banana+ Honey
24. How much glucose should human blood contain?
a) Don’t know b) 80-100 * md/dL c) 125-155 mg/dL d) 160-190mg/dL e)200-230
mg/dL
25. Which type of fat should human body take in?
a) Don’t know b)Butter c)Vegetable oil* d) Margarine e) Suet
*Denotes the correct answer (Table 1 Continued)
443
Demographic Information about Teachers
Demographic information about teachers have been presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Demographic Information About Teachers

Male Female Total
Age (year) n % n % n %
21-29 10 7.81 34 13.44 44 11.55
30-39 37 28.91 129 50.99 166 43.57
40-49 72 56.25 89 35.18 161 42.26
≤ 50 9 7.03 1 0.39 10 2.62
Marital status
Married 115 89.84 219 86.56 334 87.66
Single 13 10.16 34 13.44 47 12.34
Duration of
teaching (year)
1- 5 12 9.38 50 19.76 62 16.27
6 –10 15 11.71 67 26.48 82 21.52
11- 15 21 16.41 45 66 17.32
16 -20 28 21.88 35 13.83 63 16.54
≤ 21 52 40.62 56 22.14 108 28.35
Nutrition
courses
Took the course 30 23.44 77 30.43 107 28.08
Did not take the
98 76.56 176 69.57 274 71.92
course
Total 128 100.00 253 100.00 381 100.00
56.25% of male teachers are at the age group 40-49 and 50.99% of female
teachers are at the age group 30-39. The average age of male teachers is 40.98 ± 0.623
years and the average age of female teachers is 36.38 ± 0.417 years.
When the marital status of teachers is analyzed using Table 2; it can be seen that
the rates of married male and female teachers are close to each other (Male 89.84%,
Female 86.56%). It has been found that 40.62 % of the male teachers have been in
teaching profession for more than 21 years or more, and 26.48% of the female
teachers between 6 and 10 years (Table 2). The average duration of teaching is 17.05 ±
0.679 years for males, and 13.02 ± 0.486 years for females. 23.44% of the male
teachers and 30.43% of the female teachers have stated that they had taken a nutrition
course during their studentship period. The percentage of teachers not taking such a
course is 76.56% in males, and 69.57% in females (Table 2).
Teachers’ Following the News Related to Nutrition from the Media
Factors such as family, environment and media influence and direct people’s
nutrition habits and food preferences (Powers et al 2005). Especially mass media
(printed and visual) has a powerful impact on nutritional habits and nutritional
knowledge (Hori et al 1995). Therefore, individuals in a society must be informed
about topics related to nutrition by utilizing the tools of the printed and visual media.
The state of the teachers within the scope of the research about their following the
news related to nutrition from the media has been shown in Table 3.
444
A Sample of Turkey
Table 3. Teachers’ Following the News Related to Nutrition From the Media
Sources Yes No Sometimes Total Statistics
Gender n % n % n % n %
Television Male 87 67.97 7 5.47 34 26.56 128 100.00 x2:9.76
Female 196 77.47 2 0.79 55 21.74 253 100.00 df:2
Total 283 74.28 9 2.36 89 23.36 381 100.00 p<0.01
Radio Male 16 12.5 80 62.50 32 25.00 128 100.00

Female 43 17.00 166 65.61 44 17.39 253 100.00 x2:3.70
Total 59 15.48 246 64.57 76 19.95 381 100.00 df:2
p>0.05
Newspaper Male 63 49.22 25 19.53 40 31.25 128 100.00 x2 :8.03
Female 146 57.71 44 17.39 63 24.90 253 100.00 df:2
Total 209 54.86 69 18.11 103 27.03 381 100.00 p<0.05
Scientific journal Male 42 32.81 54 42.19 32 25.00 128 100.00
Female 79 31.23 103 40.71 71 28.06 253 100.00 x2:0.41
Total 121 31.76 157 41.21 103 27.03 381 100.00 df:2
p>0.05
Magazine journal Male 8 6.25 109 85.16 11 8.59 128 100.00
Female 33 13.05 185 73.12 35 13.83 253 100.00 x2 :9.55
Total 41 10.76 294 77.17 46 12.07 381 100.00 df:2
p<0.01
Video casettes Male 2 1.56 116 90.63 10 7.81 128 100.00
Female 8 3.16 231 91.31 14 5.53 253 100.00 x2:1.53
Total 10 2.62 347 91.08 24 6.30 381 100.00 df:2
p>0.05
Books Male 26 20.31 66 51.56 36 28.13 128 100.00
Female 80 31.62 96 37.95 77 30.45 253 100.00 x2: 31.87
Total 106 27.82 162 42.52 113 29.66 381 100.00 df:2
p<0.01
The sources from which teachers most widely follow the news about nutrition are
the television (74.28%), newspapers (54.86%), scientific journals (31.76%), books
(27.82%), the radio (15.48%), magazines (10.76%) and video-casettes (2.62%). When
male and female teachers are compared, it is observed that female teachers are more
sensitive about nutrition. The proportion of female teachers who follow the nutrition
topics more from the television (77.47%), the radio (17.00%), newspapers (57.71%),
magazines (13.05%), video casettes (3.16%) and books (31.62%) is more than that of
the male teachers. The male teachers’ rate of following scientific journals only
(32.81%) is higher than the rate of female teachers’ doing so (31.23%). It has been
found out that teachers’ state of following the news about nutrition from the television,
magazines, books (p<0.01) or newspapers (p<0.05) differs according to gender, and
that this is statistically significant.
The study that Congar and Ozdemir (2004) conducted on physical education
teachers has revealed that the majority of the teachers followed the information in the
books and magazines, and tried to improve their knowledge about nutrition.
Martin and Driskell (2001) have determined that 47.9% of primary education
teachers get information about nutrition from books, articles, the television and the
radio. It has been observed that teachers in the 60-69 age group follow the media
about the nutrition issues more frequently than those in the 20-49 age group.
445
Nutritional knowledge
Table 4 contains the answers of teachers to nutritional knowledge questions.
Table 4. Teachers’ Answers to Nutritional Knowledge Questions

Questions Don’t Know Correct Incorrect Total Statistics
n % n % n % n %
G
1.Which element M 64 50 37 28.91 27 21.09 128 100.00 x2: 9.270
is the building 98 38.74 114 45.06 41 16.2 253 100.00 df: 2
F
structure of p<0.01
protein?
2.Which contains M 46 35.94 27 21.09 55 42.97 128 100.00 x2: 5.485
the necessary F 82 32.41 82 32.41 89 35.18 253 100.00 df: 2
nitrogen for p>0.05
living?
3. Which is pure M 29 22.66 58 45.31 41 32.03 128 100.00 x2: 3.081
carbohydrate? F 39 15.42 128 50.59 86 33.99 253 100.00 df: 2
p>0.05
4.Which is soluble M 26 20.31 87 67.97 15 11.72 128 100.00 x2: 2.482
vitamin? F 36 14.23 181 71.54 36 14.23 253 100.00 df: 2
p<0.05
5.Which food M 14 10.94 83 64.84 31 24.22 128 100.00 x2: 6.016

contains vitamin 19 7.51 194 76.68 40 15.81 253 100.00 df: 2
F
A the most? p<0.05
6. Which food M 4 3.13 114 89.06 10 7.81 128 100.00 x2: 4.343
contains the F 6 2.37 239 94.47 8 3.16 253 100.00 df: 2
highest amount of p>0.05
calcium?
7.Which nutrient M 21 16.41 37 28.9 70 54.69 128 100.00 x2: 8.894
provides the 17 6.72 83 32.81 153 60.47 253 100.00 df: 2
F
highest amount of p<0.05
calories?
8. Which food M 18 14.06 41 32.03 69 53.91 128 100.00 x 2.155
contains the 24 9.49 93 36.76 136 53.75 253 100.00 df: 2
F
protein?
9.Which food M 14 10.94 86 67.19 28 21.87 128 100.00 x2:3.622
contains the F 19 7.51 193 76.28 41 16.21 253 100.00 df: 2
iron?
10.Which food M 20 15.63 85 66.4 23 17.97 128 100.00 x2: 4.994
contains the 21 8.3 188 74.31 44 17.39 253 100.00 df: 2
F
vitamin D?
11.Which food M 20 15.63 42 32.81 66 51.56 128 100.00 x2: 14.259
contains the 12 4.74 79 31.23 162 64.03 253 100.00 df: 2
F
highest amount of p<0.01
fiber?
12. Which is an M 23 17.97 43 33.59 62 48.44 128 100.00 x2: 4.670
unsaturated fatty 33 13.04 113 44.67 107 42.29 253 100.00 df: 2
F
acid? p>0.05
13.How much is M 40 31.25 46 35.94 42 32.81 128 100.00 x2: 7.405
your daily energy F 57 22.53 77 30.43 119 47.04 253 100.00 df: 2
requirement? p<0.05
446
A Sample of Turkey
14.Which M 8 6.25 114 89.06 6 4.69 128 100.00 x2: 3.921

minerals are in F 6 2.37 231 91.31 16 6.32 253 100.00 df: 2
function during p>0.05
the bone and tooth
formation?
15.Which element M 38 29.69 37 28.91 53 41.40 128 100.00 x2: 0.818
carries oxygen in 65 25.69 73 28.85 115 45.46 253 100.00 df: 2
F
human blood? p>0.05
16.Which disease M 5 3.91 118 92.18 5 3.91 128 100.00 x2: 0.141
does iodine 10 3.95 231 91.31 12 4.74 253 100.00 df: 2
F
deficiency cause? p>0.05
17.The deficiency M 17 13.28 60 46.88 51 39.84 128 100.00 x2: 3.467
of which nutrient 26 10.28 101 39.92 126 49.8 253 100.00 df: 2
F
causes gum p>0.05
bleeding?
18. Which food is M 19 14.84 86 67.19 23 17.97 128 100.00 x2: 5.519
prohibited in the 24 9.49 198 78.26 31 12.25 253 100.00 df: 2
F
case of p>0.05
hypertension?
19.Which food is M 28 21.88 85 66.4 15 11.72 128 100.00 x2: 3.186
not recommended 37 14.62 182 71.94 34 13.44 253 100.00 df: 2
F
for someone with p>0.05
high blood
cholesterol?
20.The deficiency M 35 27.34 76 59.38 17 13.28 128 100.00 x2: 5.883
of which vitamin 43 17 177 69.96 33 13.04 253 100.00 df: 2
F
causes blindness? p>0.05
21.Which food M 14 10.94 98 76.56 16 12.5 128 100.00 x2: 3.389
type is the most F 15 5.93 210 83.00 28 11.07 253 100.00 df: 2
effective on tooth p>0.05
decays?
22.Which is the M 3 2.34 111 86.72 14 10.94 128 100.00 x2: 3.175
best way to lose 1 0.4 226 89.33 26 10.27 253 100.00 df:2
F
weight? p>0.05
23.Which is the M 11 8.59 51 39.85 66 51.56 128 100.00 x2: 5.552
most nutritious F 12 4.74 130 51.38 111 43.88 253 100.0 df: 2
food pair? p>0.05
24 How much M 60 46.88 45 35.16 23 17.96 128 100.0 x2: 5.968
glucose should F 110 43.48 116 45.85 27 10.67 253 100.00 df: 2
human blood p<0.05
contain?
25. Which type of M 17 13.28 88 68.75 23 17.97 128 100.00 x2: 10.647
fat should human df: 2
F 14 5.53 209 82.61 30 11.86 253 100.00
body take in? p<0.01
(Table 3 Continued) G: Gender M:Male F:Female
According to the research results, the percentage of female teachers giving right
answers to nutritional knowledge questions is higher than the percentage of male
teachers (Table 4). The questions that teachers answered correctly at the rate of 86.0%
– 95.0% are as follows: the food that is the richest in calcium content (Male 89.06%,
Female 94.47%), the mineral functioning in the bone and tooth development (Male
89.06%, Female 91.31%), the disease caused by iodine deficiency (Male 92.18%,
Female 91.31%), the best way to lose weight (Male 86.72%, Female 89.33%).
83.00% of females and 76.56% of males have answered correctly that biscuits are
effective on tooth decays; 78.26% of females and 67.19% of males have answered
correctly what food should be prohibited in the case of hypertension, 76.68% of
447
females and 64.84% of males have given correct answers for which contains (of
carrots, potatoes, milk and olive oil) vitamin A the most; 76.28% of females and
67.19% of males have given correct answers for the food that contains iron the most;
74.31% of females and 66.40% of males have answered correctly that fish oil is the
richest source of vitamin D, and finally, 71.94% of females and 66.40% of males have
answered correctly that sausage should not be recommended for people with high
blood cholesterol. The food that provides the highest amount of energy (Male 54.69%,
Female 60.47%), the food that contains protein the most (Male 53.91%, Female
53.75%), the food that contains fiber the most (Male 51.56%, Female 64.03%), the
most nutritious food pair (Male 51.56%, Female 43.88%) are the questions that have
been the most widely answered incorrectly.
The chi-square (X2) analyses show that knowing about the element that is the
building structure of protein, the food that contains fiber the most, the oil type that
human body should receive (p<0.01), the food that contains vitamin A the most, the
food that gives energy the most, the daily energy requirement, and the glucose amount
that needs to be found in human blood differs according to gender (p<0.05).
Koksal and Kırlı (1988) have established that 38% of the primary school teachers
have the correct knowledge about their own daily energy requirement, 90% about the
C-vitamin rich food group and 66% about the vitamin the lack of which causes gum
bleeding.
Pratt and Walberg (1988) have stated that most of the health and physical
education teachers accept carbohydrates and fats as the main source of energy in the
nutrition of sportsmen. And 35% of the teachers have stated that the main source of
energy for the muscle activity is proteins.
Nutritional Knowledge Level
An individual should have an adequate level of nutritional knowledge for healthy

eating habits, the correct food choice and to pursue a healthy life. Nutritional
knowledge can be achieved through nutritional education. Nutritional education
programmes have a direct influence on nutritional knowledge and nutritional habits
(Powers et al 2005, Wagner et al 2005).
One piece of research shows that there is a positive correlation between the
teachers’ nutritional knowledge scores and their nutritional attitudes, behaviours and
applications (Soliah et al 1983).
The answers of the teachers participating in the research to the nutritional
knowledge questions have been scored and evaluated to obtain their level of
nutritional knowledge (Table 5).
Table 5. The Nutritional Knowledge Level of Teachers

Nutritional knowledge Male Female Total
level n % n % n %
Inadequate 10 7.81 4 1.58 14 3.67
Adequate 95 74.22 177 69.96 272 71.39
Good 23 17.97 72 28.46 95 24.94
Total 128 100.00 253 100.00 381 100.00
x2: 12.949 df: 2 p<0.01
448
A Sample of Turkey
74.22% of the male teachers and 69.96% of the female teachers have adequate
nutritional knowledge. The rate of the female teachers with a good level of nutritional
knowledge (28.46%) is higher than that of the male teachers (17.97%). The nutritional
knowledge scores of teachers differ according to gender, that this is statistically
significant (p<0.01). The average nutritional knowledge score of the male teachers is
40.69±0.926, and of the female teachers is 45.58±0.645.
When the adequate level of nutritional knowledge is acquired in the childhood
period, the growth and development of children are affected in a positive direction. It
is known that especially primary school teachers are strongly influential on the
children in this period (Martin and Driskell 2001). Consequently, in order to increase
the nutritional knowledge level of teachers, nutrition education should be provided
(Pratt and Walberg 1988).
Lee et al (1998) have shown that the nutritional knowledge and behaviour of
teachers improved after the curriculum in the schools included nutrition courses.
Soliah et al (1983) have determined that the nutritional attitude, behaviour and
applications of the teachers attending nutrition education courses are better than those
who do not.
Hacıbeyoglu (1976) asserted that 12% of the teachers were inadequate, 57%
medium, 29% good and 2% adequate level of nutritional knowledge. It was also
determined that the nutritional knowledge score of female teachers is higher than that
of the male.
Koksal and Kırlı (1988) stated in one of their studies that primary school teachers
did not have adequate knowledge about nutrition.
The nutritional knowledge level of teachers according to some variables is given
in Table 6.
Table 6. The Nutritional Knowledge Level of Teachers According to Some Variables

Variables Inadequate Adequate Good Total Statistics
n % n % n % n %
Age (year)
21-29 2 4.55 35 79.55 7 15.90 44 100.00
30 -39 6 3.62 106 63.86 54 32.53 166 100.00 x2 :10.799
40 -49 5 3.10 124 77.02 32 19.88 161 100.00 df: 6
≤50 1 10.00 7 70.00 2 20.00 10 100.00 p>0.05
Total 14 3.67 272 71.39 95 24.94 381 100.00
Duration of teaching
(year)
x2 : 9.782
1- 5 4 6.45 46 74.19 12 19.36 62 100.00 df: 8
6 –10 2 2.44 57 69.51 23 28.05 82 100.00 p>0.05
11- 15 1 1.52 42 63.64 23 34.84 66 100.00
16 -20 1 1.59 49 77.78 13 20.63 63 100.00
≤21 6 5.56 78 72.22 24 22.22 108 100.00
Total 14 3.68 272 71.39 95 24.93 381 100.00
Marital status
Married 10 2.99 235 70.36 89 26.65 334 100.00 x2 : 7.000
Single 4 8.51 37 78.72 6 12.77 47 100.00 df:2
Total 14 3.67 272 71.39 95 24.93 381 100.00 p<0.05
Nutrition courses
Took the course 3 2.80 66 61.68 38 35.52 107 100.00 x2: 8.950
Did not take the course 11 4.02 206 75.18 57 20.80 274 100.00 df :2
Total 14 3.68 272 71.39 95 24.93 381 100.00 p<0.05
449
When the table is examined according to the age variable, it can be seen that the
rate of the teachers with an inadequate level of nutritional knowledge is the highest
(10.00%) in the age group of 50 and above. Those with an adequate level of
nutritional knowledge is the highest (79.55%) in the age group of 21-29, and those
with a good level of nutritional knowledge is the highest (32.53%) in the age group of
30-39. The level of nutritional knowledge does not differ statistically according to age
groups (p>0.05).
When their duration of teaching is considered, it can be observed from Table 6
that teachers with the highest rate of inadequate, adequate and good level of nutritional
knowledge have been teaching for 1-5 (6.45%), 16-20 (77.78%) and 11-15 (34.84%)
years, respectively.
DeCicco and Bergman (1997) have found out in their study that the nutritional
knowledge scores increase in parallel with age and duration of teaching.
Congar and Ozdemir (2004) have determined that teachers who have worked for a
duration of between 0-5 years have got the highest knowledge score; whereas,
Hacıbeyoğlu (1976) has established that teachers with an experience of 21-30 years
have got the highest number of correct answers. Hacıbeyoğlu (1976) also suggests that
as professional experience increases, the knowledge about the professional area
increases.
Tasdemir (1990), asserted that teachers with 11-20 years of experience have the
best attitude for nutrition, and this positive attitude decreases in those with experiences
of below 10 years and above 21 years.
When examined according to their marital status, it has been determined that the
married teachers constitute the highest percentage (26.65%) with a good level of
nutritional knowledge (Table 6). Marital status has an effect on level of nutritional
knowledge (p<0.05).
When Table 6 is examined according to the status of having taken a nutrition
class, it has been determined that those with an inadequate (4.02%) and adequate
nutritional knowledge level are the highest (75.18%) among those who have not taken
any nutrition classes. Those with the highest percentage of having a good level of
nutritional knowledge are the ones who have taken a nutrition class (35.52%). Having
taken a nutrition class has an effect on the level of nutritional knowledge (p<0.05).
Conclusion
Nutritional knowledge influences the nutritional habits, attitudes and behaviours

of individuals, families and the society. Nutritional knowledge can only be achieved
through nutritional education. In children’s acquiring positive nutritional behaviour,
the role of school education is very important in addition to the family environment.
Teachers’ nutritional knowledge should be at a good level in order to achieve this.
This study has been conducted to determine the level of nutritional knowledge of
primary school teachers. According to the results obtained, it has been found that
teachers follow the news broadcast about nutrition from the mass media. The most
widely followed media are the television, newspapers, scientific journals, books and
the radio in order. The research results reveal that the rate of female teachers with a
good level of nutritional knowledge (28.46%) is higher than that of male teachers
(17.97%). It has been determined that the marital status and having taken nutritional
classes are influential on teachers’ nutritional knowledge level (p<0.05).
450
A Sample of Turkey
References
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Web-Based Tools for Teacher Education
42
Sarah McPherson, New York Institute of Technology
T he New York Institute of Technology School of Education serves New York

City, Long Island and surrounding suburban school districts. To extend the
instruction and administration to the entire area, web-based tools are used for
both administration and instruction. The broad application of Internet applications
allows me, as the coordinator of instructional technology programs at six sites, to
perform the administrative tasks for advising and evaluating students, as well as to
teach students from various sites in the same section of a course. To assess the
candidates’ mastery of national and state standards, a web-based portfolio tool is used
to assess progress toward meeting instructional standards and program goals.
Instructional uses of Internet collaboration and publication tools, such as blogs,
podcasts, and video conferencing are introduced within courses. Technology
applications are explored for integration into K-12 curriculum to improve student
learning and performance.
Candidates enrolled in the masters program are given e-mail accounts, user names
and passwords for accessing communication, registering for courses and checking
grades. As a faculty member, I also have a user name and password to check my
roster, submit final grades and advise students online. The web-based intranet reduces
the paperwork, saves time, centralizes data, and increases access to administrative
information for students and faculty. These applications are invaluable for me to fulfill
my administrative duties for advising students in various locations but the
instructional applications are much more interesting.
Curriculum Delivery Tools
The MSIT (MSIT) is a standards-based graduate program leading to certification

as an Educational Technology Specialist. The program is aligned with national and
state standards. Web-based technology is integral to ensuring that the program meets
the standards with every course based on a standard syllabus. The syllabus is
distributed to all instructors who teach each course via electronic file, as well as
cloned in the online system. The syllabi for the courses are developed and adopted by
the faculty. The course descriptions, goals, objectives, field experience requirements,
453
technology skills, and keystone assignments designated for each course are non-
negotiable. Of course, academic freedom to customized the learning activities is
allowed in response to the background and experience if the instructor and his/her
students. However, the student learning outcomes as demonstrated by the assessments
are evaluated against standard rubrics for all sections. Assessments may be research
papers, projects, presentations, or examinations depending on the course pre-
determined keystone assignments.
Candidates only need a computer and Internet connection to take courses. The
online programs let students "attend" classes from any Internet-enabled PC when it is
convenient allowing flexibility to meet other demands such as a job, family or other
personal priorities. A commercial curriculum delivery system, BlackBoard™, is used
for course management and online delivery. The college has purchased a site license
which provides every faculty and candidate access to the program. A department of
the school is assigned the responsibility for technical administration of the system.
The registrar’s database of courses and registrants is fed to the BlackBoard™
administrator for setting up each course, allowing instructor access rights, and
populating it with the class roster.
The instructor has access to a ‘control panel’ which allows course materials,
assignments, discussion forums, and quizzes to be posted. (See Figure 1). The
instructor facilitates the class with daily interactions within the web space dedicated to
the course. There are discussion boards for posting attachments and posing questions
for whole class participation or a separate area where groups can be set up for group
discussion and collaboration. The instructor also has access to usage statistics for
monitoring participation. Often there may be a class member who does not interject
comments in the online discussion but may be quite active in accessing the course and
discussion board. This situation can be determined using the usage stats. On the other
hand, the instructor can also see if someone is not logging on and thereby is not
getting the instruction. The program has a grade book feature for tracking attendance
and grades. These features are quite useful for enhancing a face-to-face course for
communication between classes, facilitating distribution and collection of
assignments, and for posting grades.
Figure 1. Instructor’s Control Panel (Blackboard™)
454
Figure 2. Course Welcome Screen and Navigation Buttons (Blackboard™)
When candidates login to the web-based curriculum delivery system they see the
course home page with the navigation buttons to the various parts of the course, i.e.
syllabus, weekly assignments, readings, web resources, and discussion board (See
Figure 2). The candidate can navigate through the course for the readings, assignments
and discussion. They can post resources, pose questions, and engage in interactions
with the instructor and peers in the class within the online forum of the web-based
class. Assessment and grading are possible within the system allowing each student to
receive individual feedback on his assignment and to see a grade sheet with the grades
assigned to his/her work. According to Twigg (2001), features for continuous
monitoring of progress and maintaining communication can support individual
learning. The appropriate interaction with the instructor as well as conversations with
the entire class can reinforce responsibility for learning, critical in higher education
graduate programs.
In fall semester 2005, I taught my first totally online course. The course was
Language Arts and Technology, required in the MSIT program. Twenty students, the
maximum my institution allows for an online course, were from Long Island, New
York City, and a small town in upstate New York. The students had access to the
syllabus, course schedule and assignments, all the readings and resources, and, of
course, my e-mail address for private instructor-student communication. We never met
face-to-face but we were online daily in group projects, literature circles, current
issues discussions, and exploration of emerging technologies. The usage statistics
shows the level of interactivity in each area (See Figure 3). A group activity to design
a presentation to report points in a reading was a challenge but integral to establishing
a community of learners in the course. As suggested by Rovai, Cristol, and Lucking
(2001), online learning activities that support discussion, collaboration and student
interactions promote a sense of community.
455
Figure 3. Class usage Statistics (Blackboard™)
Assessment Tools
More and more teacher education and educational technology programs are
adopting electronic portfolio systems to provide students opportunities to collect
digital artifacts to demonstrate skills and knowledge to meet program standards. The
purpose of a portfolio system is to systematically organize evidence of meeting
standards at three levels: curriculum of the program, faculty instruction and
assessment, and candidates’ reflection on learning. It provides a mechanism for
aligning program goals and objectives with national and state standards. Rubrics are
used to evaluate the artifacts against national, state and program standards sets
adopted by the respective teacher education programs.
At NYIT we adopted an e-portfolio system called TaskStream™ a totally web-
based system allows access from anywhere there is an Internet connection available.
We aligned the MSIT program objectives, technology skills, and field experience
requirements with national Association for Educational Communication and
Technology (AECT) standards and New York State Education objectives for
Educational Technology Specialist certification. Faculty developed a curriculum
framework for aligning the courses, standards and performance assessments (see
Table 1).
The alignment process helped faculty understand the purpose and position of each
course in the scope and sequence of the entire master’s program. A keystone
assignment was designed for each course to function as the culminating assessment for
candidates to demonstrate their knowledge, skills and understanding to meet the
requisite standards of the course. Rubrics were designed for faculty to evaluate
candidates’ artifacts for meeting the designated standards (See Figure 4).
456
Figure 4. Sample Rubrics in for MSIT Course Keystone Assignment in TaskStream™
The artifacts the candidates submit include instructional design curriculum units
and lesson plans, multimedia learning modules, web-based instructional materials,
school-based technology plans, and research papers. Example artifacts which may be
included to demonstrate exemplary technology skills are web pages, Macromedia
Flash™ projects, Inspiration™ concept maps, or classroom blogs, software evaluation
presentations, annotated web-based resources compendiums, etc. As candidates
proceed through the program they can collect exemplars of their work in each course
and reflect upon their progress in acquiring knowledge and skills for using
instructional technology. The portfolios become a dynamic repository for technology
applications and their effects on learning. Using the portfolio as a tool for reflection
the candidates continuously seek to improve their practice of teaching.
The e-portfolio is a program evaluation tool for the faculty as well. The data
collected in the portfolio system represents the student performance in the courses and
their success in meeting the standards. The reports pinpoint areas needing
improvement within the graduate course sequence. In addition, surveys, interviews
and observations also provide insights into the strengths and weaknesses of the
program. The various sources of data are compiled and analyzed to make
programmatic decisions about the scope and sequence of the MSIT curriculum. The
web-based portfolio system and other data collection tools make dynamic evaluation
and continuous improvements possible.
457
Table 1. Alignment of Courses and Assessments with Standards for Association for
Educational Communication and Technology (AECT), New York Educational
Technology Specialist (NYETS), and Master of Science in Instructional Technology
(MSIT).
Course Standards Addressed Assessments in each course
EDIT 603 AECT 1, 2 • Develop personal/professional
Foundations I: Philosophy & NYETS 0004, 0005, 0010 educational technology philosophy.
Technology MSIT 1
EDPC 605 AECT 1, 2, 5 • Design instructional unit

Curriculum Design & NYETS 0010 integrating technology and aligned
Development MSIT 2 with NY content standards.
EDPC 610 AECT 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 • Design unit for using technology to
Foundations II: Diversity, NYETS 0003, 0011 differentiate instruction in general
Learning & Technology MSIT 3 education classroom.
EDIT 605 AECT 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 • Develop unit using Internet
Instructional Applications of NYETS 0004, 0012 resources to meet target need in
the Internet MSIT 5 curriculum.
EDIT 610 AECT 1, 2, 3 • Apply instructional design to
Multimedia Authoring NYETS 0004, 0005, 0007, multimedia project for k-12
0009, 0010 content area.
MSIT 2, 4
EDIT 620 Role of Computer AECT 3, 4, 5 • Develop building level technology

Coordinator NYETS 0008, 0012, 0013, plan.
0014, 0016
MSIT 6, 8, 9
EDSS 620 AECT 1, 2, 3, 5 • Design learning unit in each
Social Studies & Technology NYETS 0009, 0010, 0011 content area to meet identified
EDLA 615 MSIT 2, 8 need for improvement in student
Language Arts & Technology learning.
EDMA 625
Mathematics, Science &
Technology I (Math focus)
EDSC 626
Mathematics, Science &
Technology II (Science focus)
EDPC 690 & EDPC 691 AECT 2, 3, 5 • Design, implement and report
Research Methods and NYETS 0003, 0005, 0006, technology integration research
Assessment and Field Project 0009 project
MSIT 8, 10
Other Instructional Web-Based Tools
Web-based resources such as MarcoPolo™ and United Streaming™ are

incorporated into online courses as curriculum resource models for best practices
related to curriculum and classroom instruction. Other online tools used are blogs,
online chat, video conferencing, and podcasting. Using these tools provide authentic
experiences for becoming proficient with the dynamics and interface as well as with
effective application for publishing, discussing, reflecting, and learning.
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Online Curriculum Resources
MarcoPolo™ is an Internet site of content for the classroom, dedicated to

providing the highest quality Internet content and professional development to
teachers and students throughout the United States. The site was first launched in 1997
as a collection of standards-based, discipline-specific educational Web sites for K-12
teachers. MarcoPolo™ features curriculum-based web sites with lesson plans, student
interactive content, downloadable worksheets, links to Web sites and additional
resources created by the nation's leading education organizations. United Streaming™
is a digital video-on-demand service. It offers a large and current standards-based K-
12 digital video/video clip library, which has been shown to increase student
achievement.
Assignments are made in content area courses to explore these two online
resource services. Both are standards-based and offer lessons and curriculum
resources to use for teaching and learning. The lessons are vetted by national
curriculum authorities providing teachers best-practices materials for using and/or
modifying for their own students. Candidates in the graduate curriculum courses
review the lesson ideas, evaluate them for application in their own classrooms and
share their ideas with others in the class. They search for ways to differentiate to meet
the needs of diverse learning styles and those with special needs.
One student reported that she reviewed an elementary level lesson on the life
cycle of butterflies. The MarcoPolo™ lesson called for reading a story by Jack Kent
called The Caterpillar and the Polliwog with Several activities suggested for
discussion and projects. The video in United Streaming™ by the same title was used
as an extension. The graduate student reported:
It is great review for the students in learning the life cycle of the
butterfly and puts all their observations into perspective. The
video is geared towards 2nd grade and does not use terminology
that is confusing for young students. Not only can this book be
used as a wrap up for the unit but it can start a conversation for
students on their own personal characteristics. Students can be
asked questions such as, what makes you different from someone
else, and if you could change one thing about yourself what would
it be and why. Students can start generating their own ideas and
also take this and create a journal of their own thoughts. The
video and extension lesson apply to the English Language Arts
Standards in that students understand a concept and can use their
own experiences verbally and written to apply the new
information.
Lesson plans and video clips available on the web can greatly enhance instruction.
These online resources are included in graduate courses to enable candidates who are
practicing teachers to have the knowledge and skills to access these high-quality
instructional resources. The web brings a wealth of materials never before so
accessible. The web has expanded teachers’ repertoire and increased their capacity to
enhance instruction.
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Blogs
A logical extension of using web resources is to create web resources using blogs
and wikis which lead to the need to prepare teachers to use the web and web
publishing tools for teaching and learning (Godwin-Jones, 2003). Thus, the use of
blogs in instructional technology and teaching methods courses provided authentic
experiences for becoming proficient with the technology - the dynamics, interface, and
effective application for publishing, discussing and reflecting.
Blogs are free, flexible and easy for participants to publish their ideas, reactions,
and reflections on an interactive collaborative website. Blogs used in some MSIT
courses enhance instruction, promote reflection and analysis, and stimulate discussion
on best practices. Blog themes used in online courses addressed topics such as
diversity in the classroom, reading strategies, global education, and digital literacy.
Figure 5. Sample Screenshot of Life Map from Taiwanese Graduate Student on

Global Teachers in the 21st Century Blog used in EDLA615
Global Teachers in the 21 century

For teachers to exchange ideas about ways
teachers can prepare learners
An advantage of blogs is the organization of discussions as personal publications

enabling communication (Martindale and Wiley, 2004). The blog actually functions as
a collaborative commentary on resources and current issues related to topics
introduced in the course. For example, participants post synopses of current articles
related to diversity issues and their personal commentary and reaction. Hotlinks to the
original articles are included so that readers can access the original source as well as
their classmates’ comments.
Blogs have been credited for giving students voice empowering them to publish
their ideas and position or perspectives on critical issues presented in class lectures
(Oravec, 2002). Students make authentic connections to their personal experiences and
backgrounds. In a collaborative project with graduate students in Taiwan, candidates
post their life map which includes their background and reasons for becoming teachers
(see Figure 5).
The candidates were excited to learn a new application to use with their own
students which has potential for increasing interest and engagement in learning. One
460
student commented that the blog “gave choice and students like choices, not to always
be assigned what the teacher deems acceptable.” Another graduate student stated
“Once I started, it was amazing; I did not want to stop. Learning became fun because
it was realistic.” Blogs may provide an intrinsic excitement for learning that motivates
students to participate in reading and writing, particularly if their teachers model
enthusiasm using this simple web-based tool.
Podcasts
In 2004 podcasting was born. According to Richardson (2006) podcasting is

simply distribution of amateur radio using broadband connectivity. All that is required
is a digital audio recorder that can create an MP3 file, space on a server, and a blog.
Videoblogging is also possible by posting video from digital cameras or screen
capturing tools to a blog. The technology for multimedia publishing is inexpensive,
available over the web, and exciting.
The millennials, today’s youth, who are younger than the Internet and personal
computers are discovering applications for world-wide communication, publication,
and broadcasts. They are finding their voice for an authentic, global audience.
herefore, it behooves educators to learn how to use these tools and capture the youth’s
enthusiasm for innovative ways to connect to the world.
At NYIT we are exploring ways to capitalize on the rage. We learn from the K-12
students and teachers what is possible. There are schools, such as Willowdale
Elementary in Nebraska and Mabry Middle in Georgia using these technologies
throughout their schools for home/school/community connections. Book reports and
enactments, field trips, art shows, science fairs, foreign language classes are just few
examples of how these pioneer schools are using podcasting, video and audio. The
podcasts are ways for student-centered learning to be showcased. The students are the
designers, developers and producers of digital media for the world. They are truly
excited to be able to make these connections. As educators we must prepare ourselves
to guide them to success.
Conclusions
Web-based tools are essential for teaching teachers in this day and age. They are
critical for faculty in their own personal productivity for accomplishing administrative
tasks as well as for instruction. Faculty and students can access electronic academic
records for advisement. Courses can run over the web with curriculum delivery
systems. Both instructor and students can be anywhere and participate in class at
anytime. Assessments, whether examinations, projects, or portfolios can be web-
based. Barriers of time and space are eliminated. The curriculum management and
assessment tools are basically closed web-based systems requiring registration and
administrative recordkeeping and performance evaluation. They include features for
online discussions, files sharing, and collaboration.
However, new Internet tools are emerging for collaboration and publication tools,
such as blogs, podcasts, and video streaming. It is imperative that educators explore
new technologies for ways to improve student learning and performance. The young
people of today are technologically-savvy and expect to use their knowledge and skills
for learning. There is a huge disconnect between schools and students if we fail to
bring the technology to the learning environment. The new literacy for using web-
461
based tools is upon us and teacher education programs will need to ratchet up their
curriculum to be current and relevant to the needs of K-12 schools.
References
Godwin-Jones, R. (2003). Emerging technologies Blogs and wikis: Environments for online
collaboration. Language Learning & Technology, 7:2, pp. 12-16.
Haertel, G., & Means, B. (2000). Stronger designs for research on educational uses of
technology: Conclusions and implications. SRI International: Menlo Park, CA. Retrieved
April 8, 2002, from http://www.sri.com/policy/designkt/found.html.
Kent, Jack (1982). The Caterpillar and the Polliwog. Simon and Schuster Children’s
Publishing Division.
Martindale, T. and Wiley, D.A. (2004). Using weblogs in scholarship and teaching.
TechTrends, 49: 2, pp. 55-61.
Oravec, J.A. (2002). Bookmarking the world: Weblog applications in education. Journal of
Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 45:7, pp. 616-621.
Richardson, W. (2006). Blogs, wikis, and podcasts. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Rovai, A., Cristol, D. S., & Lucking, R. (2001). Building classroom community at a distance.
Paper presented at American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, Seattle,
WA, April 12, 2001.
Twigg, C. (2001). Innovations in online learning: Moving beyond no significant difference.
The Pew Learning and Technology Program. Center for Academic Transformation.
462
Exploring Teachers’ View on Opportunities to Learn in the Workplace
43
Exploring Teachers’ View on Opportunities
to Learn in the Workplace
Maria Assuncao Flores, University of Minho
&
Ana Margarida Veiga Simao, University of Lisbon
his paper reports on findings from research aimed at investigating the ways in
T which teachers learn in the workplace (and how they feel about it) and the
factors that hinder or facilitate their professional growth. It also discusses the
implications of the findings for understanding teacher learning, teacher
education and the role of schools in the continuing professional development of
teachers.
The need to support teachers in their career-long development is widely
recognized as a key issue for improving the quality of teaching. Central to this is the
understanding of what teachers know, how they know it, how they think about
teaching and about themselves as teachers, and how they act in context. In short how
they develop throughout their careers in the contexts in which they work. It is within
this perspective that this study was carried out in order to examine school leadership,
teachers’ professional orientation, teacher learning in the workplace, and their
implications for promoting meaningful opportunities for teachers’ professional
development throughout their careers.
In recent years, teacher learning has attracted the attention of a number of
researchers in order to gain deeper insights into teachers’ preferences and processes of
professional learning as well as into the contexts in which it occurs (see, for instance,
Calderhead, 1988; Lieberman, 1996; Marcelo, 1999; Kwakman, 2000). Lieberman
(1996), for instance, proposes an ‘expanded view of professional learning’ and
identifies three contexts in which teachers might learn: i) direct teaching (e.g. in
conferences, courses, workshops); ii) learning in school (e.g. from critical friends, peer
coaching, action research); and iii) learning out of school (e.g. through
school/university partnerships, reform networks). Day (1999) adds another setting in
which teacher learning may occur: learning in the classroom (through, for example,
student response).
Such a comprehensive view of teacher learning also calls for a broad
understanding of teacher professional development, which goes beyond the narrower
and more traditional ‘one size fits all’ orientation (Lieberman, 1996; Loucks-Horsley
et al., 1998) in which short-term initiatives such as ‘one-shot workshops’ (Sykes,
463
1996), or ‘short-burst, quick-fix one-day events’ (Day, 1993) are prevalent. The
concept of professional development has broadened over the years. The need to go
beyond the ‘deficit approach’ (Eraut, 1987), which characterized many In-service
education initiatives, and to foster its effectiveness in terms of impact on teachers’
practice and student learning has led to the emergence of a more ecological and
constructivist perspective (Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1990).
In recent years, researchers have conceptualized professional development as a
more inclusive concept encompassing all formal and informal activities which are
conducive to teacher learning and professional growth emphasizing the complex,
dynamic and ongoing nature of the process (Marcelo, 1994; Corcoran, 1995; Fullan,
1995, Day, 1999).
In Portugal, the need to promote teachers’ professional development through
formal activities has led to the implementation of a national and compulsory In-service
education and training of teachers (INSET) for all teachers in 1992. On the whole,
INSET in Portugal can be described as a decentralized model (which depends on local
dynamics and opportunities), as a rich and varied system (not only in regard to
training centres but also as far as training opportunities are concerned). However,
recent research carried out in Portugal has shown the weak impact of teachers’ centres
in fostering teacher professional development and educational innovation in schools,
which was driven mainly by bureaucratic devices (Ferreira, 1994; Ruela, 1999;
Barroso & Canário, 1999). In other words, the potential of a decentralized model led
paradoxically to a formal and instrumental logic of INSET in the light of the national
priorities rather than the local and contextual needs of teachers and schools (Barroso
& Canário, 1999; Ruela, 1999). Despite this, it is possible to highlight some positive
issues, namely the existence of a “culture of training” (Estrela, 2003) in so far as
schools and teachers are now more mobilized and value more training and education
as part of the teaching profession (Veiga Simão et al, 2003).
Also of importance is the consideration of the personal, contextual and political
factors affecting teacher professional development (Glatthorn, 1995; Day, 1999),
which is seen as the ‘crossroad’ or the ‘glue’ that enables the linking of policy and
practice, of schools and teachers (Marcelo, 1994). It is within this perspective that the
study described in this paper was carried out in order to shed additional light upon the
nature and processes of teacher learning in the workplace, as well as its influencing
factors by examining teachers’ views on the opportunities for their learning and
professional development.
Research Methods: Data Collection And Analysis
In order to investigate the nature and the processes of teacher learning in the
workplace, and its interrelated factors, a combination of methods was used. A
questionnaire was designed including both closed and open-ended questions. Several
levels of information were included: In-service training undertaken (concerning issues
such as motives, teaching modes, providers of teaching, content, number of INSET
activities undertaken over last two years), Content of Work, School Leadership,
Professional Orientation of teachers, Opportunities for Learning at Work and
Professional Development. Background characteristics, such as gender, age, years of
experience, academic qualifications, years of experience at current school, level of
teaching, school type, number of inhabitants in the municipality were also included.
Overall, 252 teachers responded to the questionnaire. Semi-structured interviews (n=
464
30) were also used to examine further the ways in which teachers learn in the
workplace.
As far as the sample responding to the questionnaire is concerned, 78.2% of the
teachers were female. The median age of the teachers was 31 to 45. The majority of
teachers had a permanent position (84.9 %) at the school. The experience of teaching
was 16.6 years on average. Most teachers worked in urban or inner-city (39.3 %) and
suburban (34.1%).
In regard to the sample participating in the interview, the large majority of the
teachers were female (83.3%), 23.4 % were between 36 and 40 years of age and
16.6% were between 26 and 30; 66.7% taught in elementary and secondary schools
and 3.,3% taught in pre-school and primary schools. Most of the interviewees worked
in urban schools (63.3%).
The process of qualitative data analysis was undertaken according to two phases:
a vertical analysis (Miles and Huberman, 1994) according to which each of the
respondents’ interviews was analysed separately. A second phase was then carried out
according to a comparative or horizontal analysis (cross-case analysis) (Miles and
Huberman, 1994). In this phase, the method of ‘constant comparative analysis’ (Glaser
and Strauss, 1967) was used to look for common patterns as well as differences.
Quantitative data were analysed statistically with the use of SPSS 11.5.
Findings
This paper presents some of the most significant findings from the broader piece
of research carried out in 2004/2005. Overall, from both quantitative and qualitative
data four main dimensions emerged: opportunities for learning at work and
professional development, teacher community, and school leadership.
When asked about opportunities for learning at work, teachers are rather
optimistic. Only 20.7% said that they did not have the opportunity to develop new
projects and 22.1% highlighted that at school there is not an emphasis on originality.
Teachers also (31.9%) stated that there is an emphasis on individual ability. More than
60% of the respondents also highlighted that they have the opportunity for creative
work, that they have a chance to further their formal education and to learn something
new.
Qualitative data corroborated this view. Teachers stressed the ongoing and
contextual nature of learning in the workplace and the multitude of tasks and people
associated with it.
“(…) we learn every single day… with the kids. Every day there are always
opportunities to learn something… You lean with the kids in the classroom
or it may be an individual learning or even sharing ideas with other
colleagues. (…)”.
(...) I have been learning over the last few years because you keep on
learning with your pupils (…) you have to pay attention to what they say and
do because they can make you become more aware of what need to be done
in order to change and to improve…”
The recognition of the intrinsic worth of learning and its contribution to classroom
and school improvement also emerged from data. Teachers highlighted issues such as
465
self-motivation, professionalism and willingness to improve as key factors in their

learning and professional development.
(…) It is great to study, to share and to learn… and also to listen to

others… I mean it’s not only about listening but to find out that there are
other people who share the same ideas and vision and this relates to your
own experience and to other people’s experience. It’s really great and
rich and stimulating this kinds of experiences at school and it does
enhance your enthusiasm and dedication to education. It also makes you
more aware of your responsibility, your collaboration with the families.
(Because there is no point in developing and enhance your professional
development if you don’t link your work to your pupils’ families). Our
work is also the work at the community and the work of the community, it
can’t be isolated…”
“ (…) you have be willing to learn. I mean it has to do with you own
readiness and willingness to learn and to your own self-motivation (…)”
Teachers also identified a number of obstacles in their learning at school such as

the complexity and increased demanding nature of teaching (which they relate to
issues of accountability, bureaucracy and top-down policies), lack of recognition of
their role in society, individualism, teachers’ lack of motivation and commitment.
“… the lack of time and stress really make you less willing to… I mean what
makes you not to participate in courses of training and continuing education is
the lack of time and your responsibilities with your family….”
“ (…) there are loads of paperwork and lack of funding… Sometimes I

would like to do other things and I can’t and it has to do with the number
of difficulties you have to face at school… And there are always lots of
rules and regulations to follow… and it can be a constraint to your
work…”
“ the fact that you have a timetable which makes it difficult for teachers to
work together and to share experiences is a constraint to learning at
school. It is very difficult for people to meet because of the timetables and
you don’t feel like doing extra hours to meet. It makes me feel sad because
I do like to work with other people, but due to difficulties in finding time to
meet it isn’t always possible to do what you think you should do or what
you would like to be doing…”
In terms of professional development, 68.1% disagree that they are not given the
opportunity to develop professionally on a regular basis at school and that they feel
motivated to engage in Professional development activities (65.2%). Qualitative data
highlighted the key characteristics of communities of learning which promote the
professional development of teachers, namely opportunities for sharing and an open
disposition towards change:
466
“ (…) a learning community is a community open to change, to dialogue and

to sharing…. It allows people to learn and to put into practice what they learn
… and this enhances the development of everyone…”
On the contrary, a community focused on the individual rather than on the

community as a whole limits people’s learning and professional development:
“ (…) a closed community is one in which each one looks at one’ self and
in which sharing and helping others is not valued, I mean it’s a
problematic community…”.
However, only 34.6 % of the teachers stated that the actual in-service education
and training courses and activities meet their personal needs. For 41.5% of the
respondents INSET should meet the needs for short-term professional development
and for 79.1% stated that INSET should meet the needs for long-term professional
Development.
Qualitative data revealed a more pessimistic view of teachers on INSET. Teachers
identified the lack of relevant INSET activities, the fact that INSET courses do not
always meet teachers’ needs and expectations. They also referred to the repetition in
terms of the content within INSET activities. To quote two of them:
“(…) there isn’t enough choice in terms of INSET activities. I think that this
is not good because there isn’t any planning at school level… Schools
should find a way to identify teachers’ needs and to make sure that these
needs will be taken into account at teachers’ centres or at universities. What
teachers know and how they feel should be taken into account in order to
organise INSET activities…”
“There is a great deal of repetitive stuff when it comes to INSET. In general it

focuses on ICT and it doesn’t always meet teachers’ needs…”
Others have a more positive view. They spoke of the articulation between theory
and practice and they highlighted the organisation of the courses especially when
discussion and the sharing of ideas are the main focus:
“ (…) some INSET activities are positive. They include a theoretical

dimension and a more hands-on approach and they are articulated which is
good. There are also workshops in which you discuss and share your own
ideas and personal experience. In general, these courses are well-
organised…”
“(…) I still need to develop. So Professional development is important to me,

for instance in terms of ICT, self-study and reflection are crucial…”
“(…) there is a great deal of diversity in terms of INSET. You can’t be always
talking about the negative aspects of formal INSET. I think you should be fare.
I think it has also to do with your willing to do well.”
467
In regard to teachers as community, quantitative data revealed that 47.3% of the

teachers stated that their working relationships are not characterised by individualism
However, qualitative data emphasise an individualistic view of teachers’ work:
“I think that there is an individualistic way of working. I don’t know if the

school promotes this view or if people’s education emphasises this
individualistic view. And if you don’t work with others you may have this
approach in your classroom and to your kids.”
“ (…) teachers aren’t flexible in doing teamwork. I think we are

individualistic in our profession and we end up of creating difficulties in
your Job in terms of the development of projects, because some teachers
are rigid.”
“ (..) I think individualism is prevalent. There should be team work and

interdisciplinary work. This is one of my main concerns…”
Quantitative data also show that 58% of the respondents disagree that their
colleagues are a disappointment to them 77.9% agree that teachers discuss
professional matters. Two indicators corroborated this view. According to the
respondents, they have discussions on assessment practices at school (61.3%) and that
colleagues are easy to be approached (62.4%). One of the interviewees stresses this:
“(…) when we have meetings we share what we learned during INSET

activities, we share materials. There is sharing of experiences… I always
find this kind of receptivity from the part of my colleagues…”
In general, there was generally a poor understanding of the possibilities in the

continuing professional development of teachers. A traditional learning model seemed
to be prevalent, according to the dichotomy of formal versus informal, self-learning
versus learning from others. Teachers identified a number of key issues in order to
foster conditions for learning in the workplace: the need to value more their
experience as source of learning, the support from school leadership and peers, the
existence of a clear, compelling and long-term framework at school level in terms of
Professional Development of teachers as well as of the school as a whole, the need to
recognize hands-on activities as opportunities for teachers to learn, the need to foster
flexibility and diversity when it comes to promote teachers’ opportunities to learn in
the workplace. Personal training experiences also emerged as a crucial element in
teachers’ understanding of the meaningfulness of their learning, which teachers relate
again to issues of motivation, willingness and readiness to learn and growth.
As far as leadership is concerned, the vast majority of the teachers agree that
effective leadership is crucial for enhancing teachers’ professional development
(90.5%). Only 20.5% stated that they did not feel encouraged to undertake leadership
and 17.9% stressed that they do not feet they can participate in decision making
process (17.9%). The encouraging attitude of the school principal (62.6%), the fact
that he/she talked openly about all matters at school (63%) and that he/she is willing
to listen to staff points of view (65.4%) are the three most positive characteristics of
leadership referred to by the teachers.
The increasing importance of school leadership to the quality of the work and
learning of the teacher was highlighted. By and large, three main themes emerged
468
from both quantitative and qualitative data: effectiveness, decision-making and help
and encouragement.
“ (…) we have meetings at school with more specific teams and also
with larger teams including school management team...”
“the principal used to promote meetings with teachers to share ideas

and to find answers for the questions and challenges faced by the
school. The idea is to share our goals and vision for the school and
make teachers work for a common purpose ignoring the little things
that prevents you from the main issues…”
“ (…) the management team promoted a meeting for all teachers at

school to inform about new regulations. They thought that it would be
important for teachers to attend this kind of INSET activities.
Although some teachers didn’t feel like going to these meetings, they
were compulsory and I think that this was a good decision because in-
service training is really important for teachers…”
Informative, supportive and encouraging leadership is seen to play a key role in

the formation of teachers’ professional orientation and a sense of community, with
implications for teachers’ learning and professional development, job satisfaction,
self-efficacy, and commitment. Evidence from this study supports the contention that
effective school leadership plays a key role in creating and sustaining learning
communities (Leithwood, Jantzi & Steinbach, 1999; Fernandez, 2000; Barker, 2001;
OECD, 2005).
Conclusion
Overall, data revealed a narrow view of teacher professional development.

Professional learning (and development) was depicted more as an individual and
lonely business rather than a joint venture. Also of interest are feelings of
powerlessness which teachers associated with endless changes in education and the
lack of support from school administration, the compulsory nature of training which
relates to career advancement purpose (a credit system which prevents teachers to
focus on their “real” job), feelings of tiredness and giving up. Teachers also referred to
the lack of provision of relevant courses and opportunities for them to learn and the
lack of impact of INSET activities in their teaching and professional development.
This is in line with recent research carried out in the Portuguese context which has
shown the weak impact of teachers’ centres in fostering teacher professional
development and educational innovation in schools, which was driven mainly by
bureaucratic devices (see for instance, Ferreira, 1994; Ruela, 1999; Barroso and
Canario, 1999).
Despite this some teachers argue for hope, self-confidence, professionalism and
commitment which are needed if teachers are to engage in meaningful learning
opportunities with their peers sharing a sense of purpose for their teaching (and their
learning) and embarking upon project-led work and research in and out of school.
469
These findings raise questions about the role of schools in promoting effective
continuing professional development for teachers. Clearly, the provision of
meaningful learning opportunities and support deemed necessary for teachers at
different phases of their careers is crucial to enhance their continuing professional
development. However, it needs to take into account teachers’ readiness and
willingness to learn, their needs and motivations as well as the characteristics of the
context in which they work. As Day (1999) states, ‘professional development is not
something that can be forced, because it is the teacher who develops (actively), and
not the teacher who is developed (passively)’ (p. 97). Furthermore, it is essential to
provide teachers with working conditions conducive to a continuous questioning of
their practices and the aims and values underpinning them as well as the broader
educational contexts in which they work, for ‘learning from experience’ differs from
‘having experience’ (Shulman, 1997, p. 92). The way in which teachers learn and
develop is dependent upon both idiosyncratic and contextual factors. It reflects the
interplay between personal biography and the characteristics of the educational
settings in which they work (Flores, 2005). Thus, issues of motivation and willingness
to learn are crucial in promoting meaningful opportunities for learning in the
workplace as well as the leadership and professional culture within schools as factors
mediating teachers’ professional development and school development.
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Work-Based Learning within PSNI
44
Elda Nikolou–Walker, Queen’s University
T
he pre-eminence of knowledge and skills as the sources of wealth creation
and economic growth is one of the major issues in business at the beginning
of the 21st century. As a result Human Resource Development has been
propelled into a central role in management thinking. However, this has not
always been reflected in practice, since many of the methodologies for monitoring and
assessment continue to reflect the previous importance of fixed capital, the industrial
society and the quantity of labour employed.
As Nikolou-Walker and Garnett (2004) 1 state "Due to technological change fewer
people are producing more and thus the production logic of the ‘industrial paradigm’
is losing its position…while the dramatic development of information technology has
ushered in information or knowledge society paradigms".
The police service like other public services has had to ensure that its staff are
skilled to undertake an ever more complex role within society. This has traditionally
been delivered through typical organisational training processes. The value of learning
as opposed to training is rarely proposed. The ‘soft’ benefits of education and learning
are rarely given sufficient emphasis, however, increasingly organizations are realizing
the benefits of creating an open environment which allows informal learning to
flourish. This article will explore the concepts of traditional training within policing
before reviewing as a case study the introduction of a work-based and experiential
learning paradigm within police development.
The Problem
Pepper (1992) 2 defines training as the organised process concerned with the
acquisition of capability or the maintenance of existing capability. Brown and Hickey,
1
Nikolou-Walker, Elda and Garnett Johnathan (2004) Work-based learning. A new
imperative:developing reflective practice in professional life. Reflective Practice, Vol. 5,
October 2004. P.298.
2
Pepper, A. D. (1992), Managing the Training and Development, London: Gower Publishing.
P.3.
473
(1990) 1 contend that the purpose of any training system within an organisation is to
produce a trained person who can successfully perform specific tasks in the
workplace. If these tasks cannot be performed to a required standard, then the training
has failed. A systems approach to training provides a framework for management and
implementation of training. A job is analysed, a course designed and conducted and
then the trainees perform the instructed tasks, on the job. Quality control of this
'training loop' is created through evaluation and validation. However, many training
departments appear to be organised around the preparation and delivery of a catalogue
of training courses. As Kuraitis (1981) 2 states:
“It may be argued that it is this approach to training which has led to the
scepticism of senior management that training really is as vital as the
Training Professional says it is. Why is it that when things get tough, the
training budget is one of the first to face the axe, viewed as a non-
productive overhead?”
Training is not consistently seen as adding value but is merely equipping people
with the basic skills and knowledge necessary to carry out their assigned tasks and
duties. In cases where skill and knowledge deficiencies are leading to mistakes, errors,
defects, waste and so on, it can be argued that training which eliminates these
deficiencies is a solution to a performance problem. However, training in this way can
be seen as focused on production and therefore empty of any wider content than mere
repetition of skills. It is therefore reactionary and there is no place for the learner to
assess new or emerging problems and create a suitable solution. This behaviourist
approach stresses the outcomes of learning, their predictability and their measurability.
It creates a task orientated learning linked to the technical domain of learning. This
traditional approach is based upon lecture-based memorisation and pedagogical style
techniques. In these teacher / student settings there is dependence with the instructors
clearly in charge with little credence of a student’s prior experience. This fits very
well with the cultural characteristics of police organisations were logic, rationality,
linear cause-effect relationships and hierarchical control are the norm.
The concept of occupational standards has grown rapidly within police training.
Skills for Justice has just taken over from the Police Skills and Standards Organisation
as the Police Sector National Training Organisation. It is the standard setting body for
the UK Police Service. Its core roles are to develop National Occupational Standards,
increase skills levels and provide the recognised voice of the Police Service;
addressing their needs across the whole spectrum of learning, skills, training and
development issues. In April 2003 it published a first suite of National Occupational
Standards for the Police Sector. This was then integrated through the national
performance and development review system to form an Integrated Competency
Framework which was released in July 2003.Occupational standards can be seen as a
requirement to set an output measure against which a course pass or fail is set. This
includes the process and context in which the course is delivered and students are
expected to study, learn and understand. Such a notion of competence is not fully
accepted within Universities. There are two major concerns in the academic world
about the notion of competence the first is the fear of vocationalism and the second is
1
Peter Brown and Michael Hickey, (1990). Validation - Cost Effective External Evaluation
Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 6(2), PP. 92-98.
2
Kuraitis V P (1981). 'The Personnel Audit.' Personnel Administrator. Vol 26, Part II. P.29
474
the fear of reductionism. Many see it as a threat to academic standards and university
autonomy.
Educationalists, on the other hand, emphasise that education is a process, the
outcomes of which can neither be defined nor measured in strict behavioural terms.
The measures of overt behaviour as the sole criterion of a learner’s cognitive
attainment are to miss the point of real learning. There is also fear that the minimum
requirements of a learning objective may become the maximum level of attainment, so
that innovation and exploration is discouraged. If standards are seen as rigid structures
for development they can act as a barrier to real learning. It is clear that behavioural
changes are not the only type of important learning outcomes. However, it is often
difficult to create effective measures for these other educational outcomes.
Measurability generally implies accountability; so many training managers judge
outcomes on the ability to change behaviour alone. This is not to say that the use of
learning objectives is not an effective utilisation of resources to achieve desired ends,
especially in an organisational context. There often has to be a reference to standards
and what success looks like. Perhaps like a journey in a car, there are a number of
different routes that the traveller may wish to take, the journey may be interesting,
however, ultimately we will need to know if we have arrived at the correct destination.
Objectives in this context can act as a map and points along the journey, however, it
should not prevent learning detours or unexpected benefits that arise during the
training. They can be viewed as indicators of progress rather than ultimate end points.
Writers such as Bramley (1990) 1 state that suitable models of training should be
identified to ensure organisational change combined with learning rather than the
more traditional approach of merely training the individual. A holistic approach can
move beyond minimum standards to the application of learning especially when it is
in the workplace setting. Learning can be described as the acquisition of knowledge or
skill received by instruction or study. Look in a psychology text book and you may
find a definition of learning such as "learning is any relatively permanent change in
behaviour (or behaviour potential) produced by experience and not caused by physical
maturation or growth” Baron (1988) 2. Learning is therefore the way we acquire,
interpret, re-organise or assimilate a related cluster of information, skills and feelings.
Yeilder 3 states that the strong skill based focus of many learning events does not
reflect the processes involved in making complex judgments and decision making in
problematic or changing environments. Pure skill based learning has the potential to
focus primarily on cognitive processes to the exclusion of interpersonal dimensions. In
a policing context an expertise in policing could be seen as an individual who could
handle virtually anything that came their way and could work through that situation.
Critical thinking is about continuously making sense and meaning out of our
experiences. This allows us not only to deal with the current issues, but also to
maximise change. Without critical examination of practices, changes will not be
incorporated into practice or integrated as good practice. Scriven describes critical
thinking as the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skilfully
conceptualising, applying, analysing, synthesising, and/or evaluating information
gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or
communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on
1
Bramley, P (1990), Evaluating Trainer Effectiveness, Translating Theory into practice.
Maidenhead: McGraw - Hill
2
Baron, J. (1988). Thinking and deciding. New York: Cambridge University Press. P136
3
Yeilder J. in The International Journal of Lifelong Education. Eds Jarvis P. & Parker S. Vol
13 No 1, January-February 2004. (p.61)
475
universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy,
precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and
fairness. Mezirow 1 maintains it is not so much people’s experiences, but how they
interpret and explain those experiences, that determines how they deal with a situation.
“Reflection is involved in problem solving, problem posing and transformation of
meaning schemes and perspectives. We may reflect on the content of a problem, the
process of our problem solving or the premise upon which the problem is predicated.”
(Mezirow, 1991, p. 117).
The capacity to explore experiences through reflective discourse and to act
differently aids an adult’s development. But the key is not merely reflecting but that
the reflection involves critique. The reflection can either be retrospective or
immediate. This is not at the level of ‘theoretical reflectivity’ but reflection as related
to action Schon D (1987) 2. Police interaction consists of complex multilayered
interactions between them, the public and society. Technical competency does not
itself allow practitioners to effectively respond to change. Their Knowledge may
quickly become outdated and they may not have the skills necessary to acquire,
process and effectively deal with new, unfamiliar situations. The competency
approach creates strong boundaries of specific knowledge for professional competence
which must be expanded beyond by creating new habits of how students think in order
to deal with complexity and ambiguity.
Classroom learning educates students through books and lectures, selected and
presented by "experts" whose instruction follows rigidly defined methods.
Experiential learning, on the other hand, occurs in some form of a social environment,
and promotes student observation, data collection and discovery to drive continual
analysis, problem solving and learning. As David Kolb 3 says: "In this stage, learning
involves using logic and ideas, rather than feelings to understand problems or
situations. Typically, you would rely on systematic planning and develop theories and
ideas to solve problems." Of course not all writers agree with Kolb's theoretical
approach, however, such thinking creates a shift to a self-directed Andragogical
approach to police development. McCain and Tobey 4 summarise the principles of
such adult learning in the acronym LEARN,
Learner-directed: Adult learners like to be in charge of their own learning as much
as possible. Group or individual work in which they decide on structure, format, and
effective applications. And if adults understand why they need the information you
can give them, the content will be easier for them to learn.
Experiential: Adults in a learning environment gain more from experiencing the
concepts being taught than they do from just a lecture presentation. They want active
involvement and relevance to their job and organization. This involves practicing and
applying the concepts rather than lecture only.
Able to be evaluated: When teaching a concept, define it. Specify as clearly as
possible the result wanted from the learners. Identify what knowledge, skill, or attitude
change will take place. Focus facilitation on reaching that goal and measure it.
1
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass, Inc.
2
Schon, D. A. (1987) Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching
and learning in the professions. San Francisco: Josey-Bass.
3
Kolb, D.A. 1984. Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and
development. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
4
McCain D. V. & Tobey D. (2004) Facilitation Basics. ASTD: California.
476
Residual: Adults learn more effectively if they build on known information, facts,
and / or experiences rather than from independent, arbitrary facts. Base the
information provided on their experience and knowledge and lead them into more
depth of that knowledge.
Numerous instructional methods: Some people learn better from verbal
instructions, some from written instructions, and some from example. Others are
visually oriented, and still others learn by trial and error. Incorporate various methods
and types of activities into the program. You can reach a wider audience by using
several instructional methods, plus variety provides valuable reinforcement and makes
the course more interesting.
This approach moves away from the notion that education merely prepares people
for work, but toward the equally valid preposition that it develops those in work and
helps them in being more effective and helping them pursue their careers. Stewart
Sutherland (1994) 1 points out the concept of vocational courses is far from new and
most older universities have been in the business of training lawyers, doctors and
clergymen for centuries. We can train someone to work a DVD player; however, it
could not be classified as education as it does not give understanding. If someone
understands something it brings the capacity to explore the issues in depth, the person
is not bound by the specific form in which that skill was first acquired. It allows the
person to modify their skills to deal with similar but significantly different problems,
and to apply reasoning to those new problems, and to consider if the application of
such reasoning is appropriate.
Research Objective
The current model of training for police officers is becoming unsustainable. There
is a need to explore new paradigms. These paradigm shifts are rarely voluntary. Those
who have worked in the old paradigms have a tremendous amount of time and energy
invested in using existing rules and are resistant to the need for change. Overall the
Police Service in Northern Ireland has identified that it is insufficient to merely
provide general skills for jobs.
The interactive skills of policing are not finite, therefore the skills involved in
policing need to be developed experientially and intuitively. The core processes exist
for dealing with a firearms incident in terms of technical skills in drawing aiming and
perhaps firing a firearm; however, the interactive aspects cannot generally be worked
out in advance of a real incident, as each incident will be unique. Through personal
enhancement, the student builds confidence and initiative which can be harnessed to
the development of policing knowledge and the solution of practical policing
problems. We therefore need to support students so that they have the capacity to
apply skills and knowledge in the context of work.
The objective of this research is to test if we can get students to organize their
knowledge and exercise their critical powers in dealing with problems within the
realm of their working practice. In a police learning context we are looking at the
education of adults as a unified process allowing for both teacher-centered and
learner-centered activities.
1
Sutherland, S. (1994) Universities in the Twenty-First Century, A lecture Series. Paul
Hamlyn Foundation: London. P.5.
477
Case Study
This section reviews the innovative programme developed in May 2004 between
the Work-Based Learning unit in the School of Education at Queens University
Belfast and the Police Service of Northern Ireland. The scheme enables probationary
officers to develop new skills by means of an Advanced Diploma in Work Based
Learning linked to the traditional training in operational policing. This new
programme not only creates a new approach to police development but also allows for
the accreditation of the work-based learning. The focus of the entire learning
experience is within the real world context. We will explore the evidence of the
positive experience of trainees who have embarked on this new method of learning.
Using content analysis, observations and interviews we have reviewed how the
programme is effecting the abilities of the new police officers. We will also explore
the issues of assessment for the programme and how these have been overcome.
The programme of Work-Based Learning gives the students the opportunity to
consider some aspect of the students’ experience in the work environment in a way
that develops their understanding of it. It also allows them to develop and apply work-
based research skills. These research skills are developed in a way which ensures that
they are transferable, not only to other roles within the police service, but potentially
to roles outside of the police. Of course the PSNI has been engaged with Universities
to accredit various learning and development opportunities available to police officers
within the Police College. However, the Advanced Diploma in Work-Based learning
is innovative in so far as it enables professionals to develop new skills within a
working context, with particular emphasis on the students' capacity to engage
successfully in reflective practice as part of their learning. Its objective is to enable
students to reflect on their own work-related experience, to develop their
understanding of appropriate research approaches and methods and to identify and
design a work based project. It is structured so as to develop study skills,
communication skills, reflective learning, project management and data analysis skills
along with presentation skills. The Advanced Diploma is assessed by way of two
modules including a portfolio of a project dissertation and report, and a critically
reflective essay. It is completed over a twelve week period whilst engaged in
Operational Training at the Police College of Northern Ireland. The first module is
mainly conducted within a small group to encourage shared analysis and challenges.
This had the potential to be seen by some critics of the programme as providing an
opportunity for some students to engage less in the research but still take credit for the
final report. There were also concerns that group work might encourage plagiarism.
Two methods of check were put in place to deal effectively with these concerns.
Firstly, a strong emphasis was placed upon the group working together and use of peer
pressure to ensure fair sharing of the workload in developing the project. Secondly,
thorough marking of the reflective piece by the University’s staff ensures that each
individual has produced a unique piece of work and has achieved the required
standard.
Unique and Innovative Approach
This programme is about learning in the workplace rather than placement or

studying about the workplace in an academic institution which itself can be restrictive
as such an approach to knowledge can be unsystematic and action focused.
478
Work- based learning is about shaping and reshaping knowledge to keep pace
with the anticipated changes in production and delivery of services. It therefore is
about giving opportunities for new paradigms which support the organisation and the
University. After all, the Advanced Diploma is about the creation and validation of
understanding of the work place. It can also identify areas which need to be
challenged and even unlearned if progress is to be made.
Compared to the University work- based learning model the PSNI Advanced
Diploma has some similarities and some significant differences which highlight the
benefits of having an accredited model in the workplace rather than on the University
campus. The partnership arrangement is similar for both approaches, both parties
establish the approach to foster learning with the organisation having a specific
learning need satisfied in return for exchange of skills and research to the educational
institution. The focus is on the employees receiving job specific learning and
developing into agreed work-based learning plans approved by the educational
establishment. The curriculum is focused primarily on the needs of the PSNI and of
the students and is not controlled by the off the shelf disciplinary curriculum often
available from educational establishments. The academic level has been agreed with
the University after a structured review was conducted of the current learning in the
PSNI.
The PSNI decided that the Advanced Diploma in Work-Based Learning should be
mandatory for all probationary students undertaking the operational policing training
module. This is positive in it creates a minimum level of development for all students
which is academically accredited. It is also seen by some students as negative as it
fails to give the students a choice as to whether to take on the academic study.
However, both for individuals and the PSNI the positive aspects outweigh the
negatives. The Advanced Diploma’s content is made up of structures which are
focused to meet the needs of the learners and improve organisational practice. The
standards and levels assessed by the University are complementary to those provided
under the Skills for Justice Framework, but extend beyond them into conceptual
reflective learning. There is a clear focus in the programme for participants to review
and critically appraise their newly acquired skills in the context of the working
environment. This is encouraged through a range of means including discussions,
written exercises and group work. In particular students are required to undertake a
research project, which is directly related to part of their role within the PSNI and
based upon their training for that role. To support the students the University provide
an academic input on learning styles and research methodology which is presented in
a module at the beginning of the Programme. The students are then introduced to the
Learning Cycles concept with an emphasis on reflective practice. The students then
discuss how to develop the project, including identifying a suitable work-based
learning topic, creating a hypothesis, applying research methods including data
collection, analysis and report writing. A wide range of reference materials have been
made available to the students on a web-site specially created by the university’s Head
of unit . In particular there is an emphasis on action research and reflecting on the
topic in a way that the student gets greater understanding of the area and the
application by the individual within their role in the workplace. By approaching it in
this way the students are encouraged to develop critical thinking, making informed
decisions and not remaining within their own area of knowledge.
479
Outcomes
Sectors are continuously changing and new demands mean that employees
exercise greater individual responsibility and autonomy as well as flexibility and
adaptability in their working context. Learning has primarily been seen in the police
organisation as the process of acquiring knowledge, skills and competencies, rather
than a process of deeper understanding, personal enrichment and development.
Individuals are therefore measured against standards with as little deviation as
possible. Carl Rogers 1 talks of the goal of education as the facilitation of change and
learning. This in his view gives rise to practitioners who can cope with a delicate but
ever changing environment. His stand point is that teaching and educating can transfer
some knowledge, but we gain more by creating the right conditions for learning. This
new paradigm moves away from the one size fits all method which marks traditional
police training approach. In this context the Advanced Diploma in Work-based
Learning is developing the learner's current practical and academic knowledge. It is
particularly transformative in relation to the students whose initial training was
aligned to organisational policies and laws without application of critical judgement or
learning. In order to appreciate and therefore make use of reflective skills the
individuals are encouraged to develop thinking at an individual rather than an
organisational level. It is for this reason that the programme is centred on the work
context.
Providing the work-based learning approach and additional skills to the students
has allowed them to begin to review the explanatory theories which provide a
rationale for their practice as police officers. It has also allowed for a movement from
imitative or traditional judgement to greater self-directed learning guided by the
developing of theoretical rules. Of course such judgements are not idiosyncratic and
are not intended to make officers individualistic, but closer to the team as their
judgment is based around shared critical principles and values. Argyris and Schon
(1974) 2 emphasised that action learning typically relies on group analysis. In terms of
the police students who are engaging on the Advanced Diploma in Work-Based
Learning, their previous learning experience has created an attitude of evaluation in
terms of success or failure based upon existing knowledge rather than a process of
testing and continuous improvement. In the initial stages of their training the new
students focused on identifying and learning the key theories and explanations of the
distinctive procedures and practices needed for their role as a police constable. These
have been built upon the use of characteristic procedures and practices based upon
experiences gained by other officers. These references to general principles on their
own have not created the explanation or justification of such procedures and practice,
nor the challenges which create success in the future.
This is as Alfred North Whitehead in Palmer (2001) 3 stated:
“The solution … is to eradicate the fatal disconnection of subjects

which kills the vitality of our modern curriculum.”
1
Rogers, C. R. (1983) Freedom to Learn for the 80’s. Charles Merrill: Ohio.
2
Argyris C. and Shon D. (1974) Theory in practice: Increasing Professional Effectiveness.
Jossey-Bass: San Francisco. pp 18-19.
3
Palmer, J. A. (Ed) (2001) Fifty major thinkers on education, from Confucious to Dewey.
Routledge: London. (p.197)
480
He was convinced that the learning happens in the interaction when the student
applies or tests the knowledge, not when the teacher hands over to the student a piece
of information or an inert idea.
Coldstream (2000) 1 continues this argument by stating:
“It is of course, a new generation of students taught to be critically

reflective, innovative and responsible, who will be the natural ‘lifelong’
learners for the future… applied education is about questioning, not
ready-made answers. The applied learner ought to be the lifelong
learner because of their quality of curiosity, scepticism and constructive
dissatisfaction.”
Students identified that the programme is promoting their individual

understanding of their role in the workplace and how they as individuals view
themselves and their relationship with others. Their project uses the experiences and
opportunities in the work environment to reflect upon this. The students state that
they are considering the workplace differently, developing understanding, and
beginning to apply work-based research skills. The programme participants are of-
course being encouraged to analyse work situations to determine the nature of the
problem to be addressed and derive their own solutions to the problem through what
Schon calls reflection-in-action 2. This critical reflection provides the capacity to dig
below the surface layer of perception to explore the accepted assumptions and values.
Policing is a field consistently in change which parallels changes within government,
criminal justice and society in which it functions. Therefore it is justifiable to have a
continuous requirement for research and continuous development. The principle
success of this programme is that those who are taking part identify that the
knowledge on policing is incomplete. The students are beginning to identify for
themselves the current limits of knowledge and they are exploring new or untested
areas for development. The indications are that these new learners are becoming
sensitive to why things are being done in a certain way, the potential discrepancies
between what is being said and what is being done, and the way in which the values of
the police service shape certain actions and outcomes.
The initial results of this research have shown that students understand the concept
that policing is moving away from merely responding to incidents. They are
developing thinking to explore the causes of crime and social disorder and thereby
develop a stronger community orientated policing model as a means to resolve the
underlying problems. Their research and conclusions are identifying the need for joint
working with the public, businesses, political figures and other public services. They
are creating new problem solving options, which require not only partnership, but
creative and critical thinking. The programme is in the early stages of delivery, and
therefore the results of this review cannot be considered to be the final analysis. The
research process will have to be ongoing, resulting in alterations, changes and
modifications with the ultimate aim of continuous improvement of the working
practice of the students.
1
Smithers, Alan & Robinson, Pamela (Eds) (2000) Further Education Reformed. Falmer Press:
London. (P.143)
2
Schon D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner. Basic Books: New York. pp128-133.
481
Conclusion
Education has the potential to create two benefits. Firstly for the individual
themselves and secondly and instrumentally more important the long-term critique of
social values and work-related processes to which education is committed. This
develops the student beyond the constraining limits of the present circumstances to
envisage alternatives and to foster latent vision. This provides potential for the future.
Downs (1985) 1 as part of her research into helping adults become better learners asked
a sample from a number of organisations and industries, what changes had taken place
within their environments and the effect that these changes had on training. The results
showed the increasing importance of conceptual thinking and understanding in their
jobs as they changed from rote tasks to monitoring what was going on, fault finding,
understanding of systems and taking immediate remedial action when problems
occurred. The emphasis was upon learning and not merely training.
The key for police education is better equipping officers to play an active role in
policing and especially in problem orientated policing, compared to those who have
not had that advantage. The development of an Advanced Diploma in Work Based
Learning means that we are in the business of developing critical skills beyond the
mere acquisition of information and competence. These skills are readily transferable
and can be applied in other areas of police work. This provides the new police officers
not only with unique skills but also a clear pathway to a recognised academic
qualification. The development of this collaboration is essential not only for the
students and the PSNI as an employer, but also for the University which is enabling
itself to continue building valuable credentials within the modern working world.
1
Downs, S. (1997) Culture and Processes of Adult Learning, Editors Mary Thorpe, Richard
Edwards & Ann Hanson. Routledge: London. P207.
482
Choreographing Research Ethics in Extended Educational Settings
45
Choreographing Research Ethics in
Extended Educational Settings
Judy Whitmarsh, University of Wolverhampton
he increasing complexity of contemporary educational practice, together
T with changes in UK law, makes a wide-ranging discussion of research

ethics imperative. The certainty of ‘one size fits all’ ethical principles
and ethical codes of practice has been replaced by a more contemplative
mood and a greater understanding of the contextual difficulties that surround
research that engages with children and young people. This paper addresses
some of the issues that arise in research that cuts across the boundaries of
different disciplines; it explores the current emergence in the UK of the
extended school setting before considering what this means for research ethics.
The title of the paper relates to the need for educational researchers to emerge
from their current sanctuary and explore their new, post-Laming surroundings in
order to create cross-disciplinary ethical spaces that will enhance future research.
The Background to the Extended Educational Setting
Following the horrific death of an abused child (Victoria Climbié), the Laming
Report, published in tandem with the Green Paper Every Child Matters (Department
for Education and Skills [DfES] 2003), recommended changes in the delivery of
services to children and young people in England; these changes became enshrined in
the Children Act 2004 and a series of documents, under the umbrella title of Every
Child Matters (ECM). The Children Act (2004) proposed a radical change in the
delivery of children’s services to improve and integrate health, education, social
services and other key provision throughout a child’s lifetime. Furthermore, the child
and family must be situated at the heart of these reconfigured services in order to
provide “…more specialised help to promote opportunity, prevent problems and act
early and effectively if and when problems arise” (DfES 2004, p.4). The five
outcomes 1 of ECM provide a clear focus that will be assessed for all services provided
1
Being healthy; staying safe; enjoying and achieving; making a positive contribution and
achieving economic wellbeing (DfES 2004, p.4).
483
for children and young people in England, including schools, early years settings and
extended school settings; the outcomes are interdependent, have legal force and, for
the first time, interweave health, social care and education together. Underpinning this
lie the crucial concepts of the development of multi-professional and multi-agency
partnerships in order to achieve these outcomes throughout the child’s lifetime.
The New Labour government has introduced a raft of measures in Britain to
reduce the effects of poverty and social and material disadvantage on family and child
health and education. The Sure Start initiative is aimed at improving the lives of
families with children under the age of four years by ‘joining-up’ health, education
and social care provision, and by working with and enhancing provision and support
for communities in the 20% most deprived areas of England. The government propose
that the increased provision of free nursery places for three and four-year-olds,
together with the development of the extended school, will offer more affordable, high
quality childcare to parents. The extended school, in conjunction with the emerging
Children’s Centres, will provide childcare between 8am and 6pm, out-of-school
activities, breakfast and homework clubs, parenting support, access to other services
(for example, employment, social services, job centres) and specialist family and child
provision. Schools and their communities will decide which services to provide and
the whole school will be assessed against the five ECM outcomes.
Working with a variety of new partners may appear daunting to educators and will
undoubtedly require new ways of both working and evaluating progress. The
processes and outcomes of multi-agency, or ‘joined-up’, working have been the
subject of much research in England during the past few years (see for example,
Bagley et al. 2004; Atkinson et al. 2002; Anning 2001) and difficulties and tensions
have been identified.
Tensions in Multi-Agency Working
The processes inherent in joined-up working are not the subject of this paper,
however a brief review of the researched tensions that exist is relevant to the later
exploration of multi-agency research ethics.
The notion of the “joined-up solution to the joined-up problem” (Jones 2000, p. 1)
suggests that issues, such as the poor interagency communication that may have
contributed to the death of Victoria Climbié, can be fixed by a soundbite. While few
would argue with the strategies of the Children Act (2004), that aim to enable earlier
identification of problems and better integration of supporting services, the difficulties
of multi-agency working have not yet been adequately acknowledged, let alone
addressed.
Jones (2000, p.1) describes this joined-up discourse as a “…hegemonic status,
going largely unchallenged, widely welcomed and subject to scant unbiased analysis”.
Newman (2000) argues that inequality of resources and control, different agendas and
different goals make achieving unity problematic. Dahl and Aubrey (2004) note that
inter-agency communication can be problematic and issues around confidentiality and
information sharing need resolution. In their review of multi-agency working
partnerships in education and health, Milbourne et al. (2003) suggest that time is
needed at the outset of the project to establish trust and joint aims, however time and
funding for it are in short supply in the current climate of short-term contracts and
financial restrictions.
484
The emergence of the Common Assessment Framework and the proposed

Common Core of Skills and Knowledge for the Children’s Workforce (DfES 2004)
may provide some coterminous points of reference but do not adequately address the
underlying tensions of status, information-sharing, unequal resources, management
and control of data, and strategic understanding between agencies.
The need for research into joined-up working continues, yet this need co-exists
with the research needs of both the disparate agencies (for example for evaluative
explorations against the ECM five outcomes) but also the personal, professional and
community research needs of those working within the differing disciplines. The next
section of this paper identifies and explores some of the ethical issues within multi-
disciplinary research in educational settings.
Ethics in Extended Educational Settings
So far, this paper has outlined the move by the British government towards
extending the notion of education from that of statutory schooling to incorporating
early years settings, out of hours educational activities, and the school as a site of
practice for a variety of other agencies and disciplines related to the wellbeing of the
child and her family. The paper then demonstrates briefly some of the tensions that
have been seen to exist in this new joined-up working. This type of work will need
further research to evaluate its appropriateness and efficacy and to investigate it in
more depth than is possible as part of everyday professional practice. Developing
research that moves across disciplinary boundaries will require the emergence of new
understandings of ethics, ethical boards and ethical codes; it may need, for example,
the development of a shared ethical language that ensures that the researchers
construct a joint terminology. How then are we to choreograph our multi-agency
research dance when disciplines of health, education and social care hold individual
perspectives of ethics, different understandings of common terminology such as
confidentiality, and seek consent for research from ethics committees located in their
own individual practice?
The next section of this paper unpicks some of the core differences within the
research ethics of the disciplines of health and education.
Multi-Disciplinary Ethics: Health
The field of ethics originates from Ancient Greece, however the history of
contemporary ethics may be said to originate from the Nuremberg trials in post-war
Germany. Much of the codified response to ethics relates to the Nuremberg Code,
designed to prevent any future recurrence of Nazi medical atrocities. However, unease
with many psychological research experiments from the 1960s and 1970s (see for
example, Zimbardo et al., 1973; Milgram 1974) led to the Helsinki Declaration 1 (1964
and since amended) and the Belmont Report (1979); these codes enshrine principles of
“informed consent, integrity, beneficence, respect for persons and justice” (Allen
2005, p.17). Thus contemporary health and medical ethics committees have a
1
Health researchers currently are required to provide a signed Helsinki Declaration for Lrec.
485
symbiotic relationship with bio-medical ethics, which may be problematic for the
cross-disciplinary researcher.
In the UK, consent for health research is monitored by the Central Office for
Research Ethics Committees (Corec) who devolve gate-keeping to Local Research
Ethics Committees (Lrec). All research that involves access to National Health Service
(NHS) patients, relatives, carers, staff or data is required to have Lrec consent; this
includes “all potential research participants recruited by virtue of the patient or user’s
past or present treatment by, or use of, the NHS” (Corec 2004, p.1). For practical
purposes, this means that an educational researcher requiring access to a database of
names for research purposes, perhaps from a school nurse, of children with specific
medico-educational needs (for example, students with Attention Deficit Disorder)
needs to obtain Lrec consent for the research. Furthermore, Lrec must approve any
research including interviews with NHS staff (for example health visitors, school
nurses, clinical psychologists, speech and language therapists). Gaining Lrec consent
can be lengthy with an online form to complete followed by further interview with the
local research ethics committee within a set time-scale. All questionnaires, interview
schedules, participant consent forms and information have to be submitted with the
application. This may affect the methodology of the research: grounded theory
(Strauss and Corbin 1990), for example, may require the researcher to take the themes
emerging from the data back to the participants several times before theoretical
saturation is reached. The local research and ethics committee is unlikely to offer the
grounded theory researcher carte blanche to return to the participant for an
unspecified number of interviews.
Local research ethics committees (Lrec) tend to have a scientific, clinical focus
and to articulate an institutional response. The quantitative bias of Lrec may predicate
against the more qualitative research methodology (Ensign 2003) and its members
“may perform badly for social research” (Oakley 1992, p.130). Researchers
attempting to gain consent for cross-disciplinary research should be aware also that
Lrecs may request alterations to data collection tools, such as questionnaires and
interview schedules, to conform with their own notions of ‘good’ research. This raises
ethical questions about the role of the gatekeeper and issues of power within the
research process. If the only way to gain access to NHS staff, for example, is by
amending the research proposal to fit in with Lrec needs, what does this mean for the
researcher’s own integrity? Should the researcher find another means of conducting
the research, perhaps via a non-NHS sample, or should the researcher conform to the
requirements of the committee?
Furthermore, for feminist researchers, issues around the paternalism of the
medical profession (who constitute a large part of the local research and ethics
committee) are the subject of an extended debate. Gallagher (1995, p.101) refers to the
more traditional, masculine approach of medical ethics, stating that “[E]thics ought
not to be a war zone…”. Noddings (1984) demonstrates how an ‘ethics of care’ can be
incorporated into the research process. Gilligan (1982), in her seminal work, argued
that the gendering of morality does a disservice to women. For feminist educational
researchers, exploring perhaps using unconventional research methods, a meeting with
a local medical ethics and research committee, who may seek universal truths via
positivist research, may be confrontational. As Ensign (2003) notes “[M]any ethics
review boards in all but the largest institutions do not have members with extensive
knowledge of qualitative research or of how to read and review such proposals” (p44).
The Language of Research
486
While the research terminology may be shared between the disciplines, the
underlying understandings of the meaning may vary considerably. Take, for example,
the underpinning ethical concept of confidentiality: for doctors and nurses, the
parameters of confidentiality are set out within ethical codes of practice based on the
Hippocratic oath. The guidelines are clear-cut and there are sanctions, such as loss of
registration and professional membership, if they are broken. Nurses, for example,
may breach confidentiality only if it:
• …can be justified in the public interest (usually where disclosure is

essential to protect the patient or client or someone else from the risk of
significant harm).
• …is required by law or by order of a court. (Adapted from Nursing and
Midwifery Council [NMC], 2002, p7).
However the complexity of modern life has given rise to further debate within the
medical and nursing professions about how and when information becomes
confidential and which information can be shared within multi-disciplinary teams. The
advent of the information-sharing era has led to a Nursing and Midwifery Council
consultation document in an attempt to resolve some of the issues resulting from the
Children Act (2004). This consultation (DfES 2005a) proposes that, for health
professionals, a two-tier system may enable the professional to indicate a concern
about a child, as a first measure, without revealing the identity of the child and the
circumstances of the concern. The second tier would allow the sharing of confidential
information, without consent if necessary, to safeguard the child’s interest, for
example in a child protection case.
Whatever the Council decides, it is probably fair to suggest that those working
within the discipline of health have the clearest professional guidance relating to
confidentiality.
Educational Ethics
Higher education institutions in the UK may not have the same historical, ethical
antecedents as medical institutions but that has not prevented a contemporary lively
debate around the philosophy of educational research. From arguments about the
value of ethical codes (Homan 1991; McNamee 2001; Bridges 2003; Greenbank
2004) to the development of various philosophies of education, ethics is “…a
burgeoning academic field” (Smith 2006, p.1). As educational research spreads
outwards, from schools and higher education institutions to childcare and extended
school settings, the need for an overarching philosophy to cover the new terrain
increases. The growing provision and influence of education in the early years, for
example, brings with it further complex moral issues about gaining consent, or assent,
to the research process from very young children. Research in the extended school
setting may elicit problems identifying gate-keepers: if a mature, knowledgeable
child 1, of say 14 years, can give informed consent to a medical procedure without
having parental consent, do we need to gain consent from parents/guardians for
1
In 1985, the case of Gillick v W.Norfolk and Wisbech AHA established that a parent (in
England, Wales and N Ireland) cannot over-ride their child’s wishes in relation to medical
consent, providing certain conditions of maturity, competence and non-exploitation are met.
487
educational research that takes place after the end of the school day? Can a head
teacher give consent to research during out-of-school activities that take place on the
school premises?
Let us here consider an example:
A health visitor 1 and a school nurse are running a ‘Fit Club’, aimed at encouraging
school pupils to take exercise in order to reduce obesity within the school. The head
teacher is anxious that this is successful and it will contribute to fulfilling the ECM
outcome (see p. 1 of this paper) relating to improving physical and mental health. The
organisers would like an evaluative research study to take place to identify potential
benefits of the scheme. The physical education teacher involved is about to begin a
professional doctorate and would like to include this potential study as a research
component. Difficulties arise when she discovers that she needs ethical consent from
the university ethics committee, the health authority ethics committee (Lrec), the
health authority Research and Development Department (who also want the research
proposal peer reviewed), the manager of both the health visitor and the school nurse.
Without these, she cannot proceed. Furthermore, she would like to include some
staged qualitative interviews with the participants in the Fit Club and the health visitor
and school nurse and she discovers that the medically rooted Lrec have a bias towards
quantitative research.
This example is rooted in a real case and demonstrates the complexity, even in the
earliest research stages, of conducting genuinely cross-disciplinary research. Moving
on to terminology, the next section reviews briefly how confidentiality may be
understood within the field of education.
Educational Confidentiality
Within the field of education, issues around confidentiality most commonly

emerge in both child protection procedures and in educational research; occasionally
the two combine and the research leads to the disclosure by a child of an abusive
situation. The courts have found a common law of duty of confidence to exist where:
• There is a special relationship between parties, such as patient-doctor,

solicitor-client, teacher-pupil (DfES 2005a, Appendix 1:2.1)
However this consultation document states that the duty is not absolute and
information may be shared when:
• The information is not confidential in nature;

• The person to whom the duty is owed has implicitly or explicitly
authorized the disclosure;
• There is an over-riding public interest in disclosure;
• Disclosure is ordered by a court or other legal obligation. (DfES 2005a)
1
In the UK, the health visitor is a qualified nurse whose remit is to address the health and
wellbeing of all children under the age of 5 years; however health visitors are currently being
drawn into public and community health issues in order to engage with hard-to-reach and/or
resistant families.
488
In a potential child protection case, the guidelines lay out a clear pathway of
procedure and the child’s best interests must over-ride the duty of confidentiality (see
for example DfES 2005b). Disclosed abuse is relatively straightforward in ethical
terms and few would find difficulties in breaching confidentiality to support an abused
child; however, as we have previously noted, life is not always as simple and there
may be occasions when education professionals are anxious about a child’s wellbeing,
or have a suspicion that all is not well, without any clear-cut evidence of abuse.
Furthermore, there is no legal duty to report disclosed child abuse (Masson 2005);
however most local education authorities, schools and professional bodies require staff
to pass on any suspicion of abuse and sanctions exist if this is not done.
The concept of confidentiality, indeed that of ethics in educational research, may
be seen as a poor cousin to medical ethics: educational researchers may conform to a
voluntary code but there are no means of enforcing this. While universities may have
an ethics committee, there are no common standards or criteria for their management.
The majority of journal articles disseminating research findings ‘cover’ ethics in a few
lines relating to informed consent and confidentiality; rarely does this extend more
deeply, for example defining the difference between confidentiality and anonymity.
Small (2001 p387) notes that educational research is “multi-disciplinary in nature” and
that “the good researcher must address the expectations of scholars from various
backgrounds in the humanities and social sciences”. So how can we move forwards?
Which are the best elements of medical ethics and of educational ethics and how can
we choreograph our dance of research so that we perform in unity rather than
separately?
Conclusion
Medical and healthcare research ethics have a long history that leads to a clearly
defined pathway to gain consent for research; consent is necessary from a research
ethics committee before the researcher can begin the process. This forces the
researcher to clarify all the ethical issues before beginning the research: from
participant information sheets and consent forms to permission from overseeing
bodies, questionnaire design and interview schedules, the committee oversees the
entire process. Any change of direction during the research requires further ethical
consent before it can proceed. This ensures a clear structure and that the majority of
ethical issues will be thought through before the research begins. However it can also
build a straitjacket around the research, inhibiting new or unconventional research
methodologies. There are also issues about the influence the committee may have on
the research: Lrec may insert or delete questions, alter the methods and generally
shape it into their required format. This format may be predisposed to a bio-medical,
quantitative design since the committee may lack expertise in assessing and evaluating
a more qualitative proposal.
Codes of practice also can act as a useful signpost towards ethical research but
there has been much debate about their proscription: educational philosophers claim
that over- adherence to ethical codes “…can trigger resistance, evasion and strategic
compliance, as well as more whole-hearted adherence” (Hodkinson 2004, p.15).
Christians (2000, p. 149) argues that “[T]he conventional view, with its extrinsic
ethics, gives us a truncated and unsophisticated paradigm that needs to be
ontologically transformed”. Whereas medical codes of ethical practice can lead to
sanctions, in educational circles they are adhered to voluntarily. It is argued that the
489
medical code forces researchers into a narrow, instrumental mode, limiting the
development of moral reasoning. Is it more moral, and thereby more ethical, to follow
a code or should we develop our own moral reasoning, as autonomous agents, using
ethical principles in a situational context to guide our research?
Homan (1991) suggests that, although social research codes draw heavily on
medical ethical codes, there are differences in aspect and outcome of the two
disciplines that need consideration. The concern for patients’ welfare, in the Helsinki
Declaration and in medical and para-medical ethical codes, suggests no political sense
of the consequences of publication, for example. In social research, the resolution of
conflicting interests, such as sponsors, funding agencies or career progression, is far
less straightforward than in medical research. Small (2001) proposes that a problem-
solving approach might be more useful in that one would start with an assumption that
we have the ability and knowledge to make ethical decisions and the “task posed by
new and unfamiliar situations is to extend our existing abilities, not to return to first
principles” (p402).
In order to develop ethical codes of conduct that are sensitive enough to allow
problem-solving, reflection on ethical principles and values, and flexibility within new
areas of education led cross-disciplinary research, researchers may need to take a
leading role in the further development of cross-disciplinary ethics. Perhaps there
should be much greater discussion of ethics, rather than the one-step hurdle of gaining
ethical approval from a committee, whether based in university, faculty or health
authority?
In order to do this, we may need to develop ethical spaces (Dahlberg and Moss
2005) in which we can debate terminology, develop shared understandings, and
discuss the contextual demands of our ethical research behaviour. We need to take a
lead in the emerging new world of multi-disciplinary research, otherwise we may find
that the parameters for future research in extended educational settings are set by bio-
medical ethics committees, limiting and inhibiting the freedom and flexibility
currently enjoyed by educational academia.
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Affective Leadership in a Data Driven World: The Case for
Part 5
Management
493
494
Educational
Management
495
496
46
Affective Leadership in a Data Driven
World: The Case for Strengths-Based
Training for Educational Leaders
Teri Marcos, Azusa Pacific University
S
trengths-based training approaches, rooted in the field of social work,
psychiatry, and business, draw on the strengths of individuals as an effective
replacement of commonly accepted deficit models which ask ‘what’s wrong
with me’ to a ‘what’s right with me’ approach. For school leaders, maintaining
a mind-set of ‘what’s right with me’ and further ‘what’s right with others’ can offer a
powerful counter to the largely data-driven adversely pressured political landscape of
public education. Becoming more aware of one’s strengths can build excellence in
future achievements, relationships, and other life experiences. 1
One premise of a strengths-based model is the empowerment of those who are
experts in the field to leave deficit models which espouse top-down approaches to the
multi-layered contexts and employment of multiple strengths of individuals,
communities, and organizations to overcome or prevent difficulties. 2 This speaks well
to the communities of practice built around schooling. Another premise upon which a
strengths-based model can be employed is that of social change. “The purpose of
strengths-based research and evaluation is to benefit the people involved in the study
by giving them voice, and insight.” 3 The future of educational research will
undoubtedly be fully inclusive of strengths-based models and their impact on students,
parents, teachers and the communities in which they live.
American school leaders highly engage in aligning their school plans to constructs
of expectation which drive the normatively prescribed behaviors required of everyone
1
Clifton, Donald O., Anderson, Edward “Chip”. (2004). StrengthsQuest. The Gallup
Organization. Washington D.C.
2
Kanaiaupuni, Shawn Malia. (2004) Kaakalai Ku Kanaka: A Call for Strengths-based
Approaches from a Native Hawaiian
Perspective. Educational Researcher. Volume 33, Number 9, December 2004, p 29.
American Educational Research Association.
3
Fetterman, D.M. (2000). Foundations of empowerment evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
497
within the school from the students and teachers, to the parents and outlying
community. Employing one’s strengths regularly within this process can make it
highly effective and bring congruence of these expected behaviors to the positive
mission and vision of the school.
Strengths-based approaches employ strategies based on competencies,
capabilities, and expertise. Individual strengths “encompass varied cognitive,
affective, psychological, moral, and behavioral capacities, such as self-efficacy,
positive coping, practical knowledge, special talents and persistence, to name but a
few.” 1 When communities engage in “redefining their experiences….and expectations
within everyday life, and, ultimately, their position within society” 2 they engage
critically with social meanings and relationships and overcome the challenges within.
Community strengths may include “varied instrumental, relational, structural, and
cultural characteristics, such as providing culturally proscribed norms that regulate
behaviors in healthy and purposeful ways, and facilitate a positive sense of belonging
to a valued community” (p.5).
Theoretical and Analytical Framework
In their book, StrengthsQuest, Clifton and Anderson (2004) define a strength as

“the ability to provide consistent, near-perfect performance in a given activity.” The
Gallup Organization’s Clifton StrengthsFinder Inventory was prescribed within this
research as a personal lens through which school leaders viewed their strengths.
Within this construct, American school leaders identified their top five strengths and
determined the effects these have on their leadership capacity in maximizing student
achievement within their six professional standards of school leadership practice.
The Language of American School Leadership Practice
Competent American school leaders are required to provide consistent, near-

perfect performance within the six constructs of their duties, as defined by the
Interstate School Leadership Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) National Standards for
Educational Leadership. These are:
1. Facilitating the development, articulation, implementation, and

stewardship of a vision of learning that is shared and supported by the
school community (Visionary leadership).
2. Advocating, nurturing, and sustaining a school culture and instructional
program conducive to student learning and staff professional growth
(Professional Culture).
3. Ensuring management of the organization, operations, and resources for
a safe, efficient, and effective learning environment (Efficient
Management of Operations).
1
Maton, K.I., Shellenbach, C.J., Leadbeater, B., & Solarz, A. (2003). Investing in children,
youth, families and communities:
Strengths-based research and policy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
2
Rassool, N. (2004). Sustaining linguistic diversity within the global cultural economy: Issues
of language rights and linguistic
possibilities. Comparative Education 40(2).
498
4. Collaborating with families and community members, responding to

diverse.
5. community interests and needs, and mobilizing community resources
(Responsiveness to Community).
6. Modeling a personal code of ethics and developing professional
leadership capacity (Ethical Leadership).
7. Responding to, and influencing the larger political, social economic,
legal, and cultural context (Politically and Culturally Sensitive
Understanding).
With the onset of curricular standards for all teachers and students, standardized
school leadership has also taken center stage. The challenge posed to American school
leaders to achieve competency in each of the six constructs is unparalleled within the
history of the American public educational system. Particularly within the past fifty
years a shift in thinking has occurred in general terms of educational leadership.
Educational leaders have evolved from decision makers and group leaders in the era of
the 1950’s 1, 2 to instructional managers in 1982, 3 to entrepreneurial visionaries who
effectively build school culture; action researchers who quantitatively and
qualitatively infer data from their school site to the larger political, social, and
curricular context of the communities they serve; agents of change; professional staff
developers; integrators of collaborative clinical supervision and teacher assistors,
procedural analysts, peer coaches and mentors, curriculum specialists differentiating
instruction for a host of populations, program reviewers, assessors, planners, and
organizational developers, in 2006. At no time in American schooling has the power
of strengths-based leadership been more called for.
The first construct of visionary leadership, the standard by which the other five are
measured, was introduced in the 1980’s. Within that era the concept of visionary
leadership was addressed in much of the effective schools research published at the
time. Bennis and Nanus, (1985) wrote that visionary leaders were characterized by
observable manifestations of commitment to a shared ideology and that they
recognized the powerful influence of ideology and effectively used cultural processes
to create a shared ideology. 4 Blumberg and Greenfield (1980), 5 Lightfoot (1983), 6 and
Manasse (1986), 7 noted that outstanding principals were individuals whose
commitment to their own beliefs about students, learning, or educational purposes was
clearly perceptible.
1
Boyan, Norman. (1988). Describing and Explaining Administrator Behavior. Handbook of
Research on Educational Administration: A Project of the American Educational Research
Association. Longman, 1988, p.77.
2
Halpin, A.W. (1957). A paradigm for research on administrator behavior. In R.F. Campbell
and R.T. Gregg (Eds.). Administrative behavior in education. New York: Harper & Row.
3
Bossert, S. T., Dwyer, D.C., Rowan, B., & and Lee, G.V. (1982, Summer). The instructional
management role of the principal. Educational Administration Quarterly, 18(3). 34-64.
4
Bennis, W., & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders: Strategies for taking charge. New York: Harper
and Row.
3
Blumberg, A., & Greenfield, W. (1980). The effective principal: Perspectives on school
leadership. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
6
Lightfoot, S.L. (1983). The good high school: Portraits of character and culture. New York:
Basic Books.
7
Manasse, A.L. (1986). Vision and leadership: Paying attention to intention. Peabody Journal
of Education, 63, 150-173.
499
Conversely, leaders who lacked vision were concerned more with stability than
with change. Their leadership style focused upon maintenance and smooth operation
of what is, rather than the motivation to visualize and achieve long-range purposes. 1
Wolcott (1973) 2 and Bredeson (1985) 3 presented evidence of a managerial style in the
thinking and actions of non-visionary school leaders. These leaders focused on
immediate events and maintaining daily order and lacked vision for the future. 4
The findings of LeSourd and Grady (1990) 5 were pivotal to the conversation of
visionary leadership. Five prominent attributes of visionary leaders emerged from
their data. They stated that visionary leaders:
• Have strong personal convictions to which they are enthusiastically

committed.
• Work vigorously toward realizing goals in the school that are consistent
with their personal convictions.
• Treat the school organization as a culture with traits and processes that are
to be skillfully employed in efforts to effect change.
• Gain reputations as innovators because they assertively initiate new
actions and new directions for their school.
• Have a personal image of their school in the future. The imagined school
of the future is better in some ways than the school of the present.
For school leaders, putting their vision into action requires effective planning,
articulation, and garnered support from others. Change is inevitable and in the end,
organizational behavior is shaped by the shared vision it espouses in all aspects of the
decision making process, particularly in this age of data and accountability which
holds a pervasive grip on all of American education.
The Language of Data
Globally, we are experiencing exponential growth in new knowledge, new fields

of scholarly practice, and new technologies that facilitate our creation of, access to,
and distribution of information. Today’s unprecedented growth of knowledge quickly
shortens the stability of existing information. From the 1950’s forward educators have
called attention to this explosion of knowledge and have clearly recognized that our
significant knowledge doubles about every 15 years. 6 Ziegler maintains, (1) more
mathematics has been created since 1900 than during the entire period of history, (2)
half of what a graduate engineer studies today will be obsolete in 10 years, and (3)
half of what a person learns is no longer valid by the time he or she reaches middle
1
Wendel, Frederick C., Hoke, Fred A., Joekel, Ronald G. (1996). Outstanding School
Administrators: Their Keys to Success. Praeger Publishers, Westport, CT. p.61.
2
Wolcott, H.R. (1973) The man in the principal’s office: An ethnography. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.
3
Bredeson, P.V. (1985). An analysis of the metaphorical perspective of school principals.
Educational Administration Quarterly, 21, 29-50.
4
5
LeSourd, S. J., & Grady, M.L. (1990). Visionary attributes in principals’ descriptions of their
leadership. The High School Journal, 72(2), 111-117.
6
Ornstein, Allan C; Hunkins, Francis P. Curriculum Foundations, Principles, and Issues. 3rd
Edition. Allyn and Bacon, 1998, p.150.
500
age. 1 Ornstein and Hunkins add to that list that “nearly half of what we will need to
know to function in scientific or technical jobs by the year 2200 is not even known
today, by anyone” (p. 150). Although the stage was set well before the 21st Century for
schools to use data for the first time in their history to determine everything from
dropout rates, attendance, and truancy, the accountability movement with state and
federal policies firmly in place began holding them responsible for these, in addition
to harrowing individual schools’ performance on norm and criterion referenced tests
by sub-group and teacher.
How does a school leader accomplish all he or she is required to during the course
of administering a school and/or district? Particularly in an age of data driven
accountability, effective school leaders must ‘know thyself’. 2 Leaders must first know
who they are to subsequently lead others.
The Language of Identity
Knowing thyself through identity is crucial to learning and to leading. Actual and
designated identities are the two constructs from which a person emerges psycho-
socially. Identity can become a self-fulfilling prophecy playing a critical role in
determining whether the process of learning will end with what counts as success or
with what is regarded as failure, and nowhere is this more profound than in the field of
education. “Identity has become the bread and butter of our educational diet.” 3 Actual
identity refers to birth order, family and/or career roles, and social roles within which
life is lived out. Sfard and Prusak (2005), ask, “How is the notion of identity different
from more traditional terms, such as character, nature, and personality, and how is it
connected to other notions, such as attitudes, conceptions, and beliefs?” 4 Further, they
investigate the overarching theme sociologists, cultural theorists, and educational
researchers all have in common: The focus of the investigator’s attention on human
beings in action and on the mechanisms underlying human action. More specifically,
their leading query is: Why do different individuals act differently in the same
situations? “People tell others who they are, but even more importantly, they tell
themselves and they try to act as though they are who they say they are. These self-
understandings, especially those with strong emotional resonances for the teller, are
what we refer to as identities.” 5 Designated identities are those roles assumed
positionally within an organizational structure usually cast within a job description. As
the job descriptions of educational leaders have increased exponentially in the age of
accountability, identity is a key component to the success of these leaders, and there is
no more effective model from which to understand their identity than one of strengths.
1
Ziegler, Warren L. Social and Technological Developments, rev. ed. (Syracuse, N.Y.:
Syracuse University Press. 1981).
2
Glickman, C; Gordon, S; & Gordon, J. SuperVision and Instructional Leadership: A
Developmental Approach. Allyn and Bacon. 2004. Boston. p.131.
3
Hoffman, D.M. (1998). A therapeutic moment? Identity, self, and culture in the anthropology
of education. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 29(3), p.324.
4
Sfard, A., Prusak, A. (2005). Telling Identities: In Search of an Analytic Tool for
Investigating learning as a Culturally Shaped Activity. Educational Researcher, Vol. 34. No. 4,
p.14.
5
Holland, D., Lachicotte, Jr., W., Skinner, D., & and Cain, C. (1998). Identity and agency in
cultural worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
501
The Affective Language of Strengths
Today, the competence of educational leaders is multi-faceted. They are required

to be good budgeters, schedule makers, managers, supervisors, and particularly skillful
in carrying out their vision for the organization. “With the development of adequate
instrumental skills comes administrative and personal competence; that is,
instrumental skills are related to the development of an adequate self-concept. This is
a necessary condition for values and ethical growth. 1
Kouzes and Posner (1988), in surveying 1,500 individuals to determine what
values (personal traits or characteristics) they admire in their superiors, found that
followers admired leaders who were honest, competent, forward-looking, and
inspiring. 2 One of the most important components of an organization is the
relationship of the personal values of decision makers to the values of their
organization. 3 “Administrators are called upon formally and informally to articulate
the values that undergird what the school stands for. In effect, values provide a kind
of guidance system used by an individual when confronted with decision-making
situations. 4
Values are communicated in everything a school leader does, writes, and speaks.
This calls for a second set of skills that include the ability to be empathetic, to listen
attentively, to pay attention to another, and to value others. School leaders must value
student learning and growth and have convictions about the dignity and potential of
every student. 5 The values of honesty, competence, forward-looking futuristic
thinkers, and inspiring identified within the findings of Kouzes and Posner, are
coterminous with the constructs of thirty-four Strengths described by Clifton and
Anderson. 6 Viewing others in light of their Strengths may bring efficacy to the
organization as a whole particularly when all constituents have accessed and
internalized specific areas of personal strengths within purposefully and intentionally
directed professional development.
Knowing self for school leaders is imperative. The naturally occurring patterns of
thought, feeling, or behavior which can be productively applied are termed strengths
by Clifton and Anderson. They state strengths, “are among the most real and most
authentic aspects of a personhood” (6). They identify thirty-four signature themes of
identified strengths, which are: achiever, activator, adaptability, analysis, arranging,
belief, command, communication, competition, connectedness, consistency, context,
deliberative, developer, discipline, empathy, focus, futuristic, harmony, ideation,
inclusion, individualization, input, intellection, learner, maximizer, positivity, relator,
responsibility, restorative, self-assurance, significance, strategic, and winning others
over.
1
Sullivan, L.A. (Ed.). (1994). The principal as leader. New York: Macmillan College
Publishing.
2
Kouzes, J.M., & Posner, B.Z. (1988). The leadership challenge: How to get extraordinary
things done in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
3
4
Harrison, E.F. (1995). The managerial decision-making process, 4th ed. Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin.
5
6
Clifton, Donald O., Anderson, Edward “Chip”. (2004). StrengthsQuest. The Gallup
Organization. Washington D.C.
502
Identified Strengths and the Capacity to Lead
The integration of strengths can be productively applied to knowledge and

learning, particularly in the field of educational leadership. Weinstein and Fantini 1
assert that cognitive and humanistic views toward knowledge and learning must be
integrated. They refer to knowledge as “content vehicles” and believe that content
should include not only conventional subject areas (English, social studies,
mathematics, science, and so on),” but also foundational disciplines such as
“psychology, sociology, anthropology, philosophy,” as well as “classroom situations,
out of school experiences, and the children themselves.” Fantini considers people
more important than subject matter, but subject matter is still important for the self-
actualization of people. They write, “Unless knowledge relates to feeling, it is unlikely
to affect behavior appreciably.” 2
Contemporary American school leadership is a particularly difficult endeavor as
exercised within current social, political and cultural contexts. As school leaders
move from the ranks of their peers and colleagues within the collective bargaining unit
into the administrative arena, incongruence in the perceptions they hold of themselves
and those of others can produce what psychologist Leon Festinger described as
cognitive dissonance. Occurring when a person cannot live with contradictory
psychological evidence, school leaders may think of him or herself in one way while
other sources of information indicate that he or she is different. 3 Three alternatives to
cognitive dissonance were described by Hyman. 4
First, the contrary evidence can be dismissed as biased and untrue. The leader
might rationalize the incongruence away and by doing so can continue to believe that
he/she are what they originally thought. No further change is necessary.
Second, a leader’s own self-perception conforms to the other source of
information and then he/she can live with the new perception of themselves. Leaders’
accept that they are incorrect in their perception of self which makes dissonance
vanish so that no further change is necessary.
Third, the original self-perception becomes wishful thinking when compared to
the indicators of how leaders are currently perceived, and then change their behaviors
to be more similar to their wish. The original perception was not accurate, but it still
represents what the leader wants to be. The behavior is changed to become more
congruent with what others perceive. “Whether it is caused by becoming aware of
others’ perceptions of our supervision or by reflecting on objective information
cognitive dissonance by its very nature can be an unsettling experience. It is, however,
an experience which can stimulate professional growth, with dividends for school
leaders, teachers and students.” 5
1
Weinstein, Gerard; and Fantini, Mario. D. Toward Humanistic Education: A Curriculum of
Affect. (New York: Praeger, 1970), p.50.
2
Edition. Allyn and Bacon, 1998, p.153.
3
Festinger, L. 1957. A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press.
4
Hyman, R.T. 1975. School administrator’s handbook of teacher supervision and evaluation
methods (pp.46-67). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
5
Glickman, C; Gordon, S; & Gordon, J. SuperVision and Instructional Leadership A
Developmental Approach. Allyn and Bacon. 2004. Boston. p.139.
503
Applying Strengths to School-Based Leadership
Strengths-based training can help alleviate the effects of cognitive dissonance for
school leaders. As school leaders identify their top five strengths, a transformation in
their perceptions of their own leadership capacity begins. Valuing others’ strengths
becomes evidenced in the management of operations of the school, and the vision for
leadership is apparent.
Kathryn Norwood 1 principal of Beaumont High School in Beaumont, California,
writes, “I see clearly how my talents have always been present. Now I consciously
use my strengths daily to foster excellence in my staff, my students, and myself in a
way that would not have been possible previously”(p.204). She describes how she
entered as the school principal into an established school as a stranger. She devised a
method of understanding the existing culture and climate by turning to her Strategic
theme in scheduling carefully designed fifteen-minute interviews with every staff
member. Her final question to each staff member was “What do you see as your
greatest strengths?” The interviews ended on an upbeat note and the responses allowed
her to identify the strengths of each staff member to make the most of his or her
potential. She then added a Best-Practices segment to her monthly meetings with the
rationale that high school teachers typically do not get the opportunity to observe other
teachers, therefore, Best Practices allowed each teacher to showcase their ideas that
were successful.
In addition to effectively transforming her high school, she co-facilitated a
management-training program designed to promote leaders from within the district
and combined strengths-based instruction with the existing program. Participants
endorsed strengths-based instruction stating: “I know my unique strengths now”; “I
use my strengths everyday, and I observe others and can identify their strengths”; “I
now understand why and how I can be successful.”
Affectively, Strengths-based models fit well into the area of knowledge for
training leaders, teachers, and students. The organization of knowledge into areas or
classifications, has consumed world thinkers for centuries. The well defined
modalities of learning into the three classifications of cognitive, affective, and psycho-
motor have roots well grounded in the genesis of public education in ancient Greece as
both Socrates and Plato touted their belief in the triangulation of body, mind, and
spirit, 2 and arranged their curricula around this philosophy. Aristotle further organized
knowledge into three classes: (1) theoretical, (cognitive) such as science and math; (2)
practical, (affective) such as politics and ethics: and (3) productive, (psycho-motor)
such as music and architecture. This served Aristotle’s time period well as it was
direct, simple, and easy to understand and lacked a hierarchical belief or position that
one area or domain of knowledge was more important than the other. 3
If in fact one area lacks importance over the other two, more than ever in our data
driven society, our designers of curriculum, our school leaders and our teachers need
to well espouse each of the three domains of learning and do our very best to employ
1
Norwood, Kathryn (2005). A Principal: The Power of Strengths-Based Leadership.
Educational Horizons. Vol.83. Spring, 2005.
2
Marcos, T., Cascardo, M., Hay, J., Hobbs M., and Ruiz, S. International Perspectives on
Education and Training. Athens Institute for Education and Research, 2006. p.67.
3
Ornstein & Hunkins, Ornstein, Allan C; Hunkins, Francis P. Curriculum Foundations,
Principles, and Issues. 3rd Edition. Allyn and Bacon, 1998, p.152.
504
the use of each in teaching students. Within our heavy laden standards based, data
driven delivery of curriculum instruction and assessment, of particular interest is the
affective training of teachers and school leaders in recognizing their own strengths and
the strengths of their students to more fully engage the entire school community in a
‘what’s right with us’ paradigm, over that of the current deficit model of teaching and
learning within which schools are given annual reports for a one dimensional
component of cognitive curricular performance on standardized tests to which not all
students aspire to perform their best.
As school leaders identify their own top five strengths, they begin to recognize the
strengths of others. A strengths-based model of curriculum, instruction and assessment
may very well be the key to institutionalizing change and transforming our schools
from a paradigm of discouragement within the approach of correcting flaws and
weaknesses to building the confidence in teachers and students for exemplary
performance within their identified areas of strength and talent.
Objective
This research examined the perceptions of K-12 public and private school leaders
on the effects their top five identified strengths had on their leadership skills within the
American school setting.
Method
Participants
Seventy-five K-12 American school leaders were randomly selected to respond to

a questionnaire regarding their perspectives on the effects of their top five identified
strengths on their leadership skills within the American school learning environment.
Twenty-three male and fifty-two female American school leaders responded, with
levels of education ranging from twelve Master’s plus degrees, eight Masters, and
fifty-two Bachelors. Years served in educational leadership ranged from 3 – 12 with
approximately fifty percent of respondents ranging in experience from 3-6 years.
Materials
School leaders responded to the Gallup Organization’s Clifton StrengthsFinder

Inventory and were subsequently sampled six months later by questionnaire to
determine the effects of their top five identified strengths on their leadership skills
within the American school learning environment. Both quantitative and qualitative
data were analyzed within this descriptive study.
The questionnaire included the elements of: (1) a determination of gender, number
of years and grade levels taught, number of years as a school leader, educational level,
and identification of their top five strengths based on the Gallup StrengthsFinder
Inventory; (2) a four element Likert scale to determine school leaders’ perceptions
regarding the frequency with which their strengths were evidenced within the school
leadership setting; (3) a four element Likert scale to determine school leaders’
perceptions on the potential effects of strengths-based leadership in the educational
505
setting; and (4) a qualitative section for additional comments about the effects of
school leaders’ Strengths within their leadership role at their school.
Procedures
American educational leaders were invited to participate in the Gallup

Organization’s StrengthsFinder Inventory and then subsequently sampled by
questionnaire through: (1) electronic mail, (2) graduate educational leadership
master’s degree courses at Azusa Pacific University, and (3) full time and adjunct
faculty who teach within the APU department of educational leadership. The initial
StrengthsFinder Inventory took approximately twenty minutes to complete, and the
subsequent questionnaire approximately twenty minutes as well. Thirty-two
questionnaires were collected through email, twenty-nine within graduate courses, and
fourteen through the faculty who comprise the educational leadership department at
Azusa Pacific University.
Results
Seventy percent of all respondents identified Achiever and/or Learner as one of

their top five strengths (figure 1). The second most identified theme was that of
Maximizer to which twenty-seven percent of respondents reported as one of their top
five, and twenty-one percent identified Responsibility and Harmonizer as two of their
top five.
Respondents identified three primary effects of knowing their top five strengths on
the practice of their own educational leadership (figure 2). They were: overall
leadership capacity increased; the constructs of building communities of practice were
evidenced through the recognition of others’ strengths; and awareness and
understanding of group dynamics was gained. Qualitative data revealed two specific
findings which were: 1). knowledge of school leaders’ own strengths and the effect on
overall school leadership; and 2). knowledge of school leaders’ own strengths and the
effect of this knowledge on valuing others’ strengths.
Three American school leaders shared the following insights within the qualitative
section of the survey instrument:
“Focusing on my strengths has made my leadership much more effective. It

has also helped me learn about who I need to surround myself with to
complement me and make up for my shortcomings.”
“I find myself being more patient with others and looking for their
strengths.”
“Since the day my strengths were identified it has changed my attitude! I

have a positive attitude and feel good about myself and my uniqueness. I
feel confident in expressing my ideas freely and being aware of my strengths
has increased my role in leadership.”
Figure 1. American School Leaders and their Top Five Identified Strengths
506
Strengths: Total N % of 75 Respondents

Achiever ////////////////////////// 26 35%
Learner ////////////////////////// 26 35%
Maximizer //////////////////// 20 27%
Responsibility //////////////// 16 21%
Harmony //////////////// 16 21%
Arranger ///////////// 12 16%
Belief //////////// 12 16%
Communicator //////////// 12 16%
Competition //////////// 12 16%
Context //////////// 12 16%
Relator //////////// 12 16%
Connectedness ////////// 10 13%
Includer ////////// 10 13%
Positivity ////////// 10 13%
Restorative ////////// 10 13%
Developer //////// 8 11%
Input //////// 8 11%
Consistency ////// 6 8%
Discipline ////// 6 8%
Empathy ////// 6 8%
Focus ////// 6 8%
Significance ////// 6 8%
Strategic ////// 6 8%
Woo ////// 6 8%
Adaptability //// 4 5%
Futuristic //// 4 5%
Activator // 2 3%
Command // 2 3%
Ideation // 2 3%
Individualization // 2 3%
Intellection // 2 3%
Self-Assurance // 2 3%
Analysis 0 0%
Deliberative 0 0%
Overall Increase in Leadership Capacity
Visionary Leadership is the first and foremost of the national professional

standards for educational leaders, and the standard within which the subsequent five
are based. 99% of respondents agreed or somewhat agreed that an increase in their
overall leadership capacity was positively attributed to knowing their strengths.
Within this primary finding, two additional themes emerged. 80% of respondents
agreed or somewhat agreed that leading change, and decision making capacity (90%)
were each impacted significantly through the knowledge they gained from the
StrengthsFinder Inventory.
Much of school leadership is comprised of the daily management of operations of
the school or district. 86% identified an increase in productivity, and 94% identified
an increase in their positive attitude toward work as a direct result from knowing their
top five strengths. 96% identified the category of data analysis as being viewed
through fresh eyes with great potential for change in the delivery of curriculum and
instruction within their school or district.
507
Figure 2. The Effects of Identified Strengths on American School Leadership

PracticesBuilding Communities of Practice
Three Primary Effects of
School Leaders’ Knowing
Their Strengths on School Professional
Standards for
Leadership Practices
34 Strengths American School
Achiever Leaders
Activator
Adaptability
Analysis Increased Leadership
Arranger Capacity Visionary
Belief Leading Change Leadership
Command Decision Making
Communicatio Productivity
n Competition Work Attitude
Connectedness Data Analysis
Consistency School Culture
Context
Deliberative
Developer Increased Capacity for
Discipline Building Communities of
Empathy Practice
Focus Building School Culture Management of
Futuristic Valuing Others’ Strengths Operations
Harmony Team Building
Ideation Responsiveness to Community
Inclusion Parent Contact
Individualizati Adaptability
on Input Valuing Diversity
Intellection Diversity
Learner
Maximizer
Positivity
Relator Group Dynamics
Understanding Groups
Responsibility
Professional Relationships Responsiveness
Restorative
Facilitation of Meetings to Community
Self-assurance
Communication with Students
Significance
Strategic Communication with Staff
Student Discipline
Win others
over
Politically and
Socially Adept
Schools are highly symbolic of the values of a community and as such are a
primary source of pride. Respondents identified school culture, the second
professional standard for educational leaders, as being significantly improved through
knowing their strengths. Under the category of school culture, 93% agreed or
somewhat agreed that building community was enhanced through knowing their
strengths. 90% of respondents believed responsiveness to community was improved
through the knowledge of their own personal Strengths and positive parent conference
outcomes, espousing a very large part of the vision of school leaders within their
communities, was a category identified by 90% of respondents after knowing their top
five identified strengths. Within the primary finding of building community, five
additional categories emerged as very strong signals that knowing ones’ strengths
leads to the building of communities of practice. They were valuing others’ strengths
(91%); team building (91%), valuing diversity (96%), and parent contact (93%).
508
Schools leaders who identified their top strengths, also reported increased adaptability
by 89%.
Group Dynamics
88% of respondents identified an increase in the understanding of group

dynamics. A growing trend in organizations is to give more responsibility for
important activities to teams. 1 Schools are organizations that have small subunits
(departments, grade levels) that perform a functional task (curricular design, delivery
of instruction, expenditure of budget) under the supervision of the school leader.
These subunits are highly independent as such, yet at the same time highly dependent
on one another, to ensure the achievement of all students within their school. As the
language of data continues to drive decisions on curriculum, instruction, and
assessment practices within schools the leadership responsibilities concentrated within
the school leader are no longer effective. Some level of leadership responsibilities
must be transferred to these subunits for schools to be effective.
Improved professional relationships were reported by 91% of respondents. In
addition, 83% stated a positive effect of knowing their strengths on the facilitation of
meetings. Student discipline (93%) was reported as being more positive, as well as
communicating with staff (99%), and communication with students (96%).
Discussion
School leaders, seventy percent of whom were defined as Achievers and Learners
through the Gallup StrengthsFinder Inventory, were not surprised that these were their
top two strengths. As such, school leaders hold an important key, if not the key to
effective organizational change in the structure of schooling for American children at
every level. Achievers and Learners are never satisfied that they have ‘arrived’ yet
continue to strive for new avenues and arenas for task completion, feelings of
accomplishment, and satisfaction in their personal and professional lives.
Six professional standards for educational leaders, prescribed nationally among
each of the fifty states, espouse the ideal behavioral practices for effective school
leadership. The vision, culture, management, diversity, ethics, and political adeptness
required of school leaders can be aligned well to the strengths of these leaders.
Additionally, through the identification and recognition of school leaders’ strengths,
student achievement may positively be affected through the subsequent identification
of the strengths of their staffs and students than by the current system of data reporting
by demographic comparison within only the cognitive domain of teaching and
learning, curriculum and instruction, and assessment. If teaching and learning were
transformed to be strengths-centered, a truly student-centered approach to schooling
through the affective domain may affect a change in the behaviors (and scores) within
the cognitive domain.
Through more than 2 million in-depth interviews with people from all walks of
life, The Gallup Organization has made a finding that is simple but profound: top
achievers in virtually every profession, career, and field all build their lives upon their
1
Yukl, Gary. (2001). Leadership in Organizations. Fifth Edition. Prentice-Hall Publishers.
New Jersey. P.305
509
talents. 1 “This is the heart of the strengths-based approach to leadership, teaching, and
learning” (p.188). Gallup found three key learnings about top achievers. They are:
1. Top achievers fully recognize their talents and develop them into
strengths. By contract, underachievers often fail to recognize their talents
and develop them into strengths, however, the best achievers are certain to
do so.
2. Top achievers apply their strengths in roles that best suit them. “Clearly
to achieve one must apply his abilities, and many do so to some level of
success. But the best apply their strengths and do so in roles that are best
suited to those strengths” (p.188). If someone performs with excellence in
an area this is not necessary proof of their ability to do the same in
another. The fit between and person’s strengths and the task being
performed is imperative.
3. Top achievers invent ways to apply their strengths to their achievement
tasks. The roles and positions determined by careers requires tasks that
must be completed. This “entails a group of tasks that must be completed,
and quite often the person who performs them must consciously seek,
even invent, way to apply his/her strengths to that end=even when one’s
role is well suited to his/her strengths” (p.188).
In learning to value the strengths in others, particularly those of teaching staffs

and students, school leaders can bring about tremendous change to the institution of
public education in the U.S. This is a call to revolution… a movement to reform a
system of American education within which students are mass produced through grade
level standards of achievement to which they are required to aspire at each subsequent
developmental and/or gestational level. Through the identification of their unique
strengths, as well as those of their teachers, school leaders can pair the two effectively
to produce significant impetus for achieving those standards through a Strengths-based
curriculum, instructional delivery, and assessment approach, in contrast to one within
which a deficit model may garner discouragement and disengagement.
Conclusions
The naturally occurring patterns of thought, feeling, or behavior which can be

productively applied are termed strengths by Clifton and Anderson, who claim
strengths are among the most real and most authentic aspects of a personhood. The
acquisition of skills and knowledge can be refined over time and through experience
into a strength. Strengths begin with talents and are defined as the ability to provide
consistent performance in a given activity.
School leaders learned their top five strengths and identified an overall increase in
their leadership capacity, building community by recognizing others’ strengths, and
valuing group dynamics as three key benefits of ‘knowing thyself’. When the
paradigm in schools shifts from the deficit model of “what is wrong with you” to
1
Anderson, Edward (2005). Strengths-Based Educating: A Concrete Way to Bring Out the
Best in Students – and Yourself. The Confessions of an Educator Who Got It Right-Finally!
Educational Horizons. Volume 83, Number 3. Spring, 2005.
510
“what is right with you,” teachers, students, educational leaders, boards of education,
and the community at large may reap the benefits of helping children to recognize and
value their full potential and improve student achievement. Corporate and community
involvement and parent education programs are recommended to fully incorporate a
strengths-based education program in American schools.
Strengths-based approaches employ strategies based on competencies,
capabilities, and expertise. Viewing others in light of their Strengths may bring
efficacy to the organization as a whole particularly when all constituents have
accessed and internalized specific areas of personal strengths within purposefully and
intentionally directed professional development. This can be particularly true in the
training of school leaders where knowing self is imperative.
In our data driven society, our designers of curriculum, our school leaders and our
teachers need to well espouse each of the three domains of learning and do our very
best to employ the use of the affective domain in teaching students. This can be
accomplished well using a strengths-based approach.
As knowledge increasingly relates to feeling it will continue to appreciably affect
behavior. Schools hold within them the power to determine the most effective
organizational structure for all students to learn: that of individual strengths. By
empowering school leaders within a Strengths-based model, school communities will
be well on their way to the critical process of the pursuit of excellence. To leave no
child behind school leaders must define a future that will build on and augment the
strengths of everyone in their sphere of influence. In doing so, school communities
can create their own compelling vision for the future and forge their own path toward
excellence.
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Challenges Faced by New Principals in Urban High Schools
47
Challenges Faced by New Principals in
Urban High Schools
Robert Clark, California State University

&
Caroline Bordinaro, California State University
O
ver the past several years, studies in the educational literature have indicated
the importance of the school principal as instructional and reform leader
(Cotton, 1995; Waters, Marzano & McNulty, 2003; Stanford Educational
Leadership Institute, 2005 1). They have also found that school site leaders
are crucial for improved student achievement (Institute for Educational Leadership,
2000; Waters, Marzano & McNulty, 2003; Leithwood, Louis, Anderson & Wahlstrom
2004 2). However, the principal’s job is very complex (Peterson, 2001; Wanzare & da
Costa, 2001; Hall, Berg & Barnett, 2003; Waters & Grubb, 2004 3) and new principals
1
Cotton, K (1995). Effective schooling practices: A research synthesis. Northwest Regional
Educational Laboratory http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/esp/esp95.html (accessed 9 September
2005); Waters, T, Marzano, R, McNulty, B, (2003). Balanced leadership: What 30 years of
research tells us about the effect of leadership on student achievement. A working paper.
Aurora, CO. Mid-Content Regional Educational Lab; Davis, S, Darling-Hammond, L,
LaPointe, M, Meyerson, M, (2005). School leadership study: Developing successful principals.
Stanford, CA. Stanford Educational Leadership Institute.
2
Institute for Educational Leadership (2000). Leadership for student learning: Reinventing the
principalship. School Leadership for the 21st century initiative: A report of the task force on the
principalship. Washington, DC. Institute for Educational Leadership; Leithwood, K, Louis, K
S, Anderson, S & Wahlstrom, K (2004). How leadership influences student learning.
Minneapolis, MN. Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement (and others).
http://www.wallacefoundation.org/NR/rdonlyres/52BC34B4-2CC3-43D0-9541-9EA37F6D20
86 /0/HowLeadershipInfluences.pdf (accessed 30 October, 2005).
3
Peterson, K. (2001). The roar of complexity. Journal of Staff Development 22 (1) 18-21;
Wanzare, Z, da Costa, J (2001). Rethinking instructional leadership roles of the school
principle: Challenges and prospects. Journal of Educational Thought 35 (3) 269-295.; Hall, G,
Berg, J, & Barnett, B (2003). Beginning principal studies in America: What have we studied
what have we learned? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Education
Research Association, Chicago. Waters, T & Grubb, S (2004). Leading schools: Distinguishing
the essential from the important. Ft. Lauderdale, FL. International Congress for School
513
especially face many new and unique challenges (Peterson, 2001;Morford, 2002 1.
They need to acquire skills that they did not learn during their graduate education or
training (Hill, 1993;Tirozzi, 2001 2). Additionally, the culture shock of the
principalship is enormous (Hall, Berg & Barnett, 2003). It is no wonder that new
principals have feelings of frustration, anxiety, being overwhelmed, and self-doubt
(Bloom, 1999; Barnett, 2001; Daresh, 2002; Lashway, 2003 3). As a result, record
breaking numbers of principals retiring or moving from the position (ERS, 1998;
Institute for Educational Leadership, 2000 4), and there are not enough new candidates
to replace them. (Olson, 1999; NASBE, 1999 5) Because of these factors, we felt a
study of the challenges faced by new high school principals was in order, with a focus
on urban areas. While there are many studies on rural high school principals, little
research has been conducted on new, first-year high school principals in urban
settings. The urban setting presents it’s own unique challenges, and in order to better
prepare school leadership candidates, we must better understand the challenges and
demands facing the urban high school principal.
Methodology
This on-going study focused on gathering qualitative and quantitative data on

new, first-year high school principals in urban settings. Respondents were asked to
complete a fifteen item survey based on the Six California Professional Standards for
Educational Leaders (CPSELs, 2001 6) and to respond to three open-ended questions
designed to elicit perceptions about the most difficult first-year challenges. The
CPSELs describe competencies and issues faced by all school leaders including new,
first-year principals. We divided the survey questions among the six standards in this
way:
• One question: Standard I Vision

• Two questions: Standard II Culture
• Two questions: Standard III Resource Management
• Two questions: Standard IV Community
Effectiveness and Improvement. http://www.leadership.fau.edu/ICSEI2006/Papers/waters.pdf

(accessed 31 August 2005).
1
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2
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(2001). The artistry of leadership. The evolving role of the secondary school principal. Phi
Delta Kappan 82 (6) 434-439.
3
Bloom, G (1999). Sink or swim no more. Thrust for Educational Leadership 29 (1) 14-17;
Daresh, J (2002) What it means to be a principal: Your guide to leadership. Thousand Oaks,
CA. Corwin Press; Lashway, L (2003). Inducting school leaders. ERIC Digest #170.
Washington, DC. Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
4
ERS (1998). Is there a shortage of qualified candidates for openings in the principalship: an
exploratory study. Arlington, VA. Educational Research Service.
5
Olson, L. (1999). Demand for principals growing, but candidates aren’t applying. Education
Week. March 3; NASBE (1999). The report of the NASBE study group on school leadership.
Alexandria, VA. National Association of State Boards of Education, October 1999.
6
The California Professional Standards for Educational Leaders can be accessed on the web at
http://www.acsa.org/doc_files/CPSELS%20Card.pdf
514
• Two questions: Standard V Ethical Leadership

• Three questions: Standard VI Socio-Political Context
The survey was created and field tested with three first-year high school
principals, and their feedback was utilized in the final draft of the survey instrument.
School districts in the greater Los Angeles area were contacted by phone to determine
new, first-year high school principals. Survey questionnaires were mailed to 26 new,
first-year high school principals.
Results
Eleven principals responded for a 42% response rate. Follow-up interviews were
conducted with individual high school principals to clarify answers. Results of the
structured survey questions were reported in a frequency of responses description and
the results of the open-ended survey questions were reported as themes and by direct
quotations.
Selected Preliminary Findings
1. Most respondents are between ages 40 and 49.

2. Most respondents have waited for 20-39 years before becoming
principals.
3. Most are white males although women are almost 40% of the
respondents.
4. Almost 50% were never assistant principals.
5. Although 73% had mentors, only 37% said they were “helpful” or “very
helpful.” (see figures 1-4)
Based on their responses, we found that while modeling a code of ethics was the
least difficult part of their jobs, influencing the larger political, social, economic, legal,
and cultural context was the most difficult part of their jobs. This corresponds to the
principals answers to the semi-structured questions.
Mentorship
We specifically asked if the principal had a mentor during their formative time on
the job. 73% of respondents had a mentor, while 27% did not. Most respondents found
having a mentor was helpful or very helpful. From their comments during the follow-
up interviews, they stated:
• “It would have been nice to have someone who had “been there, done
that” to talk with along the way” (no mentor)
• Rated most helpful: “My mentor’s support and perspective were essential
for my growth and ability to complete my first year successfully” (had a
mentor)
• Rated least helpful: “…did not see often-only five times a year” (had a
mentor)
515
Other Results
Two major themes emerged from the open-ended narrative responses: a lack of
district office support or leadership, and difficulty with staff and parent relations. The
respondents also listed other challenges not specifically queried in the survey:
• “Dealing with ‘difficult’ veteran teachers”

• “Lack of district support and direction”
• “School board and community politics”
• “Teacher norms and shared decision-making”
• “Dealing with district level issues like attendance boundaries”
• Working with a challenging staff”
• “Managing and maintaining facilities and school construction”
• “Tried to do too much myself, close to burn-out”
It is clear that new urban high school principals must overcome obstacles and
difficulties not addressed in graduate school or training.
Implications/Conclusions
This is an ongoing study that has so far captured the impressions of eleven new
high school principals in urban settings. Therefore, at the moment, these findings
cannot be generalized to the greater population of new high school principals in
California or beyond. More research needs to be conducted into what problems new
high school principals face in the larger political, social, economic, legal, and cultural
contexts of their school communities. We have secured interviews with several more
new principals in the greater Los Angeles area, and we will incorporate the results of
their surveys in to the study. We do not anticipate much deviation from the responses
already gathered, but we are anxious to hear their personal stories. Two facts are clear,
however, from the experiences of the principals we have surveyed. They are that
school districts with mentoring programs need to more closely monitor their protégés
to better serve the needs of the client, and that graduate schools of education need to
tailor their courses to more adequately train new principals in urban settings.
Figure 1. Findings: Age
Age
60+ 30-39
9% 18%
50-59
18%
40-49
55%
516
Figure 2. Findings: Ethnicity

Ethnicity
Black
9%
Hispanic
9%
Caucasian
82%
Figure 3. Findings: Total Years in Education

Total Years Experience in Education
0-9
10%
30-39
40% 10-19
20%
20-29
30%
Figure 4. Findings: Prior Experience
Previous years experience beyond the classroom:
Counselor
9%
Other
27%
Dean
9%
Assistant
Principal
55%
517
Figure 4. Findings: Did you have a Mentor?

Did you have a mentor?
No
27%
Yes
73%
Table 1. How Helpful was your Mentor?

Mentor Support Rating
(1=Least helpful, 7=Most helpful)
Scale Frequency Percent
1 1 9.1
3 1 9.1
4 1 9.1
5 1 9.1
6 1 9.1
7 3 27.3
518
Table 2. Vision of Learning

Facilitating the development, articulation, or the implementation of a vision of learning that is
shared and supported by the school community. (1=Least Difficult, 7=Most Difficult)
Frequency Percent
2 2 18.2
3 2 18.2
4 3 27.3
5 3 27.3
7 1 9.1
Table 3. Staff – Professional Growth

Guiding, nurturing, and sustaining the professional growth of the staff.
(1=Least Difficult, 7=Most Difficult)
Frequency Percent
3 5 45.5
4 2 18.2
5 2 18.2
6 1 9.1
7 1 9.1
519
Table 4. Learning Environment

Ensuring management of the organization, operations, and resources for a safe, efficient, and
effective learning environment.
Frequency Percent
1 1 9.1
2 2 18.2
3 4 36.4
4 2 18.2
6 2 18.2
Table 5. Family and Community Collaboration

Collaborating with families and community members.
Frequency Percent
1 2 18.2
2 1 9.1
3 4 36.4
4 2 18.2
5 1 9.1
6 1 9.1
520
Table 6. Community Diversity

Responding to diverse community interests and needs.
Frequency Percent
1 1 9.1
2 3 27.3
3 1 9.1
4 2 18.2
5 2 18.2
6 2 18.2
Table 7. Community Resources

Mobilizing community resources.
Frequency Percent
1 1 9.1
2 2 18.2
3 1 9.1
4 3 27.3
5 2 18.2
6 1 9.1
7 1 9.1
Table 8. Ethical Code
521
Modeling a personal code of ethics.

(1= Least Difficult, 7= Most Difficult)
Frequency Percent
1 10 90.9
2 1 9.1
Table 9. Professional Leadership

Developing professional leadership capacity.
Frequency Percent
1 2 18.2
2 3 27.3
3 4 36.4
4 2 18.2
Table 10. Understanding the Larger Context
522
Understanding the larger political, social, economic, legal, and cultural context.
1 1 9.1
2 1 9.1
3 3 27.3
4 3 27.3
5 1 9.1
6 1 9.1
7 1 9.1
Table 11. Responding to the Larger Context

Responding to the larger political, social, economic, legal, and cultural context.
2 2 18.2
3 2 18.2
4 4 36.4
5 1 9.1
7 2 18.2
Table 12. Influencing the Larger Context
523
Influencing the larger political, social, economic, legal, and cultural context.
2 1 9.1
3 1 9.1
4 2 18.2
5 3 27.3
6 2 18.2
7 2 18.2
524
Total Quality Management and the Governance of Educational Institutions in
Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case on Universities in Uganda
48
Total Quality Management and the
Governance of Educational Institutions in
Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case on Universities
in Uganda
Peter Neema-Abooki, Makerere University
E
ducational Institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa, like elsewhere in the world,
have been so subservient to formal hierarchical structures. This in effect
bogs down their institutional autonomy in their long-term planning,
budgeting, and overall implementation modalities.
Institutional autonomy is expressed in making for its own governance and its
effectiveness in dealing with the needs of the communities. 1 The quoted scholar
elucidates that an institution’s statement about autonomy has little point without
reference to, among others, its goals. Otherwise claims for institutional self-
governance and independence may be interpreted as self-serving and exhibiting a
reluctance to relate to wider responsibilities and contemporary realities.
The presenter adds in unison that nor would such an institution resonate with the
popular trend of “school-based governance”.
Meanwhile, the term ‘Governance’ per se refers to self-organizing, inter-
organizational network characterized by interdependence, resource exchange, rules of
the game and significant autonomy from the state. 2 However, “governance is not just
about controls and restrictions but about creating an environment of enterprise and
best professional practice”. 3 Governance adds real value to an organization; and for it
to be effective the standards lied down must be practiced in spirit and be part of the
ethos of the body concerned.
1
Mahony, D. (1992). Autonomy and the demands of the modern state: systematic study.
Higher Education Review. 24.
2
Rhodes, R. A. W. (1997). Understanding governance: Policy networks, governance,
reflectivity and accountability. Buckingham. Philadelphia: Open University Press.
3
Bain, N., & Band, D. (1996). Winning ways through corporate governance. London:
MacMillan Press Ltd.
525
Governance can be defined as the mechanism were by an institution incorporates

the participation of relevant interest groups in defining the scope and context of its
work-including the capacity to mediate among these interests when they enter into
conflict and the means whereby it demonstrates accountability to those who support it
through its mission mandate and the application of its resources in pursuit of these
goals. 1
The immediate-quoted scholar proximately observes that University governance
structures across Sub-Saharan Africa are generally derived from the institutional
models of higher education established by colonial administrations. Indeed, the
University ideal has its foundation in the medieval university; the university that
existed in a large uneducated human environment, enrolled few and employed the
protection of powerful patrons. 2 The university has its origin traceable to Europe in
the twelfth century”. 3 However, the state must realize that in dealing with fragile
institutions like universities outside interventions in the name of utility – even well-
meaningful ones – may actually “kill the golden goose”. 4
The above observation is in unison with the stance of the first Prime Minister of
India, P. J. Nehru, who, to highlight that University education is a crucial factor for the
survival of a nation, declared: “If all is well with the University, all would be well
with the nation”. 5 “By protecting its universities, the state is protecting and enriching
itself”. 6 Equidistantly, “Universities are expected to undergird national development
efforts by contributing new understanding and fresh perspectives that can support
economic and technological advancement. To fulfill this role, they will have to create
learning environments that encourage creativity, constructive criticism, and constant
adaptation to rapidly changing scientific and societal circumstances”. 7
The foregoing scholar highlights that “this requires the transformation of
prevailing patterns of paternalistic governance into structures of participation and
accountability which involve staff and students as responsible partners”; a notion yet
in line with TQM. 8
Suffice here to intimate that early origins of higher education in Sub-Saharan
Africa may be traced to Timbouctou in present day Mali where studies in astronomy,
geography as well as Islam, flourished between 943 and 1526; and Fourah Bay
College in Sierra Leone which produced its first graduate in 1897. He hastens to add
1
Saint, W. S. (1995). Universities in Africa: Strategies for stabilization and revitalization. The
World Bank: World Bank Technical Paper.
2
3
Nwala, U. (1990). Academic freedom in Africa: The Nigerian Experience, in Diouf &
Mandani (Eds.). Academic Freedom in Africa. Dakar.Senegal: CODESRIA.
4 Nakalyana, T.K. (1995). The impact of university government relations on the institutional
autonomy and academic freedom of Makerere University. Unpublished M. A. (Ed. Mgt)
dissertation, Makerere University.
5
Ansari, M. (1986). The implementation of new schemes in higher education in India. A Status
Report, Association of Commonwealth University, 90
6
7
8
Neema-Abooki, P. (2004b). Integration of total quality management in the management of
universities in Uganda. Makerere Journal of Higher Education. 1, 121 – 133
526
that Makerere College in Uganda, Achimota in Ghana and Yaba in Nigeria were
offering post secondary education by 1935. 1
The cited scholar goes on to explicate that higher education institutions were, in
accordance with the Asquith Model, founded in 1984 at Ibadan in Nigeria, Legon in
Ghana, and Makerere in Uganda. These had special relationships with the University
of London after which they were patterned as constitute colleges. Similarly in
Francophone Africa, the University of Dakar in Senegal founded in 1957 and the
Centre d’Etudes Superieures in Cote d’lvoire which achieved university status in 1964
paired with the Universities of Paris and Bordeaux respectively, for accreditation
purposes. All notwithstanding, it was not until after the second world war and the
Asquith Doctrine of University Development in Africa that higher education in Sub-
Saharan Africa began to assume a definite thrust.
And although by 1960 there were only six universities and university colleges in
Sub-Saharan Africa, the presenter certifies that today every Sub-Saharan African
country boasts of several universities. Imperative to add, the majority of Sub-Saharan
African countries gained political independence between 1957 and 1964. Of the 29
countries with universities affiliated to the Association of African Universities in
1979, 23 had a single university while in Nigeria in the early 1980s there were twenty
universities. “The major objective of establishing these and the subsequent universities
in Nigeria was to create the capacity for training the much needed high-level human
power for all sectors of the country’s economy”. 2
Needless to mention herewith, Makerere University in Uganda holds the right of
primogeniture in East and Central Africa.
It needs heretofore be reiterated that the educational institutions need autonomy if
they are to defend high intellectual standards and thus become efficacious in their
existential situations. Apparently perennial problems in the said institutions are a
result of systems of governance such as bureaucratic, autocratic, laissez-faire, or any
other which is far from being construed as the mentioned synonymous trend of
“school site management”, also known as “school self management”.
Bureaucratic structures are characterised by an advanced degree of specialization
between jobs and departments, by a reliance on formal procedures and paper work, by
extended managerial hierarchies with clearly marked status distinction. 3 In
bureaucracies there tends to be a strictly delimited system of delegation down the
hierarchies whereby an employee is expected to use his/her discretion only within
what the rules allow.
In the Autocratic model the leader alone determines policy and assigns tasks to the
members without consulting with them. They have to carry out his/her directives
without question and any grumbling about the leader’s actions or orders is met with
force. 4 In the Autocratic situation, all determination of policy is made by the leader
1
Karani, F. A. (1998). Relevance of higher education policies and practices. In UNESCO
(1998). Higher Education in Africa: Achievements, challenges and prospects. Senegal:
UNESCO Regional Office (BREDA).
2
Musaazi, J. S. C. (1988). The theory and practice of educational administration. London:
MacMillan Publishers Ltd.
3
Gashaija, J. M. (1997). Effective leadership styles as perceived by academic staff in tertiary
institutions in Kampala district. Unpublished M. A. (Ed. Mgt) dissertation, Makerere
University.
4
527
who dictates the activities. The role of the subordinates is only to provide information;
and they may not be told what the information is for or how that information is to be
used.
Meanwhile, Laissez-fare is a kind of leadership where there are practically no
rules in the organisation. In such a situation people find anarchy or chaos. 1 This
concept of leadership hardly operates in a school world.
The foregoing quoted scholar categorizes thus: Bureaucratic, Autocratic, and
Laissez-faire styles have build up round themselves, a series of assumptions and have
become less useful as descriptions of leadership.
There is yet one approach that is now being applied across all types of
organisation; namely, Total Quality Management (TQM).
An operational definition of Total Quality Management is: A philosophy with
tools and processes for practical implementation aimed at achieving a culture of
continuous improvement driven by all the members of an organization in order to
satisfy and delight customers. 2
TQM is total in the sense that it must involve everyone in the organisation, and
that this total management approach is about both systems and a culture which
impinges on all the internal details of working in the organisation, i.e. all the internal
processes. 3
Being increasingly applied in both North America and Europe including the
United Kingdom, it is associated with Japan where its ideas and practices were first
comprehensively applied. Notwithstanding, its theoretical fathers and teachers were
principally Americans; most prominent of whom was W. Edward Deming. Deming’s
work is predicated on the belief that everyone is intrinsically motivated to learn and no
one wants to fail. 4
In Britain, Canada, the USA and many other Organisations for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, significant changes are emerging in
the way government makes educational provisions. Worthy of mention is for instance
Oregon State University (OSU) in the Americas which introduced TQM in order to be
more responsive to customers. 5
Meanwhile in Africa, the Mondlane University in Mozambique has endeavoured a
reform exercise by creating “a more open and supportive working environment based
on internal and external consensus”. 6 The University of Ghana’s system of junior
common rooms and a residence board which brings senior administrators and students
together to address the latter’s living conditions proved to be successful. At the
University of Dakar an open-door policy by the Dean of the Faculty of Law increased
transparency and information flow. In East Africa, the Vice Chancellor of the
1
2
Marsh, J. (1992). The quality toolkit. IFS International.
3
Morgan, C., & Murgatroyd, C. (1994). Total quality management in the public sector: An
international perspective. Buckingham. Philadelphia: Open University Press.
4
Neema-Abooki, P. (2006). Total quality management in organisations: Challenges strategies.
A Paper Presented at MUBS 11th Annual International Conference On The New Economy and
Poverty Alleviation; Challenges for Africa’s
5
Neema-Abooki, P. (2002). Challenges in the management of higher education in Africa. A
Paper Presented At CEDAR 9th International Conference 18th – 19th March 2002, On “New
Initiatives: Research and Evaluation”. The University of Warwick, England.
6
528
University of Dar es Salaam, used many means of open-door policy to good effect
during the 1985 -1990s. 1
Other African Universities which engaged on self-study programs through wide
consultations and consensus buildings – include Zambia, Asmara (Eritrea), and Natal
(South Africa). 2
Institutions that have embraced TQM are more likely to survive and flourish than
those that have not. 3 And the presenter, though dwelling on university-level
institutions, rationalizes the practices of TQM can work with similar good effects in
all educational institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, little is known about the
use of TQM in the governance of all the universities in the region, let alone in the
domestic precinct in Uganda.
The study therefore spelt out its objectives as:
1. Identifying the type of management approach being applied in the

governance of Universities; and
2. Finding out the views about application of Total Quality Management
and its implications on education.
Methodology
A survey research design, cross-sectional type, was employed in this study. This
type of design was opted for since survey results could be generalized to a larger
population. Moreover, a cross sectional survey provides information collected at the
same time from various categories of subjects.
While the target population was Sub-Saharan Africa, Uganda played a
representative role where Makerere (Mak), Mbarara (MUST), Kyambogo (KYU)
Universities plus Uganda Martyrs University (UMU), Islamic University in Uganda
(IUIU) and Kampala International University (KIU) supplied the sample population.
The first three, together with Gulu University, are public and the latter three were
sampled from a dozen private universities that have been launched and chartered,
thanks to the Uganda Government’s liberalisation policy in the field of Higher
Education.
Established in 1987 IUIU is the first private University in Uganda while the
Catholic UMU is one of those whose establishment dates in the 1990s - a modern
bracket which spells out the impact of TQM. KIU was earmarked on the basis that,
unlike the two and although its proprietor is a Moslem, the University is essentially
“purely private” void of affiliation to any religion as a Foundation Body.
Respondents at Makerere University were contacted from selected
Schools/Faculties/Institutes, taking into account those that offer management-oriented
subjects and those that do not. The management-oriented category comprised of the
School of Education (Departments of Higher Education and Foundations of
Education), School of Business Studies (MUBS), Faculty of Social Sciences (FSS),
1
Baregu, M. (1991). University management administration and the imperatives of the
academy. UDUSA Newsletter. 4-5.
2
529
plus the Institutes of Economics (MUIE) and that of Public Health. The Faculties of
Arts, Medicine, Law, Agriculture; the Institutes of Statistics and Applied Economics
plus that of Languages represented the latter category. While the Institute of Social
Research (MISR) was singled out on the virtue of being neutral, at the top
administrative level, targeted were the Departments of the Vice Chancellor (VC), the
University Secretary (US), the Dean of Students (DS) and the Academic Registrar
(AR). Needless to single out, the Mission of the AR’s Department’s is “to ensure total
quality management of academic activities” (Strategic Plan 2000/2001 – 2004/2005).
Meantime, the other universities were targeted wholesale owing to the latitude that
the parent-population for each entire university is relatively small even when
compared with some particular Schools/Faculties at the giant Makerere University.
A large sample size of 1615 respondents was utilized, having been deemed
representative of the entire target sample that initially stood at 2050. Hence, the
amount of data collection was regarded efficient to help determine statistically any
conspicuous differences. The sample included administrators, academic staff, students
and the support staff. These group-categories enlist a direct stake in the management
stance at those institutions.
The first category comprised of 200 administrators, 50 of whom were from
Makerere and 20 each for he other Universities. The equidistant number of 20
respondents each was also for the academic staff and the support staff for all the six
universities. The researcher desired thus in the name of triangulation, and he
endeavoured to secure the responses of each of the concerned respondents. As for the
students the sample comprised of 500, 160, 160, 140, and 140 respectively for Mak,
MUST, KYU, UMU, and IUIU; altogether 1100. The initial target for the student-
respondents had been 1500. In most cases, these were chosen taking into account
Tables of Samples from Finite Population. 1 Those who did not return the
questionnaire were, respectively, 35, 70, 75, 85, 95, and 75 respondents and namely
students; championed by those from Islamic University in Uganda, followed by the
educands of Uganda Martyrs University (see Table 1). Could this scenario be
proximately or remotely equated to religious affiliation? The presenter would rather
exonerate herewith owing to the phenomenon that these particular students, when
contacted, already tuned in for the examination period.
Table 1. Target Sample and Return of Questionnaire

INSTITUTION Estimated Sample Actual Respondents Unreturned
Questionnaire
Makerere University 625 590 35

Mbarara University 290 220 70
Kyambogo University 295 220 75
Uganda Martyrs University 285 200 85
Islamic University in Uganda 280 185 95
Kampala International University 275 200 75
TOTAL 2050 1615 435
The presenter employed a stratified-probability sampling technique so as to ensure

a proportionate representation of each sub-group. Consideration of the parent-
1
Kathuri, N. J. & Pals, A. D. (1993). Introduction to educational research. Egerton University:
Egerton Education Book Series.
530
population at each university was hereby effected as well in view of representation

and generalization of the findings.
To ensure that each sub-group was proportionally represented, a stratified-
probability sampling technique was employed; save for the alumni on who was
applied a non probability sampling of a network type, otherwise known as snowball
sampling.
Questionnaire and interview schedule were the instruments used for collecting
data. A selfsame questionnaire, with both structured and open-ended questions, was
in the name of triangulation constructed for all in the sample population. While, the
open-ended questions allow freedom of expressing one’s intimate view points, the
structured type was employed owing to the fact that it simplifies data analysis besides
providing information from a large sample within a relatively short period of time. To
this effect, a Likert scale was used as would make it easier to codify and tabulate the
responses.
The interviewees were accordingly selected through quota sampling and the
interview schedule proved a complementary instrument that solicited discovery of
more strands of perspectives, opinions, beliefs and suggestions of the respondents.
To establish instrumental validity, the researcher had earlier on requested the
expertise of two independent research specialists to ascertain the suitability of the
items. These made a forensic rating of each item in the questionnaire as either relevant
or not relevant. The items in the questionnaire were eighteen (18) in total. The Content
Validity Index (CVI) claimed 0.78, having been arrived at by utilizing the formula:
CVI = proportion of items highly ranked by experts 1 (see Table 2).
Table 2. Suitability of Questionnaire Items

EXPERTS Number of Items in the Relevant Not Relevant
Questionnaire
Judge 1 13 5
Judge 2 15 3
TOTAL 18 28 8
Hence:
13 + 15 = 28 = 0.78 (78%). The CVI of 0.78 justified the questionnaire

2 x18 as relevant.
Having taken recourse to the CVI, the presenter made a pilot testing - otherwise
known as pre-testing – at Makerere University Business School (MUBS), Nakawa
Campus. Twenty five (25) respondents participated in the pilot testing exercise, which,
having spelt out some anomalies, subsequently called for yet more amendments to the
clarity and comprehensiveness of the questionnaire and remotely of the interview
schedule.
1
Amin, E. M. (2005). Social science research: Conception, methodology and analysis.
Makerere University: Makerere University Printery.
531
The Inter-Item Reliability, otherwise known as the Internal Consistency

Reliability, was computed using Cronbach Alpha Coefficient (α) whose formula is:
α= K (1-∑SDi2)
K-1 SDt2
Where K = Number of items included in the instrument
SDi2 = Variance of individual item
SDt2 = Variance of all items in the instrument.
Hence: α =K (1 - ∑SDt2) = 18 (1 – 36.07)

K–1 SDt2 18-1 414
= 18 (1 – 0.087) = 18 (0.913) = 16.434 = 0.96
17 17 17
The resultant Coefficient was 0.96 spelling out the interpretation of ‘very high’
reliability.
Chosen was this tool owing to the latitude that the items in the questionnaire,
structured as it was, were apt to being scored on more than two alternatives.
Raw data was ultimately presented and analysed by use of descriptive statistics.
The type opted for herewith was that of frequency distribution. Hence, the responses
were recorded, categorised and tallied into each category under themes in order to
draw relevant conclusions therefrom.
Findings and Discussions
The TQM gurus regard the Japanese view of collectivism as a point of departure
in any organization. They ascertain that according to the Japanese, life is essentially
integrated and interdependent. It is in this same perspective that the future of
organizations as the kind that calls for an orientation which is less hierarchical and
more decentralized. 1 Total Quality Management culture is in unison with the above
notions; for, they spell out the need for – “achieving a culture of continuous
improvement driven by all members of an organisation”. 2 Moreover, those notions
espouse the Inverted Pyramid, 3 a model which propagates for minimum hierarchy,
democratisation and the key components of empowerment for all individuals and work
teams. The selfsame notions stand synoptic to the Total Quality Fitness Review . 4
1
Robbins, S.P. (1994). Management. 4th edition U.S.A.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
2
Marsh, J. (1992). The quality toolkit. IFS International.
3
Morgan, C., & Murgatroyd, C. (1994). Total quality management in the public sector: An
international perspective. Buckingham. Philadelphia: Open University Press.
4
Rowe, A. J., Mason, R. O., Dickel, K.E., Mann, R. B., & Mockler, R. J. (1994) Strategic
management. A methodological approach. 4th edition. U.S.A: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, Inc.
532
Objective 1: Type of management approach being applied in the governance of

Universities
In answer to the first objective, the majority of the respondents envisaged the kind
of management approach in the governance of universities as bureaucratic. Needless
to explicate, in bureaucracies there tends to be strictly delimited systems of delegation
down the hierarchies whereby the subordinates are expected to use their discretion
within the confines of the law. 1
It is therefore not surprising that the respondents, except for the support staff,
followed by the alumni, scored minimal percentages to the effect that the Universities
sought for exhaustive and integral consultation of their members. Consultation, a
central ingredient of implementation, follow-through, and long-term success, 2 is a
form of power-sharing, which is a sign of a good manager.
However, on the issue of communication, although the majority, save for the
academic staff, agreed that University goals and objectives were duly communicated,
the general view of the respondents was that communication, decision making and
feedback were wanting. Presupposed therefore in such a situation is a need for
“prompt dissemination of information to those directly affected and to all interested
parties”. 3 For, communication, decision making, and feedback are prerequisites
towards building trust and unity without which there cannot be maximum workforce
commitment to organisational goals. Needless to emphasise, it is imperative for
information on any impending changes and development to be availed in advance to
the organisational stakeholders. 4, 5
The foregoing “ought” not only facilitates the implementation stage of the
proposed innovations but also minimizes political resistance and conflict for such
changes. Moreover, sharing of information draws an intellectual and emotional
response from the listeners and triggers new combinations and possibilities.
The respondents in their majority propagated for more involvement and
consensual decision making. In this connection, TQM affirms – and so did the
respondents imply – that individual involvement in centres of control and decision
making ensures a closer correspondence between operatives and formal goals and also
increases commitment of the stakeholders to the institutional goals.
Within the foregoing perspective, it is an ideal that “students get involved in the
governance of their lives. 6 Involvement of both students and lecturers in management
roles of their institution would render the university produce integral graduates that
will wrestle with all sorts of managerial issues. Indubitably, decisions and solutions
are best made by those closest to or conversant with the particular issue addressed. 7,1,2
1
Gashaija, J. M. (1997). Effective leadership styles as perceived by academic staff in tertiary
institutions in Kampala district. Unpublished M. A. (Ed. Mgt) dissertation, Makerere
University.
2
3
Ssempa, J. B. (1997). Corporate management approaches and the management of Makerere
University. Unpublished M. A. (Ed. Mgt.) dissertation, Makerere University.
4
Brook, M. Z. (1994). International management: A review of stages and operations. United
Kingdom: Stanley Thorners Publishers Ltd.
5
6
Dlamini, C. R. M (1995). Towards a definition of people’s university.
7
Armstrong, M. (1996). How to be an even better manager. New Delhi:Universal Book Stall.
533
The foregoing notion is not alien to the observation that intelligent people prefer
to agree rather than obey. For, Universities are basically consent organisations where
changes cannot be imposed through the assertion of power but through reasoned
argument and challenging ideas. 3
In a similar wavelength, the respondents called for flexibility and modification in
the goals set by the leaders. Within this framework, “any management approach opted
for should be applied with a great sense of flexibility and proportionality”. 4
Nonetheless, reservations were enlisted on the issue of consensus. Owing to the
phenomenon that not all the people can ever be of the same opinion, consensus was
seen to be tricky and not always practical. The students on their part conceded that,
though important, consultation and consensus with them might not always be possible
taking into account the nature of particular administrative issues.
Despite the foregoing, the presenter envisages the existential need to take a leaf
that “exhaustive consultation and consensus building should constitute the first order
of business for higher educational reform”. 5 Such a situation will more and more spell
out the notion that at the Universities in Sub-Saharan Africa subordinates have control
over their assigned responsibility, and hence institutional systems are conducive and
rewarding and consequently motivating to the members of the academic communities.
Objective 2: Application of Total Quality Management and its implications on

education
In connection with the second objective, the general feeling of the respondents
was notwithstanding that the approach on management at the Universities positively
affected education. This per se spelt out to heighten the perception that “an
educational system should be the kind that ensures that the organization carries out its
function of delivering all aspects of ‘education services’ to its customers. It must also
be capable of creating a culture of ‘continuous improvement’ in the minds of all the
educands”. 6
The management approach, hence the governance of the universities, was hereby
credited – inter alia – by the standing ovation that it had a review system in regard to
progress and performance. Adjacently, “what constitutes university autonomy,
includes the freedom to determine for itself on academic grounds “who may teach”
and “who may be admitted to study”. 7 Regarding the latter category, it was said that
both continuous and summative evaluations were imperative on the students. As for
the former, not only were they subjected to supervision during their initial lectures, but
1
Stoner, J. A., Freeman, R. E., Gilbert, D.R. (1995). Management. 6th edition, Englewood
Cliffs. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
2
Hamner, W. C., & Organ, D. W. (1995). Organizational behaviour: An applied psychological
approach. Texas: Business Publications, Inc.
3
Dearlove, J. (1995). Issues and methodologies in educational development. Paris: 11 E P
Series of orientation and training, governance, leadership and change in universities.
4
Ssempa, J. B. (1997). Corporate management approaches and the management of Makerere
University. Unpublished M. A. (Ed. Mgt.) dissertation, Makerere University.
5
6
Greenwood, M. S. & Gaunt, H. J. (1994). Total quality management for schools. London:
Cassell Valliers House.
7
Sweezy, V. (1975). Testing the limits of academic freedom. New Hampshire: University of
Pennsylvania Law Review.
534
also they were availed staff development programmes. UMU proved a champion on
the supervision of lecturers.
Adjacently, the quality of education depends to a large extent on the quality of its
teachers. No education system can succeed without adequately trained and motivated
teachers. 1 Echoed herewith the phenomenon that the people-dimension of TQM
requires a work force committed to the organization’s objectives for continual
improvement. Such necessitates proper education and training; and also demands a
performance evaluation and a reward system. 2
The respondents heretofore subscribed that the Universities were disposed towards
Total Quality Management culture, and were treading towards a more realization to
the status quo. They recommended that TQM be a way forward in view of the
governance of Universities in the region. This reinforced the perception that TQM is
the overall quality ethos that should pervade any company which purports to be
interested in quality. 3 It was owing to their wish that the Universities identify
themselves more and more with Barnett’s recommendation that the respondents hailed
teamwork as a central characteristic of quality performance. Since a well connected
team will lead to better use of individual skills and more effective implementation of
resources, 4 propagated for ultimately was the nurturing and development of teams as a
means towards continuous growth in the organisation. 5 This truism stands incumbent
on the governance of educational institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa.
From the data collected as well as from the subsequent discussion the following
conclusions were generalized:
1. The governance approach in the Educational institutions in Sub-

Saharan Africa, though basically bureaucratic, incorporates elements of
subsidiarity and has positive implications for education.
2. Educational institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa are disposed towards
TQM culture and are treading towards a more realisation to this effect.
Consequently, the recommendations were outlined thus:
1. Educational Institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa should more and more

employ people-based governance styles if education is to preserve
quality amidst the challenges of the New Millennium.
2. Educational Institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa should endeavour to
regard governance as the mechanism whereby an institution
incorporates the inputs of relevant interest groups in defining the scope
and context of its tutelage.
1
The Republic of Uganda. (1989). Report of education policy review commission. 97
2
3
Barnett, H. (1996). Operations management. 2nd edition. London: Macmillan press Ltd.
4
Lacey, P., & Lomas, J. (1993). Support services and the curriculum: A practical guide to
collaboration. London: David Fulton.
5
West-Burnham, J. (1992a). Manangement quality in schools. Harlow: Longman.
535
The presenter further propagates that other public sector organizations like: health,
custodial operations, information systems, sales and marketing, business, NGOs, and
even civil governments should incessantly diagnose themselves through in-exhaustive
a perspective of Total Quality Management.
536
The Principal’s Role in the Development Programmes for the Teaching
Staff in the Far North of the Limpopo Province
49
The Principal’s Role in the Development
Programmes for the Teaching Staff in the
Far North of the Limpopo Province
Khazamula Samson Milondzo, University of the Free State
ost of the third world counties like South Africa face great challenges in
M transforming their educational systems. South Africa is faced with the

problem of expanding its education to include all pupils of school-going age,
in line with the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), as well
as improving the quality of teaching and learning in schools.
Recent social changes in the Limpopo Province have placed new external
pressures on principals and teachers to improve their practice. One of the major issues
facing principals of secondary schools is to improve the efficiency of the school
system and attain high levels of pupils’ performance. The system of former
Homelands Education needs serious transformation. Such transformation needs proper
planning and highly devoted and committed school managers. It needs skilled policy
makers at all levels of leadership. Also, educational leaders at all levels need skills,
abilities, and support in order to make the desired changes a practical reality. For any
innovation to be successfully implemented, it needs not only support but also skilled
manpower and effective staff development strategies.
The principal is not given enough powers by the government to organise and
implement programmes of teaching staff. Most of these programmes are organised by
government officials, namely chief education specialists, circuit inspectors, subject
curriculum developers, etc. The principal is in a good position to plan and implement
some of these programmes. Teachers should be allowed to participate in the selection
and organisation of development programmes. Principals should guide and train them
when necessary. The principal’s managerial role is very important in the planning and
implementation of development progarmmes of teaching staff.
What is School Management?
There is no universally accepted definition of the nature of educational

management. However, it is generally accepted that educational management includes
537
planning, organising, leading and control. 1. Although from the point of view of
management there are several aspects to leadership, it is essentially a task to combine
and co-ordinate human resources and, monitor performance so as to accomplish the
goals of the school as effectively as possible. The most important function of school
managers is their ability to provide leadership within the school environment and
therefore provide good staff development programmes for the success of the secondary
schools. 2 Galloway supports this idea by defining staff development as:
“…a process designed to foster personal and professional growth for

individuals within a respectful, supportive, positive organisational climate”.
The needs of educators will differ from school to school. It is therefore imperative
that each secondary school should design its own staff development programme based
specifically on its own identified needs. The principal of each secondary school should
be empowered to ensure that development programmes are designed for, and correctly
implemented in, his or her school.
Context of the Study
This study focuses on the Mopani District, namely the Malamulele and Giyani
Regions, of the Limpopo Province. The two regions formed part of the former
Gazankulu Homeland in the Far North. They lie between the Levubu and Letaba
rivers, next to the Kruger National Park. For the purposes of this research, the
geographical area will be referred to as the Far North because it lies in the
northernmost corner of the Limpopo Province. The study will be conducted in some of
the selected secondary schools in both the urban and rural areas. Secondary schools,
which are situated in the rural areas, were formally known as community schools.
These schools were built and controlled by the traditional chiefs and their subjects in
different rural villages. Currently, both urban and rural secondary schools are under
the Limpopo Provincial government. All the members of the governing councils are
elected democratically by the local people so as to represent them in the school
governance.
Statement of the Problem
The increasing external and internal problems in the secondary schools in the Far
North of the Limpopo Province make it difficult for the principals to run their schools
effectively. The Far North is faced not only with the problem of increasing enrolments
and expansion to include all pupils of school-going age in line with the RDP
(Reconstruction and Development Programmes) and the constitutional right to
education, but also with the problem of improving the quality of teaching and learning
in the secondary schools.
Some of the problems in the Far North secondary schools could be attributed to
the shortage of in-service training centres and libraries, lack of funds, shortage of
1
Van der Westhuizen, P. C.1991. Effective educational Management. Human, Pretoria.
2
Galloway, S. 1993. Identifying INSET needs. In : Burgess, R. et al.(Eds.), Implementing In-
service Education and Training. Falmer, London.
538
skilled manpower, lack of support from the provincial government and other related
factors.
With the above-mentioned problems facing school principals in the secondary
schools, the following research questions arise:
o Are principals allowed to select teachers for course attendance?

o Do principals vary in their use of leadership styles?
o Are principals keen to use the participatory approach in their
leadership or decision making?
o Do principals have adequate instructional materials and other
resources in their secondary schools?
o At which venue do both principals and teachers want to attend their
in-service training courses and other development programmes?
o Is the strategy or policy improving matriculation results in the
Limpopo Province?
o Are principals of secondary schools in the Far North given enough
powers to organise development programmes for their teaching
personnel?
The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the principal’s role in the Far North of
Limpopo Province. In order to realise this aim, the following objectives were pursued:
o To determine whether principals are given powers to develop their

staff members.
o To identify reasons behind the inadequate provisions of INSET for
teachers.
o To investigate the planning and organisation of development
programmes in the Far North.
o To determine the present needs and future staff development needs for
the teaching staff.
o To identify the sphere within which staff development programmes
should take place.
Research Design
Research may be defined a systematic process of collecting and logically

analyzing information for some purpose. There are several methods available to
investigate a problem. In abroad context, methodology refers to a design where by the
researcher selects data collections and analysis procedures to investigate the research
problem. 1In this study a mixed methods design that is, the inclusion of both
Quantitative and Qualitative research methods, was employed so as to obtain and
1
McMillan, J.H. & Schumacher, S. 1993. Research in Education: A Conceptual Introduction.
Harper Collins College Publishers, New York.
539
analyse results from different of research perspectives. Survey methods such as

questionnaires and interviews were also used to gain more information about how
principals perceive their role as providers of development programmes for their staff.
Data Collection
This section is based on scientific techniques employed in collecting and assessing

data to indicate factors that prohibit or promote the implementation of staff
development programmes, in secondary schools, in the Far North of the Limpopo
Province. The main purpose was identify various opposing forces or weakness
prohibiting staff development, to enable the researcher to advise on possible strategies
for the implementation of staff development programmes, in secondary schools in the
Far North. This also enabled the researcher to arrive at reasoned conclusions and
recommendations based on the findings from the study.
The target group for the empirical study included principals and teachers in the
secondary schools in the Far North. It was decided to concentrate on principals as
representatives of educational managers in the education system. Principals are
familiar with various development programmes that can be used to improve the quality
of teaching in secondary schools.
Principals and teachers in the following districts were selected for this study:
o Giyani district
o Phalaborwa district
o Ritavi district
Table 1. Number of Principals of Secondary Schools Randomly Selected

Schools Number of Principals
Community 31
Urban 18
Total 49
The researcher sent out 50 questionnaires, distributed equally amongst the

genders, but only obtained 49 (98%) responses from the principals in the Far North.
The above table shows that 31 (62%) out of 50 secondary schools are community
schools. These schools are in rural areas and were built by the members of the
community. That is why they are called community schools. The remaining 19 (38%)
state schools are found in the urban areas. These schools are situated in towns and
townships next to big cities and towns in the Far North.
Table 2. Number of Respondents per District

DISTRICT PRINCIPALS AND TEACHERS %
Giyani 129 43,6
Phalaborwa 71 24,0
Ritavi 96 32,4
Total 296 100
The 303 questionnaires were sent out to randomly selected principals and teachers,
and only 296 (97, 7%) were received back form respondents. This, according to recent
literature on research, is acceptable and limited generalisations may be made.
540
Table 3. 1996 – 1997 Matriculation Results from the Nine Provinces

1996 PASS RATE 1997 PASS RATE % CHANGE
Western Cape 80,4% 76,3% -4,1%
Northern Cape 69,9% 63,7% -6,2%
Mpumalanga 50,9% 45,7% -5,2%
Kwazulu Natal 61,7% 54,0% -7,7%
Gauteng 55,6% 51,5% -4,0%
North West 66,6% 50,0% -16,0%
Eastern Cape 49,7% 46,0% -3,7%
Free State 51,1% 42,3% -8,8%
Northern Province 37,0% 31,8% -5,2%
TOTAL 54,7% 47,1% -7,6%
In both years (1996 and 1997) standard ten (10) examination results in the
Limpopo Province were recorded as the lowest of all the provinces in South Africa.
Most of the secondary schools in the Far North are in the former Bantustans
(Homelands) where there is a scarcity of resources. Factors such as a lack of physical
resources, poor managerial skills, and other related problems are the main causes of
the high matriculation failure rate in the Far North. The above mentioned problems
and other related factors are calling principals to develop relevant development
programmes for their teaching staff so as to improve the quality of teaching and
learning.
Results of the Study
The data collected through the questionnaires were processed by computer, due to
the large number of participants in this research.
Figure 1. Where would you Prefer to Attend In-set Courses
11
31
SCHOOL
41 TEACHER CENTRE
INSTITUTION OF HIGHER LEARNING

154
CIRCUIT
OTHER PLACES
59
Analysis
Figure 1 indicates that 154 (52,0%) of the respondents, preferred to attend their in-
set courses at the school. Fifty-nine (19,9%) of the respondents, wanted to attend their
541
in-set courses at the Institution of higher learning. Thirty-one (13,9%) of the

respondents wanted to attend the above courses at a teachers’ centre. Only Eleven
(3,7%) of the respondents want to attend in-set courses in other places.
Interpretation
From the findings it is evident that most of the respondents preferred School-
Based IN-SET training than other forms of training. The majority of the respondents
who were interviewed have supported this. They want staff development to take place
at their sphere of operation so that teaching personnel can relate the development to
their performance and achievement. In the staff development process, the Principal
may organize in-set courses while experienced and senior staff members facilitate the
training programmes. Other expects can be used as consultants if need be. This will
help both educators and the facilitators to understand and analyse the problems that are
taking place in the classroom environment.
Table 4. The School Management Team (SMT) should see to it that the Teachers who
have attended IN-SET Courses Utilize the New Material and Information Gained
Code F %
(Q1) Materials and information gained from
INSET should be utilized
1. Strongly agree 150 50,7
2. Agree 133 44,9
3. Unsure 6 2,0
4. Disagree 3 1,0
5. Strongly disagree 4 1,4
Fx = 296 100,0
Analysis
Q (1) indicates that 283 (95, 6%) of the respondents agreed that materials and
information received from INSET should be utilised in various schools. Seven (2, 4%)
opted to be against the statement, while only six (2 %) were unsure.
Interpretation
The findings show that most of the respondents confirmed that the materials and
information gained from the INSET courses should be utilised. The school principals
should see to it that materials and information gained from INSET are applied and
used by various subject teachers. It has a lot of impact if principals instruct teachers
who have attended INSET courses to pass information to other staff members.
Teachers in the Far North have more respect for their principals than they do for any
other persons in the school situation.
542
Table 5. Leadership and Staff Development

Code F %
(Q2) The principal should nominate those
members of staff to whom the course has
relevance
1. Strongly agree 250 84,5
2. Agree 34 11,5
3. Unsure 6 2,0
4. Disagree 3 1,0
5. Strongly disagree 3 1,0
Fx = 296 100,0
Analysis
Q (2) reveals that 284 (96 %) of the respondents agreed that principals have to
nominate the members of staff to whom the INSET courses have relevance. Nine (2
%) of the respondents chose to be against it, while the remaining nine (2 %) were
uncertain.
Interpretation
The principals should use their prerogative to nominate staff members to attend
INSET courses. Principals are expected to select teachers for requisite INSET courses.
In the past some principals in the Far North used to send teachers who were not
teaching some of the subjects conducted at the INSET centre. This created a lot of
problems for most of the teaching personnel because they were forced to attend inset
courses for subjects which they are not allocated to teach. This de-motivated most of
the teachers who attended such courses. INSET courses should be attended by teachers
who are teaching the same courses offered by the INSET. This will help teachers to
excel and develop both academically and professionally. This can also motivate the
teachers to attend INSET courses whenever they are invited.
Table 6. Principal’s Leadership Style

Code F %
(Q4) Principal’s leadership style should foster joint
decision-making
1. Yes 280 94,6
2. No 8 2,7
3. Unsure 8 2,7
Fx = 296 100,0
Analysis
Q (3) reveals that 212 (71, 6%) of the respondents preferred the combination of
leadership styles, while 36 (12, 2%) were against the combination of the leadership
styles. Fourty-eight (16, 2%) of the respondents were unsure of which leadership style
should be used by the principal.
Interpretation
The principal’s leadership style is important in the school. From these findings it
is evident that those principals who preferred to use a combination of leadership styles
543
were more popular as school managers, than those who prefer a single leadership style.
There is no leadership style that is regarded as the best for school management. All
styles are good if used appropriately by the leader.
If principals in the Far North use a leadership style appropriately, it can increase
motivation amongst the teaching staff. Also, combination of leadership styles may
solve many problems in the sphere of operation.
Table 7. Leadership and Decision-Making

Code F %
(Q4) Principal’s leadership style should foster
joint decision-making
1. Yes 280 94,6
2. No 8 2,7
3. Unsure 8 2,7
Fx = 296 100,0
Analysis
Q (4) reveals that 280 (94, 6%) of the respondents prefer leadership that fosters
joint decision- making. On the other hand, 8 (2, 7%) of the respondents chose to be
against it. Eight (2, 7%) respondents were not sure whether or not they preferred joint
decision-making.
Interpretation
Principals’ leadership determines their success and achievement in their schools.

As managers they have the primary task to work harmoniously with their subordinates.
They need the co-operation of the teaching personnel to attain goals and objectives.
Principals, as leaders of their schools, are expected to have consensus with teachers, so
as to make joint decisions with them. The top down approach has caused a lot of
dissatisfactions amongst educators in the Far North secondary schools. Principals that
are using the bottom up approach in the Far North are getting more co-operation from
their subordinates.
Table 8. The Role Played by Objectives and Policy in Staff Development

Code F %
(Q5) The principal should set
clear objectives, which are
relevant and attainable for staff
development
1. Yes 272 91,9
2. No 14 4,7
3. Unsure 10 3,4
Fx = 296 100,0
Analysis
Q (5) shows that 272 (91%) of the respondents agreed that the principal should set
clear objectives that are relevant and attainable, for staff development. Fourteen
(4,7%) of the respondents disagreed with the statement while ten (3,4%) of them were
unsure.
544
Interpretation
From these findings it is evident that most of the respondents wanted the
principals to set clear objectives that are relevant and attainable, for staff development.
The principals should also clarify some of the problems that the staff might encounter
during the process of attaining the above objectives.
Clear objectives have done away with uncertainties among the teaching staff.
They also serve as guidelines for most of the teachers in the Far North. These will also
encourage teachers to work very hard so as to achieve intended objectives.
Table 9. School Policy and Staff Development

Code F %
(Q6) The principal’s development
policy should make provision for
adaptation and innovation
1. Yes 274 92,6
2. No 9 3,0
3. Unsure 13 4,4
Fx = 296 100,0
Analysis
Q (6) indicates that 274 (92, 6%), the majority of the respondents, agreed that the
principals’ development policy should make provision for adaptation and innovation.
Nine (3%) of the respondents disagreed with the statement, while 13 (4, 4%) of them
were unsure.
Interpretation
The majority of the respondents (92, 6%) confirmed that both principals and
teachers need school policies that make provision for adaptation and innovation. Staff
development can take place optimally if principals develop a sound policy for their
schools.
It is, however, important that such development should take place after consensus
is reached by all the teaching personnel. Consensus is the only process that can lead to
good governance in the school. Although educators want to be involved in policy
formulation, it is the task of the principals in the Far North to formulate school
policies, and to see to it that these are implemented correctly at their schools.
Table 10. Resources and Staff Development

Code F %
(Q7) The school has enough
instructional materials, namely
teaching and learning media
1. Yes 26 8,8
2. No 265 89,5
3. Unsure 5 1,7
Fx = 296 100,0
545
Analysis
In this item, the respondents were required to give their views on the teaching and
learning media. Q (7) shows that 265 (89, 5%) of the respondents have neither
teaching nor learning media. Only 26 (8, 8%0 of the respondents had teaching and
learning media.
Interpretation
These results confirm that the majority of the respondents were in rural secondary
schools where there are inadequate facilities. There were few privileged respondents
26 (8, 8%) who agreed with the statement. It may be concluded, from the general
consensus of the respondents, that the Department of Education has a role to play in
the provision of physical and learning material at the Far North secondary schools.
However, principals should serve as the key development agent, which drives the
process forward.
Data Obtained from Structured Interviews
In this section data obtained through interviews with government officials, former
principals, educators, learners and other stakeholders are presented The responses from
these stakeholders have given the researcher a clear picture of the situation and factors
that hinder the principals to develop development programmes for their teaching staff
in the Far North.
In this research study the following facets were identified by the respondents as
the main factors that prohibit the staff development in the Far North secondary
schools:
Lack of Clear IN-SET Policy
Out of the one hundred interviewees, 90% of them indicated that they do not know
of an INSET policy formulated by the Department of Education in Limpopo. Ten
percent (10%) responded that they only know the one formulated by the previous
regimes, namely the former Gazankulu Department of Education and the Department
of Education and Training under the Apartheid government.
Lack of Staff Development Programmes at School
Out of one hundred educators interviewed, 95% revealed the principals were not
allowed to organize programmes in their secondary schools.
Lack of Induction Courses for Principals and Educators
Ninety percent (90%) of the school principals interviewed indicated that they were
not formally inducted when they got into their current positions.
546
Lack of Resources and Learning Materials
Eighty percent (80%) of the respondents revealed that they did not have relevant
resources for staff development at their schools.
Lack of Management and Leadership Skills at their Sphere of Operation
Ninety-five percent (95%) of school principals interviewed indicated that they

were not instructed in the application of different managerial and leadership skills at
their work.
Recommendations
On the basis of the findings from the interviews and the empirical investigation,
the following motivated recommendations are made:
It is recommended that:
o The duty of the Principals should be to encourage their teaching personnel

to make use of the available learning materials and facilities for both
professional and academic growth.
o Principals in the Far North Secondary schools be encouraged to
implement the School-Based IN-SET model in the school management of
their schools.
o Principals have to encourage their teaching staff to attend IN-SET courses,
which are organized in their field of specialisation.
o Principals have to delegate and consult other staff members before
implementing any decision in the school.
o Principals should be encouraged to apply the situational leadership model
in their management staff development.
o Policy makers should be encouraged to empower principals of secondary
schools to organize development programmes in their schools.
o Principals have to encourage policy makers and the private sector to build
educational facilities in their school.
o It is recommended that a position of Co-ordinator for IN-SET programmes
be created in the Department of Education to be field by a well qualified
and experienced principal or senior staff member in the Far North
secondary schools.
Conclusion
The most crucial finding in this study is that principals in the Far North of
Limpopo were not empowered to conduct and develop staff development programmes
at their schools. The five factors revealed in this section, are some of the facets that
hinder principals to develop their teaching personnel in the Far North secondary
schools.
The above mentioned problems have serious managerial and instructional
leadership implications for the Far North secondary schools. This kind of situation
547
raises questions on how principals will be able to develop their staff when they have
no relevant resources and learning materials at their schools. Principals will not be
expected to conduct orientation courses while they have not received any managerial
training and induction courses themselves. This practice has serious implications in
that, government officials check and control resources, and never conduct or develop
staff development programmes for the teaching personnel in the Far North secondary
schools.
From this survey most interviewees agreed that principals by virtue of their
positions, are in good standing to develop their teaching personnel better that those
who are working in the district and provincial Department of Education. Hence
School-Based In-Service Training has been suggested as the locus for staff
development in the Far North secondary schools. In relation to this, Bagwandeen and
Louw 1 have the following to say:
“if the education profession is to flourish and if schools are to be a vital

force in society, it is necessary to rebuild the school into a life-long learning
laboratory not only for children but for teachers as well”.
From my perspective, principals need to be empowered by the government policy

in order to devise effective development programmes for their teaching staff.
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Bagwandeen, D.R. and Louw, W.J. 1993. Theory and practice of in-service education and
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Bolam, R. 1992. School-focused in-service training. Heinemann, London.
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Clark, S.S. 1995. What leadership skills do principals really need? The school Administrator.
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549
550
Women in Administrative Position
50
Women in Administrative Position∗
Fatos Silman, Near East University
&
Mustafa Celikten, Erciyes University
E
mployment in Turkey has always been an important issue and an area that
has been considered and taken care of by the state. Yet women are
disadvantaged in terms of employment compared to men. In the Republican
period when women started to educate themselves their participation in the
workforce also increased. Yet still there is inequality between men and women in the
areas of education and employment (KSSGM,2000:v). Despite the egalitarian
provisions in Turkish law, due to the social, cultural and economical barriers, women’s
participation in the workforce is lower than that of men.
Many research studies show that since the 1970s there has been increase in the
number of women in administrative and professional careers which in fact shows that
women have the enthusiasm to work together with men in the same conditions, yet in
the following years women cannot gain the same work experience and so fall behind in
the career path (Morrison and Von Glow, 1990). In many places in the world the
majority of teachers in elementary level of education are women. Yet when we look at
the higher levels of education, we see that the participation of women teachers
decreases. Gerni (2001) in his research found that the proportion of women principals
in underdeveloped countries and in higher levels of education (secondary and high
schools) decreases compared to developed countries and lower levels of education
(elementary schools). Tan (1996) found that despite the fact that the teaching
profession is very popular among women in Turkey; women are a minority in the
principalship profession.
Berberoglu’s (1989) research on the problems of women in working life had
similar results with Tan’s study. The researcher stated that women’s participation in
the administrative positions in the world is very low (15%) and this percentage covers
only women in the middle level of administrative positions. According to Soyturk
(2001) this low percentage shows that there are many barriers for women who want to
∗
This paper is based on Celikten’s research, which was conducted in 2004, with the permission
of Celikten
551
elevate in the career ladder. In Turkey 30% of employed people are women. The
proportion of women in the middle and higher levels of administration is only 10%.
Yet there is no information about the number of women and men administrators in
basic and secondary level of education.
It is ironical that there is much statistical information about the number of cattle in
different geographical regions of Turkey (Akcapinar, 2000), yet there is not any
healthy information about the gender discrimination between men and women in terms
of their employment in the principalship positions (Balci, 2002; Celik, 2002, Celikten,
2001). It is also interesting that the Research, Planning and Coordination Board which
is a branch of National Ministry of Education announced the number of teachers
across Turkey in the booklet entitled “National Education: Numerical data,” yet there
is no information about the number of school principals.
Turkey is one of the countries where the proportion of women principals is low.
Although there is no legal obstacle for women in their appointment and promotion in
the administrative positions and also their education level is similar to that of men,
unfortunately they cannot reach the upper levels of educational administration.
According to the data obtained in 2002-2003 academic year, in Kayseri only 1% of the
basic and secondary education administrators were women.
There are many research studies carried out for the status of the school
administrators all over the world (Acikalin, 1980; Balci, 2002; .Celik, 2002; Ozden,
1998). In these studies it was stated that the key to success in schools was the
performance of school administrators (Karip and Koksal, 1999). For example Acikalin
(1980) in his research carried out in secondary schools about the appointment and job
transfers of school teachers found out that only 7.48% of women were administrators
and all these women were employed in the central educational organizations. The
researcher related this situation to women’s disinterestedness to the administrative
positions, which he added, was a typical reflection of the Turkish culture. Boydak
(2002) stated that after 25 years of this study nothing has changed and women are still
in low proportion in administrative positions. This researcher reported that the
proportion of women teachers in basic education schools is 44%, while only 5.7% of
women are administrators in the same schools
Acuner and Sallan (1993) did research on women administrators in the Turkish
public administration and found that women in Turkey managed to go beyond the
traditional borders but still they are not represented well in the administrative
positions. The researchers added that decision making was not left to women in the
National Ministry of Education. Tan (2002) in his study entitled “The position of
women in educational administration” investigated why women were externalized
from the educational administration although it is known that teaching is a female
profession. He added that both men and women need to learn from each other and
therefore have equal chances to be in all levels of educational administration.
Izgar (2001) investigated the relationship between burnout of educational
administrators and their gender and found that because of their household duties and
roles as a wife and a mother, women could not allocate enough time for their
administrative duties at their schools. Similiarly, Demirci (1991) in an extensive
literature review on women in educational system discovered that women’s being
unable to progress to the higher levels of administration is not only in Turkey but in
other countries including developed countries. According to Ozcan (1999) whatever
the reasons and whoever is responsible for this situation, the fact that women are
underrepresented in administrative positions compared to their male coworkers cannot
be denied.
552
The Problems of Women
Gender discrimination forms the basis of the obstacles for women who want to be
administrators. The prejudiced idea that good administrators are men, encourage
women not to choose administrative positions. Atay (2001) did a research on the
behaviours of basic education administrators, he found out that people think that
women are different from men and therefore are biased that women cannot be
effective administrators. In the same research he stated that the common biases against
women were: “women do not like working, they do not devote to their career, they are
not strict and strong enough, they do not like working apart from working hours, they
do not have decision-making capacity and they are very emotional.”
Sonmez (1992) argues that women in administrative careers cannot stand the hard
conditions of the administrative life because of their household duties and childcare.
Women in administrative positions need to work harder than men in order to prove
that they can overcome the burden of responsibilities. Ozcan (1999) also states that
male administrators do not favor women administrators because they think that men
manage to work in collaboration, they build team spirit, support each other like
brothers and therefore believe that presence of a woman administrator could destroy
this harmony.
Katrinli (1994) did interviews with high ranking women administrators in Izmir
and found that most of the problems of women administrators had stemmed from men
who did not want to work with women administrators and were not used to seeing
women as leaders. Arikan (2003) did research to investigate if there was any
difference in the leadership behaviours of male and female administrators in public
sector. He detected differences and also discovered that the state banks in Turkey had
the tendency to recruit male administrators rather than female administrators. Snavely
(1993) argues that women face problems in administrative positions because of their
weak administrative skills. According to the author women could not develop their
skills because they were excluded from men’s informal communication network, their
administrative performances were evaluated by different criteria, and they had conflict
between their career and family roles.
Method
The aim of this research is to draw the attention of researchers to the issue of
women school administrators and to help them seek the ways of increasing the number
of women administrators at schools. For this purpose answers to the following
research question were sought: What are the reasons for women being in low
proportion in school administration?
Population and Sample
The population of the research includes all female school principals who officiate
in public basic education and secondary schools in Kayseri. Due to the limited number
of principals in the population women assistant principals and teachers in leadership
positions were also included in the research. In the literature there is sufficient
information about the number of teachers in Turkey, their gender, subject area and
rank yet not enough information about the school administrators. Despite the lack of
553
accessible, organized and healthy data about the school administrators in Turkey
(Turan & Ebiclioglu, 2002) for this research some numerical data were obtained as
follows:
As can be seen in the table women comprise 50% of teachers in basic and
secondary education level, yet only 7% of them are women principals. 75% of them
are teachers who serve as acting principals. In 550 basic education schools there are 23
women principals, yet only one of them works as an appointed principal and the
remaining teachers serve as acting principals. In 99 secondary schools only 5
appointed women are principals and the majority of them work in girls-only vocational
schools.
Data Collection
Before collecting the interview data the researcher did an extensive literature
review. The literature served as a theoretical foundation for the interview questions
which were later reviewed by some experts in the field of education and also some
people who had experiences as administrators. The questions were designed to probe
the views of the participants on the processes they went through to become
administrators, their personal characteristics which helped them in the process of
becoming an administrator, their weak and strong characteristics, their problems as
women administrators, their decision-making strategies and finally the obstacles for
women teachers who wished to become administrators.
Data Analysis
All the interviews were recorded on a tape-recorder. The researcher transcribed

tape-recorded interviews verbatim without making any changes to them. The
researcher used content-analysis technique to determine where the greatest emphasis
was on the data (Marshall & Rossman, 1999) collected through interviews. The data
were then broken down into manageable categories and results were presented as
emerging themes.
Findings
The first question in the interview schedule sought some demographic information
about the participants as can be seen in the table below:
Table 1. Demographic Information About the Participants

Age f Maritial status F Number of F
children
25-29 4 Single 11 0 13
30-35 7 Married 31 1 6
36-40 13 Divorced 6 2 9
40-45 19 Other - 3 20
46-over 5 4 and more -
The age of the participants range between 25 and 46, yet the age average is 36-45.
The demographic information also showed that 65% of the women administrators
554
were married and 73% of them had at least one child. In further stages of the research
the participants stated that “marriage” and “children” were the most important
obstacles in their career.
The Processes of becoming an Administrator
The participants were asked to state the processes they went through to become
administrators. The answers showed that most of them were brought to the profession
out of their will, and had to continue to stay in the profession. Remembering the fact
that school success depends on a successful leadership, this situation may bring
negative consequences for attempts to provide school effectiveness.
For some school principals these processes developed differently. One woman
acting principal said “I started to serve as a school administrator before I learnt how to
be a teacher. When I was appointed in the village school, there was no teacher and
because I was the only one who came there first I became an administrator, and I have
been serving as an administrator for 5 years.”
Administration and Personal Characteristics
The answers to the question “What are the personal characteristics which helped
you be an administrator” can be grouped in two main headings: “Communication” and
“human relations.” The theme of “communication” has been emphasized in almost all
the interviews. One participant stated that one of the most difficult aspects of the
profession is to build communication with the employees. They added that
administrators should build effective communication with the employees because
administrators are held responsible for all the problems occurring both in and outside
the school building, and therefore they should not act emotionally. Some of the
participants said that being systematic, knowledgeable and hardworking are the most
important characteristics administrators must have. When the participants were asked
to state what strong and weak characteristics they had, most of them did not state any
weak characteristics. But some of them said that they acted emotionally, they tried not
to break people’s hearts, acted too democratically, neglected their family and
eventually felt exhausted.
The Problems of Women Administrators
When the participants were asked to state what kind of problems they faced in
their profession most of them said that because of social and cultural norms women
administrators were not much favored. They added that people who visited the school
wanted to see men administrators in front of them. When the participants were asked
to state if they witnessed any discriminatory behaviour because of their gender, it was
observed that the participants did not feel comfortable in answering this question. For
example, some of them said “I was not exposed to such behaviors but I heard that
others were” or “Sometimes it happens but I cannot tell you exactly what it is.”
Most of the participants stated that women administrators could not join the group
meetings where the majority of the group members were men. According to the
participants although women successfully managed to build effective communication
555
in the work environment, they did not feel comfortable attending dinners, meetings
organized outside work. One of the participants said “men administrators come
together outside work and even make decisions. Yet I as a woman cannot partake in
these occasions and therefore learn the decisions much later.”
Another woman principal said that most of the administrators are men and because
of their way of looking at women they had difficulty in expressing themselves to men.
She said “men are always distant to me in meetings. I feel lonely. In society there is a
common view that women principals cannot be successful. When we are successful,
they look for some hidden reasons for our success. The same woman principal stated
that when she was appointed as the principal at a school, teachers at the same school
wanted her transfer to another school giving the excuse of not wanting to “receive
orders” from a woman. This statement clearly shows how people are prejudiced about
female administrators.
One acting principal stated that women teachers felt jealous about women
administrators. She said: “Women teachers are very capricious and egoist, they act
emotional and are not collaborative. Men are more collaborative and understanding.”
The same participant added that women teachers preferred to see men in higher
administrative positions rather than seeing women administrators.
The Decision-Making Strategies of Women
When the participants were asked what strategies they used while making
decisions and solving problems most of them said that they tried to be a democratic
administrator and made decisions asking the opinions of employees and even students.
Other participants said that they attended some courses on educational administration
and learnt the decision-making processes and added that whenever she had to make
decisions, she benefited from her course notes. She said that even though she knew
that real life situations were quite different from what was said in theory, she still
found many answers in her course notes.
Women Teachers and Administration
The participants were asked to state what obstacles women teachers faced when
they wanted to become administrators. Most of them stated the following obstacles:
“Social perspective, traditions, domestic responsibilities, burden of marriage and
children, fear of being unsuccessful and negative attitudes of other women teachers
towards women administrators.”
Conclusion and Implications
The aim of this research is to investigate why the proportion of women

administrators is very low compared to women teachers at basic and secondary
schools. Although the findings can only be applied to Turkey, the researcher believes
that similar research studies carried in other regions will possibly give similar results.
The results of the study showed that women became administrators unwillingly not out
of any success. The participants said that although they had communication skills they
had many problems in the profession because of their emotionality. They added that
556
because administration was seen as a male profession, women administrators were not
embraced at schools and this caused many problems on the part of these women. It
could be argued that these impossibilities stemmed from the patriarchal structure of the
Turkish society. In Turkish society there is sharp gender discrimination. Men are seen
as authoritative figures that bring money home while women are seen in their domestic
responsibilities such as cleaning, child-rearing, cooking etc. Therefore women prefer
the teaching profession which they see as the continuation of motherhood and name it
as an “easy and feminine profession” and therefore they do not prefer administrative
positions. (Sakallı and Beydogan, 2001).
In every phase of life women and men have always worked together, yet the
contribution of women to the society has not been much valued compared to that of
men. Women are expected to work in lower status jobs and it becomes difficult for
them to enter higher status professions and get promotions in these professions
(Bayrak and Mohan, 2001). Especially when it comes to promote to higher level
administrative positions women face a “glass ceiling and are underrepresented in
administrative positions which require greater responsibilities (Arıkan, 2003).
The quality of education should be ensured by the societies in order to adapt to
globalization. Women who have significant roles in society should be educated; their
status should be improved and given the opportunity to contribute to the development
of society (KSSGM, 2001). Yet although women in Turkey started to go beyond the
traditions they are still underrepresented in the administrative positions. There are still
significant differences between the roles of women and men (Acuner and Sallan,
1993).
Being assertive and diligent are not enough for women to break barriers in
entering administrative positions. They should be able to adapt to socio-cultural
changes, and be supported by laws and non-governmental organizations. First of all
scientific data must play an important role in judging women not the biases.
We know that there are many female teachers and students in Turkey. Women
who can be successful as mothers and teachers should also be given the opportunity to
prove themselves as administrators. It will be for the benefit of the female students and
teachers who will take these women administrators as role models. Besides, women
administrators can easily be guides and role models for female students who in return
may find it helpful to share their personal problems with these administrators.
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558
From the Toolbox of Theory: Which Theoretical Tools are useful for
Understanding Inclusive Practice in Icelandic Schools?
51
From the Toolbox of Theory: Which
Theoretical Tools are useful for
Understanding Inclusive Practice in
Icelandic Schools?
Dora S. Bjarnason, Iceland University of Education
S
ignificant changes have occurred within Icelandic society in the last decades of
the 20th century tied to globalisation and economic and social changes.
Educational policy and practice have also undergone changes, including a
commitment to inclusive education for all (see Johannesson 2006), but the
schools still take reference from the idea of the “normal” (Marinósson 2002).
The purpose of this paper is to discuss how data from new research into the
education of learners labelled with intellectual disabilities in general and special
education schools and at all school levels can be interpreted. The paper draws on three
different theoretical approaches as tools for the interpretation of qualitative and
quantitative data from a study of educational conditions of all Icelandic learners with
intellectual disability.
The paper is divided into four parts. It begins with brief definitions and
explanation of what I understand by “disability” and “disability studies” and how that
can be related to inclusive education in theory and practice. Second, it outlines a study
carried out by a team of researchers lead by professor Marinósson at the Icelandic
University of Education into the schooling of all Icelandic students with intellectual
disability. The study was initiated by a parent and professional association for people
with disabilities called Throskahjalp. The study is henceforth referred to as the
Throskahjálp Study (THS). Third, the main part of the paper will explore and discuss
how one might make sense of the evidence from the THS study using tools from
disability studies and social constructionism, Bourdieu’s concepts of cultural capital
and social capital, and poststructuralism. It is argued that by applying these theoretical
tools to the evidence, the research can provide better understanding and practical
insights into the complexities of inclusive education as practiced within the modern
Icelandic school system. Lastly the paper discusses the strengths and weaknesses of
applying these theoretical perspectives together and moves to a conclusion.
559
Words and Perspectives
What are (Social) Disability Studies?
The term disability, as used here, means neither a disease nor damage to the
human body. On the contrary, it is a complicated and multidimensional socially
constructed concept. The meaning given to "disability" and "difference" may vary
considerably within a particular culture and its historic period (Kirkebæk, 1993), and
between cultures (Ingstad and Whyte, 1995). Its meaning is thus related to forms of
social organisations and domains in time and space. A social relational model of
disability is applied in this paper (Bjarnason 2004. Tössebro 2002, Gabel 2001). From
that perspective ”intellectual disability” is seen to be a social construct, relational,
situational and relative.
Disability studies grow out of a paradigm that rejects the basic epistemology of
positivist empiricism that objective facts can be clearly distinguished from values. By
deconstructing the fact/value distinction of social phenomena we unravel the position
that we humans create everything to do with how we structure our world, including
our perspective on disability or educational practices. We do not discover that world
based on objective facts (Ferguson and Ferguson 1992). Further, I agree with
Gallagher who reminds us, that the way we understand disability as a social
phenomena is a moral and not a scientific choice (Gallagher 2004).
Disability studies have a broad and diverse base in the practical experiences of
disabled people, and in diverse academic fields such as history, sociology, cultural
studies, literature theory, law, public policy, and ethics. As disability studies have
taken shape in the last decades of the 20th century, the so called British “social model
of disability” has been at its centre (Oliver 1990). Several theoretical stances can be
located within a broad social model of disability and more are added each year (Gabel,
2001). Two such stances stand out: (1) the British social model is an emancipatory
neo-marxist, structuralist materialist stance, that makes a distinction between
impairment of the body and disability, the latter being seen as a social product (Oliver
& Barnes, 1998; Shakespeare & Watson, 1995); and (2) a social constructionist
approach that views all interpretations of bodily, intellectual or behaviour variations as
a theory-laden, socio-cultural phenomena (see Bjarnason, 2004). Each of these two
stances contains a variety of different theoretical perspectives and definitions (Altman
2001; Gabel 2001). What unites disability studies is thus neither one coherent
academic field, nor a body of theory but the claim that the field and its work should be
emancipating for and relevant to the practical interests and experiences of disabled
people.
What is Inclusive Education?
Iceland adopted the vision of the Salamanca Statement and framework for Action
on Special Educational Needs in 1994 (Salamanca yfirlýsing, 1995). It is characterised
by humanistic and democratic values, child centred pedagogy, diversity as the norm,
quality education for all children and on technical and administrative arrangements to
deliver education according to the needs of individual learners (see Jóhannesson
2006). The terms ‘inclusive schooling’ and ‘inclusive education’ are anchored in the
Salamanca Statement and vision. As an international policy document, the Salamanca
statement provides a foundation for national and local education policy, along with
560
other international and national education policy documents, but derives its practical
meaning from relevant cultural context.
The term ‘inclusive education’ is not easy to define. The term has been given a
number of different meanings: As an alternative response to special needs in school or
classroom; as a perspective representing a shift in paradigms within education; as a
theory that research can be based upon; as an administrative educational and school
system; and as a political aim or ideology, based on ethical values (Lunt and Norwich
1999). Inclusive education is probably most widely used as a descriptive concept due
to its general adoption in education policies. Thus its meaning varies from one country
and culture to another (see Vislie, 2003). Often in public talk it is used to express a
moralistic vision and /or the placement of disabled learners in general education
schools, sometimes also called integration (Jóhannesson 2006).
As a descriptor, the term is of little use to educational researchers. If applied
critically (see Barton 1999,) and grounded in disability studies scholarship it becomes
a powerful analytical tool (Allan 1999 and 2003). As such it lends itself to unpicking
organisational structures and educational practices within our schools and educational
systems that result in segregation, inequality and exclusion and to identifying inclusive
pedagogical practices and organisational structures (Skidmore 1996, Ainscow 1995,
Tetler 2000, Marinósson 2002).
A useful way of thinking about inclusive education impacting real changes and
affecting the education and democratic participation of each and every learner is
captured by Dianne Ferguson’s definition of inclusive education as:
“a process meshing together general and special education reform

initiatives and strategies in order to achieve a unified system of public
education that incorporates all children and youth as active, fully
participating members of the school community; that views diversity as the
norm; and that maintains a high quality education for each student by
assuring meaningful curricular, effective teaching, and necessary support”
(Ferguson 2006).
The term refers to educational processes and goals. The processes are both
inclusive and exclusionary, embedded in the organization of schools and school
cultures, affecting all learners and the school community of staff and students.
Inclusive education in this sense calls for teaching and learning in mixed ability,
heterogeneous student groups, and for systemic change at the administrative level (see
Booth and Ainscow, 2002).
The THS Study
Schooling is compulsory for all Icelandic children from the age of 6-16. Most
children attend preschool for 3-5 years before entering school. Preschool is non-
compulsory but the preschool level is formally a part of the educational system. Upper
secondary education is also non-compulsory but most students chose to continue their
schooling for up to 4 years. All these schools are by law ( lög um leikskóla 1994, lög
um grunnskóla 1995, lög um framhaldsskóla 1996) expected to include learners with
intellectual disabilities. Disabled students are placed in general classes at the preschool
and mostly at the early compulsory school level, but as more academic subjects are
561
introduced, there is a tendency to move learners with special needs out of the general
classroom learning environment either part time or full time (Marinósson 2002). Many
general education schools at the compulsory school level use resource rooms and a
few special units remain at the compulsory education level. Three special schools are
in the compulsory education system, two for children with significant intellectual or
multi disabilities and one for learners diagnosed with behavioural problems. At the
upper secondary school level special classes are operated for students with intellectual
disabilities, but many of those students also make some use of the general classes,
school facilities and student community events.
A research team at the Iceland University of Education has from 2002 to 2006 in
cooperation with a parent- and professional association, conducted a comprehensive
study of all Icelandic students labelled with intellectual disabilities in our school
system -- from preschool to upper-secondary school, in segregated and general
educational settings. The team was asked to: (1) Inquire into parents’, staffs’ and
principals’ attitudes and expectations concerning learning and social participation of
students with intellectual disabilities in classrooms and school communities; (2) to
study how learners with intellectual disability are admitted to schools; (3) how their
education is structured and where they are taught; and (4) how relevant information
was shared between important players within their learning environment including
between home and school.
The broad purpose of the THS study is to gain better understanding of how current
educational policy is carried out with regard to these learners and to identify how the
government, local municipalities and schools can work for improved inclusion and
reduced exclusion of this group of learners from general education schools and school
communities.
Qualitative and quantitative methods were used to collect the data.The qualitative
part of the study (part A.) entailed observations, interviews with staff and some
parents, and document analysis in eight schools -- two schools at each school level
from preschool to upper secondary and two special schools. This part was carried out
in order to gain a deeper understanding of how parents and professionals perceive the
education and social participation of learners with intellectual disabilities, and of the
schools as workplaces for disasbled learners and staff. Reports were written and these
were then used to generate questions for the quantitative research phase.
Some of the findings that emerged from the qualitative part of the study (Part A.)
are summarised as follows:
Exclusionary processes and hindrances on the road to inclusive education were:
o A belief in specialists and an emphasis on ”what is wrong” with the

child.
o An unclear understanding of key ideas (e.g. what is disability).
o Parents do not participate in the school work and school
community.
o The idea that a school is a normal place.
Inclusive processes supporting inclusive education:
o Learners with intellectual disabilities are welcomed in most schools.

o Teachers are willing to support the learning and advancement of their students.
o A high teacher and disabled student ratio.
562
o The school culture is generally based on care and support for its learners.
Dilemmas and problems:
o The group of learners with intellectual disabilities is not specifically

identified in schools (see lög um leikskóla 1994, lög um grunnskóla
1995)
o The implementation of the inclusive educational policy is contradictory.
o Parents and school staff have different understandings of both policy
and practice.
o The gap between students with intellectual disability and general
Σχόλιο [d1]: I get the students gets wider with age.
idea of this section, but its
sketchy. Maybe later you
can flesh out a bit more The research team also found that the parents legal right to chose a school for their
with narrative. disabled child is not honoured by all schools. Many parents have to struggle to get
their child’s special needs acknowledged. Finances and other resources for learners
with special needs were uneavenly distributed. The schools have problems with
supporting social interaction between labeled and non labeled learners, and often
without realising it actively hinder such interaction through the structuring of teaching
and learning and of social events. Teachers plan and teach but the teacher aides spend
most time with the disabled students. Finally, parents have little influence in the
schools.
These findings are no suprise to scholars in the area of inclusive education. Similar
strengths and weeknesses of inclusive school practice and structures are well
documented in the international reserch literature ( See for example Vislie, 2003).
However the qualitative approach gave the researchers a clearer understanding of the
perspectives of key staff working with students with intellectual disabilities in
schools, those of some of their parents, and of the working conditions of disabled
learners and their teachers and helpers in our schools. The evidence informed the
design of the quantitative part (part B ) of the THS study. The main questions for that
part were:
• How many students with intellectual disability are there in the Icelandic
schools and how are they distributed between school levels?
• What characterises the education they are given; in what settings are
they taught and is their teaching and learning structured?
• How well do educational policy and practice coincide? How does the
practice in different schools compare and how does practice compare
for schools at different school levels? How can differences between
policy and practice, and within practice from one school or school level
to another be explained?
• What makes effective education for learners with intellectual disability
in general schools?
Questionaires were developed and in 2005 these were sent out to all general
education schools in Iceland that included learners with intellectual disabilities; from
preschool to the upper secondary school level. Questionaires were also sent to two
special schools, and to 650 parents of children and youth with intellectual disabilities
who had previously expressed their willingness to participate in the study. Principals,
563
teachers and staff working directly with learners with intellectual disabilities were
asked to answer the questionaires sent to the schools 1.
This part, part B of the THS study provided a sea of data to be analyzed and
interpreted. For the quantitative data analysis we created tables with detailed
information about ”factual” answers comparing and contrasting them within and
between categories of schools, staff, and parents.
The part B data provides unique information about attitudes and practices related
to the education of learners with intellectual disabilities in the Icelandic educational
system. It highlights certain strengths and weaknesses both in the segregated special
education facilities and in the inclusive schooling practice -- for example, on structural
factors of schools, pedagogical practices, and the social relationships (or rather the
lack of such relationships) between older disabled and non disabled learners. The
evidence suggests that schools at different school levels vary in their ability to
strengthen inclusive aspects of schooling and in diminishing or counteracting
exclusionary processes, depending on their structure, staffs' views on students with
special educational needs, and how firmly the school staff believe in the ideas of "the
normal" and "the deviant" as two distinct categories of students. The evidence also
points to the fact that the gap widens socially between disabled and non disabled
students with age and more academic emphasis at the upper levels of schools. Again
little of the data based on the survey surprised us, except maybe how very different the
parents’ perspectives and the school staffs’ perspectives were on what went on in the
schools and how the social and educational needs of the intellectually disabled learners
Σχόλιο [d2]: I hope were met there.
you say more about From the point of view of Icelandic teachers, parents and policy makers, I believe
this somewhere.
that much of the information gathered can be valuable. It can help school staff and
parents make decisions and inform educational policy. This is useful, at least in the
short run while the data is relatively new and if it is used as a basis for decision-
making and change.
From the point of view of inclusive education research scholarship, however, my
reaction to these findings is less enthusiastic. Can this evidence, for example, help us
gain a deeper understanding of what happens to learners with intellectual disabilities in
Icelandic schools, or why the inclusive educational policy legitimated by the law is not
as effective in practice as it is intended to be, or why it is reported that learners with
intellectual disabilities have few friends and why the gap between them and other
learners widens as they get older?
Equiped with the interpretivist paradigm (see for example Ferguson and Ferguson
1995) I want to probe further and ask what does all this really mean? How can I make
sense of this evidence beyond the lessons learnt that the Icelandic inclusive school
policy and practice has many of the similar strengths, weeknesses and problems as do
similar schools and school systems elsewhere in their struggle towards inclusive
education?
1
Replies came from 209 schools that included students with intellectual disabilities; 80
preschools, 109 general education compulsory schools, 2 special schools and 18 upper
secondary schools. However from 650 parents who had accepted to participate only 367
returned the questionaire.
564
Three Theoretical Perspectives
Next, the paper looks very briefly at three theoretical perspectives that are useful
for exploring this data further. These are: social constructionism, aspects of Bourdieu’s
social theory of culture and poststructuralism; and how these may be applied to the
THS data. They have in common that they are based within interpretivist sociology
and thus Webers’ Versthen, and lend themselves to qualitative inquiry.
Social Constructionism
The overarching theoretical perspective for interpreting the evidence from the
THS study is derived from disability studies anchored in social constructionism. The
perspective is intended to help unravel how different players (parents, educators other
professionals, and unskilled aides) participating in the inquiry perceived what happens
to learners with intellectual disabilities within the Icelandic schools and why.
Social constructionism is about how meanings get constructed and negotiated in
social context. This theoretical perspective thereby challenges the central tenet of
positivism i.e. the fact/value distinction. It draws upon symbolic interactionism (the
Mead-Blumer tradition) and phenomenological sociology through the work of Berger
and Luckman (see Berger and Luckman 1976).
The social constructionist position focuses on social processes, intersubjectivity
and interaction. Human criteria for identifying action or events are highly
circumscribed by culture, history and the social context. From the social
constructionist perspective, referred to as social constructionism, we are invited to
consider critically the social origins of our taken for granted assumptions about our
perceived reality. Social constructionism does not consist of one unified theoretical
approach, but on basic assumptions that create “family resemblance” amongst social
constructionists (see Gergen 1994). They are what social constructionists belief in and
use for building the many different versions of what has been labelled as social
constructionism. Gergen (1994) lists the following: First, it insist that we take a critical
stance towards our taken for granted ways of understanding the world, including
ourselves. Second, it argues that the ways in which we understand the world, the
categories and the concepts we use, are historically and culturally specific. Third,
social constructionism claims that people construct knowledge of their world through
daily interactions and in the course of the processes of their every day life. Fourth,
“language derives its significance in human affairs from the way in which it functions
within patterns of relationships”. Particular forms of knowledge in any culture are seen
to be social artefacts, amenable to change (see for example Kirkebaek 2004).
The THS study data for example shows that parents and staff hold different
perspectives on what happens to learners with intellectual disabilities at school (for
example on how appropriate and relevant the teaching and learning is? how the learner
is achieving? who spends most time with the disabled learner in the classroom? but
also on issues like friendship, participation in school activities and on the learner’s use
of special services). By getting at the different perspectives: e.g. parents’ perspectives,
teachers’ perspectives at the same or different school levels, and those of teacher aides,
helps identifying dilemmas and tensions within the educational settings and between
schools and families.
Further, a better understanding of how we construct intellectual disabilities,
including the diagnostic categories that provide access to resources and support,
565
coupled with the narrow notion of individualism that, as Jóhannesson reminds us,
“sees special educational needs as “flaws” rather than desires (and), interests” and
differences, may result in creating what Allan calls “the artefact of the included child,
distinct and separate from the rest” (Allan 2003 also quoted in Jóhannesson 2006:115).
Such understanding helps us move away from looking at “flaws” in the individual and
towards questioning the constructs of meaning making within the pedagogical and
systemic practices of schools and educational systems.
The THS data showed that both parents and school staff were concerned that
learners with intellectual disabilities had fewer friends than most non-labelled students
and that “the gap widened with age”. But loneliness and isolation is not a necessary
companion of the label “intellectual disability”. The social constructionist perspective
helps shift the focus from the medical deficit perspective to how the organisation of
teaching and learning is structured, and how these learners can be included in
expanding social networks of the school. Staff at a school, friends, peers and family,
can provide interpretive support across educational and social settings. Thus learners
with intellectual disabilities can be helped to access fully the symbolic system of
language and culture. Intellectually disabled learners, who get necessary and
sufficient, age and culturally appropriate support to interpret themselves to self and
others, may not experience the “widening of the gap” and subsequent isolation and
loneliness (see Ferguson, P. 2002).
Thus it is argued that social constructionism will sharpen our understanding of
how the respective participants in the THS study perceive learners with intellectual
disabilities, their educational context and their school and social participation. Thus,
this lens helps broaden and deepen our understanding of the experiences of
intellectually disabled learners, their teachers, other school staff and parents, and opens
up for new positive improvements and solutions.
Bourdieu’s Concepts of Cultural and Social Capital
It is argued here that Bourdieu’s ideas of cultural and social capital (see Bourdieu
1990, see also Brody 1991) can help explore the exclusionary factors at work within
our educational system, pushing learners with intellectual disabilities to the wings of
the general school class and community or into special segregated services as they get
older (see also Marinósson 2002), despite both educational policy goals and the
positive caring attitudes that we found to prevail in schools and in most teachers’
attitudes towards “integrating” disabled students in general schools. Further,
Bourdieu’s concepts help unravel the structures that make up our school system, its
professional practices, and how these legitimate the constructs of, what Allan called,
“the artefact of the included child, distinct and separate from the rest” and of what I
will call “the artefact of the flawed learner locked into segregated settings”. The
perspective helps us identify how the actors in the game are placed within their playing
field and helps’ explain why, by looking at who has access to the in-group of friends
and acquaintances’ and other resources and who has not.
For Bourdieu, capital is always inherited from the past and continuously created
and recreated. Capital is a relational concept. One way to explain the concept is to
describe it as accumulated labour in a materialised form, embodied or immanent. His
key concepts of capital are; symbolic capital, economic capital, cultural capital and
social capital. Symbolic capital is a very broad concept; represents’ whatever social
groups take to be valuable and treat as such. Cultural capital can be seen as broad
subcategory of symbolic capital and in essence as the opposite to economic capital
566
(Brody 1991:169). It can be embodied in persons, for example in a family name, titles,
form of playing the violin, the appreciation of art; objectified for example in art or
fashion items; or institutionalised for example in certificates from prestigious schools,
university degrees, membership in valued clubs or organisations. Social capital hinges
on cultural capital in that it refers to resources grounded in durable exchange based
networks of people (Brody 1991). It is about “whom you know” and “who knows you”
as in having good connections, belonging to an old boys network, having useful
friends or relatives. Cultural capital has grown out of the historic development of the
art of writing and later printing, and it is tied to the development of national
institutions such as the educational system. Cultural capital is located in cultural fields,
the positions of individuals or institutional actors who are defined by the distribution
of capital and the rules that govern this. Cultural fields can be defined as:
A series of institutions, rules, rituals, conversations, categories,

designations and appointments which constitutes an objective hierarchy,
and which produce and authorise certain discourses and activities. But a
field is also constituted by, or out of, the conflict which is involved when
groups or individuals attempt to determine what constitutes capital within
that field and how that capital is to be distributed (Webb, Schirato and
Danaher, 2002: pp. 21-22).
Everyday life consists of a collection of different fields, including school, leisure

activities, family patterns, and others. Individuals compete for power and status in
cultural fields by using capital. People have different access to capital and have not
equal opportunities to use it. (Bourdieu, 1990; Webb, Schirato and Danaher, 2002).
The concept of cultural capital implies that certain form of knowledge are
considered more valuable than others. Those actors (persons or institutions) who have
the most power in a cultural field are also those who decide what constitutes as capital
(Bourdieu, 1990). For example: In the field of education, learners with intellectual
disabilities are the least likely of all to access, accumulate or reproduce cultural capital
or affect what is taken to be such capital in their learning environment. As learners
move through public schools, the schools present more selective, complex and
competitive cultural fields, emphasising academic achievement, and social status
through consumption (e.g. of fashionable gadgets, the inn-music, clothes, sports or
leisure activities, or good examination grades), the more the social and educational gap
is likely to widen between learners with intellectual disabilities and non labelled
learners.
Because social capital hinges on cultural capital in that it refers to resources
grounded in durable exchange based networks of people, the intellectually disabled
learners will (if nothing is done to counteract this) also have less and less access to
social capital. For learners with intellectual disabilities in the THS study,
friendlessness, isolation and exclusion becomes more firmly embodied and embedded
within networks, institutions and cultural fields of the educational system as time goes
by and the fields get more complex and more competitive.
567
Poststructuralism
Poststructuralistic perspectives can usefully be brought to the THS study data in

order to deconstruct meanings, patterns of legitimating principles, and hidden
contradictions and dilemmas within the text.
Poststructuralism is a powerful theoretical tool for deconstruction. It is a critique
of structuralism’s scientific pretensions, of truth, objectivity and progress, and it
accepts the position that language plays a central part in the construction of
subjectivity and social reality (Schwandt 2001). According to the self confessed
poststructuralist Anthony Giddens (Giddens 1991) poststructuralism is constituted of
the following principles:
1. Subjects, authors or speakers are irrelevant to the interpretation of texts.

2. Pantextualism –everything is a text – all texts are interrelated.
3. Meaning is unstable, never fixed, never determined, and never
representational.
4. Deconstructionism is a poststructuralistic strategy for reading texts that
unmasks the supposed truth, or meaning of text by undoing, reversing or
replacing taken for granted binary oppositions that structure texts.
Poststructuralist “arguments” by their very nature attempt to destabilise received

conceptions of science, order, society and self. This approach is useful for our effort at
picking apart educational policy and inclusionary rhetoric, the practice of educational
organisations and structures, but is less helpful in facilitating reconstructions.
However, the poststructuralist basic approach is in important ways in direct conflict
with the interpretive social constructionist approach of disability studies described
above. If we, for example, accept Gidden’s claims, then the interpretivist effort of
giving voice to individual experience and perspectives could be taken as futile. Thus
the poststructuralistic premise is contrary to the emancipatory aspect of disability
studies which aim for the empowerment of people with disabilities.
Yet I suggest that the focus and the very claims of the poststructuralistic approach
can be turned into a beam of light for the THS research. It provides tools for the
deconstruction and critical reflection on the experiences of disabled people in school
and society. As many disability scholars and disabled activists constantly remind us
disabled people rarely experience their full democratic rights as citizens. Peters (2003)
reminds us for example that:
“poststructuralism criticizes the ways that modern liberal democracies

construct political identity on the basis of a series of binary oppositions
(e.g., we/them, citizen/non-citizen, responsible/irresponsible,
legitimate/illegitimate) which has the effect of excluding or "othering"
some groups of people.
“Othering”, is a significant part of the exclusionary processes experienced by the

learners with intellectual disabilities as shown by the evidence from the THS study at
school and in society resulting in segregation and disempowerment. The
poststructuralist perspective moreover helps to deconstruct how boundaries are
socially constructed between “them” and “us”, and how they are maintained and
policed. This helps us unpick exclusionary processes within school and society.
568
The perspective is also useful when we are investigating power relations within
the educational field. Lee writes for example about the promise of poststructuralism in
educational research (Lee 1992) and maintains that:
[…] poststructuralism attempts to work productively with, rather than

against, the complexity of human existence. […] In particular, while
offering a theorization of power, poststructuralist investigative
methods seek to avoid the impression of a too-neat analysis of power -
to avoid the impression that "the story is too pretty to be true"
(Foucault 1980, p.209). […].
Foucault’s analysis of "power/knowledge" developed through his studies of

institutions such as the prison, the school and the mental hospital, and his exposure of
technologies of domination (Foucault 1972, 1975) can also be fitted under the post-
structural perspective and applied within disability studies and applied to the
deconstruction of neo-liberal educational policies and pedagogic practices.
Poststructuralism thus helps untangle power-relations and elements of social control
within educational systems and other controlling institutional context.
Discussion
The evidence from the THS study is both important for learning about the
schooling of Icelandic learners with intellectual disability. In the short run some of the
evidence from the study can be very useful to policy makers, professionals and to
parents as stated above. But its main value, I think, is in the deeper and more complex
story it can tell about what happens to learners who are different in the system for
schooling the “normal” in a system that is based on a vision of “ the normal as the
moral”.
I claim and have argued (see Bjarnason 2006) that disability studies provide
parents, teachers and special educators with emancipatory tools enabling them to view
the student, his or her strengths and weaknesses in a broader social context (see also
Barton, 1987; Touraine, 2000). Thus disability studies locate the challenge of
disability within our construction of the system of teaching and learning and the
organisational frame and the culture of the school, rather than within the individual
student with impairment. This poses challenges to teachers, especially special teachers
trained to work with individual students or small groups of students who all share a
disability label. Such labels are based on a medical diagnostic approach, which defines
individual needs and opens up access to additional resources. Marinósson (2002)
showed in a recent long term ethnographic study of one general education compulsory
school in Iceland, how the school was found to produce a variety of special
educational needs through the construction of students diversity. “Several influencing
factors were found to contribute to this practice, including the values of acceptable
behaviours, notions of the nature of knowledge, values supporting the bureaucratic
structure of the school and the professional interests of the teachers. Counteracting
factors were, for example principles of equality and rights of due process. ” Instead of
changing its organizational approach to teaching and learning, this school was found to
solve its dilemmas by sending students who were seen to have learning, behavioural or
other such “problems” to special education (Marinósson, 2002).
569
The inclusive school strives for the opposite. It attempts to merge the general and
the special education practice ”into one unified system, that incorporates all learners.
children and youth as active fully participating members of a school community; that
views diversity as the norm; and that ensures a high-quality education for each student
by providing meaningful curriculum, effective teaching, and necessary supports for
each student” (Ferguson, 1995, p. 286). Disability studies, it is argued, can provide
teachers, special teachers and schools with a useful perspective with which to view its
most vulnerable students, by shifting the focus away from students’ deficits,
incapacities and faults, to that of fully human children and youth with abilities, talent
and needs.
Most students of inclusive practices agree that, starting with the will to address the
challenge to include all learners, is necessary but not sufficient to ensure the desired
outcomes of equity and quality education for all (see for example Clark, Dyson,
Milward & Skidmore, 2001). The emancipatory perspective of disability studies, can
and does in our experience sharpen that will, and provide some insight into how and
what to try.
These perspectives and arguments can be brought fruitfully to the THS research
and the evidence that has provided through part A. the qualitative and part B. the
quantitative aspects of that study. Thus with help of our theoretical tools we can dive
deeper into how to make scene of all the evidence at hand and ask the question: What
does it all mean? There is no one right answer, and that is as it should be in qualitative
inquiry. But we can develop a new and deeper level of understanding of structures and
processes and meaning making, that we use to tell the stories about our educational
system and what happens to learners who are different in school and in play.
The tools I have chosen to help me tell that story truthfully are: Social
constructionism focuses on the production of knowledge and on the construction of
social structure be it in the form of a community of learners, an institution or a society.
This perspective views education as the result of negotiated meanings, implying that
the present situation with respect to the participation of students with intellectual
disability in mainstream education is not to be taken as given but could be otherwise.
Bourdieu’s concepts of cultural and social capital, concepts that are relational and
refer to access and reproduction power of access to cultural and social capital, on the
variety of the hierarchical cultural /social fields that construct the schools and their
implicit and explicit rules of the game that affect the accumulation, reproduction or
loss of such capital. Bourdieu’s conception can be brought to bear when we try to
understand how and why the exclusion of particular individuals or categories of actors
with dwindling cultural and social capital assets can be interpreted in the broader
cultural fields of our society.
Poststructuralism is about the deconstruction of language, a procedure concerned
to expose the workings of power. Poststructuralist theorists propose that language -
understood as discourse - functions to produce (not merely to express) social
difference. It is this term 'difference' which is crucial to the notion of deconstruction,
for example in exposing the binary nature of thinking about disability in terms of
normality-abnormality. Thus the assumptions of poststructuralism contribute to a
critical and a cautionary perspective of education.
570
Conclusion Connect with the Data
Social constructionism is a perspective that permeates our analysis of data on the

education of students with intellectual. Bourdieu’s concepts of cultural and social
capital help understand the mechanisms’ of exclusion (and inclusion) of individual
actors, persons, institutions or systems, within the scheme of a much broader playing
field of competition, cooperation, statuses, classes and powergroups. Poststructuralism
offers a critical approach for the analysis of our data, for example in terms of power,
binary oppositions and othering. I conclude that these perspectives can and should be
brought to the THS evidence, and that by doing so we can learn to understand
schooling for learners with a difference and derive from that understanding lessons
that transcend the example of the THS evidence.
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572
Effects of Institutional Intervention on Assessment Practices in Higher Education
52
Effects of Institutional Intervention on
Assessment Practices in Higher Education
Sahari Nordin, International Islamic University
&
Hasnah Hashim, International Islamic University
&
Ainol M. Zubairi, International Islamic University
&
Nora Nasir, International Islamic University
A
ssessment of student learning is a major component of university curriculum,
and evidently it carries substantial weight in the equation of student learning.
A common belief is what gets assessed is what gets learned. Consistently, the
literature acknowledges that assessment is a significant driver of student
learning (Yeo, 2004), an important indicator of teaching effectiveness (Daniel & King,
1998), a centerpiece of educational improvement (Bond, 1994), and a catalyst for
reformation in instructional practices (Sahari, 1999). It bridges theory and practices
(Riley & Stern, 1998) and creates “a shared academic culture dedicated to assuring and
improving the quality of higher education” (Ellyn, 2000, p. 2). In response to these
assertions, colleges and universities across the globe have been applying some form of
assessment policy, a majority of which was driven by state-mandated assessment
policy (Augustine, Cole, & Peterson, 1998). Given the paramount importance of
student assessment, there should be a sound policy to guide academic personnel in
their practices.
Although prescriptive literature abounds, information on the development,
implementation, management, and impacts of the policy is relatively scanty
(Mundhenk, 2004; Peterson & Einarson, 2001). Peterson and Einarson (2001) suggest
that research in student assessment in higher education is still at its infancy, as there
has been little “empirical evidence concerning how institutions have conducted student
assessment and to what effect . . . and systematic examination of organization and
administrative patterns at the institutional level developed to support student
assessment efforts” (pp. 629-630). Of the limited empirical data, most of which
reported state-initiated assessment activities (e.g., Cole & Nettles, 1999), the findings
convey mixed signals. On the one hand, there are indications that institutions of higher
education did not conform to the external requirements, lacked clear evidence on the
effects of the policy in improving student performance and instructional practice,
failed to generate commitment among faculty members, faced difficulties in changing
573
the assessment practice and attitude of the faculty members, and perpetuated distrust,
confusion and gaps in communication between policy makers and faculty members
(Augustine, Cole, & Peterson, 1998; Banta, Lund, Black, & Oblander, 1996; Ewell &
Boyer, 1988; Palomba & Banta, 1999). On the other hand, several studies found that
the state- and externally-imposed assessment policies triggered institutional efforts and
supports (Banta, Lund, Black & Oblander, 1996; Ewel, 1993; El-Khawas, 1995).
Specifically, state-mandated assessment policies have prompted many institutions of
higher education to initiate student assessment activities.
Its positive affects notwithstanding, state-mandated assessment policies are yet to
fully capitalize on the potentials of classroom assessment, in particular its ability to
motivate students to learn. The state initiatives, in addressing the demands for
institutional accountability, have been underscored by the use of “smart test” (Berlak,
2001). Such assessment practices “served to obstruct learning, perpetuate and increase
disparity” (Berlak, 2001, p. 20). The external initiatives have created mismatch
between intentions and practices. Stiggins (2002) notes that,
We are a nation obsessed with the belief that the path to school improvement is
paved with better, more frequent, and more intense standardized testing. The problem
is that such tests, ostensibly developed to “leave no student behind,” are in fact
causing a major segment of our student population to be left behind because the tests
cause many to give up in hopelessness—just the opposite effect from that which the
politicians intended. (p. 759)
Hence, instead of motivating students to learn more, the externally initiated
assessment policy works mainly on auditing student achievement and school
performance. In Stiggins’ (2002) terms, the assessment efforts are centered upon the
assessment of learning, an indicator of curriculum-centered practice; the practice of
assessment for learning is yet to be distinctly visible at institutions of higher education.
In most likelihood, these policies have not been successful to direct, create, manage,
monitor, and evaluate the processes, procedures and standards of practice of
assessment for learning.
In addition, despite the policy interventions, not much is known about institutional
support for a balanced practice of assessment of and assessment for learning in higher
education (Augustine, Cole, & Peterson, 1998; Ellyn, 2000; Peterson & Einarson,
2001). Ellyn (2000) asserts that shared mission and purpose of student assessment,
formally adopted assessment policy, governance systems, budget allocation for
conference, workshop and training on assessment, and administrative and management
support constitute the important aspects of institutional supports. Also strong
leadership and professional collegiality among faculty members contribute to
institutional support. Thus for an assessment policy to be effective, it is imperative to
examine these support-related variables.
In light of the preceding observations, a public-funded institution of higher
education in Malaysia has recently devised an approach to develop, manage, monitor,
and improve a university-wide policy of student assessment that would account for the
needs of its constituencies. A policy paper, “IIUM’s Student Assessment Policy” has
been endorsed by the university earlier this year. The aim of the present study was to
examine the effects of the institutional intervention. Specifically the purposes of the
study were to examine (1) the perceptions of the key players of the undergraduate
programs toward the assessment policy, (2) the faculty’s acceptance of the assessment
policy, and (3) the effects of the policy on curriculum and assessment planning.
574
Method
The setting of the study was a state-funded university in Malaysia, the

International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) to address the research objectives.
The IIUM was chosen primarily because it is among the first institutions of higher
education in the country known to formally embark on policy intervention in student
assessment. Identified as the garden of knowledge and virtue, the university is
basically a comprehensive teaching institution, with 20,000 undergraduate students
and 1,400 teaching staff.
The study sampled two groups of participants. The first sample comprised 31
academic deans and deputy deans, the major players of the undergraduate programs.
This group of respondents is categorized as the “program provider,” and therefore,
their responses were deemed critical in addressing the first objective of the study. The
second group of respondents consisted of 123 faculty members of from three faculties,
namely the faculty of Science, faculty of Human Sciences and Islamic Revealed
Knowledge, and faculty of Information Communication Technology. A set of
questionnaire was developed for each group of respondents. The first questionnaire
was used to identify the perceptions of the program providers towards the first draft of
the IIUM’s Student Assessment Policy. The second questionnaire, consisting of 20
Likert scale items aimed at measuring the faculty’s acceptance of the policy. To
examine the effects of the policy on curriculum and assessment planning, the academic
events that took place since the formal establishment of the policy by the senate of the
university were recorded and examined.
To arrive at the conclusions, the data were subjected to descriptive quantitative
analysis. However, to measure the faculty’s acceptance of the assessment policy, the
study applied the Rasch measurement model (Andrich, 1988). The extended logistic
model of Rasch offers a procedure for creating an interval-scale construct. The model
postulates that a collection of items, which measure a psychological construct, can be
calibrated and ordered along a continuum of difficulty levels. Similarly, respondents of
the study can be calibrated and ordered along a continuum of their ability levels to
endorse the items. The measurement model calibrated the two components of item
response, item difficulty and person ability, on a common scale. In other words, item
difficulty and person ability are estimated according to the probability of the response
patterns, given the model. In essence, the Rasch model requires that the data fit the
model (Andrich, 1989). The procedure produces several appealing outcomes, which
include (1) scale-free student measures, (2) sample-free item difficulties, (3) an
interval-scale variable which is measured by a single dominant latent trait, and (4)
evidence for construct validity of the measure.
The Rasch measurement model enables the study to validate the argument that the
data, i.e. the faculty’s responses to the proposed suggestions—statements on student
assessment policy—represent a single psychological construct; thus, appropriate
inference and assignment of meaning could be made on the scores of the construct.
The analysis offers a mathematical framework to evaluate the extent to which the data
fit the measurement model. It facilitates the estimation of error, reliability,
unidimensionality, and difficulty of the items and the ability of the respondents to
endorse them. The data were fitted, using WINSTEPS version 3.48 (Linacre & Wright,
2000), to the Rasch Model for polytomous data.
575
Intervention Approach
The university approaches the development of assessment policy and standards

through extensive consultation and collaboration (Ellyn, 2000). First a committee,
chaired by the Deputy Rector (Academic & Research) developed a position paper
proposing for an institutional assessment policy and standards. A draft of the policy
and standards was formulated on the basis of the literature, environmental scanning,
visits to Australian universities, and documented assessment policies, which were
available online. The drafted policy explicitly declares the aims and expectations of
the university pertaining to the practice of student assessment. It outlines the
assessment principles that should guide the practice, the roles and responsibilities of
the internal constituencies including students’ rights and responsibilities, and
minimum standards of professional practice in high-stakes testing and alternative
assessment. In addition, the policy paper spells out the implications of the intervention,
which include review of curriculum and assessment training for the faculty.
The policy states the objectives of assessment activities explicitly. It emphasizes
the purpose of student assessment in the following manner:
The primary purpose of assessment at the International Islamic

University Malaysia is to attain higher quality in student learning. In
this respect, this policy aims to enable a balanced practice of the
assessment of and assessment for learning in the University. While
the assessment of learning offers evidence of student achievement,
which is crucial for institutional accountability and public
consumption, assessment for learning provides opportunities to
provoke students to achieve more (Stiggins, 2002), including the
desired generic competencies. In other words, assessment should
enable the University to audit and certify that a student has achieved
the learning outcomes and academic standards for the grades and
qualifications. More importantly, assessment should serve as a
powerful tool to enhance teaching and learning. (IIUM, 2006, p.5)
Second a workshop, participated by the academic deans and deputy deans was
conducted in order to assess the perceptions, acceptance, needs and expectations, and
effects of institutional intervention. Primarily, the workshops were used in making
public the drafted assessment policy and standards. The workshop began with small
group discussion to self-assess the prevailing instructional practices and to map the
assessment tasks against the documented learning outcomes of courses and programs.
Based on the results of the workshop, the policy was revised and formally presented
and discussed in the Deans’ Council Meeting. The meeting agreed to adopt the policy,
and thus the paper was then presented to, and approved by the university’s Senate.
Results
Perceptions of Program Providers
The results of data analysis are organized into three sections, arranged according
to the ordering of the research objectives. Table 1 summarizes the responses of the
academic deans and deputy dean who had participated in a workshop in which the first
576
draft of the student assessment policy was proposed. The major aim of the 3-day
workshop was to elicit reactions, feedback, comments, and suggestions from the
program providers in order to improve the proposed policy.
Table 1. Percentage Distribution of Deans’ and Deputy Deans’ Perceptions toward

the Proposed Student assessment Policy (n = 31)
SD&D* NS A&SA
I am now aware of the assessment
practice in my faculty 9.7 9.7 80.6
I am now aware of the strengths of

the assessment practice in my faculty 9.7 12.9 77.4
I am now aware of the weaknesses of
There is now a need for me to revisit
I would like to improve the assessment
practice of the course I am teaching - - 100.0
There is a need for the new IIUM
Assessment Policy 3.2 - 96.8
Note * SD&D – strongly disagree and disagree, NS – not sure; A&SA – Agree and strongly agree
The data showed that key players of the institution, the senior academic
management officials of the university perceived the assessment policy favorably. It is
interesting to note the distribution of agreement for the last three suggestive items.
Clearly more than 80% of the respondents agreed to revisit the assessment practice in
his/her faculty (87%), with the formulation of an assessment policy (96.8%), and to
improve their own assessment practices (100%). The results speak volume of the
management support for the proposed assessment policy, which has been initiated
internally and developed collaboratively.
Further analysis yielded somewhat similar patterns of results with respect to the
deans’ and deputy deans’ perceptions toward the workshop. Specifically, at least 80%
of the participants agreed that they have “learned a lot about assessment” and “learned
a lot from other participants” of the workshop. In addition, more than 90% respondents
agree that the workshop have involved the right participants, presented useful
information, provided adequate opportunities for active participation, and facilitated
by informative and effective paper presenters.
Faculty’s Acceptance
The preliminary analysis found that 9 items failed to adequately fit the expectation
of the measurement model; thus, only 11 items were applied in the final Rasch
analysis. The Rasch analysis found that the item reliability estimate was high. The
internal consistency index for items was .90, with a standard error of .15. These results
suggest that a similar ordering of person placement is reasonable if similar analysis is
conducted on this sample of faculty members using another set of items that measures
similar phenomenon. The calibration of the 11 items demonstrated a reasonable fit to
the model; items difficulty ranged from .71 to -1.11 logits (SD = .47). The results
577
supported that the unidimensionality of the scores. The data (Table 2) showed that infit
statistics (MNSQ) of the 11 items ranged from .65 to 1.34.
Table 2. Items Statistics of Faculty’s Acceptance of Student Assessment Policy

+------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----+
| | INFIT | OUTFIT |PTMEA|
|
| ITEM MEASURE ERROR|MNSQ ZSTD|MNSQ ZSTD|CORR.|
ITEMS|
|------------------------------------------------+----------+----------+-----+-
-----|
|The AP* is very comprehensive .71 .12| .94 -.4| .93 -.5| .69|
p2q1 |
|The AP has clear purposes .30 .13| .73 -2.1| .70 -2.5| .75|
p2q2 |
|The AP is consistent with the mission | | | |
|
| and vision of the university .25 .14|1.08 .6|1.21 1.5| .66|
p2q10|
|The AP will ensure that the quality | | | |
|
| of assessment is maintained .19 .13| .65 -2.8| .65 -3.0| .76|
p2q3 |
|The AP will ensure that students are | | | |
|
| fairly assessed .18 .13|1.29 2.0|1.46 3.1| .60|
p2q4 |
|The AP will ensure the quality of | | | |
|
| IIUM graduates .17 .14| .88 -.8| .97 -.1| .70|
p2q8 |
|The AP will ensure that the assessment | | | |
|
| practices are standardized .15 .14|1.29 1.9|1.27 1.9| .67|
p2q9 |
|With the AP, I have a clearer | | | |
|
| guideline on how to assess -.07 .14| .86 -1.0| .85 -1.1| .71|
p2q6 |
|With the AP, I know what my role is | | | |
|
| in assessing my students -.19 .14| .88 -.8| .81 -1.4| .73|
p2q7 |
|All relevant parties will be | | | |
|
| responsible for the assessment -.59 .15|1.31 2.0|1.18 1.2| .66|
p2q5 |
|The AP will require me to plan and | | | |
|
| prepare assessment early I -1.11 .16|1.34 2.2|1.58 3.0| .51|
p2q12|
|------------------------------------------------+----------+----------+-----+-
-----|
| MEAN .00 .14|1.02 .1|1.06 .2| |
|
| S.D. .47 .01| .24 1.7| .29 2.0| |
|
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----+
The results showed that the items p2q1, p2q2, p2q3, and p2q10 were the most
difficult items to be endorsed. The respondents were least agreeable to the first three
suggestions concerning the the assessment policy. On the other hand, items p2q12,
p2q5, and p2q7 were the least difficult items to be endorsed positively by the
respondents. Additionally, the item-person map (Figure 1) shows a lack of overlapping
578
between the distribution of items difficulty and person ability; almost all respondents
found the positively worded suggestions about the policy agreeable. In a nutshell, the
results offer support that the faculty’s showed clear acceptance of the policy, given the
items.
Figure 1. Persons Map of Items

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Effects on Curriculum and Assessment Planning
One month after the Senate’s approval of the Assessment Policy, the office of the
Deputy Rector (Academic & Research) tabled a plan of actions that would fulfill the
579
initial requirements of policy to the Deans’ Council. The proposed plan, which
implicates financial allocation and leadership commitment of the respective deans, was
rigorously reviewed and evaluated during the meeting. As a result of the exercise, the
council reached a consensus to adopt a revised plan, which is summarized in Table 3.
Table 3. Development of IIUM’s Assessment Policy and Standards:Charting the Path

(2006)
Objective Key Activity/Task Participant Timeline
Indicator/Milestone
1 a. Revisit & refine a. Program LOs* a. 1-Day briefing 10 resource February
program LOs b. Courses LOs for facilitators/trainers persons
b. Construct course (sample: KOE)
LOs b. IIUM-wide 10 Faculty’s Feb-
workshop to write representatives March
LOs (1 Day)
c. IIUM-wide
workshop to vet the
LOs (2 Days)
2 Be aware and Faculty survey One-day Seminar on 150 Faculty’s Early

informed of IIUM’s IIUM Assessment representatives March
Assessment Policy Policy & (Minimum)
Standards
3 a. Link a. Course a. 1-Day briefing for 10 resource Mid
assessment to assessment facilitators/trainers persons March
course LOs plan
b. Redistribute b. Program b. IIUM-wide Program’s March-
course grade Assessment workshop to map representatives Apr.
c. Draft assessment
program’s tasks
assessment plan c. Program
presentation of
assessment plan
(3 Days Workshop)
4 Senate’s endorsement Revised Course Program-based April/May
of course LOs and Outlines (LOs & document for Senate’s - Senate
assessment plan evaluation Approval
methods)
5 a. Develop standard of Documented a. Training of A resource May -

practices for Faculty- and faculty’s resource person for November
end-of-semester program-based persons each program
examination standards,
b. Develop standard of processes & b. Faculty-based in All academic
practices for operating house training & staff
performance procedures workshops
assessment
6 Define institutional Key Indicators IIUM-wide workshop Faculty’s December

indicators of representatives 2006
Assessment Standards
* Learning Outcomes
Subsequently, several curriculum- and assessment-related reports have been

recorded from the 11 faculties. As of end of April, the office of the Deputy Rector
(Academic and Research) has received reports of the faculty-based activities, as shown
in Table 4. The reports indicated that the objectives of the site-based activities were
mainly to,
a. review, reconstruct and map program outcomes across the courses,
580
b. reevaluate the methods and techniques used in the assessment of student

learning, and
c. link assessment tasks and learning outcomes across courses, which
would serve as the framework in the formulation of an assessment
plan/blueprint in each program.
Table 4. Site-Based Activities on Curriculum and Assessment Planning
Faculty/Institute/Centre Participants
Duration
1. Institute of Education All academic members 1 day
2. Human Sciences & Revealed Knowledge All academic members 4 days
3. Economics and Management All academic members 1 day
4. Faculty of Science All academic members 1 day
5. Architecture & Environmental Design HODs; senior lecturers 5 days
6. Information Communication Technology All academic members 3 days
7. Faculty of Law HODs 1 day
8. Medical-related Faculties Deputy Deans 1 day
9. Centre for Languages HODs; senior lecturers 1 day
Conclusion
Its limitations notwithstanding, the study produced several noteworthy findings.

First, the institutional intervention in the university-wide assessment is enjoying
support from the major key players, namely the academic deans and deputy deans.
Second, the intervention gained faculty’s acceptance. Finally, within a time span of
four months, a substantial number of academic members of the university have been
involved in workshops and briefings related to student assessment. Hence the findings
contribute to theory and procedural knowledge in helping students to learn at
institution of higher education. It is reasonable to conclude that the encouraging
outcomes of the intervention are attributable to the,
1. formulation and development of the policy which have been initiated from
within the institution,
2. objectives of the policy that were consistent with the shared vision, mission,
and expectations of its constituents,
3. element of university-wide consultative and collaborative efforts,
4. faculty’s needs and expectations, including their needs for training and
professional development are accounted for, and
5. monitoring of the assessment-related activities across the university.
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582
Trust and Shared Values: The Basis of a Sustained Educational Partnership?
53
Trust and Shared Values: The Basis of a
Sustained Educational Partnership?
Jaswinder Kaur Dhillon, University of Wolverhampton
R
ecent education policy and practice in England and in other countries has
promoted partnership as a strategy for improving educational provision (Jones
and Bird, 2000, Ramsden et al., 2004, Billet and Seddon, 2003) and for
achieving greater coherence in the development and implementation of
policies and initiatives to engage people in learning (DfEE, 1999a, Stuart, 2002). In
the post-compulsory sector of education and training the discourses of lifelong
learning have dominated the educational landscape as governments, supra-national and
international organisations and agencies have pinned their hopes on greater
participation in ‘learning’ as a means for addressing a range of global, national and
local problems including economic and social deprivation (DfEE, 1998, OECD, 1996,
CEC, 2001, European Commission, 2002). This has been accompanied by an equally
increased emphasis on partnership working between different layers of government,
organisations, agencies and other stakeholders including providers of education,
training and related services (Tett, 2003). This paper draws on an in-depth study of one
such partnership to discuss the policy context that promotes this practice and aspects
of partnership working which contribute to sustaining a partnership despite shifting
and conflicting demands on the participating organisations and individuals.
Partnership as a Goal in English Education Policy
In England, the Labour Government has vigorously promoted partnership as a

concept and a practice in education and in other policy fields including health, housing
and social welfare since its election to power (Clarke and Glendinning, 2002). In their
introduction to an edited collection of empirical studies of partnership working in
different contexts and policy fields, Balloch and Taylor (2001) point out that New
Labour ‘tied its colours firmly to the partnership mast’ (Balloch and Taylor, 2001, p.3)
when it was elected to power in 1997. Another, later collection of studies of
partnerships in various settings (Glendinning et al., 2002) considers the influence of
New Labour on the policy and practice of partnership. These empirical studies focus
583
on partnerships in health, social services, education, regeneration and community

development and show that collaborative working has had a long, though not always
successful, history (Rummery, 2002). Evidence from these studies and from
partnerships operating in other settings (for example international development,
Fowler, 1998, Mullinix, 2001) demonstrates that the notion of partnership is not new.
However, ‘what is new is the emphasis that is being placed on partnerships and the
range of issues that they are being asked to tackle’ (Local Government Association,
1999, cited in Painter and Clarence, 2001). This includes attempts by policy-makers to
improve the quality and provision of education, in particular in poor areas, by
encouraging schools, colleges, parents, voluntary groups and other stakeholders to
work in ‘partnership’.
New Labour’s education policy clearly signals the importance of partnership as a
means for raising educational standards and for tackling wider economic and social
issues (DfEE, 1999a; 1999b). This is well illustrated by initiatives such as Education
Action Zones (EAZs) in the schools sector and learning partnerships in post-16
education and training. EAZs were launched to modernise education by encouraging
schools, local education authorities, parents, businesses and community organisations
to work in imaginative ways to raise educational standards in areas of social
deprivation (DfEE 1997). Like other New Labour initiatives to develop ‘joined-up’
solutions to economic and social problems they were supported by additional
government funding for a fixed period. A typical EAZ received between £500,000 and
£750,000 per annum from the government for three to five years. In addition EAZs
were expected to raise £250,000 in cash or kind from the private sector (Dickson et al.,
2002). Both the use of government funding as an incentive to promote partnership
working and the involvement of the private sector represent key aspects of New
Labour’s policy approach to modernising government and improving the delivery of
public sector services though public-private partnerships.
The promotion of partnership as a goal in education policy is also evident in the
field of post-16 learning where New Labour claims to have radically restructured the
planning and provision of post-16 education and training by creating ‘a framework
based on partnership and co-operation’ (DfEE, 1999a, p.1). This framework consists
of a national Learning and Skills Council (LSC) with 47 local arms, known as local
LSCs, based in the different regions of England which are responsible for planning and
funding the vocational education and training provided by colleges and private sector
training organisations. The LSC structure is complemented by what are called learning
partnerships, previously known as lifelong learning partnerships, established to ‘bring
coherence to local post-16 learning’ (UK lifelong learning, 2000) and to ‘widen
participation in learning, increase attainment, improve standards and raise skills’
(DfEE 1999b, p.1). Like EAZs, learning partnerships have been given a key role in the
government’s social inclusion and regeneration agendas and supported by targeted
government funding to bring stakeholders together and entice them to work in
partnerships. Over the three years from 1999-2002 the government set up a partnership
fund of £25million to support learning partnerships (DfEE, 1999b) and since 2002
they have been funded by the LSC. The impact of learning partnerships in the post-16
education and training landscape has been mixed (Ramsden et al., 2004) but the
initiative, like EAZs, shows the importance of partnership in New Labour’s education
policy and the use of targeted government funding as a carrot to incentivise
organisations providing education and training, funding bodies, other agencies and
services, employers, parents and voluntary and community groups to work in
partnership to address educational, social and economic problems.
584
This policy context provides the background to the empirical study of partnership
which provides the research evidence for this paper. As a concept and a practice the
meaning of ‘partnership’ remains fuzzy as it is used to cover a range of working
arrangements, which involve multiple organisations, agencies, groups and individuals
working together to achieve mutual goals or common purposes. However, its
prominence in New Labour’s education policy is clearly signalled in policy documents
and in initiatives and incentives designed to promote the practice. In many cases there
is an element of coercion, as the ‘partners’ are required to work in partnership as a
condition of obtaining funding. This can affect the nature and outcomes of partnership
working which depends upon the relationships amongst the organisations, agencies
and individuals involved as well as leading to short-termism, as funding may be time
limited and the government may move on to new policy initiatives. The element of
uncertainty resulting from a short-term initiative-led approach to partnership can result
in a proliferation of partnerships that form and disappear in response to shifting
government policies and priorities. In this environment the question of what sustains a
partnership becomes very pertinent and this is the focus of the rest of this paper. This
question emerged from a qualitative study of partnership working which adopted a
grounded approach to researching the concept and practice of partnership and engaged
with senior managers who were members of a number of partnerships including the
case study that is outlined below.
An Empirical Study of Partnership Working
I draw on an in-depth analysis of partnership working in Midlands Urban

Partnership (MUP), a partnership of institutions, organisations and individuals
providing education, training and careers and guidance services for post-16 learners in
one sub-region of England. The member organisations include a university, seven
colleges which provide education and training for post-16 learners, private training
providers that offer vocational training for adults and young people over 16, and
organisations which provide advice, guidance and accreditation services for post-16
education and training in the sub-region. The individuals representing these
organisations in MUP are all senior managers and include college principals, members
of senior management teams working at executive level and chief executives or
managing directors of the member organisations. I refer to all these individuals as
senior managers throughout this paper.
My research tracked the lifecourse of MUP for five years during which time the
partnership experienced high and low points in its activities and went through four
stages of development (reported in Dhillon, 2005). The unusual and surprising
characteristic of MUP was that unlike other partnerships operating in New Labour’s
shifting policy environment this partnership managed to sustain itself. At the present
time MUP continues to function as a partnership and so provides an interesting and
useful case study for discussing the basis of sustainability in a partnership.
Methods of Data Collection
The multi-methods used for data collection generated deep and rich insights into
the process of partnership working, in particular the significance of social relationships
amongst the participants in MUP. Data were gathered through observation of
partnership meetings over a three-year period, analysis of documents produced by the
585
member organisations and individuals as part of the process of partnership working

and semi-structured interviews with the senior managers who were all members of
MUP Board, the formal Partnership Board. MUP Board was one of the organisational
structures that the members set up to manage the work of the partnership and it was the
main forum for discussion of partnership business, including the goals of MUP and its
role in the sub-region in which it was situated. I started observations of MUP Board as
a non-participant observer but during the process of data gathering became regarded as
more of a member of the partnership than a researcher and was able to probe more
deeply into aspects of partnership working. As the members of MUP Board became
more familiar with my presence at meetings and spoke to me informally before and
after meetings I became more of a participant observer and was asked to take on minor
roles in the business of the partnership, such as taking the minutes of a small number
of meetings. My transition from outsider and observer of partnership working to more
of an insider and a participant in the partnership was largely due to the increasing level
of trust that the members developed in me based on our interaction during the
fieldwork. The level of trust between researcher and researched was very important for
some of the individuals who led MUP as one senior manager discussed with me her
disappointment with a previous researcher who had not maintained the confidentially
and anonymity of her organisation in reporting the findings of a study, despite assuring
her that this would be the case before collecting data.
The qualitative approach (Mason 2002) and the changing nature of my
relationship with the participants in MUP during the fieldwork enabled me to access
detailed documentary data about the history and development of the partnership and to
explore various explanations for the pattern of the lifecourse of MUP. The on-going
analysis and questioning of the empirical data following a grounded approach to data
analysis and interpretation led me to a puzzling question about the basis of partnership
and the aspects of partnership working which sustained a partnership.
The Puzzling Question which Emerged from the Empirical Data
My analysis of partnership working began to centre on the question of what

sustains a partnership. This question became increasingly pertinent as I searched for an
explanation of why the members of MUP continued to see a need to sustain this
particular partnership in an environment where other partnerships were proliferating in
response to New Labour’s policy imperatives, which placed partnership working at the
centre of initiatives to improve standards of education and training (Jones and Bird,
2000, Tett, 2003). The empirical data showed that MUP progressed through a period
of rapid growth and expansion as a sub-regional partnership during which time it
became a powerful voice in the area and increased its membership to include all the
stakeholders in post-16 education and training in the region. However, it then went
through a period of decline when members drifted away and there seemed to be no
reason for its continued existence as a partnership as other partnerships displaced its
function in the region and key senior managers who led the formation and expansion
of MUP were pulled away by other priorities and responsibilities in their respective
organisations. As an observer of partnership working I came to the conclusion that this
was the end of MUP and that it would disappear from the regional education and
training landscape. However, as I continued fieldwork I was proved to be wrong as the
partnership re-invigorated itself and re-emerged to become a prominent voice in the
region. It was this pattern in its lifecourse that led me to explore more fully the
question of what contributes to effective partnerships in the semi-structured interviews
586
with senior managers and to interrogate the empirical data in the search for the answer
to the puzzling question of what sustains a partnership.
Interviews with Senior Managers
All the senior managers that were members of MUP Board agreed to be
interviewed and eighteen semi-structured interviews were carried out over a six-month
period. During this time observations of MUP meetings also continued and I kept field
notes of informal conversations as well as writing thick descriptions (Geertz, 1993) of
partnership meetings for data analysis. Most of the interviews took place in the
interviewee’s employing organisation and provided an opportunity for me to
experience the institutional culture of the participating organisations as well as
meeting the senior managers on their home territory. The interview schedule provided
a structure for our conversations and enabled me to ask additional questions and probe
more deeply into responses as the dialogue developed into an in-depth discussion of
aspects of partnership working. All the interviews were taped recorded and fully
transcribed for analysis. Full interview transcripts were sent to interviewees for
checking and confirmation before data was used for reporting purposes, as part of the
process of respecting the researched (Coffey, 1999). It was interesting that though each
interviewee received a full transcript of their interview, only four of the sample
returned it with amendments or additional comments. One of these was the senior
manager that had spoken to me about a previous researcher’s lack of care in
maintaining anonymity and confidentially in reporting research findings. This
illustrates the importance of following ethical procedures and exercising a duty of care
towards the researched at all stages of the research process. My approach to data
collection and analysis tried to undertake research with rather than on the participants
and to follow principles of reciprocity as well as standard ethical guidelines as
recommended by the British Educational Research Association (BERA, 1992).
Following the analysis of the fieldwork data I provided a summary of my findings to
the members of MUP. This approach engendered the development of trust between
researcher and researched and a willingness amongst the interviewees to be more open
and honest in their responses to my questions, as revealed in the data presented in the
next section (see for example Diane’s response).
Findings
The interviews with senior managers focused on the length of their involvement
with MUP, both as organisations and individuals, the role and future of the partnership
in the sub-region and the advantages and disadvantages of working in partnership with
multiple organisations, agencies and individuals. The senior managers were not only
members of MUP but also simultaneously involved in many other partnerships,
alliances and joint working arrangements with various local and regional partners.
Many of them regularly met in these other partnerships which formed and re-formed in
response to New Labour’s education and social policies, as well as meeting three times
a year in the forum of MUP Board. Their involvement in other partnerships, such as
learning partnerships, regeneration partnerships and borough-based partnerships which
were set up to increase and widen participation in post-16 education and training and
received government funding to support their work gave the interviewees a
considerable bank of experience on which to draw in discussing the basis of sustained
587
partnerships. Some of the senior managers commented that their organisations were
involved in hundreds of other partnerships besides MUP. Some of these working
arrangements between educational organisations, agencies and managers and
practitioners preceded the policy thrust to promote partnership working by the New
Labour government. However, New Labour’s policy provided an increased impetus
for partnership working as a means for tackling educational and social disadvantage
and a shift from competition to collaboration as a policy approach.
The members of MUP welcomed New Labour’s policy of collaboration for a
number of reasons including the wastefulness of the ruthless competition that had
accompanied the marketization of education under the previous Conservative
government. One college principal described this policy shift as ‘a breath of fresh air’
and an opportunity to work with and learn from other educational organisations in the
region and to create progression routes for learners rather than regarding each other ‘
as merely hostile competitors’ (Dhillon, 2005, p.216). Some of the senior managers, in
particular those who were founder members of MUP, had a commitment to
collaborative working per se whilst others saw it a means to an end but all were
prepared to commit their own resources, in particular their personal time, to engage in
partnership working. This commitment to the principle of collaboration was especially
significant in sustaining MUP, as it did not receive any government funding to support
the costs of partnership working, unlike other partnerships in the area. During its
lifecourse many founder members of MUP drew on their own organisation’s resources
to support and sustain MUP, due to the lack of a source of external funding.
Based on their experiences of partnership working in MUP and in other inter-
organisational and multi-agency partnerships, the members of MUP identified two
major themes as the basis of effective and sustained partnerships. These are trust and
shared values. The remainder of this section presents the empirical data in relation to
these two concepts.
The Role of Trust in Sustaining a Partnership
The majority response to the open question of what makes a partnership work
effectively was trust, mentioned by over 70% of the senior managers interviewed.
There were differences in individual perceptions of the meaning of trust and variations
in emphasis in relation to the level and type of trust that is needed but its centrality to
partnership was clearly signalled. Roger, a university representative on MUP Board,
commented:
Trust between members…openness and I think that in the case of MUP

there is an openness and I think that’s because currently there’s not a
vast amount at stake…I mean if there’s been money through projects it’s
been evenly shared and it’s small Toto’s really…the partnership’s not a
bidding factory but a sharing of information. (Roger, Interview 12)
Diane, a college principal, also highlighted the role of trust but in addition
disclosed the operation of different layers of trust in a partnership. She said:
To work in real partnership you have to have trust and I don’t trust
everybody round the table, I know that sounds an awful thing to say but
it’s true, erm…if I’m not in an environment where I feel I can totally trust
then I won’t say necessarily what I think, I won’t lie, never lie but I won’t
588
necessarily say what I think, now if you can’t do that then you can’t
really work together…I’m being very honest…hahah…(Diane, Interview
16, original emphasis)
Christine, representing careers and guidance services on MUP Board, reiterated

the importance of trust and openness in a partnership but suggested that trust may not
necessarily be a homogeneous entity but may vary for different individuals and for
different purposes. She remarked:
…people will trust each other um not necessarily for everything but for the
purposes of that particular partnership ….it doesn’t mean that you have to
trust everybody all the time for every activity but if they can trust themselves
for the purposes of that partnership that will do…trust doesn’t mean just
thinking they’re a nice person but believing that this person isn’t there just to
run away with a contract…you’re not going to get it [trust] from all the
partners but you have to have a good core of people who are prepared to
work together collaboratively on whatever they can... (Christine, Interview 7)
This reflects a pragmatic view of the operation of trust and one that is reflected in
the theoretical debate of the concept, which posits that trust is a heterogeneous rather
than a homogenous entity (Coulson 1998). The literature suggests that there are
different forms and levels of trust and Christine implies that a partnership can function
on differing levels of trust and that individuals can trust each other for the purposes of
a particular partnership.
Some members of MUP pointed out that it is necessary to build trust and eradicate
mistrust as part of partnership working and that this is something that takes time and
effort. Fiona, an assistant college principal, reflected:
I think you can’t bounce a partnership into action…it takes time erm you have
to build up trust, you have to get to know people and I think you have to
almost let it evolve…you have to be careful not to dominate the smaller
organisations in the partnership… (Fiona, Interview 11)
Fiona was involved in managing partnerships with voluntary and community

groups and had difficulties demonstrating the tangible benefits of the time she invested
in partnership working to more senior managers in her college.
Gillian, principal of a large college, summarised the toughness of the process of
building trust, which is:
…very tough because generally speaking, in the public sector, we operate

with a high level of mistrust towards people at the top levels of our parallel
neighbouring community of institutions, so that it takes a huge amount of
working at and you actually need to have underneath your formal
structures all sorts of informal opportunities where people can speak in a
very off the record informal way about the real threats and opportunities to
their organisation, and you have to actually get through that ground to get
the kind of climate of trust and openness that you need in the partnership…
(Gillian, Interview 5)
589
These perspectives reveal the importance of trust in sustaining a partnership and

aspects of the operation of trust in the actual process of partnership working which
depends upon relationships amongst the people who actually implement a
‘partnership’ on the ground. The data also indicate that trust is a complex and
differentiated concept. It is not just something that is either present or not present but
varies in type and level amongst the participants in a partnership and is a dynamic
entity that changes and develops as a result of individuals and organisations engaging
in the process of partnership working. Trust-based relationships amongst key
individuals can be re-activated after a period of inactivity to form the basis for new
projects and activities, as happened in MUP between stage 3(a period of deep decline)
and stage 4(a period of renewed activity) of its lifecycle (Dhillon, 2005). In addition to
trust, shared norms and values amongst the members of a partnership contribute to its
effectiveness in achieving mutual goals and common purposes and to its sustainability
as a partnership. The empirical data in relation to the role of values is presented below.
The Role of Values in Sustaining a Partnership
The role of values emerged from the puzzling question of what sustained MUP
given the proliferation of other partnerships in the region, which were supported by
government funding whilst MUP remained unsupported by any external funding body.
MUP’s continued existence depended upon the shared values of key individuals who
were prepared to keep MUP alive despite demands on their time from other
partnerships and from their roles and responsibilities as senior mangers of large
education and training organisations. In the interviews, members stressed the
importance of developing and agreeing shared goals, mentioned by 45% of
interviewees as being necessary for effective partnership working. Senior managers
emphasised that in addition to trust, shared goals and clear statements of why the
partnership exists are necessary features of effective partnerships. In the case of MUP
these shared goals were based on the members’ individual and collective values and
beliefs, in particular their deep commitment to widening participation in post-16
education and training in the sub-region in which they worked. Margaret, a university
representative on MUP Board who chaired the partnership for three years and led its
re-invigoration after a period of decline, commented:
…I think they [members of MUP] are actually genuinely enthused by the

notion of extending learning to people who are disadvantaged and when
they come together [in the partnership] the enthusiasm grows and becomes
more than the sum of its parts as it were …there’s something deeply
political about it. (Margaret, Interview 9)
The sub-region in which MUP operates is categorised as an area of economic and

educational disadvantage and the members of MUP were enthused by the potential of
taking action to address disadvantage. Underpinning MUP was evidence of a shared
philosophy of education, of common ideological, moral, social and political values and
beliefs and the drive to try and address social disadvantage through education. The key
actors in MUP shared a passion for widening participation based on their values,
beliefs, principles and life histories and it was this that bonded them as a group and
held the partnership together. In articulating the goals of the partnership they stated
‘MUP has a remit for widening participation and its activities have reflected this
focus’ (MUP document, 2000, p.1). This commitment led to the formation of the
590
partnership, provided the synergy for expanding its activities and formed the basis for
re-invigorating MUP after a period of deep decline. In interviews, senior managers
spoke of shifting the world, addressing disadvantage, opening up opportunities for all
learners, of coming into education to change the world, of their own success through
education and of opportunities denied to other members of their families due to lack of
resources or family circumstances. Stephen revealed the extent to which values
underpinned the work that he did as an individual and as a college principal. He said:
I’m tremendously proud of what myself and my colleagues here have done
over you know twenty years…the number of lives we’ve touched. My wife has
stickers on the fridge at home and one of them is ‘To teach is to touch a life
forever’…I have the privilege of trying to arrange basically, I’m a resource
winner, a business conductor, to make all that happen with a lot of good
people who actually do it and as a result of that I’m able to leverage more
than if I had just remained as a teacher. (Stephen, Interview 8)
Key individuals in MUP saw partnership working as a means for creating a wider
range of opportunities for learners from disadvantaged backgrounds and believed that
they could use their position, power and influence as senior managers of education and
training organisations to increase participation in post-16 education and training,
which they viewed as a route to success. Their values and beliefs also shaped their
behaviour and practices in the way they implemented partnership working. They were
committed to principles of equality and followed norms of equality and reciprocity in
practice. For example, they rotated partnership meetings around the participating
organisations and ensured that all constituencies of organisations with an interest in
post-16 learning were represented on MUP Board and involved in its collaborative
sub-regional activities. These norms were explicitly debated and agreed in the forum
of MUP Board whilst others were implicitly followed. An example of an implicit norm
was the norm of respect amongst members, an aspect of the partnership noted by
Roger, a university representative on MUP Board, who reflected:
I mean people are very respectful…erm I guess in that sense it’s a bit clubby isn’t
it? I don’t know if that’s a feeling you’ve had when you’ve been to
meetings…(Roger, Interview 12)
It certainly was a feeling that I had when I went to MUP Board meetings and
something that I perceived early in my observations, which was confirmed during the
course of data collection. I observed that people did not cut across others but were
surprisingly patient, tolerant and respectful even when individuals went off on
tangents. This aspect of their behaviour was surprising given that MUP was a
partnership of busy senior managers but it reflected their respect for individuals and
their attempts to operate on principles of equality. In practice it was not possible to
ensure equal participation in the partnership as some organisations were more
powerful than others and a few personalities dominated the dynamics of partnership
working but the attempt to implement partnership on the basis of norms of equality,
mutual respect and reciprocity reflected the values of the members of MUP.
591
Discussion
The case study of MUP reveals the role of trust and shared values in sustaining a
partnership. Trust and shared norms and values are recognised as dimensions of social
capital (Field, 2003) and the perspectives of senior managers with considerable
experience of partnership working indicate that trust and values are two of the most
important characteristics of effective and sustained partnerships. The importance
placed upon trust by all the senior managers interviewed for this study was the most
evident aspect of the data whilst the role of shared norms and values emerged from a
deeper analysis of the puzzling question of what sustained MUP given the policy
context in which it operated. New Labour’s education policy, which places partnership
at the centre of strategies to improve education provision, framed the lifecourse of
MUP and the many other partnerships that proliferated in response to these policy
imperatives but in the case of MUP they did not provide a sufficient explanation for
the pattern of its lifecourse. For MUP, there was no government funding to support the
operation of the partnership but despite high and low points in the extent and success
of its collaborative activities, key individuals kept the partnership going because they
were committed to the shared goals of the partnership. These goals were underpinned
by shared values and the levels of trust amongst the member individuals and
organisations. The shared values and trust formed the foundation of the partnership
and meant that relationships could become dormant but be re-activated when needed to
achieve common purposes. The commitment to widening participation bonded the
members of MUP and enabled them to re-invigorate the partnership using trust-based
networks, which underpinned and supported partnership working. The role of formal
and networks in supporting partnership working in MUP will form the focus of a
different paper but is noted here as trust and shared values were the basis of these
social networks.
The data reported in this paper also indicate that trust is a heterogeneous and
dynamic concept which changes and develops through the process of partnership
working. Christine highlights the differentiated nature of trust by suggesting that
people may trust each other for the purposes of a partnership. This suggests that a
partnership may function on the basis of variable levels of trust and lead to different
levels of collaboration and co-operation amongst the individual members. Diane
reveals that though she is a member of MUP she does not trust every member of MUP
Board. However, her lack of trust in some members does not prevent her from
participating in the partnership though she like Roger affirms the importance of trust in
effective and sustained partnerships. The process of building trust is a time consuming
but essential part of partnership working as it is a social process that depends upon the
relationships amongst the people who implement ‘partnership’ on the ground. In multi-
agency and inter-organisational partnerships trust needs to exist not just between the
people who implement partnership working on the ground by taking on key roles in
partnership working but also amongst the senior managers of the organisations they
represent, if they are different people.
This study indicates that the sustainability of a partnership depends upon the
people who are involved and the levels of trust they have in each other. The
involvement of powerful people, such as senior managers of education and training
organisations, can sustain an inter-organisational partnership by drawing on their
individual and collective resources. Senior managers, such as Stephen, are able to use
their position to leverage resources for partnership working to achieve shared goals.
Shared values also contribute to sustainability as variable levels of trust can be
592
overcome by a shared commitment to a set of values. For example in MUP, Diane

remained a member of the partnership because of her commitment to the shared goals
and values of the partners even though she did not trust everyone member of MUP
Board. A national policy context that promotes partnership and collaboration rather
than competition, as New Labour’s policy in England, can also provide incentives and
enticements that support partnerships, though shifting policy priorities and short-
termism may affect the sustainability of a partnership.
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594
The Pathology of Techno-Infrastucture in Academia and its Implications on
Pedagogy and Curriculum in New Media Arts Programs at
Five Types of Institutions in the United States
54
The Pathology of Techno-Infrastucture in
Academia and its Implications on Pedagogy
and Curriculum in New Media Arts
Programs at Five Types of Institutions in the
United States
Marientina Gotsis, University of Southern California
I
shall begin this essay by shedding some light on a much debated phrase: new
media. I strongly detest the use of this phrase, yet I have decided to use it
because it is recognizable—for now. University art programs have had to invent
or reinvent part of their curriculum for decades now in order to embrace newer
media-based artmaking. From the invention of fast-drying acrylics to photography,
film, video, virtual reality, and the internet, professional artists and art students will
use anything within their reach to broadcast their message and create an experience. I
will restrict myself by defining new media for the last ten years as digital media which
encompasses digital animation, photography and video, the internet, virtual reality,
games and other digitally-produced works.
Regardless of the infinitude of definitions and types of media, art program
administrators have an obligation to decide what constitutes the essential toolkit for art
students. This is a very complicated process because it depends on several variables:
pedagogical goals, student expectations and cost of ownership. As if this process
wasn’t painful enough, one is almost always obliged to retrofit parts of the curriculum
onto existing infrastructure, much of which has been largely influenced by the needs of
computer science and engineering programs.
As a result, techno-infrastructure—which I define as all that is required for the
viability of a new media art program—is suffering from a variety of symptoms.
Techno-infrastructure contains the essential toolkit, all that is digital and necessary, as
well as policies and procedures for access, availability, technical support and other
human and material resources that are required for proper operation of facilities. An
educational institution with ailing techno-infrastructure is the kind of patient nobody
595
in the creative community wants to treat. The problems are ignored and soon turn into
a ‘disease’ that eats the institution from within.
In my role as student, faculty and staff at new media programs in five different
types of educational institutions, I have examined first-hand the various syndromes
that ail techno-infrastructure and I continue to be involved in its pathology 1, which I
understand as the study of the essential nature of the disease and especially of the
structural and functional changes produced by it. New media programs require rapid
lifecycle digital media and face the challenge of disseminating skills and encouraging
personal growth that will transcend the technology whose lifecycle is getting shorter
by the year. The challenge is very compacted: books, paintings, sculptures and
buildings can last for centuries barring natural disaster, but many of the works created
by digital media programs may not survive 15 years unless migrated to a different
medium. Archiving and preservation of digital work is a whole other topic of research,
but techno-infrastructure should keep it on its radar.
The pathology metaphor stems from another area of interest of mine from the
perspective of an expert patient. As a sickly person since childhood, I have kept in
close contact with the medical profession and its practices. My research training and
volunteering for an international patient support group has pushed me further into
examination of the public health system. The IT profession as a whole resembles that
of a medical practitioner’s more so than any other—for better or for worse. Since the
medical profession has been around for much longer, it is useful to draw some
parallels and learn from this metaphor.
In my experience, good pathologists must have a very thorough understanding of
patients, must be diversified in their knowledge and be proactive and reactive as
needed. In education, the role of chief pathologist is most often assigned to a middle or
upper-level administrator with professional and/or academic expertise. That person
may be a trained IT professional or not. In my current position at the University of
Southern California, I oversee technology at several facilities and interact closely with
students and faculty. I am also in a position to offer my insight of the pathology of
techno-infrastructure in several other institutions, four more of which are outlined in
this essay.
Because my experience is not trilateral (student/faculty/staff) in all institutions, I
admit to bias in each case, but I have made every effort to be objective. My main goal
is to offer a course of treatment with the fewest side effects. Because of paper size
constraints I have focused on four areas of preliminary evaluation: toolkit, human
resources, accessibility and preservation. I consider these to be the essential pillars of
techno-infrastucture.
Case #1: The Municipal Community College
Municipal community colleges in the United States are very interesting because
they are a portal to education for people who come from all walks of life. I have great
appreciation for their service because they open their doors to students of all ages,
races and gender and give them an opportunity to do something they couldn’t do
anywhere else at a very affordable price—if not free altogether—thanks to city, state
or federal financial aid. These schools offer a good balance of fundamental vocational
training for industry and academic preparation for transfer to a four-year university.
1
Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary online, © 2002 Merriam-Webster, Inc.
596
Art programs in community colleges provide an intimate setting for creativity and one-
to-one attention which is necessary for many of the students.
I taught for two years at the Harold Washington College (HWC) in Chicago,
Illinois. The small art department expanded its offering of two-year degrees in Graphic
Design and Fine Arts with a Digital Multimedia Design degree. The faculty who
initially wrote the curriculum were very ambitious in their plan to expose the students
to popular industry software as much as possible in two years, but with little time for
conceptual development. At the time I taught here, there was one lab with fairly fast
Apple computers, basic software and peripherals. The lab was open when there were
no ongoing classes and a lab assistant had to be present. It would seem that everything
seemed ‘healthy’ but looming problems and short-sightedness on everyone’s part
(including mine) robbed the program of greater potential.
The first problem was that there was more to learn than was possible in the time
allocated. Classes met twice per week but there wasn’t enough time to get into depth
with either the software or advanced concepts. This was acceptable to adult students
who were slower learners, or students who were planning to transfer to a four-year
school, but it failed to address the needs of those who counted on their degree for a
better job and couldn’t afford the time or cost of a private vocational/professional
school. The curriculum also failed to help focus students who were very apt with the
medium, but couldn’t really deliver the message yet due to artistic immaturity. The
latter is a common problem with younger students. The educational setting was very
intimate and comfortable which was necessary and appropriate for the needs of
students. They often demonstrated social disabilities, learning disabilities,
insurmountable personal problems all of which a artistic setting tends to expose.
Evaluation
a) Toolkit Assessment: Inability to keep up with software upgrades which

impacted the job-seeking students’ abilities to stay current. Labs are setup
with seed money, but often the faculty that help establish them may not
be familiar with total cost of ownership (TCO) and product lifecycles.
Complete lack of Microsoft Windows™ based computers which
alienated many students.
b) Human Resources Efficiency: Lab aides were continually distracting
students with ‘medium’ tricks and gimmicks, which in turn distracted
students away from meaningful projects.
c) Accessibility Status: Limited lab hours existed, which in turn limited the
students’ time to work on their projects. Some peripherals could be
loaned.
d) Preservation Strategy: Lack of storage and archiving redundancy which
punished students who were climbing a steep learning curve with
technology altogether and left the department with no class portfolios in
the long-term.
597
Possible Course of Action
» Ensure that software budget includes purchase of maintenance upgrades for

at least two years, so that students can stay current with skills. Sacrifice
software variety in favor of software updates.
» Maintain a multi-platform lab if the budget permist, and do not discourage
people against buying a particular platform. In a two-year school, it matters
most how quickly a student will learn and head into a job. Educate students
about TCO of equipment and software and assist them with purchases if
necessary.
» Employ lab aides to teach software and hardware to the entire class under
an organized schedule. Students will learn more about the ‘craft of things’
this way, while the ‘art of things’ can be handled by the instructor. Lab
aides often do freelance work or do homework during their lab hours which
is not making the most efficient use of their time. Since many of the lab
aides are students, they can gain valuable skills by assisting in teaching.
» Increase lab hours if possible, and offer a variety of shifts for students who
work a variety of shifts in real-life, including working parents. For the
students who have computers and fast internet access but not required
software, allow network access via Virtual Private Network (VPN) or any
remote control application offered by the institution.
» Deploy automatic backup and archiving system to protect against casual
file deletion. Deploy software that auto-restores settings and other data.
Incorporate data-saving into class time and require project collection into a
single network share.
Case #2: The Private College
Private colleges in the United States are supposed to offer an intimate educational
setting, often with a narrower academic focus for stronger immersion. Students tend to
be diverse in their race and ethnic background, but more unified in age and economic
status. These colleges offer undergraduate and graduate degrees in smaller classrooms
at a lower cost than a large private university, but at a higher cost than a public
university. These schools focus on teaching rather than research, so the students expect
a lot of one-on-one attention and they are mostly seeking industry jobs after
graduation, or a position in management if they are seeking a graduate degree.
I taught for one year at Columbia College Chicago (CCC), which focused
primarily in the visual, performing and communication arts. The Interactive Arts and
Media program offered a wide array of courses for many concentrations and continues
to strive to match the market needs. There are many facilities for teaching with
multiple combinations of equipment depending on the coursework. Labs are open at
various times with assistants present, but usually not during class time. I taught two
classes per semester as adjunct faculty and I was overwhelmed.
I was frequently inconvenienced by the inconsistency of classrooms and stringent
IT policies. This was a department that was trying to do everything in order to keep up
with industry demands and to do this it sacrificed the nurturing potential of a creative
setting in academia. I remember that in one of my classes on the first day, I asked that
all the students sit down on the carpet in a circle and shoot 'mug shots' of each other
with a digital camera to ‘break the ice’. I was surrounded by assembly-line style
598
techno-infrastructure and to makes things worse, the department had as much growth,
energy and awkwardness as an adolescent.
Evaluation
a) Toolkit Assessment: Great disparity between hardware, software and

peripherals across all platforms. The disparity was initially intentional to
offer customization to different course needs. This over-specialization of
the facilities, which was supposed to reflect the specialization of the
curriculum, eventually disadvantaged courses that due to scheduling
requirements ended up in the wrong-type of classroom. The mismatch
hindered learning for the entire semester.
b) Accessibility: Overwhelming security—instructors had to be let into
classes by the lab manager, students could never be alone, and everything
was locked down physically and at the operating system level. Computing
policies were reminiscent of computer science centers of 40-100
workstations from the previous two decades. Almost nothing could be
loaned.
c) Human Resources: Lab aides were unavailable to most courses and
requests had to be put way ahead of class. Students couldn’t always get
help from lab aides with their projects, unless the requested help was of a
trivial technical support nature. Many students owned computers at home
and preferred to do their work there. I was often forced to let them leave
early to go home and work on their projects.
d) Preservation: There was some temporary remote storage available to
faculty and students, but the latter had more control overall of their data
than the instructor. The department expected the faculty to do their own
archiving for documentation purposes.
Possible Course of Action
» Sacrifice hardware variety and customization and lease with a trade-up

agreement rather than try to squeeze every last mile out of old technology.
Students at this type of institution are easily disgruntled by outdated
technology and lash out at the instructors.
» One cannot teach advanced innovative classes where faculty and students
are encouraged to experiment, and at the same time disallow access to the
operating system with no sight of a lab-aid nearby. Instructors need super-
user access to do their job.
» In a department with so many students, courses, and labs, offer lab
assistantships for credit to the more capable students. This type of skill is
coveted by the market and cannot be learned from a class.
» Make the students accountable for turning over their work for their grade.
Just because they are paying high tuition, it does not mean that the
instructor must chase after them. For a fraction of lab fees, students and
faculty can be provided with consumable media (single and multi-use
discs) or portable storage.
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Case #3: The Mid-size Public University
Larger states often have more than one public College or University that serve
narrower curricula at an affordable cost. They also provide a gateway to larger private
or public institutions. Such is Northeastern Illinois University (NEIU), which has
reached enrollment in the 10,000 range. Originally a teacher’s college for secondary
teacher training, NEIU now offers a wide range of majors and minors while still
catering to state certification for teachers.
I taught digital art making courses for one year at NEIU, at the art department.
Students-types were split in two groups: adults over 30 who were pursuing a teaching
certificate or adding skills to their repertoire, and adults younger than 30 who were
going to college for the first time. The younger students were usually art students,
business, or computer science majors. There was a single computer lab that served 2-4
bi-weekly classes per semester and accessibility seemed quite adequate. Many students
had computers at home, and a few even had their own laptops and their own software.
The environment was very relaxing and curriculum focused on experimentation, basic
skills and expanding horizons.
Evaluation
a) Toolkit assessment: Most computers were well past their expected lifecycle
and even though the department had managed to keep basic software
current, the computers weren’t able to carry the load. Even though there
were more workstations than students, many of the workstations were
unreliable.
b) Accessibility: Overall acceptable (assuming equipment was functional).
Security policies were appropriate. More peripherals for loans would have
been beneficial (e.g. drawing tablets).
c) Human Resources: Between the department chair, myself and an ‘as
needed student assistant’ the lab managed to survive.
d) Preservation: Documenting projects was up to the instructor and storage
was to local drives or the classroom file server. Affordable removable
storage didn’t yet exist in the market so students for the most part entrusted
their work to the infrastructure—a dangerous practice.
Possible Courses of Action
» State funding is usually not much for these kinds of small public art
departments in Illinois. Donations of second hand equipment are the most
likely way to acquire equipment. Grant proposals are another way, but both
options are problematic: there is no guarantee more funding will be
available after the equipment lifecycle is over. Because of decrease in TCO
of lower-end workstations, leasing may be the only affordable way to keep
such lab current.
» Soliciting donations of peripherals (especially for experimenting) or
volume deals to help students own them would help students who work at
home. They can just borrow a peripheral instead of spending long hours at
the lab, especially adult students, many of whom teach full-time and/or
have their own children to care for.
600
» Due to lack of funding for staff, work-for-credit is the only viable

mechanism to secure a lab caretaker on a regular basis.
» Require some type of removable storage device as part of the course so the
students can easily take their work home. Require documentation for work
submitted for department archiving.
Case #4: The Large Public University
Of all five types of institutions I am evaluating, it is most difficult to assess a large

public research University such as the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC). During
the course of eight years, I was enrolled for four years as an undergraduate and four
years as a graduate student. I was employed by the University in my later
undergraduate years as an undergraduate lab manager. and as a research assistant
during all four years of my graduate studies. UIC is a very large institution and many
of its inner workings still remain a mystery to me. Students are very diverse even at
the major courses and this fact remains one of the greatest strengths pursuing a degree
at this type of institution.
The School of Art & Design offers various bachelor’s and master’s degrees in
well-established areas of study. Research, community outreach and abstract thinking
are strongly fostered. Self-sufficiency is ‘encouraged’ by the often terribly outdated
techno-infrastructure at undergraduate labs. The conditions have greatly improved
since I was enrolled, but second-hand equipment from the graduate lab continues to be
the main avenue for acquisition. In stark contrast, the graduate program enjoys state-
of-the-art facilities due to its joint collaboration with the engineering and computer
science school.
Whereas the undergraduate lab receives a yearly stipend from the state, the
graduate lab is funded by large federal organizations and international alliances. In this
type of institution, students in the digital arts take loosely structured courses that are
often repeated, as well as many independent study courses. The system is ideal for
students who will likely pursue a graduate degree, but is not helpful to the vocation-
oriented. The curriculum is not concerned with what is marketable. I will limit myself
to evaluating the undergraduate lab because the graduate research lab is strictly aligned
to grant lifecycles that fall outside the scope of this paper.
Evaluation
a) Toolkit assessment: Equipment was inherited long past its lifecycle and
although it was quite varied, it would fail to satisfy a non-experimental
curriculum. Classrooms were barebones and/or severely antiquated.
b) Accessibility: Students were given a key and sliding card access and could
access the lab 24 hours per day unattended. Theft was sometimes a
problem, but most equipment wasn’t worth stealing. No peripherals were
available for checkout. The labs were located in ‘temporary’ space for
seven years, most of which were inappropriate to accommodate any
computer classes.
c) Human Resources: A student lab manager was taking care of labs for
credit under some faculty guidance. Painfully slow procurement with
incredible restrictions was assigned to school program administrators.
601
d) Preservation: Up to the student. UIC’s remote network storage was used

as backup although many computers did not have internet access yet.
Documentation was still done on analog tape media.
» Grant-writing would be the only avenue for equipment acquisition and

amelioration of such dire conditions. In this case, grants would have to be
written by faculty and grant line items must include a lab caretaker, other
than a student. In the meantime, invest in spare parts for aging equipment.
» Uniting resources with other departments within the school (or even other
colleges if necessary) who have similar needs. This plan was slowly
beginning to take effect as I was leaving the school.
» Compromise and accept the fact that change will happen at glacier-moving
speed. This type of institution is a slow-evolving universe and its
bureaucracy is bigger than any individual, regardless of their place in the
food chain. One must focus on creative ways to circumvent bureaucracy
and policy rather than resisting—it is futile.
Case #5: The Large Private University
For the last three years, I have been employed by the University of Southern
California (USC), first as adjunct faculty at the School of Fine Arts, and currently as
lab manager at the Interactive Media Division (IMD) of the School of Cinema-
Television (CNTV). I will skip my experience as faculty and focus on my current full-
time employment. My current department was established four years ago, initially
offering graduate degrees and minors and now expanding into undergraduate degrees
in Interactive Entertainment. The program focuses in three areas of study: mobile
media, game design and innovation and immersive media. CNTV is a well-established
professional school within a large research university and IMD’s goal is to prepare
professionals for either industry and/or academic careers. The IMD student body is not
very diverse yet; the Animation & Digital Arts program that was established over a
decade ago is a better measure of potential.
In the case of IMD, both undergraduate and graduate facilities are funded out of
overlapping budgets all fall under my jurisdiction so I am capable to evaluate them
together. We are currently very compacted and are experiencing tremendous growth at
an alarming rate. We have seven facilities that require a wide variety of customized
techno-infrastructure. This is the first time in my professional experience that I have
enough agency to make a significant contribution to the techno-infrastructure rather
than simply observe, suffer and circumvent.
Evaluation
a) Toolkit assessment: The largest threat here, as with many new programs, is
that we are the end of product lifecycle in half of the facilities. Also, due to
seed funds and material donations becoming available at an unpredictable
rate, and too much ad-hoc purchasing, we own a disparate mass of equipment
and software. Too much variety and growth present considerable risk because
budgets don’t necessarily trail in parallel. At the same time, there is a lot of
602
overlap in software across CNTV that is not aligned because until recent
years there was no incentive to align.
b) Accessibility: Facilities are as dispersed and varied as the equipment and
different policies apply to each one depending on building policies. Although
most students own their own equipment, 24-hour access is necessary in the
specialized labs, yet not available always without special arrangement. Some
facilities are available unattended and some are attended. As much equipment
as possible is made available for short-term and long-term loans to students
and faculty. Most senior faculty and students have super-user privileges on
computers, except for mission-critical servers.
c) Human Resources: Until I was hired, students were employed as lab
managers. Because students do not have enough agency to create and enforce
policy—not to mention that the lab is not their first priority—too many
temporary solutions were put in place. Due to rapid growth, I am employing
as many student workers as I can hire but they are moderately compensated
due to budget constraints and treat my assignments third on their priority list,
classes first, research projects second. This was also common at UIC.
d) Preservation: Personal portable storage devices are becoming ubiquitous.
Simultaneously, ample private and public network storage is available but not
enough to address some experimental projects. The division’s web blog
serves as a valuable archive of many of the projects we are involved with.
» With pressure to remain at the forefront of research and industry, the only
way to achieve staying on top of product lifecycle is by shorter-term
leasing with trade-up options and aggressive donation-seeking. Aligning
software across divisions where ground is common should become a
requirement. Discounts tend to be greater per transaction, which requires
a great deal of coordination, but is a worthwhile investment of time and
energy.
» Consolidation of facilities by any means possible is necessary.
Thankfully, planning is underway for this, but is only possible through a
generous donation and very ambitious proposal. The benefit of involving
the private sector is that decision making can occur faster and
bureaucracy at private institutions is more flexible than what one
encounters at a public one.
» Managing rapid growth with no staff is an insurmountable task. If
students are the only kind of personnel one can afford to hire, hire more
specialists, divide tasks and assign task management to one of them.
Micro-managing students at the same time one is required to make long-
term forecasts and solve wide-spread problems is not possible by one
person.
» Preservation strategies should first focus at minimal disaster recovery and
then at long-term archiving. For better or for worse, storage is becoming
more affordable every three months, but media size is increasing and one
must plan to migrate from one product to another at the end of its
lifecycle.
603
Conclusion
I have tried to make a first pass at evaluating techno-infrastructure at five different

types of new media programs with some recommendations. Regardless of which type
of institution you are employed by, thinking holistically can be of great benefit.
Technology does not solve problems, people solve problems. A good medical
practitioner would never prescribe a treatment without taking a patient history and then
examine the patient up-close. The treatment doesn’t have agency even if it solves a
problem: agency falls in the hands of the decision-maker. In education, everyone has
agency: the student, the faculty, the administration, the board or the government. We
need to ask questions from all directions and not expect that all problems will be
solved by hiring more staff or purchasing the newest and greatest ‘thing’ which will
eventually become a burden.
New media programs are faced with continuing compaction of product and policy
lifecycles on top of curriculum and industry needs. Many of these problems cannot be
solved by lessons learned from engineering, computer science and corporate practices.
There is often great disparity in the educational experience of an IT professional from
aforementioned disciplines and the educational experience the institution is trying to
provide to the students. Oftentimes, new media programs have their own technical
staff that has an educational background in art or they rely on students. Even then,
technical personnel with an art background are not as well compensated as other IT
professionals, regardless of competency. This reveals a serious institutional bias and
lack of understanding of needs for the viability of new media programs and it has been
somewhat addressed by this essay.
Addendum A. Fact Sheet (from last two years)
Municipal
Institution Private State
Community State University Private University
Profiles College University
College
Columbia Northeastern
Harold University of University of
Institution College Illinois
Washington Illinois Southern California
name Chicago University
College (HWC) at Chicago (UIC) (USC)
(CCC) (NEIU)
Doctoral/Research Doctoral/Research
2-year
Degrees Bachelor’s & Bachelor’s & University, University,
(Associates) &
offered Master’s Master’s Bachelor’s & Bachelor’s &
Certificates
Master’s Master’s
$170-353/credit
$72-291/credit $4,400-8,800
2006/2007 $565/credit
(depending on Annually
Tuition 16,328 (see www.uic.edu) (see www.usc.edu)
level and (depending on
Rates Annually
residency) level and
residency)
Total
8,147 10,842 12,000 24,942 29,194
Enrollment
604
Globalization and the Responsibility of the ‘International’ University
55
Globalization and the Responsibility of the
‘International’ University
Yannis A. Stivachtis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State

University
N
o one in higher education today can be unaware of the pressures on
universities to become more ‘international’. Encouragement or even demand
to admit more overseas students is accompanied by calls for increased
international presence, involvement, competitiveness and assessment, and by
announcements of new courses, on a range of topics, that have ‘international’ in their
title. In addition, the words ‘international’ or ‘global’ constitute an essential part of the
official name of many academic institutions, that wish to emphasize their international
orientation in terms of the education they provide and the students they admit.
However, the term ‘international’ covers a variety of issues and meanings. It is,
consequently, necessary to question the way in which the term ‘international’ is used
because an unconsidered pursuit of the ‘international’ can lead to a less effective
international contribution (Halliday 1999:99).
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the effects of globalization on universities
and how the latter can deal effectively with the pressures of internationalization. In so
doing, it is divided into four parts. The first part examines the impact of globalization
on the academic world. The second part presents a discussion about the various aspects
of university internationalization as well as the phenomenon of university
internationalization itself, placing it into a historical context. The third part
investigates the effects of external environment on the universities and their choices,
while the last part discusses a set of significant issues in international education.
Globalization and the Academic World
The debate on the international character of universities has been transformed

since the 1990s by a set of changes in context and direction. The Economist (4 October
1997) speculated on the university of the future with a restricted physical campus and
a network of computer-linked students situated in different parts of the globe.
Moreover, as the Guardian (7 April 1998) has pointed out, during the 1990s, many
universities started exploring the implications of technology for this kind of
internationalized teaching.
605
However, all that is international is not new. Nor is it necessarily clearly defined
or even international. As it has been argued (Halliday: 1999:100), there is ‘nothing less
international than the national prejudices of the powerful’ reflected in the way that the
international education system develops. In examining the impact of globalization
pressures on universities, Halliday has suggested three different strands of discussion.
First, according to Halliday (1999:100), the economic context in which
universities in the U.S., Britain, France, Germany and other countries operate and the
constraints on them are quite similar. This implies that problems in the American
higher education can be similar, if not identical, with those of the European
universities. Moreover, the ‘Americanization’ of national education systems may lead
to the transmission of problems facing the universities in the U.S to those countries
that have decided to adopt a higher education system similar or identical to that of the
U.S.
The current crisis of the university in terms of funding, its relation to society, and
the content and means of education is itself an international or even a global issue.
Specifically, in the U.S., which has thousands of institutions of higher education, there
is significant debate and concern about the future of college education. The result has
been the publication of several books discussing the present and future of university
education in the U.S. For example, Alan Bloom’s The Closing of the American Mind
highlights the vulgarization of teaching, while Peter Sack’s Generation X Goes to
College provides an account of a teacher enraged by the presumption and rudeness of
his undergraduates students, who bring their portable ‘televisions’ in the classroom (let
us add mobile phones) and all expect an ‘A’. Finally, Bill Reading’s The University in
Ruins discusses the ‘negative’ role of corporate management in higher education.
The personal experience of the author of this article suggests that the problem
indicated above not only persists but its significance has been augmented. Among
other things, many undergraduate students see the grade ‘A’ almost as an automatic
entitlement, while the grade ‘A-’, which signifies ‘excellence’, is not anymore
considered high enough. Furthermore, studying any assigned material beyond the
traditional textbook is not always well received by students (even by those majoring in
any given subject) while going or not to class is regarded by them more as a right than
a duty. To this one may add the growing inability of many students to concentrate
during the lectures and/or take notes during them as well as participate in conferences
and other types of educational events that their institutions organize for students’
exclusive benefit.
Second, Halliday argues (1999:101) that contemporary discussion of universities
is international in that it is increasingly related to the process termed ‘globalization’, in
the sense of the breaking down of barriers between societies and cultures, and the
subordination of all of this to what one calls ‘market’. Here an element of caution,
definitional and historical, is required. Globalization is not one process but several,
and not all of these processes are necessarily new (Bull and Watson 1984). Not only
goods and technologies but also ideas have been crossing frontiers and civilizational
boundaries for millennia (Buzan and Little, 2000). Actually, in one dimension of
economic and social life, and one with considerable social, legal and ethical
implications, namely freedom of movement of individuals, the world has never erected
more barriers than it does today.
Globalization, moreover, for all that it brings together and unites, also divides by
creating new hierarchies. For example, in income terms the world has never been as
unequal as it is now. Among other things, inequality inhibits access to quality
education, to technology and to good libraries. But globalization of markets, of
606
information, and of lifestyle does not only affect the university in its workings but,
most importantly, it affects the content of courses taught (Halliday 1999:101). Equally,
it tends to produce a new elite, what Le Monde has termed ‘cosmocracy’, of people
who are mobile as between countries, continents and cultures. Leading universities in
the U.S., France and Britain constitute training grounds for this cosmocracy.
Internationalization or globalization, however, should not mean homogenization.
The tendency of globalization to make everything the same, to turn universities into
what Halliday has called (1999:101) ‘anodyne hotels or shopping malls of the mind’,
is not a desired goal. Borrowing Halliday’s metaphor, ‘universities are like restaurants:
they have distinctive cuisines, more or less creatively linked to national origins,
invented or real’. Those who teach in universities may indeed allow themselves a
measure of patriotism (but not ethnocentrism), in regard to what they offer. For this the
university needs to have a student body, and a staff, with a shared ethos about what
constitutes academic discussion and quality. An American university culture, for
instance, involves writing essays and a personal relation to a tutor. These are not
divinely given, as they do not happen everywhere, but are part of one distinctive,
valuable, culture.
According to Halliday (1999:101), the same caution should apply to the term
‘market’. Universities are distinct institutions, with a distinct role in society and
culture. They are not industrial enterprises. Their responsibility is to provide new ideas
and knowledge, to stimulate students to think as well as to train in the skills and
knowledge relevant to the modern world. Recently there has been much talk of
universities in terms of market analogies. Thus students are referred to as ‘consumers’,
universities as ‘knowledge factories’, and the departments are told that they need to be
‘economically viable’ (Aronowitz 2001). As all other institutions, universities most
certainly have to balance their budgets, but such analogies are misplaced. In the first
place, universities are a public good. They benefit the community as a whole and
require a commitment, financial and cultural, from that community. Secondly, the
provision of knowledge and the examination of students are not driven by market
forces; nor to a considerable degree, is research. If markets determined research we
would have only research on prices, not much on human rights, gender, development
and social movements. If students were consumers, they would be able to buy their
assessments and exam results, which would, as a result, be devalued. Nor is what is
taught determined entirely by market forces. Contemporary relevance is a major
criterion, but scholars also have a responsibility to make available the best in the
wisdom of the past, the better to comprehend how we got to where we are now, and
the better to set the present in its historical context. The Economist (29 March 1997)
draws one’s attention to I.G. Patel, an economist who advocated the theory of ‘non-
competitive groups’, that is groups that value what they do for itself, not in terms of
competition with each other. Such groups, he argued, are necessary for the functioning
of any economy, and any civilization. Academic institutions can be seen as forming
such a group.
However, one should not close one’s own eyes to two very dangerous and
disturbing phenomena in today’s higher education, namely the establishment and
function of unaccredited institutions many of which indeed sell diplomas, and the
employment conditions for faculty working in some of these institutions. Moreover,
several schools of this kind employ instructors with questionable qualifications, many
of which obtained their own diplomas from this type of institutions. Unfortunately,
even some private accredited schools also fall in this category and follow similar
tactics either consciously or because of their ignorance regarding academic credentials
607
and procedures. The situation has been exacerbated because of the existence of fake
accrediting bodies but also due to the fact that some legitimate accrediting agencies do
not control properly the way in which accredited schools or candidates for
accreditation work. National educational authorities and accrediting bodies must
therefore be vigilant and should be prepared to deal effectively with these two
phenomena, which affect, among other things, family budgets, employment
opportunities, education and, as an extension, whole societies.
The international dimensions of social change associated with globalization are
paralleled, according to Halliday (1999:102), by a third contemporary trend: that of the
process associated with the term ‘knowledge society’. This reflects broader
international changes in economies, in terms of employment as well as in terms of the
recognition that a country’s economic and strategic competitiveness is correlated with
its educational level. According to The Economist (29 March 1997), the country that
does not invest in its higher education, in its research, and lifetime learning and re-
training, will fall behind. Being aware of these consequences, the European Union has
introduced educational programs designed to meet these ends. Other countries and
international organizations should also move to this direction if a more egalitarian
international society is to be achieved.
Internationalization: A New Phenomenon?
Every claim to novelty invites reflection on how ‘new’ the supposed trend really
is. For example, do multinational banks, transnational cultural movements, and
terrorism really represent new phenomena? The same applies to ‘international’
university. Moreover, there is a tension between the national, embedded, character of
universities operating within particular societies and with responsibilities to particular
states, and their broader international context and vocation. In this sense, there is no
such thing as an international university. Universities are national and international at
the same time. Therefore, the international character of higher education is not new at
all. Historically speaking, one needs just to think about how ideas of great scholars,
like Kant, Hegel, Adam Smith, Einstein, Hayek and many others, have crossed state
and civilizational frontiers and have traveled around the globe. It is the engagement
with, and diversity of views on, world issues that above all marks out the international
character of the university.
However, there are four evident longer-run respects in which the international
dimension of the university is visible. The university is international because of its
students, staff, sources of income (fees, grants, endowments), and sometimes because
of its teaching location.
In terms of students, internationalization may take three distinctive meanings.
First, as the admission of overseas students is increasingly encouraged, one should
expect that the classroom composition, in terms of natives-non-native student ratio,
will be considerably altered. This may have important implications for teaching. On
the one hand, students coming from certain countries and cultures might be unfamiliar
with the interactive nature and culture of the American university and its value system.
Others may just claim unfamiliarity for extracting benefits from. Should overseas
students be treated differently than American ones? Should they be forced to follow
the ‘American way’? Should the instructors continue to include the ‘active
participation’ component in their grading system? These are very important questions
that require careful consideration. Nonetheless, the author of the present article
608
strongly believes that the interactive value of the American higher educational system
should not only be preserved but also be forced on overseas students for it increases
critical thinking and contributes to the creation of responsible citizens. At the end of
the day, foreign students go to study at American universities supposingly for what the
American universities are, how they work and what they stand for.
On the other hand, imbalances in students’ language skills may affect class
proceedings. Thus the admissions offices should be careful when dealing with
prospective students. The problem is that for many universities financial questions are
so urgent that the prospective students’ language skills may be overlooked. Forcing
overseas students to follow special English language courses to improve their language
skills before they enroll in the regular university programs presents the best
alternative. It is good for the student lacking the necessary language skills, it is good
for his/her classmates, and it is good for the educational system as a whole. The
language skills problem has become even more acute with the ‘flexible’ way that
certain national educational authorities administer language tests like TEFL.
Universities in the U.S. and other countries may consequently admit students who
have the appropriate score on the paper but not the language skills represented by this
score.
Another problem that admissions offices have to deal with is the use of fake
degrees and transcripts by prospective students coming from particular countries. Due
to societal pressures, the holding of higher education qualifications today has become
extremely important. Degrees from American or British universities are regarded as
highly prestigious. In the absence of relevant individual competence, the need to
obtain such qualifications leads to and drives corruption. Transfer of credits from
certain unaccredited academic institutions to accredited ones also poses certain
problems that the admissions offices need to deal with.
The composition of the student body is also a concern in another sense. Although
the increasing number of overseas students may contribute to the international and
multicultural character of the contemporary university, financial reasons have led to
the decreasing of native graduate students. But can the international standing of a
research and teaching institution be sustained if it ceases producing the graduates to
staff it?
Second, there is also a cosmopolitan argument. The university is, among other
things, an institution with a distinct educational culture to which an international
student body will gravitate. Students wish to study abroad not only in search for future
job opportunities, but also because they feel the need to come in contact with other
people and cultures. Thus the modern university contributes in its own way to the
establishment of an intellectual ‘cosmocracy’.
Third, university students have also played a civic role, with international content,
that has been sustained and courageous. One needs to remember the events of May
1968 in Paris, the student democratization movements in Latin America, the student
mass protests in Eastern Europe, as well as the student participation in political events
in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Tiananmen Square. This is a great and commendable
dimension of the international university and it is one that should, in different forms,
continue.
As far as staffing is concerned, two important issues are raised. First, there is no
doubt that knowledge about other regions, countries and cultures increases when
universities offer academic positions to scholars coming from other places. Students
seem to appreciate this geographical and cultural diversity very much. On the other
hand, the most important issue on staffing concerns the impact of internationalization
609
on universities is the developing world but also in many countries of the developed
world. An OECD study published in The Economist (29 March 1997) illustrates
clearly that brain drain limits the possibilities for weaker countries to compete in the
global economy. A free market in academics, therefore, creates an oligarchic and
unbalanced world education system, which contradicts the basic idea of a global
diffusion of ideas and education. However, apart from financial considerations, one
should not underestimate the impact of academic structures and politics in certain
countries on the decision of qualified scholars to remain away from their native
countries. In other words, the question may not be whether a scholar wishes to go back
to his/her country or not but rather whether there are structures that allow him/her to
do so (employment perspective) or even whether he/she is welcomed by the native
academic community. Factional interests and academic politics are many times more
complicated than political ones.
The question of income is extremely important in today’s higher education. The
less the state wishes to support the university system, the more the universities need to
find ways to support financially their activities. Increasing the number of overseas
students, who usually pay higher fees, is one obvious way. Accepting donations from
foreign sources may be another. However, universities have to make sure that foreign
donations do not imply making universities hostage to particular interests while
academic considerations in admitting overseas students should be regarded as a highly
important matter for reasons discussed previously.
Finally, what is more central and has come to define what is meant by the
‘international’ university is information technology, which is closely linked with the
question of teaching location. Generally speaking, the deployment of technology
cannot replace entirely the qualities that come through real contact and intellectual
discussion. On-line discussions and the use of CDs, teleconferencing and video-
conferencing are the basic means devised to address the problem of instructor-student
contact absence. Many universities have also tried to put into action a strategy of
combining virtual interaction with regular campus visits to deal with the contact
deficit. However, the majority of universities do not possess the necessary technology
- or the financial means to obtain it - to offer such alternatives and therefore their on-
line programs lack interaction.
In addition, a reflection of how globalization has affected higher education is the
establishment of overseas campuses. Alternatively, universities may choose to enter
into student exchange and other agreements with local academic institutions. Certain
universities have managed to establish multiple campuses throughout the world. This
policy is very attractive for two reasons. First, the possibility of transferring from one
campus to another presents students with an opportunity to visit other places, live in
various countries and become familiar with the respective national cultures. Second,
from the perspective of the ‘international’ university, such a policy brings three main
benefits. First, it makes it easier for the university to deal with possible student visa
problems; second, it makes it cheaper for native students to study in a foreign
institution while living in their own country without, at the same time, the university
loosing potential ‘customers’; and third, the cost of recruiting instructors may be much
less due to the absence of relocation expenses and the level of local salaries.
610
External Environment
The university is not isolated from an external environment and the

internationalization of universities is itself dependent on and responsive to broader
changes in society. Some of these changes are positive others are negative.
First of all, not all foreign institutions with which a university cooperates may
share its values. Saudi or Pakistani universities, for example, do not share the same
values with American or British universities (Gellner 1987). Moreover, representatives
of less democratic and open foreign state institutions may interfere with the work of
students especially when the latter take a critical stance towards their countries’ highly
sensitive ‘national’ matters. Even smaller communities in students’ native countries
can be just as repressive. This does not mean one should not develop educational links,
but rather that one should be aware of what one is doing and never forget that there are
choices to be made.
Research has shown that the percentage of foreign coverage, in news and
documentaries, is shrinking (Gowing 1997). The reason might be that foreign news
costs more and there is a less interest in it. But the media have the responsibility to
analyze the world and educate the public. Instead, this function tends to be abandoned,
while the foreign is trivialized. Outside some serious media, such as the BBC, there is
a general decline in the commitment to analyze and comment while the number of
foreign documentaries has also declined. This has had important implications of how
one relates to the rest of the world for it has made any informed discussion of foreign
issues for politicians, academic and citizens alike more difficult (Cohen 1998). If you
are an academic and you teach international relations, you expect your students to read
the press and to follow developments in the media. However, the political and cultural
climate militates against it. Unfortunately, it is only after big tragedies and disasters
that media focus on international questions. But staying focused depends on many
parameters whether financial or political.
Turning to the international cultural environment, two disturbing developments
can be noted. The first is the definition of international in a mono-cultural, ahistorical
form. One can see this in areas related to the culture of universities, such as in the
publishing or entertaining industry (Guardian, 10 February 1998). International
television culture is also problematic. It used to be assumed that part of the respectable
journal or television series, was a regard for ideas and books, as well as history and
cultural diversity. Today, on international channels almost no one is allowed to speak
in any language but English. The subtitles, a technological means of acknowledging
respect for diversity has gone. As for programming, we have endless transient data and
sport.
But what are the specific academic issues that one needs to take into account when
dealing with the requirements of international education?
Issues in International Education and the Responsibility of the ‘International’

University
There are many important issues in international education. The most important
ones pertaining to the content of what we teach, and the way we teach. One is that of
foreign language competence. We live in a world where English has become a near-
universal second language. Students and researchers can, or think they can, do much of
their work, depending on the subject, in English alone. The globalization of English is
611
accompanied by decreasing interest and competence in anything but English in the

Anglo-Saxon educational system and educational life more generally. Generally
speaking, what ones sees at the university level is, therefore, a situation in which it is
no longer regarded as necessary or even significant for someone to have competence
in a foreign language. Until the early 1980s, competence in some foreign language was
a prerequisite for admission to any courses in the humanities and social sciences.
Today, knowledge of a foreign language is somehow an extra or an option. It is absurd
to assume that a language spoken as first tongue by a small percentage of the world’s
population can be sufficient to understanding the modern world. Little wonder that
some scholars see a continuation of imperial attitudes (Howard 1989:9; Carr 1961). It
is essential for the conduct of a wide range of activities (foreign affairs, business,
intelligence) that students have competence in foreign languages (perhaps more than
one) and the university should be able to ensure it by making foreign languages a
requirement for certain Majors. This would contribute to the increasing intercultural
understanding and as an extension to international cooperation and stability.
Academics are supposed to court the media and work together for enlightening the
general public about important issues. But journalists today do not know how to do a
good job. They do not have the education required to comprehend the issues with
which they deal. They are also not competent enough to take interviews and are unable
to register correctly what the interviewee has said. The result is that the general public
gets, including the students, an incomplete if not distorted picture of the world.
Moreover, because of their educational shortcomings, journalists tend to create their
own stories instead of being able to provide the facts. Although their job is to analyze
the events, they spend more of their time commenting on others’ comments. In the era
of increasing international upheaval, the university should make sure that the
communications departments produce professionals who can analyze and present cases
in a competitive and objective manner. This is an indirect contribution to international
peace and security.
One is right to be enthusiastic about developments in communication, but one
should also retain some critical perspective on it. Information technology is not the
solution to the problems of modern universities (Halliday, 1999:111). First of all,
information itself in not equivalent to knowledge, let alone to the ability to analyze and
explain. Secondly, the Internet has no quality control and there is no guarantee of
reliability. Thirdly, there is no answer on what the central issues, analytical and
ethical, confronting social scientists and citizens today are (Ashworth 1995). One
cannot address the cause of war, or nationalism or state breakdown, nor can one decide
on the rights of self-determination, or the legitimate use of violence, or the right to
asylum.
We live in an age that proclaims its multiculturalism, and where the study of
nationalism is part of the curriculum. Yet never has university culture in the Anglo-
Saxon world been less multicultural, less open to the other in this cultural and
linguistic sense and as a result less critical of the household gods. This neglect of
language is closely related to another curiously introverted feature of globalization:
that of the content of the social sciences themselves. On the one side, one sees a
decline in what is conventionally referred to as ‘area studies’; that is departments,
courses, posts in which knowledge of social science is combined with knowledge of
region or country, its history, language and culture. In the close past, area studies were
regarded as an important and growing area of social science, both in Europe and the
U.S. However, things changed in the 1990s. Funding was in decline, posts were not
being filled, and the academic defense of area studies and specialists had fallen off. It
612
has also been suggested that in the U.S. universities were no longer hiring graduates in
diplomatic history.
Part of this decline has been due to the end of the Cold War. There was no longer
the need to know about hostile, or dangerous, regions of the world, except to make
fatuous generalizations about Islam, Japan or China. According to the International
Herald Tribune (30 April 1998), the argument is that ‘since we beat them we do not
need to study them’. Growing concerns with intercultural conflict helped to bring area
studies back. One should hope that this trend is now definitely reversed although it
took the tragic events of 9/11 to achieve change of course. But it is a paradox that
conflict is needed to justify the return of area studies to the university curriculum when
it is partly the purpose of area studies to minimize – if not eliminate – problems arising
from cultural diversity.
The problem of the area studies decline has also partly arisen due to the spread
within the social sciences of a spurious scientifically philistine concept of science.
What we have often today is a hegemony of style over content, a vacuous and banal
obsession with methods, the inscription of such approaches within certain
unwarrantedly hegemonic departments, and their increasing focus on abstract,
deductive or unwarrantedly quantitative approaches to their fields of study. Part of the
neglect also arises from the overstated and ill-substantiated critique by some post-
modernists of the world enterprise of seeking to understand other societies.
All social sciences involve some balance of the abstract and the applied, some
knowledge of an understanding of specific histories, countries, and cultures. This is
one of the university’s creative tensions. It is not possible to study any significant
social science without some knowledge of this dimension. In a revealing article in the
International Herald Tribune (20 March 1998) the economist Robert Samuelson wrote
of the confusion at listening to the chairman of the Federal Reserve, Alan Greenspan,
testifying to the Congress about the Asian financial crisis. Samuelson realized that
neither he nor Greenspan, for all their data and all their deductive theories, knew what
was going on, let alone what was going to happen. The answer lies in politics and
culture, in the dreams and fears of people, as well as in something no social scientist
will ever master, the unpredictable flow of human events.
From the point of view of public debate, or of potential employers, knowledge that
is not related to that of concrete societies and their problems is also devalued. It is a
small wonder that in the U.S. voices of concern at the overly abstract output of
universities have been heard. Also that when faced with the great unexpected
upheavals of recent years the social sciences have been attacked for their lack of
insight and foresight. The case of the British Embassy in Teheran is relevant here
(cited in Halliday, 1999:111). When the time to make cuts came, the first person who
was fired was the man who studied the mullahs in Iran. An official of the US
Department of Defense recently commented on the quality of courses and graduates
they were receiving. ‘They have taken no course in diplomatic history or world
history, they know nothing about international law, they speak no foreign languages,
they have no knowledge of foreign countries and areas. All they can do is
mathematical models. They are useless unless they are re-trained’ (cited in Halliday:
1999:110). Thus changes in the university curriculum to meet the challenges of a
globalizing world require both its enlargement, in terms of subjects taught, and
internationalization, in terms of subject content (Nelson 2006).
The need to deal effectively with an increasingly multicultural student body and
respond in an intellectual manner to international problems in a multicultural world
has five important consequences for the ‘international’ university (Stivachtis 2006).
613
First, an interdisciplinary approach is required to comprehend the complexity of

cultures. Second, to deal effectively with the complex question of human rights in a
multicultural world, different university departments should be able to conduct
research on the historical continuation of cultures in an effort to identify similarities
and differences between them necessary to establish a set of universal standards for
inter-human contact. Third, universities should participate in the proposed cross-
cultural dialogue to give it intellectual depth and provide forums for patient and
probing exchanges of views and help generate a rational consensus that can be fed into
international gatherings. Universities should also maintain close contacts with
governments and international organizations and complement them in their efforts to
identify non-ethnocentric universal values (Parekh 1999). Fourth, universities should
make their students familiar with the parochialism and danger of discriminatory
concepts, such as racism. It is the duty of the university to reveal the politics behind
the use of academic concepts. Last, but not least, it is the responsibility of the
university to create students able to perform the functions and duties of what Costas
Constantinou (2006) has called ‘homo-diplomacy’. Students, who, in mediating the
cultural ‘other’, will extend the normalized space of diplomatic action, will be able to
elevate Self and Other to a spiritual realm and will be able and willing to transform
hostile or potentially hostile relationships. Human-diplomacy seeks to enhance
introspective negotiation, which moves away from the idea of it being essentially
bargaining, simply the business of pursuing one’s national or self-interest. Human-
diplomacy functions by reverse accreditation in the sense that the diplomatic
credentials are handed over not by an authorizing sender but by the recipient of the
message to a ‘diplomat’ who shows understanding and respect for the receiver.
Finally, human-diplomacy involves a ‘gnostic discourse’ meaning the need for a
comprehensive and critical self-understanding.
Conclusion
The purpose of this paper was to discuss the effects of globalization on

universities and how the latter can deal effectively with the pressures of
internationalization. In so doing, it examined the impact of globalization on the
academic world by focusing first on the economic context in which universities
operate and the constraints that they face; second, on how market forces have impacted
the way universities function; and third, how universities contribute to society’s
knowledge. The article argued that globalization should not at any cost mean
homogenization. The article then discussed the various aspects of university
internationalization as well as the phenomenon of university internationalization itself
by placing it into a historical context. It suggested that internationalization or
globalization is not a new phenomenon and that because of their very nature
universities are national and international at the same time. Emphasis was given to the
four evident longer-run respects in which the international dimension of the university
is visible, namely the composition of the student body and the faculty, the
geographical sources of university finance and the university’s location. Moreover, the
article investigated the effects of the external political and cultural environment on the
universities and their choices while it provided a detailed discussion of a set of
significant issues in international education, such as the importance of learning foreign
languages, enriching university curriculum by adding new subjects and
internationalizing the contents of those subjects as well as existing ones, the need to
614
improve mass media performance by providing a better education for journalists, re-
introducing ‘area-studies’, making the university a central and important actor in the
definition of non-ethnocentric universal values, and the need for the university to
produce students who can serve as human-diplomats.
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Business
Management
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Managerial Education in Poland after 1990
56
Aldona Andrzejczak, Poznan University of Economics
he socio-economic pro-market transformation initiated in Poland in the 1990s
T gave rise to a rapid development of education, especially economic education.

What took place was a real boom, an increased interest in economic studies,
which resulted in a higher number of management schools, mostly private
ones, and the creation of new university courses and specialisations. Changes in the
supply of basic education were accompanied by a spectacular development of
continuous managerial education, because it was not only people entering the labour
market but also professionally active employees who were interested in improving
their knowledge and skills in order to meet the requirements of the new economic
situation.
The aim of this paper is to present the main directions of quantitative and
qualitative changes that took place in managerial education in Poland, and to
determine to what extent they satisfy the requirements of managers’ labour market.
Changes in the Supply of Economic Education
Scale of Education
Poland’s new economic situation, a consequence of systemic transformation,

caused considerable changes in the labour market. The restructuring of employment
changed the country’s obsolete employment structure, which was characterised by a
high (30%) employment rate in agriculture, and the 35% employment rate in the
manufacturing and construction industries. Changes in employment were visible in
particular industries and ownership sectors. Rationalisation of employment, a decrease
in the demand for labour, and too slow an increase in the number of jobs led to
unemployment – a new phenomenon in Poland’s labour market. From the very
beginning, unemployment in Poland hit mostly young people, which might explain the
eruption of Poles’ educational aspirations on an unprecedented scale. For young
people, obtaining a university degree became, on the one hand, an escape from
dramatically growing unemployment, on the other – a hope for greater chances of
getting a job through the acquisition of qualifications needed by the new economy.
619
Higher education in Poland was made widely available fairly quickly. Within three
years, the number of students doubled, and then grew several times every year. These
processes were stimulated not only by a growing demand for higher studies but also by
liberalisation in higher education management, and by a financing system which made
the allotment of funds for education dependent on the number of students.
The increase in student population was not distributed equally. Some subjects
experienced stability or even regression, as was the case of technical subjects. Social
and business subjects enjoyed by far the greatest dynamics of growth. A visible
symptom of managerial education development in Poland was the growing number of
business students, which increased almost eightfold in the years 1990-2004 (see table
1). Such a significant growth in student population was possible thanks to greater
recruitment to state schools and the establishment of a network of non-state schools
(see table 2 and 3). Non-state schools were founded on the basis of the Higher
Education Act of September 1991, which broke the previous state-school monopoly.
Thanks to the Act, in various parts of Poland outside traditional academic centres,
there soon appeared non-state schools, most of which provided business education.
Despite a lot of criticism against them, they considerably increased the accessibility of
higher education and improved scholarisation indices. Another step towards a greater
accessibility of education at the tertiary level was the establishment of state higher
professional schools on the basis of the Higher Professional Schools Act of 26 June
1997. Such schools enable students to obtain a bachelor’s degree outside traditional
academic centres. The quantitative increase in managerial education was, therefore, a
consequence of the educational offer having been made more flexible formally,
geographically and materially.
Figure 1. Number of Educational Institutions Offering Business and Management

Education
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1994 1997 1999
State HE institutions Non-state HE institutions Others
Source: Informator o szkołach biznesu w Polsce, BKKK, Warszawa 1994, 1999,2000,
The dynamic quantitative changes in the managerial education system were

accompanied by other processes, the most important of which are:
• the introduction of a two-level education system in order to adapt the Polish

education system to the Bologna process,
620
• a noticeably higher proportion of students among 19-24-year olds, a

consequence of liberalised recruitment procedures and increased admission
limits,
• a rapid increase in the number of evening and extra-mural students, an effect
of legislation allowing universities to charge tuition fees (with the exception
of the full-time mode),
• efforts to prevent teaching quality from falling as a consequence of the
massive popularity of education - academic initiatives to set up various
accreditation institutions.
Offer Diversification
Since the early 1990s, the higher-level education offer has been diversified and
expanded. Instead of five-year master’s degree studies offered so far, two-level studies
have been introduced. Some other factors diversifying the managerial education offer
are: the status of the educational institution, academic subjects offered, and education
forms.
The supply of services is very diverse, first of all because of the abundance of
institutions offering education in the fields of business and administration. Just among
state universities, there are several models:
• universities of economics,
• faculties of management at universities as well as higher technical,
agricultural and medical schools,
• state professional schools offering bachelor’s degree programmes.
It should be added that non-economic universities enthusiastically started teaching

business subjects, seeing in them a chance for their own development. Also non-state
schools offer programmes at various levels, especially as part of the evening and the
extra-mural modes. In the period analysed, the number of evening students at these
schools increased tenfold, whereas the number of extra-mural students grew almost
twenty times.
The unprecedented popularity of management and economic programmes in
Poland can, to a large extent, be attributed to the economic system in which, as it
evolved towards a free-market model, managerial competences began to be
appreciated more than previously. There was also an increasing demand for
competences less known and less useful in a planned economy, e.g. marketing,
strategic analysis or human resource management. The appearance of foreign
investments boosted the demand for IT and international business specialists. The
anticipated EU accession generated interest in European studies.
The above trends led to the creation of a very rich offer of subjects. Officially,
students have a choice of 20 subjects but in actual fact, since students can freely shape
their specialisations, the choice is much bigger. Altogether, full-time studies offer 169
different programmes, extra-mural studies – 183, and evening studies – 59 (B.
Minkiewicz 2001). However, every year the offer is enriched and made more varied
by all types of schools, which in this way want to attract students. Competition
releases schools’ initiative in offering specialisations which are increasingly often
defined in “market” terms.
Business schools’ enriched educational offer includes also post-master’s degree
studies and MBA studies, previously nonexistent in Poland. Both state and non-state
621
schools started to enlarge the offer of post-master’s degree studies because demand for
them increased and because these paid studies enable especially state universities to
improve their financial situation. In the years 1990-2004, the number of post-master’s
degree students increased from around two thousand to 24.5 thousand. The subjects of
post-master’s degree studies are very diverse. Students can learn or hone their skills in
fields such as strategic management, corporate finance management, human resource
management, PR, quality management, education management, health care
management etc. These examples of subject areas suggest that post-master’s degree
studies give educational opportunities to people whose previously-acquired
qualifications did not take into consideration new requirements of the market
economy. Research results indicate that such studies are often undertaken by young
people intending to enhance their chances of finding a more interesting job.
Figure 2. The Increase of Post- Master Degree Students
14000
12 432 12 627
11 907
12000
10000 9401
8000 State
6000 Non-state
4000
2025 2263
2000
0 0
0
1990 1992 2002 2004
Source: Szkoły wyższe i ich finanse, GUS, Warszawa
Universities respond to growing demand also by developing doctoral studies. In

1994 these were offered only by the Poznań University of Economics. At present, full-
time and evening doctoral studies are conducted by faculties of numerous schools
possessing the right to confer the doctor’s degree in management, insurance,
economics, marketing, or international business. The total number of doctoral students
in the field of economics is over 4.5 thousand, including one thousand people doing
full-time studies. A great interest in this form of education testifies to the growing
importance of investing in human capital, both individually and in organisations.
622
Figure 3. The Increase of Doctorate Students in Economic Subjects
5000 4534
4500
4000 3756
3500
3000
Total
2500
1829 Full time
2000
1500 1092 1006
1000
494
500
0
2000 2002 2004
Source: Szkoły wyższe i ich finanse, GUS, Warszawa
Companies’ changed attitude towards management, increased competition, and

international concerns’ investments in Poland created ideal conditions for a rapid
career progression of people who had the practical skills of solving management
problems. All this created conditions conducive to the development of MBA
programmes, which offer top-quality education to middle and top managers. MBA
studies have existed in Poland since1989, the year Warsaw’s International
Management School was opened. At present, over forty MBA programmes are being
taught. Almost all schools running MBA programmes co-operate with foreign
partners, use their curricula and educational standards, and are visited by foreign
lecturers. The programme is very popular owing to its prestigious character. The value
of the diploma translates into a promotion, better pay and new job offers. This value is
increased by the awareness of being able to meet the challenges of modern business,
which results from a practical orientation of the studies.
Internationalisation of Education
Internationalisation of education is a natural consequence of economic

globalisation and of the Bologna process; it is also facilitated by the development of
communication technologies. Internationalisation of education is made up of many
elements: education content and methods, teaching staff, co-operation between
universities, academic research, student exchange and the role of foreign languages. In
this article we can indicate only the most important aspects of the process.
Firstly, the process of internationalisation of studies has been significantly
accelerated thanks to support received as part of the Phare, USAID and Know How
Fund programmes, as well as various other EU funds. Especially in the first stage of
transformation, this assistance took the form of joint personnel-education projects, the
financing of training courses, as well as expert and advisory missions. Another stage
consisted of supporting institutional activities, promoting and improving education
quality and innovativeness. Secondly, despite many imperfections of various projects,
these contributed to a great opening of the education system to international models
and experiences in the fields of education, research and educational institution
management. Thirdly, what was most significant for education development in Poland
623
was the internationalisation of education programmes understood not only as

education content but as a whole process of programme design, implementation and
improvement. A major part here was played by teaching staff and student exchange as
part of the Socrates-Erasmus programme.
Table 1. Number of Students of Business and Management by Study System

Year Total Study system
full time evening Part time
1994 103 556 51 241 6 238 46 063
1996 189 537 69 245 15 999 104 354
1998 335 168 95 331 25 889 212 310
2000 436 674 114 281 30 921 288 653
2002 450 902 128 556 26 760 291 857
2004 418 303 135 932 15 204 261 786
Source: Rocznik Statystyczny GUS, Warszawa 1995 – 2002, Szkoły wyższe i ich finanse,
GUS, Warszawa 1999, 2004.
Table 2. Number of Students of Business and Management at State HE Institutions

full time evening part time
1994 88 264 43 203 5 814 39 233
1996 125 526 50 797 10 231 64 493
1998 168 604 60 227 13 840 94 535
2002 244 567 93 386 15 901 131 179
2004 234 856 102 289 10 874 121 648
Source: as in table 1
Table 3. Number of Students of Business and Management at Non-State HE

Institutions
full time evening part time
1994 15 292 8 038 432 6 830
1996 64 011 18 448 5 768 39 861
1998 166 564 35 104 12 049 117 775
2002 206 335 35 170 10 859 156 678
2004 183 447 33 643 4 330 149 138
Source: as in table 1
Changing Demand for Managers in the Business Environment
A New Manager Profile and Characteristics of Polish Management Personnel
In a global economy and global companies, the role of well-prepared managers is

increasingly important since managers’ mistakes may seriously threaten the whole
economy. Increasingly often, however, even well-known and thriving companies run
into trouble. Of the FORTUNE 500, only eleven companies made a loss in 1969,
seventy did so in 1985, and as many as 149 companies encountered problems in 1992.
Companies’ problems are usually caused by their inability to adapt to a changing
environment early enough. This is why well-qualified managers occupying top
positions in businesses, government and non-government organisations can protect
society from suffering the costs of wrong decisions.
624
There have been many attempts to define a model of management skills. One
example is the AchieveGlobal research, whose aim was to define, using the critical
events method, leadership skills needed to cope with situations which require
initiative, control, and the ability to introduce changes to methods used so far. The
research, which involved 2,000 people from various levels of the organisational
hierarchy, distinguished 17 competences, which determined five basic effectiveness
strategies: Create – Let – Involve – Manage – Build (CLIMB). Competences
expressed in behavioural categories are a good aim for educational and training
activities (H. Bergman, K. Hurson, D. Russ, 2000, p.107).
However, a survey of managers employed in Polish companies suggests that
reality is different from this model, even though the 1990s brought substantial changes
in the population of Polish managers. Reporting on a study conducted in the mid-
1990s, J. Szaban (2000) notes high levels of senior management turnover. The
majority of directors have many years’ work experience, but those who have been
directors for no more than three years are becoming an increasingly important group.
What takes place – and is confirmed by research findings – is the “rejuvenation” of
management personnel, the majority of whom are 40-50 years old. The proportion of
women managers has also grown - from 3% to 15%. Research conducted in 1996
indicated that in 81-89% of cases directors and presidents of state-companies and
National Investment Funds (NIFs) had a master’s degree (whereas in private
companies the figure was 58%). Company presidents and vice-presidents were
economists (50% in NIFs and 30% in state companies) or engineers (36% and 32%,
respectively). In the energy sector and the metallurgical industry, 85-95% of managers
had a technical background (Szaban 2000).
Competence Requirements for Graduates
Opinions from prestigious schools which maintain direct contact with employers
are an interesting source of information on employers’ recruitment requirements. One
example is the antinomy of traditional recruitment requirements and the requirements
of tomorrow formulated by INSEAD, a prestigious international business school (see
Table 4).
Table 4. Comparison of Traditional and Future Requirements from Management

Graduates
Traditional managerial qualifications Qualifications of the manager of tomorrow
Manager as an individual supporting an Manager as a team member
organisation
Analytical skills / quantitative analysis Interpersonal skills
Functional skills Skills integration
Knowledge of national cultural determinants Understanding of intercultural determinants of
business
Power as a function of one’s position in the Power as a function of one’s work for the company
organisation
Focus on formal education Focus on professional achievements
Risk minimisation Risk as an opportunity for action and development
Management “by numbers” Understanding of economic phenomena and
processes
Ability to work in a bureaucratic structure Ability to work individually
Source: U. Teichler, New Perspectives of the Relationships between Higher Education and
Employment, “Tertiary Education and Management” 2000, No 2, p.87.
625
Management graduates are expected to adapt to changing work requirements.

Interpersonal skills, personality development, and learning gain in importance. The
rapid obsolescence of knowledge and the interdisciplinary nature of managers’ work
content result in an increased significance of general competences and transferable
skills. While recognising their importance, we cannot ignore professional skills. The
best guarantee of satisfying employers’ expectations is to set educational standards
through benchmarking. For instance, British models consist in creating standards of
the graduate’s professional achievements with reference to knowledge and
understanding, as well as specialist and general skills. In the case of business
graduates, an additional category was introduced – transferable concepts, which
develop the skill of decision making in a changing environment. (Subject Benchmark
Statements, 2000)
Graduate Labour Market
In the early stages of the economic transformation process, the university graduate
labour market was thriving. The economy used to absorb successive waves of
university graduates, and the low unemployment rate among graduates encouraged
young people to undertake higher studies. This was an effect of, first of all, a low
saturation of the economy with university degree holders, which in the early 1990s
stood at approximately 9%. This favourable situation began to change in 1998, when it
was noticed that graduates more and more often encountered difficulty in finding a
job. This was caused by a slower economic growth and increasing numbers of
graduates in successive years.
In the 1990s, almost a third of all graduates had a business or management degree.
As the most popular subject was management and marketing, it was management and
marketing graduates who were the first to experience difficulty in finding a job. The
increasing unemployment rate among graduates is particularly painful in local labour
markets, especially in areas with a low level of economic development and too few
new jobs; hence the accelerating process of economic migration abroad among young
well-educated Poles.
The speed of university graduate absorption varies even among highly developed
countries. In OECD countries, a year after graduation, graduate unemployment rate
fluctuates between 2% and 52% in the case of universities and between 4% and 58%
in the case of higher professional schools. Five years after graduation, the
unemployment rate falls markedly to 3-10%, which confirms the thesis that, in the
long term, unemployment risk among well-educated people decreases (Education at a
Glance, 1997).
Continuous Managerial Education
Development of the Training Services Market
The educational and training services market in the area of management is

heterogeneous, with many organisations, both public and private. Among them are:
- state and non-state education establishments,

- non-governmental training centres, foundations and associations,
- chambers of commerce, state institutes and training centres,
626
- commercial establishments
Continuous managerial education involves longer academic forms and short forms
offering various kinds of training. Longer forms, which are usually provided by
universities, involve MBA and post-master’s degree studies. Although some schools
also add training to their offer, this applies mostly to non-state schools. Shorter
trainings are usually offered by commercial training companies. In recent years, we
have seen a rapid development of this sector of services. It is difficult to establish the
exact number of organisers of various training courses. However, special mention
should be made of training firms which offer high-quality, professionally-made, open
training courses and specially customised courses for companies.
In the period investigated, training companies developed very rapidly – in the
years 1990-1999, their number rose sixfold. Their activity should be appreciated for
their professionalism and ability to avoid many limitations of school education. The
biggest advantages of training firms include:
• relevance of content, which is adapted to the individually diagnosed needs

of a company or group
• training content and form adapted to participants’ preparation and
previously-defined needs
• flexible and up-to-date content, which – according to market rules – must
meet actual needs of the customer
• good teaching skills of trainers, thanks to a system of training effectiveness
assessment, and employment being dependent on one’s teaching skills
Training companies’ offer is the widest in the fields of management, human

resource management, interpersonal skills and marketing. Demand for training
depends on company size. A survey conducted among personnel managers during the
2004 Training Fair suggests that smaller firms are more interested in marketing
training, whereas bigger companies are more interested in sectoral issues and
management.
Apart from training courses run by outside training firms, many companies have
in-house training systems based on management and specialist staff specially prepared
for the purpose. On-the-job and off-the-job training uses a number of very effective
individual and group methods, including coaching, mentoring, e-learning and group
projects. Some large companies combine outside and in-house forms of training,
which thus reinforce each other (e.g. Unilever, P&G, Masterfoods, etc.).
Employers’ Involvement in Managerial Skills Development
In the 1990s, organisations noticed the need to improve management knowledge

and skills. In the first stage, this craving for knowledge concerned first of all
economics, finance, law and foreign languages. In the following years, research
findings showed a change in these trends and the popularity of human resource
management issues. However, the scope and forms of training, especially training
organised and financed by companies, are not satisfactory. In 1997, almost half of the
companies surveyed did not spend any money on their managers’ professional
development, 29% of managers did not devote a single day to managerial training,
70% of the 540 managers surveyed had no opportunity to receive managerial training
(Szaban 2000). Other research, conducted in 1998, shows that 17.5% of training
627
courses organised or financed by employers are managerial training, and that 28% of
trainees were managers (Andrzejczak, 1998).What is optimistic are 2002 research
findings which indicate that 81.7% of firms do not find any gaps in their management
staff’s qualifications (Rybak, 2003).
The awareness of the need to raise qualifications depends on company size; in
larger companies, this need is expressed by 76% of managers (in smaller firms
employing up to 9 people – by only 65%), However, since some trainings are
obligatory, they take place in the majority of companies. As Data Group’s research of
January 2001 shows, companies attach more importance to management staff training
than to the training of other employees. This is confirmed by the average numbers of
training days, by company type, presented in Table 5.
Table 5. The Average Number of Training Days per Employee, by Company Type
Employee category State companies Private companies Foreign companies
Senior management 5.5 6.6 6.0
Middle management 5.2 7.3 6.8
Specialists 5.8 5.1 7.4
Office workers 4.9 4.6 5.1
Shop-floor workers 3.9 4.2 6.6
source: Data Group, www.szkolenia.com
It is worthwhile to point out another characteristic of training organised in Poland.

Top management is seldom involved in training. Analyses of managerial staff’s
training needs show that managers prefer training which involves skills they need
themselves. Among the very top management, there are different opinions on the
usefulness of various skills, especially social ones (A. Andrzejczak, 1998).
Evaluation of Managerial Education Adapted to New Requirements
Trying to evaluate the changes made in managerial education after 1990, we can
state that in terms of quantity the education system responded by significantly
expanding its offer and by creating new, mostly non-public education establishments,
which satisfied the changing economy’s demand for new managerial qualifications.
What should be strongly emphasised is the enriched educational offer, which increased
the availability of school and non-school forms of managerial education outside
traditional academic centres. Thanks to this, the general education level of those
employed in the economic sector was able to approach European standards.
Owing to a partial restoration of the free market, the educational offer was very
quickly adapted to world standards of managerial education. There appeared
specialisations and educational forms whose free-market character was confirmed by
interest from business practice. Education and business built a closer relationship,
whose nature guarantees a further development of the offer.
Even despite some reservations about teaching quality on account of the massive
popularity of studies, a large proportion of graduates have gained modern
qualifications consistent with international standards. This was possible thanks to an
increasing internationalisation of studies.
Some changes in schools may seem too slow; mechanisms of evaluating and
selecting teaching staff are still not effective enough. However, managerial education
to a considerable degree meets market expectations. We can also see the first signs of
628
market polarisation and offer diversification in terms of quality, which might imply
maturation of the market.
As for the supply of education services in the area of continuous managerial
education, the offer also generally meets today’s requirements, although this market is
far less mature. There are also problems with the absorption of training by companies.
This is caused by insufficient awareness of training needs, which in turn springs from
outdated qualifications of some management personnel. However, this state of affairs
is changing rapidly, together with the growing level of education among Poles.
References
Andrzejczak A.,(1998) Raport z badań nad szkoleniem kadry kierowniczej. WSB. Poznań,
Bergman H., Hurson K., Russ D., (2000), Lider w każdym z nas. Wyd. Galaktyka, Łódź,
Education at a Glance (1997) OECD Indicators 1997, OECD/CERI, Paris,
Minkiewicz B.(2001) (ed) Zmiany na rynku edukacji ekonomicznej w Polsce w latach
dziewięćdziesiątych.BKKK, Warszawa ,
Rybak M., (2003) (ed.) Kapitał ludzki a konkurencyjność przedsiebiorstw. Poltext, Warszawa,
Subject Benchmark Statement, (2000), Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education,
Glucester,
Szaban J., (2000), Przemiany roli polskich dyrektorów w wyniku zmian ustrojowych: od
dyrektora do euromenadżera, Wydaw. Wyższej Szkoły Przedsiębiorczości i Zarządzania
im. L.Koźmińskiego, Warszawa 2000,
Teichler U.(2000), New Perspectives of the Relationships between Higher Education and
Employment, “Tertiary Education and Management” 2000, No 2.
629
630
Management Education at Risk-Again?
57
Natasa Mithans, University of Primorska
M
anagement education is a creature of two different worlds - academia and
the business world – therefore it has always been caught up in the endless
cycle of the same arguments of being either too vocational or too academic.
Since its beginnings business schools were trying to find a curriculum that
would establish business education as an academic discipline but at the same time be
practical and relevant for the business world. Although business schools have been
around for over a century, they still have not found the “perfect mix”. Every so often
strong critiques, either from academia or business world, emerge proclaiming the end
of the business education or calling for more practical or academically rigorous
research and teaching. But every time such critiques are raised, business schools find a
way to satisfy them with slight changes in their curriculum or mission statements and
manage to come out stronger than ever before.
In 1959, when the Ford and Carnegie reports were published, new ‘rules’ were
established for a rigid kind of curriculum, which has been the basis for every MBA
and other management education ever since. Science was its new “religion”. Science
could reveal the secrets of the universe; science provided one with tools to control
nature, to predict the future; “[s]cience becomes the answer to man’s problems in
mastering his world” (Crump and Costea, 2003:8). Positivism appeared as the obvious
solution for the “scientification” of business education; it provided management
academics with tools for rigorous research that they were missing and what is most
important, positivism promised techniques of controlling and making the unpredictable
predictable. Although in the 1970s the ‘Newtonian’ scientific paradigm, on which
management science was based, was proven wrong and the result was an
epistemological crisis within science itself, the epistemology of mainstream
management education has not changed (Thomas, 1997). There have been many calls
for management education to open up to alternative forms of knowledge (i.e. Whitley
1981, 1984a, 1984b; Anthony and Reed, 1992; O’Reilly, 1994; Elliott and Reynolds,
2002), but these alternative ontologies and epistemologies (post-modernism,
humanities, nonpositivist social sciences etc.) are confronted with a crucial problem,
the problem of “relevance”.
631
“In effect, management education is caught in a trap: positivism holds out the
techniques of controlling the world; managers want and expect to be provided
with technical knowledge; therefore to dethrone positivism seems like a
suicidal act, at least as management education is currently conceived.”
(Thomas, 1997:693)
The result is that management education gets further alienated from both social
sciences and the business world.
The aim of this study is not to discuss whether management education is too
academic or too vocational, because this question has been on the agenda since the
first business school was established in 1881 and has yet to be answered. In my
opinion, it will never be answered in the way that would satisfy both parties because,
as Locke (1989, 1996, 1998) argues, management schools are an American invention,
a cultural peculiarity seeking to professionalize management and to educate a highly
paid elite of experts. And here lies the problem: a profession – like medicine, law, and
engineering – is an occupation, which must have a foundation of science and a motive
of service and it cannot be practiced without formal training. Science can be taught to
people without experience and so a formally trained person can almost always
outperform a layperson (Mintzberg, 2004a). But management is neither a science nor a
profession; it is more an art based on experience, intuition, talent etc. There is no
codified knowledge that would solve a problem with the same symptoms, like in
medicine, there is no ‘one best way’ to manage (Mintzberg 2004a), because managing
involves rational (or irrational?) human beings with their own perception of the world.
Management literature 1 seems to ignore the diversity of human nature and the
complexity of the social and historical worlds in which organisations operate (Crump
and Costea 2003). But it is not just the world outside organisations that is complex and
inherently opened. Organisations themselves are immensely complicated.
In this study it will be argued that, although business schools, as a response to the
critiques, change their curriculum, such changes are only superficial and do not affect
the core curriculum, which has stayed practically unchanged since 1960s. First a short
review of different management education critiques will be given followed by a
history of management education which will lead to a debate about the situation today.
Critique Of Management Education
Discussion about management (business) education in academic circles focuses on

the extent to which it contributes to the development of managers or to the influence it
has (or does not have) on competitiveness of particular countries. Although, as
Aaronson (1996) points out, there is much written about management education, only
a handful of articles and publications is devoted to its critique. As she wrote,
“In May 1994, a computer search of articles of graduate business

education published in 1991-4 was carried out. Of 693 articles, twelve (or
2 per cent) criticized MBA education, and eighteen examined the
relationship between the business community and MBAs.” (Aaronson , in
Amdam, 1996:221)
1
Here we are talking about mainstream management textbooks and other mainstream
management literature that is based on positivistic ontology and functionalism.
632
The same research was done by Costea (2000) for the period 1997-1999 and the
result was no better than the one by Aaronson. He found more than 3000 articles on
management education but the “percentage of critical analysis of the relationship
between business education and practice as well as the internal conceptual problems of
the MBA itself is extremely low. In fact, it can be considered almost negligible.”
(Costea, 2000:217)
While critical articles are in minority, the critique is very rich, especially the ones
that examine the relationship between the management education and the business
world. Locke has made the most significant contribution. In his two studies, The End
of Practical Man (1984) and Management and Higher Education Since 1940 (1989) he
made a systematic comparison between business education and national
competitiveness concentrating on three main European countries (Britain, France and
Germany) and United States. He also looked at Japan and its distinctive way of
managing and educating managers without business schools. In his first book, dealing
with the period from 1880 to 1940, Locke explains how business schools were
established owing to changes in the social organisation of the work (companies grew
too big to be managed by owners) and the need for a new type of manager. Business
schools promised to present solutions to these new needs. The conclusion of his first
book is that although management schools developed in a response to business needs,
by the 1940s, management education distanced itself from management practice by
employing applied science and scientific mentality.
In his second book, dealing with the period after the 1940s, Locke argues that
management education has entered a New Paradigm that assumed, due to the success
of applied science in the World War II, that it was both possible and necessary to
create and develop management science that could be taught as a basis for
management practice. This paradigm arose from a complex set of interrelated
developments; scientific discoveries led to science induced industry thus enabling
large scale production that required qualified and educated people to manage it. Thus
by the 1960s “management had become the focus of science and science the focus of
management as never before.” (Locke, 1989:26) This trend has led to a growing gap
between management education and practice and in 1960s the first critiques have
emerged that accused management education of being to esoteric and remote from
“real world” practice. Although some were proclaiming the demise of business schools
and especially MBAs, this has not happened yet, in contrary after every such critique
management education grew stronger. The answer to its unstoppable popularity could
be found in Locke’s argument that American business schools invented management
in order to professionalize the management function and to educate a new “highly paid
elite of experts” (1996:34).
Besides “inventing” management, American business schools introduced
functionalist understanding of organisations. Locke argues that American business
schools have an “instrumental view of education, that knowledge can be applied to
problem- solving in a variety of situations. This view has led to a great appreciation of
intelligence and knowledge in the elite […]” (1996:38) Thus the human agent became
Homo oeconomicus, a rational subject who fulfils his desires and needs according to
economic rationality. As Hollis described him nicely:
“Few text books contain a direct portrait of rational economic man … He

lurks in the assumptions leading an enlightened existence between input
and output, stimulus and response. He is neither tall nor short, fat nor thin,
633
married nor single. There is no telling whether he loves his dog, beats his
wife or prefers pushpin to poetry. We do not know what he wants. But we
do know that, whatever it is, he will maximize ruthlessly to get it.” (Hollis
in Hodgson 1988: p.73)
To wrap up Locke’s argument of his second book, it can be said that his aim is to
show that although management education was and still is growing significantly in
Western society, especially in Anglo-Saxon countries, it cannot be shown that it leads
to a greater economic competitiveness.
There are also other important critiques developed by different authors that
explore the relation between management education and national competitiveness, but
an extensive analysis would exceed the scope of this article. Therefore only few will
be mentioned in brief. Thomas (1997:696) is building his argument on Locke’s New
Paradigm and extending his analysis beyond 1990s, calling this period a ‘post-
paradigm mode’. He concludes that “learning about management will continue, for
better or worse, in organizational workplace with or without the contribution of formal
management education.” Also Elliasson (1998) and Aaronson (1996) share the same
opinion that companies and other training institutions will come in a direct competition
with business schools for development of future leaders. In her other article Aaronson
(1992) discusses relationship between academia and business and the influence that
business education has on managerial attitudes and practice. Also Lorange (1996) and
Amdam (1996) were concerned with this theme. In the book edited by Amdam is a
collection of articles that examine the influence of American management education
system on particular European countries.
Another stream of authors is concerned with management education itself and how
it could be developed and improved so that it would overcome its shortcomings.
Mintzberg (2004a, 2004b) and Gosling (1996, 2003) developed a new program the
intention of which is to stand in a direct opposition to the MBA. They call this a third
generation of management development. They offer a radically new approach to the
relationship between management education and practice by developing the notion of
managerial mindset. Manager is seen as a part of a wider social ordering with
responsibilities not only towards an organisation and its employees but also to society
and environment.
Crump and Costea (1999, 2003) aim to develop an alternative course design for
organisational behaviour (OB) for undergraduate management students. They argue
that OB in mainstream management education deprives students of the richness of the
social world and gives them a false impression of harmonic and conflict-less
organisations where employees can be managed by knowing few oversimplified
methods (motivation theory, Belbin’s teams etc.). “This type of approach has a great
seductive power: it is making complicated things simple, facile. But in doing so, it also
generates a form of intellectual injustice.” (Crump and Costea, 1999:408) Therefore
they explore an alternative course design which uses ‘open’ pedagogical objects that
stress social ordering as inherently open and as a product of historical negotiations
that are never linear and simple, as mainstream management education portrays them,
and which “shall continue ad infinitum”. (Crump and Costea, 2003:19).
In the volume edited by French and Grey (1996) contributors are arguing that
management education faces a crisis and hence rethinking of management education is
necessary especially in “the very relationships between management education and the
wider world, and in particular the world of practising managers” (ibid:13) Also
Katsidoudes and Tischio (2001) are discussing the importance of critical thinking in
634
management education. Other authors concerned with pedagogical and thematic

reformation of management education are Whitley (1981, 1984a, 1984b), Anthony and
Reed (1992), O’Reilly (1994) or Elliott and Reynolds (2002).
History of Management Education
Although the period of management education is rather short the debate about its
mission and what management education is or ought to be is very rich and it dates
back to its beginnings as it will be shown in this part.
The first business school was established in 1881 when James Wharton
commissioned the establishment of Wharton School of Finance and Economy at the
University of Pennsylvania. At that time management was seen more as an art not a
profession, like medicine or law. Therefore the general public opinion was that to be a
good manager it involves right personality and on-the-job training (Daniel, 1998).
Andrew Carnegie said that college can only be an obstacle in the business world,
because a graduate, “entering at twenty, has little chance against a clerk who started
sweeping the factory’s floor at the age of fourteen” (Carnegie in Daniel, 1998:65).
But it was not just public opinion that did not see a sense in educating managers.
Universities too fiercely resisted the introduction of business subjects in their
curricula. The mission of universities, from its beginnings, was a pursuit of knowledge
for knowledge’s sake. Their greatest contribution has always been the education of the
mind – that is the cultivation of understanding, not the providing of technical skills for
the workforce (Graham, 2005). Locke (1989:98) writes that Oxbridge functioned “as a
nursery for gentleman, statesmen, and administrators”. In Germany, the university’s
ideology predisposed it to have nothing to do with business and industry. The art of
increasing business and efficiency was not sophisticated enough to be placed in higher
education, i.e. innovation could be carried out by artisans and crafts men without any
scientific discoveries (Locke, 1989).
The other problem was that there was no codified knowledge about management,
no curriculum, nothing to teach. Universities were struggling to find a curriculum that
would prepare young men for the business world. Between 1910 and 1918, curriculum
making bore all the marks of the traditional academic world and almost none of
business. Universities, instead of asking what business needs, constructed abstract
theories and hoped that they would meet the requirements of business world (Daniel,
1998).
Impressed by the success of natural sciences, during the World War II and
especially immediately after it, business schools were determined to create science of
management that could be taught to managers as a basis for their practice. Locke
(1989) calls these developments in management studies a New Paradigm. This
paradigm arose from a set of interrelated developments in business and academic
world. In academic world, mathematics, logic, statistics, economics and behavioural
fields of knowledge underwent significant changes that made them more attractive and
promising to management studies. “The new paradigm in management studies, […],
was really a matrix of interlocking, mutually conditioning scientific relationships in
which no one science or discipline predominated, unless it was the instrumentality of
mathematics.” (Locke, 1989:24) The dominance of mathematical modelling gave
impetus to the operational research movement, which did so much to advance the New
Paradigm. Systems theory and operations research gave a hope of systematic approach
635
to solving managerial problems in a period of mass production and growing

companies.
The next milestone in management education was the publication of two reports
(Gordon and Howell report and Pierson report), both in the year 1959. These two
reports criticized the state of management education and gave guidelines for its
improvement that still form the basis of core curriculum in both under-graduate and
graduate business degrees. The two teams collaborated and the results were
unsurprisingly almost the same. Both reports were highly critical of American
management education, though their critique was an expected one. The reports did not
present anything that deans would not have already known as being based on
interviews with deans of business schools, who used these reports as the opportunity
for expressing their frustration with the existing situation in higher business education
(Daniel, 1998). However these reports systematically collected and represented the
flaws of business education. Five major critiques can be summarised.
Poor quality of students; they argued that based on intelligence test scores,
undergraduate business students cannot compare with other important students and
that universities do not have a systematic and selective admission process. The second
critique was aimed at curriculum saying that it is too narrow and vocational and that
the more specific subjects a business school offers, lower its quality. Inadequately
trained faculty, that in the most cases came from other disciplines like mathematics,
psychology, statistics and sociology. Usually these professors had neither particular
interest nor experience in business. Business schools had to invite these professors due
to a lack of doctoral degrees among business professors and negligible enrolment in
Ph.D. Therefore the fourth critique is not surprising, it criticizes the poor quality of
management research. The Pierson report (1959) accused the existing research to be
too descriptive and centred on particular companies thus neglecting the development
of analytical findings and construction of general principles and theories. Gordon and
Howell (1959) noted that research having the most impact on business practice came
not from business departments but from other departments of the university –
psychology, mathematics, economics, statistics, and sociology. The other problem is
the failure to communicate the findings to business community. As the last but not the
least was cited the uncertain relation between undergraduate and graduate work. All
other programs, like economics or engineering for example, demanded from their
postgraduate students to have adequate advanced undergraduate training in the field
they would like to specialize in. Whereas in MBA programs people were admitted
whose training had been in entirely other fields of study.
Both these reports called for a more rigorous and scientific approach to
management research. They argued that the only way that management can become a
real profession and academic discipline is by the application of scientific methods to
society in order to produce general principles and theories that will help mangers to
make more informed decisions in business practice. Therefore management studies
will turn to economics, behavioural sciences and quantitative methods (including
mathematics) for fundamental analytical tools that will be used for identifying, solving
and implementing decisions on managerial problems. These analytical tools suggested
in the reports laid the base for, what can be called, a ‘core curriculum’ in business
schools to date (Crump and Costea, 2003).
Another far-reaching consequence of the report that is still being felt today is the
creation of two new industries – mass production of undergraduate, graduate and
Ph.D. students and the business research industry. A year before the reports were
published only 124 members of faculty were awarded a Ph.D., fifteen years after the
636
report this number grew to 1.097, and soon it became a requirement for a professor in
a business school to hold a doctorate in business studies (Daniel, 1998:166). The result
was an even bigger wedge than ever before between the theory and practice. This is
because the newly awarded Ph.D.s had no experience with business practice and their
knowledge was almost entirely theoretical rather than based in practice and since
practitioners had not seen any reason or benefits in gaining a Ph.D. they were not able
to lecture in the schools, hence the only opportunity for business students to learn from
the first hand disappeared.
As a result of growing numbers in Ph.D.s management, research got its
momentum:
“The number of periodicals publishing business research tripled from about

1.600 in 1959 to nearly 5.000 just twenty-five years later, and the number of
business books published annually in the United States quadrupled from
about 290 in 1959 to over 1.200” (Daniel, 1998:169)
The research was of more use to the academic world than to practitioners.
Researchers did not try to answer the questions that practitioners were interested in;
instead they created their own questions and tried to answer them with scientific
rigour. Management has become a science, as Gordon and Howell (1959) wished for
it, though the problem is that science is not concerned with everyday problems, instead
it is in a search for knowledge for its own sake. The moment management has become
a science (though this can be questioned) it ceased to be practical. As Daniel argues:
“From the very beginning, business schools could and probably should
have been built on the model of medical schools and law schools, where
research and teaching have a close relationship with actual practice. […]
But the directions set in motion by the two foundation reports that year
seem to have permanently eliminated any such possibility and to have cast
business education forever in the academic mould.” (Daniel 1998:171)
Scientific management that laid down the foundations for modern management
education was (and still is) rooted in, as Nigel Thrift (1997) argues, the ‘Joshua
discourse’. This discourse has been prevalent in western cultures in the last two
hundred years and has produced several myths that contributed to the shaping of the
‘modern’ world and the perception of what ‘true’ science is. In the Joshua discourse,
the world is “an ordered, homogenous, quantitatively different multiplicity” (ibid. 33)
that can be studied and observed by an individual from an objective viewpoint. This
individual has the power to separate the “world of imagination from the world of
symbols and semiotics” (ibid. 33), and on the basis of his or her discoveries build
another theory that will bring humanity a step closer to the total knowledge that Joshua
discourse strives for. This discourse is built on several self-supporting and linked
principles:
“the mind is independent of the body, reasoning being a disembodied

phenomenon; that emotion has no conceptual content but is a pure force;
that meaning is based on truth and reference and concerns the relationship
between symbols which represent things in the real world; and that
categories are independent of the world, defined by the internal
637
characteristics of their members rather than by the nature of the those

doing the categorising.” (Thrift, 1997:31)
By rooting itself in this discourse and using the ‘universal’ language of science in
management and organisation studies, business education legitimised its claim that it is
an education for a profession. Business education created a narrative about the world
that claims that methods taught in business schools are universally applicable
regardless of the cultural, political or economic differences between countries (Crump
and Costea, 2003). In other words management education presents itself as acultural,
ahistorical and apolitical project that should be accepted without critical questioning
and almost worshiped as a religion by the students of business studies otherwise they
might never reach the ultimate goal – ‘being a CEO’. According to Pattison,
“Management is a collection of beliefs, symbols, myths, rituals,

understandings and practices that together make up a total worldview within
which individuals can situate themselves and act meaningfully. There is a
strong case for evaluating it directly as, at least in some respects, a religious
movement.” (Pattison quoted in Roberts, 2001:63)
The fall of communism in CEE and the social welfare state had re-legitimised the
role of managers and business schools. By the 1970s and 1980s the technology of
mass production came to a point where most of the ‘managerial’ were more or less
needless and to cut costs, companies started de-layering, reengineering their business,
empowering workers and thus leaving a lot of middle managers (in most cases holders
of an MBA) unemployed over night. Managers (mostly middle managers) became
insecure in their roles and thus had to find a new meaning and legitimacy for their
work. And as described above “the 1980s and 1990s have proven to be extremely
successful decades in the search for new legitimacy for managerial work and
management understanding of social order” (Crump and Costea, 2003:10).
History Repeating
Fifty years after the Gordon and Howell report (1959) was published, some
authors (Zimmerman, 2001; Demski and Zimmerman 2000) are arguing that
contemporary American business education is on its way to the “narrow, functional
industry training characteristic of schools in the 1950s” (Zimmerman, 2001:2).
Zimmerman argues that this is a result of dysfunctional competing for rankings that do
not encourage knowledge generation and dissemination. Instead the money that was
previously reserved for faculty research and development of doctoral students is being
diverted to short-term strategies aimed at improving rankings, such as placement
offices and public relations campaigns. In order to improve their rankings, schools are
narrowing their curricula for training students for their first job, not their entire
careers. The result is in shortage of new doctoral faculty which, on long-term, will lead
to the deprivation of management research and consequently management education.
The shortage of new Ph.D.s. is also one of three critical issues addressed in the
report of Management Education Task Force (METF) that AACSB (The Association
to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business) International’s board of directors created
in November 2001, in order to identify the major challenges and opportunities that
business schools world wide are faced with and to recommend institutional responses.
638
METF (2002) established that the unique role of business schools is threatened by
the turbulent market place and increasing competition from non-accredited schools and
other providers of management education as well as from globalisation of management
education market. Business schools are not just providers of management education
they are also creators of new knowledge; research activities that are central part of
academia are essential to the long-run health of university system. Traditional
university-based business schools account for only a fraction of the broad management
education industry. New competitors are entering the field, and more and more
students are pursuing their degrees in non-traditional ways. METF reports that only 24
percent of all MBA students at AACSB’s U.S. member schools are enrolled in
traditional 2-year full time MBA and as much as 58 percent are enrolled on part-time
basis. This can be explained by the fact that consumers are increasingly time and cost
conscious, hence before deciding for an MBA, they carefully weigh the relative time
commitments and the costs of the program against their personal life situations and
available resources.
Globalisation has opened up new markets and changed the contours of business
education. Many U.S. business schools have introduced international programs and
established partnerships with oversees universities. Although business schools are
adjusting their curricula and programs to foster greater global thinking among students
and hiring international faculty that would bring more cosmopolitan perspective, the
speed of these changes might not keep up with the changes in the business world.
“Some employers, in fact, have commented that business school curricula and faculty
are lagging behind the scale of true globalisation of their strategy, alliances,
workforce, operations, and financial and consumer markets” (METF, 2002:10).
As a result of this growing pressures METF identified three most pressing issues
that might have serious consequences for management education provided by AACSB
accredited business schools. These were doctoral faculty shortage 1, relevance of
curricula and other degree and non degree programs.
Drawing on the findings of Aspen Institute METF wrote that business education
does not adequately prepare students for their future role as business leaders. A current
curriculum does not reflect “the complex opportunities and challenges that emanate
from the worldwide scope of operations, outsourcing, supply chains, partnerships, and
financial and consumer markets – all linked in real time through Internet…” (p.20). To
remain globally relevant more ‘clinical’ content of curricula and greater business
familiarity among faculty might be required. In addition faculties should reassess the
status of non-traditional teachers with rich industrial expertise who could bring the
‘real’ world in the classroom. Blurring the disciplinary boundaries would bring the
management education closer to the business world, because consulting,
entrepreneurship, e-business and the like are difficult to fit in the disciplinary frame.
To enhance learning opportunities for students, schools should ally with other
traditional business schools or distance education providers.
The last issue is fragmented and competitive market for management education,
especially for non-degree programs, in which AACSB business schools represent only
a fragment of global executive development market. Many organisations created their
1
The number of awarded Ph.D.s has decreased more than 19 percent between 1995 and 2000
and out of those only 62 percent of doctoral graduates of U.S. business schools in 2000 had
plans to stay in academic circles. That is not nearly enough to meet demand for business
doctoral faculty (METF, 2002).
639
own corporate universities 1 because they felt that the management education provided
by traditional business schools is not adequate or relevant for their industry.
Business schools have also started offering the executive education, which has
become one of the major financial resources. In some cases it represents up to 25
percent of the total revenue of the school. Therefore it is not surprising that the best
faculty is teaching in the executive programs thus being diverted from ‘core’ teaching
and research activities.
Resemblance with the 1959’s Reports
If one compares the METF report with the Gordon and Howell report, published
fifty years ago, one can see that not much has actually changed in the management
education. There is again shortage of PhD students and the curriculum is not keeping
abreast with ongoing changes in the business world and Zimmerman (2001) is arguing
that business schools are offering to vocational and overspecialised subjects. Gordon
and Howell suggested that in order for management to become a profession, like law
or medicine, management studies and research had to be more scientific and rigorous.
This could have been achieved with the introduction of scientific methods borrowed
from natural sciences. Management researchers would then be able to construct grand
theories and discover general principles that would help managers to make more
informed decisions and make an uncertain world more predictable and manageable.
Therefore they suggested for business schools to introduce a common body of
knowledge, which would help management studies to make a transition form arts to
profession. And so the core curriculum was ‘born’.
Fifty years latter one can say that Gordon and Howell’s dreams came true.
Management has become a more or less respectable ‘science’. Management studies
have become more rigorous, scientific and theoretical, and business schools have, with
the help of AACSB, designed a core curriculum that is a foundation of every decent
management course. Yet the issues, raised in the Gordon and Howell report, are to be
found in the METF report published in 2002. Practitioners are still complaining that
business schools do not adequately prepare students for their future leadership roles.
There is a slight linguistic change; in 1959 schools were not ahead of the requirements
of mass consumption and the students were not adequately trained to become
managers. Now business schools cannot keep up with the globalisation and
informatisation of society and business and they do not prepare students for their
future role as leaders.
Although, after the publication of Gordon and Howell report, the number of PhD
students rose dramatically, after 1995 it started to fall again. The problem is twofold:
on the one hand, business schools are mushrooming around the globe thus requiring
more PhD faculty than ever and on the other hand the production of PhDs is not only
not keeping up with the developments in the management education but also
descending. 2 While the problems presented are rather similar, the solutions suggested
are quite different. In order to increase the number of PhD students, Gordon and
1
Corporate University Exchange estimates that the number of corporate universities now totals
2.000 – up from only 400 just 15 years ago – and predicts that the number will swell to 3.700
by 2010 (METF, 2002:23)
2
Merritt (2001) wrote that 250 positions for Ph.D.s in the Business Week’s Top 30 U.S.
business schools were vacant and over 400 in top 50. But not only U.S. schools also non-U.S.
business schools, consulting firms and think tanks are drawing on the same pool of Ph.D.s.
640
Howell saw the solution in ‘scientification’ of management studies. Although this has
been achieved, the number started to decrease again. The solution suggested in METF
report is in contrast with the one described above; Gordon and Howell criticized the
faculty coming from other disciplines than business because of their lack of interest in
and experience with business, METF on contrary suggests that business schools should
consider PhD students from other disciplines, clinical professors and even professors
that do not hold advanced theoretical research doctorate 1 (i.e. DBA). In other words,
Gordon and Howell were warning against the faculty that did not come from business
disciplines, and now fifty years latter METF suggests inviting them back into business
schools as well as calling for more cross-disciplinary research and education.
METF is not calling only for cross-disciplinary research and education of future
doctorates but also they are suggesting that schools should experiment with their
curricula, in order to keep up with globalisation. The curriculum should be innovative
and flexible so that it would be able to remain ‘globally relevant’. Effective pedagogy
should be used as handbooks and case studies are outdated on the day they are
published and therefore not adequate anymore. What is the most important, business
schools should blur boundaries between educational disciplines and help students gain
core management skills – interpersonal, leadership, and communication skills.
To make a long story short: problems facing management education in the 21st
century are the same as were in the middle of the previous one, what has changed are
the suggested solutions and remedies that would help business schools to make their
curricula more ‘globally relevant’ and to prepare business students for their future
roles as managers, leaders or what ever will be fashionable phrase fifty years from
now.
AACSB’s Response to METF Report
The American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business is the main accrediting

body in business education. It was founded in 1916 and begun its accrediting function
in 1919 when it adopted its first standards. Since the beginning, its mission was to
assure quality and promote excellence and continuous improvement in undergraduate
and graduate education for business administration and since 1980s also in
accounting. In 1991, AACSB International changed its accreditation process by
introducing peer review and approving mission-driven accreditation standards. The
latest change was in 2003 when members approved a revised set of standards that are
supposed to be relevant and applicable to all business programs globally and which
support and encourage excellence in management education worldwide. For the
purpose of this article standards since 1960s will be discussed in more detail in order
to demonstrate that standards, laid down in that period, are still present in business
schools today, in one way or another.
Standards from 1960 were a reaction to the two reports published in 1959 and
described above. The 1960s standards emphasised that the undergraduate studies
should lay “the foundation for training in business administration, instruction… in the
fields of economics, accounting, statistics, business law, finance, marketing and
management” (Porter and McKibbin in Costea, 2000:69). As Gordon and Howell
(1959) were suggesting the focus was on the certain core disciplines, which from that
1
In 1991 AACSB introduced professionally qualified (PQ) faculty into its standards, but only
in 2004 they wrote standards for PQ; they should hold at least relevant masters degree and a
significant professional experience in duration and level of responsibility (Trapnell, 2006).
641
time on tended to form the core of every undergraduate and graduate business
program. In the following years the text has changed but the main idea or principal
subjects stayed the same.
In 1985, AACSB changed the formulation of the standards; “the foundation for
training in business administration” was replaced by the notion of “common body of
knowledge”, also the standards included more specific description of what knowledge
future managers should gain at the business schools (Costea, 2000). With the
introduction of ‘common body of knowledge’, management education offered general,
abstract, science-driven knowledge based on general, universal concepts and
techniques as the basis of the managerial profession.
Later, in 1999, AACSB shortened the prescription of curriculum standards for
both undergraduate and MBA programs, though the essence stayed unchanged:
“C.1.1: Both undergraduate and MBA curricula should provide an

understanding of perspectives that form the context for business. Coverage
should include: ethical and global issues, the influence of political, social,
legal and regulatory, environmental and technological issues, and the impact
of demographic diversity on organizations.” (AACSB standards, 2001:17)
The knowledge base prescribed by AACSB has stayed basically the same with
emphasis on economic and commercial view of managerial role in organisations.
Although globalisation and internationalisation as well as information technology were
included in management education those developments were not included in the
standards:
“C.1.2.b: The curriculum should include foundation knowledge for business

in the following areas: accounting, behavioural science, economics, and
mathematics and statistics.” (AACSB standards, 2001:17)
More specific:
“C.1.3.a: The curriculum should include more specific instruction in the

following core areas: financial reporting, analysis and markets, domestic and
global economic environments of organizations, creation and distribution of
goods and services, and human behaviour in organizations.” (AACSB
standards, 2001:18)
Current standards were adopted in April 2003 (and are revised each year) as a
response to the METF report. The main difference is that AACSB does not prescribe
any core subjects that should be covered. In fact, it is now calling for greater flexibility
and diversification among business schools, which should emphasize conceptual
reasoning, problem-solving skills, and preparation for lifelong learning. Deviations
from standards are permitted, if they are the result of cultural differences and
innovations not anticipated in the standards.
Each school should define its learning standards and set measurable goals in order
to assess learning accomplishments. Great emphasis is on accountability and
measurability of the learning goals. AACSB puts such an emphasis on the learning
goals because, so they say, measures of learning can assure that the organization meets
its goals as well as serving as guidelines for future improvements and guidance for
individual students. These goals specify the intellectual and behavioural competencies
642
program is indented to instil, and how students will be different upon the completion
of the program.
Although AACSB does not require any specific courses in the curriculum they do
recommend that schools should have core learning goals that would include two
separate kinds of learning; general knowledge and skills, and management-specific
learning goals:
“Normally, the curriculum management process will result in an

undergraduate degree program that includes learning experiences in such
general knowledge and skills areas as: communication abilities, ethical
understanding and reasoning abilities, analytical skills, use of information
technology, multicultural and diversity understanding, reflective thinking.”
(AACSB standards 2004:68; emphasis in original)
In January 2006 AACSB revised its standards and changed above text from
specific recommendations to a very general one. They propose that “[s]chools should
assume great flexibility in fashioning curricula to meet their missions and to fit with
the specific circumstances of particular programs” (AACSB standards 2006:69). In
doing this schools are free to choose topics to their liking in order to promote their
learning goals. There is only one limitation, “[t]he school must justify how curricular
contents and structure meet the needs of the mission of the school and the learning
goals for each degree program” (ibid.).
Despite the fact that schools are free to mix and match their curricula content,
AACSB does recommend that management-specific learning goals should be included
in both undergraduate as well as in postgraduate programs:
“These goals relate to expectations for learning accomplishment in areas

that directly relate to management tasks and disciplines such as
accounting, management science, marketing, human resources, and
operations management, and, …, might include such management-specific,
but non-traditional areas as corporate anthropology, change management
and others.” (AACSB standards 2004:58 and 2006:60, emphasis added)
General knowledge and skills are supposed to be taught only at the undergraduate
level because it is assumed that graduate students already have gained adequate
knowledge in these areas. As it can be seen the learning goals for MBAs have
basically not changed, the core is still the same as it was in 1960. Understanding of
multicultural diversity and use of information technology are new requirements, but
only for undergraduate level, as if the MBAs, who are supposed to be future leaders,
do not need such knowledge.
Despite talk of diversity, MBA programs remain focused solely on the economic
and commercial role of management in organisations. However, an important step
towards a better management education has been made. But the problem is not only in
standards, these now offer great possibility for business schools to introduce new
subjects that would make students aware of social and cultural issues and not perceive
organisations merely as machines for making money. It is now on business schools
and its faculty to prepare such programs as organisational anthropology and other non-
traditional management subjects to show students that the world is inherently open
system and that knowing only managerial techniques will not make them good leaders.
643
But this is already topic for another study in which the ontology of mainstream
management education should be put under a question.
Conclusion
The aim of this study was to show, through historical analysis of the development
of curriculum for management business schools that not much has changed since the
Gordon and Howell report. This report laid down foundations for core curriculum in
mainstream management education and its influence is still strong even fifty years
after the publication. The problem is not in the core curriculum per se, in my opinion
there should be some general knowledge that all business students should learn like in
any other discipline, but in the dominant paradigm that underlines all mainstream
management research and teaching. It does not matter that AACSB is encouraging
business schools to experiment with the pedagogy and course design, and to introduce
non-management specific subjects such as organisational anthropology, because as
long as people, organisations, cultures or world are presented through functionalistic
spectacles then management knowledge will not be of much use to the business world.
There are always two sides of a story, and in this thesis only one has been
discussed; the one that concerns business schools. In the conclusion I would just like
to briefly mention that not all the blame for the functionalistic view should be put on
business schools after all they give the business world what stakeholders want from
them. According to Huczynski (in Thrift, 1997:45):
“Managers want to find ideas that make constantly changing environment

less confusing and threatening; for however brief a period. … The most
popular ideas seem to be those which successfully integrate a number of ideas
into a single bite-site whole. The second quality is empowerment. Managers
want to be told which ideas will achieve what results and which techniques
are to be associated with the actions; managers want ‘permission’ from
accredited sources to act. Third, managers want esteem.”
In other words, managers want from management literature tools and advice on
how to predict the unpredictable and how to implement changes without major threats
to organisation. And since business is one of the major supporters if not the biggest
supporter of business schools, and because business schools are acting as for-profit
organisations rather than as universities, they do everything that is in their power to
please the managers, even if that means to produce knowledge which gives a false
picture of the social world and builds an illusion of predictability of and control over
it. Thomas (1997) argues that management education is caught in a trap:
“[P]ositivism holds a promise of techniques for controlling the world;

managers want and expect to be provided with technical knowledge;
therefore to dethrone positivism seems like a suicidal act, as least as
management education is currently conceived; but positivism doesn’t
work.” (p.693)
The other important stakeholders that are demanding relevance and immediate
application of learned techniques are students. Their ambitions and increasing career
expectations mixed with their demand for employability have a strong influence on the
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curriculum of business schools, which in order to “please” both students and

businesses, started to offer students educational paths leading to a career track and
increased opportunity in the market (McKee et.al. 2005).
It is hard to get out of this vicious circle in which management education is
trapped. It will take a lot of effort to bring in subjects, which on first look seem
irrelevant to students of business studies, but shed a light on complexity and diversity
of human subject and social ordering. AACSB has opened the way for alternative
subjects to be introduced in the curriculum and advised that students should be able to
recognise and appreciate different cultures in which they live and work or work with.
But this will not happen or will not have the desired affect as long as functionalism is
the predominant paradigm in the mainstream business education. I think it is time for
humanities to be introduced into the management studies.
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Part 6
Initiatives
and
Future
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648
Early Years
649
650
Every Child Matters (Green Paper, 2003) and its Implications on the Curriculum, on
Pedagogy and Assessment … Are we Moving a Step
Forward or are we Opening the Pandora’s Box
58
Every Child Matters (Green Paper, 2003)
and its Implications on the Curriculum, on
Pedagogy and Assessment … are we Moving
a Step Forward or are we Opening the
Pandora’s Box?
Aikaterini Nasou, University of London
E
very Child Matters is a Green Paper introduced by the UK Government in
September 2003. The philosophy behind it is threefold: to improve outcomes
for children and young people, to ensure that every child is able to fulfil their
potential and achieve their goals, regardless of their background or other
circumstances and to bring together a range of support services and programmes in
order to respond to the needs of children and their families. (DfES, 2003, pg 1-2) The
Green Paper focuses upon improving every level of professional support for children
perceived to be vulnerable and in need, involving every school, teacher,
paraprofessional and educational support service; all caring professionals within the
health, social services, educational and youth justice fields will need to work together
and develop effective practice in promoting developmental outcomes for all.
Supporting parents and carers, which can lead to earlier intervention, is also on the
agenda of Every Child Matters and can be achieved through enhanced accountability
and integration between services. The Government’s strategy is to share the benefits of
a stable economy by creating a better society with less educational failure, higher
skills, less crime and better health in order to reduce disadvantage as far as possible.
To achieve this, children need to be healthy, feel safe, enjoy life and their
achievements, and, as they grow and develop, be in a position to make positive
contributions to the economy, society and adulthood.
651
Every Child Matters and the Implications on the Curriculum…and the Reality
In my school Every Child Matters has been incorporated as an element of PSHE

(Personal, Social and Health Education). The borough of Islington has introduced new
schemes of work with clear reference to Every Child Matters and with subject
coverage focusing on the five (5) outcomes that need to be successfully met (Every
Child Matters, 2003 pg 5): be healthy (physically, mentally, emotionally and sexually,
leading healthy lifestyles and anti-drugs education), stay safe (neglect, violence, anti-
bullying, anti-discrimination, security, stability, non acceptable anti-social behaviour),
enjoy and achieve (attendance issues, achieve the national educational standards),
make a positive contribution (decision-making, positive behaviour in and out of
school, developing self-confidence) and achieve economic well-being (preparation for
employment, living in decent homes). In order to meet the above criteria, certain
policies had to be in place (for example policy for Sex and Relationship Education, for
anti-drugs, tobacco and alcohol education, healthy eating policy) which proved a
positive step forward as a protection towards any misunderstandings and
misconceptions that could create unpleasant and awkward situations. Addressing
social problems, such as racism, delinquency and child crime since they have reached
such proportions, policies are now having to be explicitly included into the curriculum
whereas some years ago were seen as implicit, hidden from or peripheral to the
curriculum (Wyness, 2000).
Furthermore, staff and the other stakeholders as well as the outside agencies are
aware of the procedures to follow as a school to tackle certain problems (drugs’
incidents, behavioural and child’s protection issues) as there has been prior
consultation and there is an allocated member of staff who deals with them. It is true
that in the past such sensitive issues would not be addressed at all or rather not in an
effective way. In addition to this, the budget for purchasing P.S.H.E –curriculum
resources as an aid to support children’s development and in order to reach
successfully the Every Child Matters outcomes has increased.
Focusing on one of the outcomes, making sure that we share our viewpoints with
children, parents and governors and displaying and celebrating the acquisition of
knowledge has become a common practice. In autumn term, we explored how we
could develop positive relationships throughout school culminating in an anti-bullying
week with very active participation from children, parents and governors, enriching it
with appropriate workshops, leaving us with powerful messages, which could be
applied effectively in every day practice. In spring term we looked at ways to be
healthy and the school council and the upper Key Stage 2 classes conducted interviews
with staff and children regarding school dinners, physical activities routine and
contributed to the writing of our healthy eating policy as part of their literacy,
numeracy and PSHE lessons. The results were really fascinating and children’s
determination to invite experts, outside agencies and to establish sports or other
activities’ in after school clubs was strong enough and proved fruitful.
From the above, we can deduct that there are positive outcomes in the initial
implementation of Every Child Matters with a simultaneous raise of the profile in
PSHE curriculum. But where does this governmental initiative stand as a curriculum
intervention?
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Curriculum
The curriculum is an expression of educational policy, interlinked with the state

and the political composition of the educational system and can be regarded as the
realisation of a philosophy, the development of aims and processes, and the selection
of worthwhile objectives(Koutselini, 1997). It can be used as means of social,
economic, cultural control and development and its effectiveness is summarised in the
accomplishment of predetermined aims and procedures, perceived in a set of
measurable and pragmatic skills and techniques. Indeed, curriculum is a document
with descriptive learning objectives, and teaching methods are suggested, while
assessment procedures need to be in place so as to define ways for the classroom
organisation (Carr, 1998). In a similar way and more recently Kelly (2004, pg 7-8)
attributes four dimensions to curriculum: “the intentions of the planners (learning
objectives), the procedures adopted by the implementation of those intentions
(teaching methods), the actual experiences of the pupils (assessment)…and the
‘hidden’ learning that occurs as a by-product of the organisation of the
curriculum…(classroom organisation)”. Of course we should not forget the context –
society- where curriculum is formulated, as there is a reciprocal relationship between
curriculum and society. Recognising what to teach and how to teach it are themselves
always a particular expression of political questions about whether existing patterns of
cultural, economic and political life ought to be reproduced in classroom situations and
the other way round, that is the kind of knowledge, attitudes and skills a more
desirable form of social life requires
The Reality
Every Child Matters seems to address the wider philosophical, sociological, and
psychological conception and interpretation of contemporary world, and, on the other
hand, to be based on the study and the diagnosis of the needs of the child. However,
having predetermined aims appears as Pinar (1998) suggests as a non-differentiated
curriculum with teachers as the performers of specific, predefined activities, the
factory workers, who mould the students whereas the students become marketable
products. The school in the circumstances is understood as an arena of practice, a place
where decisions made ‘elsewhere’ but must be accommodated and acted out. More
specifically, it is in the necessary realities of classroom life where the drama unfolds
and assumes meaning. (Grosvernor et al. 2001). Then, the teachers are not autonomous
in their practices as they have to follow specific guidelines to achieve specific results
that have been pre-decided for them by the government. Therefore, in a bureaucratic
and mechanistic system there is a simultaneous increase of the rule setting and the
regulating role of central authorities on matters of the functioning of education, and the
specification of frameworks on aims and material. And in a way it seems
controversial, since there is an attempt to rationalise knowledge on one hand but on the
other hand there is a restriction in the areas of activity, the freedom and the autonomy
that it was supposed to offer. (Koutselini, 1997) . To ensure the progress of every child
there needs to be a strong emphasis on curriculum subjects especially with the
outcome in the Green Paper regarding achievement (‘to enjoy and achieve’) which
penetrates all elements of teaching and learning. The problem is that assumptions
about children’s development are not naturalistic but instead a mixture of aspirations –
what we want children to be able to do and what we think they ought to be doing for
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their and our benefit and for political-economic rationalisations. (Brown, 2004) But,
how realistic is it to expect current resources (or even enhanced resources) to deliver
better outcomes for a wider group of children than is currently provided for?
Competitiveness, accountability and standardization in the development and delivery
of curriculum in order to meet the Every Child Matters criteria could lead to
intensification, leaving teachers with less responsibility and less flexibility in the
implementation of the curriculum (Goodson et al, 1996).
However, examples of implementation of the Green Paper in my school
demonstrate that amongst others, cultivation of children’s autonomous capability of
acquiring knowledge and interpreting the facts can go beyond the base of knowledge
with an effect on pupils’ capacity to self-direct their learning.
As a site of knowledge, the curriculum is the expression of our conceptions of
what constitutes knowledge. In general, the notion of knowledge that is expressed
there is fundamentally realist. There exists an objective world of facts, things, and
abilities that must be transmitted. In this conception, the curriculum is nothing more
than a repertoire of these elements. It is up to didactics and pedagogy to find the best
way of transmitting this static repertoire of elements (Armstrong, 1998). So what is
the pedagogy, the philosophy behind Every Child Matters? What is the ground offered
to teachers to support and enhance children’s development?
Every Child Matters and the Implications on Pedagogy…and the Reality
The aim of Every Child Matters is to bring together a range of support services
and programmes which can respond to the needs of children and their families at
critical early stages by ensuring mechanisms for identification and referral of children
at risk and by developing improved coordination and joint management between and
across services. Some children will always require extra help because of the
disadvantages they face. The key is to ensure children receive services at the first onset
of problems and to prevent any children slipping through the net and that can be
achieved by information sharing between all local agencies to ensure each has the
same list of children in need, of action taken by each service, and of the contact details
of the relevant professionals who work with them. (Baxter et al, 2005).
In my school we have the support of BEST (Behaviour Education Support Team)
with a focus on social and emotional competence. BEST works with children, families
and staff, especially SENCO (Special Educational Needs Co-ordinator), to promote
emotional well-being, positive behaviour and school attendance among children and
young people, and help in the identification and support of those with, or at risk of
developing, emotional and behavioural problems. BEST collaborates and co-ordinates
its actions with the staff (teachers, teaching assistants, learning mentors) and the
parents as well as other outside agencies or supportive services who are involved such
as our educational psychologist, the school nurse, health visitors and the educational
welfare officer. As for the teachers they need to produce IEP’s (Individual Educational
Plans) for any concerns they might have for the children including as many details and
evidence as possible so as to enable their progress in an efficient way.
Another measure decided is the significant change of the attendance registers and
teachers with the support of home-liaison officer need to clarify the reasons for
unauthorised absences and making sure that they keep a record when a child
continuously misses school or whether there is a pattern or specific days. Stricter
procedures are now applicable regarding parents’ excuses for not bringing their
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children to school or taking them during term time on holidays. Social services are
quick to react to prevent unpleasant attendance records and punctuality and fines have
already been given without any exceptions.
Pedagogy
It appears that behind the Every Child Matters document there is a strong child-
centered pedagogy that takes place in the community school which can be seen as the
meeting place for the professional partnership and the community. The role of the
school moves beyond the curriculum provision and the management of learning and
becomes a key service provider for the other services in the community in order to
play a preventive role, support and ameliorate the learning conditions and environment
for every child (Brian, 2006). The children with all the support provided for them are
able to achieve their full potential in schools and to have the capacity to make
decisions about themselves, by developing essential personal and social skills to help
them throughout life; in more general and wider terms within this pedagogical frame
children can have a stimulating and happy childhood and grow up healthily, physically
and mentally, enabling them to feel good about themselves and respect others. They
are encouraged to value the benefits of living in a diverse society and appreciate their
local community and become active citizens, being heard and valued in their
community and participating in contributing to a fast moving, changing and
interdependent society (Reid, 2005). The Piagetian theory of active learning takes
place with the teacher trying to identify the child’s readiness to learn and the current
state of the child’s development in order to prepare appropriate learning activities to
encourage further development (Moore, 2000).
The Reality
Multi-agency partnerships can cause ambiguous outcomes and despite the fact that
can bridge the gap between parents and school, on the other hand they might cause
confusion or lead to excessive and unwanted bureaucracy. Indeed, the different
practices and ideologies, the different training backgrounds, the lack of resources, of
time and space, which can cause tensions, as well as the different levels of knowledge
between all the professionals involved can bring about chaotic situations where the
child and the parents feel rather distressed and not relieved. (Milbourne, 2005) Schools
should be able to manage all the ICT requirements for information sharing as well as
all the additional record keeping needs. Confidentiality issues will be raised and could
be challenging as where all the required ICT casework information can be kept so as to
be available across all local services. Are the schools equipped with adequate
programmes/ resources regarding the use of computers to manage information sharing
and record keeping? (Reid, 2005)
Taking into account the fact that there seems to be a relationship between
underachievement and poverty (Baxter, 2005) amongst other related developmental
factors, it is a very sensitive issue to tackle, if there is any appropriate way of
addressing it for the benefit of the child without appearing prejudiced or sounding
offensive. Promoting the child-centred pedagogy and being able to cater for every
child’s needs, especially though at risk, whilst involving other outside agencies might
mean extended or more flexible start and finish school hours or terms which probably
655
will not have an impact on teacher’s roles but on schools as caring institutions. As for
the interventions, are we sure that they are of proven effectiveness and do all
professionals follow the same agreed strategies? Children’s needs are complex and
rarely fit within one set of organisational boundaries. For instance, a child with
behavioural problems due to parental neglect may be considered a child with special
educational needs by the LEA, a ‘child in need’ by social services, or having a
‘conduct disorder’ by a child and adolescent mental health team (Every Child Matters,
68). There needs to be a recognition of the child not just as a client in receipt of
services, but as a “customer” with all of the rights, expectations and choices that flow
from this. Customer satisfaction and customer experience are at the heart of
Government reform. If the intentions of Government policy are realised, children will
have a radical influence on how services are delivered in the future. “Real service
improvement is only attainable through involving children and young people and
listening to their views. […] The creation of an organisation defined by its client group
rather than professional functions offers an important opportunity to involve children
and young people in decision making. (DfES, 2003, p. 10 and p. 78).
Another issue raised that was briefly mentioned before is finding out ways/
resources to release staff to participate in the reviews for the children’s and the
families’ progress. How regular will those meetings be? Is there specific budget
allocated by the LEA regarding supply cover? Unfortunately, in my school that is not
the case and sometimes it is hard to replace the teacher who needs to be in reviews or
case conferences with equivalent teaching staff and very tempting to find a teaching
assistant as a substitute – how fair is that on the children and on the teaching assistant?
Every Child Matters and the Implications on Assessment…and the Reality
In order to evaluate children’s progress, learning, whether they have reached the
potential and ‘enjoy and achieve’, there needs to be a constant use of assessment
framework, common or rather relevant within all the agencies involved. Evidence
needs to be collected to demonstrate the progress or the regress of the children and is
shared between the people involved. Ofsted Inspectors are looking for evidence of the
implementation of Every Child Matters as a whole school approach with the new
inspection guidelines. However, it is not only the pupils that are being assessed but
teachers too, who need to acquire the right skills to meet children’s needs and
information and advice on their revised statutory responsibilities. According to Day
(1999) ” Continuing professional development is essential if teachers are to remain up
to date in their knowledge of the curriculum, wise in their selection and use of a
repertoire of pedagogical skills, committed and enthusiastic about their work and the
students they teach, self confident, and clear about their purposes”. Now with the
Green Paper it is even more important and crucial, in fact it is compulsory with all
those changes taken place.
In the Islington borough, there is a request for schools to start collecting evidence
and building portfolios in order to gain the National Healthy School Status, which
encompasses all elements of Every Child Matters, through assessments and evidence
collection, writing policies, community-parental-staff involvement and prior
consultation. National healthy school status defines the criteria that schools need to
satisfy in order to be recognised nationally as a healthy school. The criteria relate to
four themes: PSHE (including sex and relationship education and drug education),
healthy eating, physical activity and emotional health and well-being (including
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bullying). Becoming a healthy school is a developmental process. The whole school

approach is key to ensuring that a school’s journey towards becoming healthier and
more effective is a dynamic process and one which is sustained over time. By the end
of 2006 half of all schools in England should be able to achieve national healthy
school status, with all the schools working towards it by 2009.
Another assessment tool recommended with the introduction of the Green Paper is
the acquiring a PSHE certification, which will have an impact not only on individuals
as a CPD (Continuous Professional Development) exercise but on the school too, as
evidence to show to Ofsted Inspectors. Again, the aspect of collecting evidence of
PSHE elements taught in classes is apparent and through planning, learning objectives,
delivering, assessing and being assessed by the pupils, quality of lessons is measured
and children’s learning is evaluated.
Assessment
As we can deduct from the usage of various assessment tools, there seems to be an
increasing pressure for justification and effectiveness through bureaucratic and
authoritarian structures, which can have an impact on teachers’ will for autonomous
functioning (Hargreaves, 1994). It appears that there is a strong urge to satisfy the
accountability demands of external authorities (LEA’s) rather to support and enhance
learning. (Shepard, 2000). Open-ended tasks that engage children’s critical thinking
and application of knowledge in real – world situations could be beneficial as well as
assessments from the children and sharing expectations with them. This implies that
staff—those in schools and those who support them—will need to develop a more
sophisticated understanding of how experience co-constructed by children and adults
in school and community settings can best be assessed to maximise the promotion of
well-being and social inclusion for all children. Applying a wider conceptual
framework for assessment and ensuring that the positive promotion of learning and
development harmonises with children’s diverse needs and qualities should enable an
interactive form of dynamic and on-going assessment. Explicit assessment criteria and
exchanging feedback could allow for self-assessment and evaluation on children’s
behalf (Shepard, 2000).
Regarding teaching and non- teaching staff continuous professional development,
it seems that it can provide opportunities for reflection on own practices and for
maintaining and developing learning capacities (Day, 1999). That can prove fruitful
and should be an interesting experience as becoming aware of other or different ways
can lead to emancipation from ‘conventional’ practices and support the building up of
another creative repertoire of actions.
The reality Child development can be simply understood and treated as a
progressive set of measurable markers of ability and attainment which constitute
normative and structured evaluative and statistical criterion. In that case, children
become the manageable target of power relations. Performance targets, action plans
and performance indicators will be setting out clear practice for assessment and
standards expected of each agency. Furlong et al. (2000, cited in Sachs, 2001 pp: 151)
discusses how the "three concepts of knowledge, autonomy and responsibility, central
to a traditional notion of professionalism, are often seen as interrelated. It is because
professionals face complex and unpredictable situations that they need a specialized
body of knowledge; if they are to apply that knowledge, it is argued that they need the
657
autonomy to make their own judgements. Given that they have autonomy, it is
essential they act with responsibility – collectively they need to develop appropriate
professional values." It seems there is an overload of duties and responsibilities on
specific staff at schools leaving them minimum time to reflect and concentrate on
other activities outside school. Consequently, professionalism might appear to be
highly supported and recommended but is it a boomerang as it leaves no space for
further reflection?
Conclusions
Describing Every Child Matters and exploring its implementation from the angles
of Curriculum, Pedagogy and Assessment offered me the chance to realise how
promising initiatives can provide the ground to move forward but on the other hand
can conceal some unexpected, dubious and ambiguous aspects that they either exist
without us knowing them or they are forced to us to accept them. Surely, it is very
early to jump into conclusions since it is only a piloting stage we are in when
confusion and lack of organisation can influence negatively our judgements.
Schools will face challenges and with support from their local authorities they
need to make sure that they have the managerial capacity to accept their new roles.
Collaborating with various agencies on individual improvement strategies and
initiatives and ensuring that pupils receive appropriate support when they are
identified as having problems or are designed as being in difficulty. In addition to this,
teaching and non-teaching staff should be able and available to participate in the
observation, judgement and reporting on performance and development of the
children, whereas the schools need to manage related CPD activities, funding and best
value. A special relationship with outside agencies by endorsing their practical advice
and receiving their assistance appears to offer realistic ways forward, avoids an over-
romanticised view of community capacity and provides a basis for the development of
roles for people in the community and of influential community voices.We certainly
live in the times of global competitiveness; nevertheless the "panic attacks" that we
experience through the state’s intervention regarding the preparation of the future
generations towards those heightened demands should not restrain our passion and our
energetic contribution. On the other hand, Every Child Matters envisages making work
with children an attractive, high status career supported by a more skilled and flexible
workforce. This will mean better long-term training and promotion opportunities, more
flexible routes into social work and common occupational standards across all aspects
of children’s practice. In turn, these will be linked to better access and better
interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary professional development.
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Early Years Inclusion – Policy into Practice in Primary 3
59
Early Years Inclusion – Policy into Practice
in Primary 3
Frances Ross-Watt, University of Strathclyde
T
he fundamental right of every child to education, based on equality of
opportunity, with disability as no grounds for discrimination in access, is
asserted within Article 28 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child
(1989). In Scotland, the promotion of Additional Support Needs (previously
Special Educational Needs) is a rights issue, supported by the Standards in Scotland’s
Schools etc. Act (2000). The Act also incorporates a clause on the presumption of
mainstream education.
This on-going, long term case study followed on from a two year joint research
project, commissioned by a Scottish Education Authority. The project aimed to
establish the status and development of Early Years inclusion within the Authority’s
schools. Indicators of good practice were devised and several schools in the council
area found to embody such practice. Further research served to confirm this initial
judgement (Clark, K., Cooper, M., & Ross-Watt, F. (2004) and the case study went
forward on that basis.
Long Term Case Study
The research chose to investigate the experiences of “Heather”, a girl with Spina
Bifida, from entry into Nursery through to the end of Primary 7. The context is a
mainstream Scottish primary school, embodying good inclusive practice (see above).
The key themes of such good practice, determined by Clark, K., Cooper, M., & Ross-
Watt, F. (2004), were ethos and attitudes, communication, organisation and
management, support, teamwork/collaboration and training.
The work was divided into seven sections, one for each year that Heather would
spend in primary school. Five key questions were posed:
• Does the reality of inclusion match the rhetoric of good practice?

• Is provision within the establishment meeting the needs of the pupil?
• Are parental wishes and expectations being fulfilled?
• Have any difficulties been experienced during the time under review?
661
• If such difficulties arose, were they resolved and, if so, how?
Methodology
The methodology employed was Case Study (Participant Observer). In this

methodology, evidence is gathered and collated in a systematic manner and the study
concerns itself mainly with the interaction of factors and events (University of
Nottingham School of Education, 1978). Interviews were filmed and recorded, so
ensuring complete accuracy of reporting. In this regard, the importance of sufficient
primary sources is recognised by Cohen and Manion (1994). Permission to conduct the
research was obtained from the headteacher, school staff, Heather’s mother and from
Heather herself. Parents of other pupils in the class were consulted and all agreed. The
information was collected via four main channels:
• Observation
• Individual interviews
• Review meetings
• Informal discussions.
Summary of Stage 1: Nursery to end of Primary 1
The investigation commenced with Heather’s entry to nursery. Her school had
been identified as embodying good inclusive practice and the paper sought to define
the characteristics of such practice. The school and the environment in which it
operated were described, together with brief details of Heather’s own background.
There was no aspect of the class’s activities from which Heather had been
excluded and her acceptance by other class members was complete. The Authority had
provided whatever resources were needed. Most important, however, was the positive
and constructive attitude demonstrated by all members of staff. As Weddell (2003)
states, schools have to achieve an ethos which decouples the stigma associated with
individual needs from the implementation of inclusive practice. The paper concluded
that: “In this school and for this child, the reality of good practice does indeed match
the rhetoric of inclusion” (Ross-Watt, 2005).
Summary of Stage 2: Primary 2
National policy on inclusion continued to be implemented with commitment and

enthusiasm (Ross-Watt, 2005). The wishes and expectations of Heather’s parent too
were still being fulfilled (Riddell, 2000). The headteacher fully engaged all
participants in the process. Strategies were clear and workable, but flexible enough to
accommodate change. The Authority also demonstrated its commitment, in the form of
prompt provision of the necessary resources. A unique, expensive chair, a playground
seat, special changing equipment, new handrails, even costly stair lifts – all were
funded and installed at short notice. The child, also, was able to express her own
thoughts and feelings.
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Stage 3: Primary 3
Once again, the information came from four principal sources:
Informal Discussions
The headteacher, class teacher, classroom assistant and janitor, as well as Heather
herself and various other staff, had informal discussions with the researcher.
Individual Interviews
Persons interviewed were the headteacher, P3 class teacher, future P4 class

teacher, classroom assistant and Heather’s mother. The interviews occurred in May
2005, at the end of Heather’s P3 year and were filmed to professional standard by
Strathclyde University Media Production Team. Typed transcripts were produced and
subsequently analysed. Informal conversations also took place periodically between
the researcher and Heather herself.
Review Meetings
The annual formal review took place at the end of Primary 3. This review was
filmed and an audio transcript produced. In the course of the year, one additional
informal review was conducted by the school. The written minutes augmented
information obtained from other sources.
Observation
Heather was observed in the classroom, gym, lunch hall and playground, on four
occasions, spaced evenly throughout the year.
Informal Discussions/Observations
Class Teacher
Heather had “settled in well to Primary 3. She is a happy pupil who is popular
with the other children. At times, Heather can become quite tired”.
Headteacher
By November, Heather was routinely avoiding doing work herself and simply
waiting for help. Heather’s mother had also absented her from school on a two week
holiday. Following a school visit, the chief occupational therapist wrote that Heather’s
table required to be at a height appropriate to her current Bambach chair, with her
wrists at the right angle for keyboard work. During this visit, the therapist mentioned
to school management the lack of privacy for Heather’s changing. Paediatricians at the
local hospital were copied in.
The Pupil Support Services (PSS) teacher had also carried out an educational
review aimed at developing Heather’s keyboard skills. The outcome was a
663
Microtechnology support request for Special Educational Needs which was forwarded
to the council Adviser in Special Needs. This requested a specific speed typing
programme and a newer laptop computer.
Class Teacher
The classroom was very small; consequently, there was difficulty in arranging
group seating to meet everyone’s needs. Heather sat centre front, with the assistant
beside her, since she required a central position, facing the blackboard.
The class teacher felt that Heather was lazy, avoiding doing work whenever
possible and waiting for help, principally from her classroom assistant. She also
appeared not to concentrate on the teacher’s instructions. A joint solution to these
problems was achieved by combining six groups into three long columns, facing
towards the front. Heather was at the back of the centre column, with the adjacent
chair now occupied by another pupil.
In January, the teacher commented that Heather was very tired and that her leg
seemed heavy. She appeared unwilling to go out to the playground after lunch. There
was a lack of privacy in Heather’s changing area and the teacher herself had brought in
a temporary curtain.
By March, she pronounced herself happy with Heather’s progress. Heather seemed
physically stronger and was walking better, probably through changed footwear.
Arriving in the morning, Heather carried out “catch up” activities. The principle was
“finish the work today or do it tomorrow morning”. By the year end, “catch up” time
was seldom needed.
Classroom Assistant
Heather had the same assistant, who remained all day, sometimes helping other
pupils. The assistant’s chair was relocated further away and another pupil seated next
to Heather, who was now able to help with her clothing and organise the materials
required for toileting.
In February, the assistant commented that Heather seemed livelier, less tired and
much happier. Her skin looked healthier and she complained less about completing her
school work, appearing more focussed.
Heather had said that, sometimes, she had no breakfast. Quite often, she also
arrived without a playtime snack. This was worrying, not least because there appeared
to be a close linkage between Heather’s physical wellbeing and her academic
performance. The classroom assistant wanted to continue supporting Heather next
year.
Heather
Heather said that being in Primary 3 was OK. She had retained her old friends and
the classroom assistant, who also helped other pupils. She said that Nursery children
were peeking into the changing area and that the assistant thought there should be an
alternative door. Heather herself liked the temporary curtain “because it has teddy
bears on it”. At times, she still liked using the special cushion in her classroom, rather
than her Bambach chair.
Heather’s new boots were good for walking; they gave her more support and were
very comfortable. Heather felt her walking was now improved and that she was
664
generally stronger than last year. She liked all her school work, especially number and
gym where “we get to run about”. The class teacher had said Heather was now faster
in her work and she agreed. She believed that her better handwriting was helping.
She sometimes had no time left for outside play after lunch. She said that she liked
to play “ponies” with one particular friend, who was “the only friend I’ve got”. At
home, she played on her own with Barbie dolls. Her bedroom had its own television
and DVD player. When she went out walking with her mother, she often became tired.
Individual Interviews
Headteacher May 2005
Now and at the beginning of Heather’s P3 year, the headteacher felt great
confidence in the teacher who, she believed, cared fully for each child in her class and
would extend the same care to Heather. The headteacher’s “comfortable working
arrangement” with Heather’s mother meant that she could discuss difficult issues
openly and honestly. Staff should build on a platform of strengths, to take the child
forward and she was very confident that Heather’s new teacher would be able to
continue this process. Heather’s transition from P2 to P3 had turned out satisfactorily.
The headteacher felt that Heather’s inclusion in P3 was positive for herself and the
other children. Heather continued to be very much a part of the core group, receiving
“no unkind or nasty remarks”. The differences between Heather’s physical appearance
and that of the other children had started to become more obvious. She had gained
weight in her lower body and her walking was very ungainly but, despite this, no
alienation with her peers had taken place.
Educationally, Heather had “done reasonably well”. Between September and
Christmas, she had not been in the best of health. Since Christmas, however, she had
been much fitter and there had been a marked improvement in her general ability and
willingness to participate in all classroom activities. Homework had been well done
and uncompleted tasks greatly reduced.
The changing facility, constructed within the Nursery toilet, incorporated a “stable
door”. This led to problems with Heather’s loss of dignity. The problem proved hard to
solve but, in the end it was overcome. Due to absence, another assistant, for a time,
took on the changing arrangements. This had a hidden benefit as Heather showed the
staff member what to do, so gaining in stature herself. Physical Education was
conducted by another class teacher and Heather participated “with 100% energy and
willingness”. No comments had been received from other pupils or parents about
Heather’s inclusion within the school. Parents had, historically, always proved most
supportive in such circumstances.
The headteacher had full confidence in the future P4 teacher, a Principal Teacher,
who was very committed. The prospect of keeping the same assistant with Heather
was attractive, because of the strong atmosphere of trust between them and the
assistant’s good contact and rapport with the parent. Moreover, she had special needs
training. The headteacher, however, was concerned that Heather could become too
dependent on one individual and suffer badly if that person weren’t available. She still
remained undecided.
No additional support during P3 would have proved beneficial. “The special needs
equipment we have in place is ‘state of the art’.” Heather liked the Bambach chair.
The class teacher was considering the relative merits of developing Heather’s
665
keyboard skills or concentrating on her handwriting. Whilst remaining caring with

Heather, the school would ensure that they were firm enough to bring about the best
academic progress. “Heather responds to a challenge. Maybe, that’s perhaps the thing
we’ve learned best this year”.
Heather’s Mother, May 2005
Knowing the teacher, Heather had looked forward to the move to P3 and had
coped well. Her “changing” needs and other clothing-related matters had been
addressed and satisfactorily resolved at the end-of-P2 review meeting. The transfer to
P3 had gone well. For the first six months of P3, Heather had needed extra help.
Although her reading was fine, writing was “really bad”. Heather had progressed much
better in the second half.
Some of Heather’s old friends had carried on but she had found many more and
she was definitely “one of the gang”. Heather liked doing projects, particularly
“Dinosaurs”. She also enjoyed gym and reading, but disliked drawing, although she
would happily colour in. Her mother felt that the school had “done really well with
her”.
Her only slight concern with Heather’s transferring to P4 was that she was moving
to the “big end of the school” and would be among the “big pupils”.
P3 Class Teacher
This teacher had harboured no real concerns about taking Heather, because there
were “strategies in place”. She had spoken to Heather’s classroom assistant and her
previous teacher and so felt she had a good grip on the child’s needs and abilities.
These discussions had revealed the unexpected importance of positioning Heather’s
special chair, so that she could easily see the blackboard.
Heather had become “a wee bit manipulative sometimes”. Strategies had been
devised to combat this tendency and make Heather “more of an independent child”.
These had worked and Heather now “tries everything”, although she would sometimes
opt out, if an activity were “too strenuous”. The teacher believed that Heather had
previously taken advantage of her classroom assistant. Now, Heather was a full
member of the class and “works like everyone else”.
The teacher said Heather had “come on in leaps and bounds”. Having a full time,
trusted classroom assistant was crucial and “Heather wants to learn”. She was
generally interested in the work and particularly liked the dinosaur project. The teacher
had tried hard to treat Heather like any other class member. Heather’s academic
progress had been satisfactory. The school staff knew her needs very well and let her
make her own choices, whenever possible. No specific preparations or actions had
been needed. The teacher had encouraged full integration into the work of the class for
Heather, who now worked as part of a group, sometimes helping others. “She’s had a
great year”.
P4 Prospective Class Teacher
The teacher said that she knew this class already as a P3. She was confident of her
ability to teach Heather who was “exactly the same as all the other children”. Being
part of the internal review group had proved worthwhile. “It was useful to know the
sort of things that must happen”. The teacher planned to investigate the need for
666
Heather’s chair to always face the blackboard. She would also seek advice on
Heather’s precise capabilities in the gym. All necessary support was available and she
could always consult the Pupil Support Service. “She’s a lovely little child and I’m
sure she’ll just fit in, as always”.
Classroom Assistant
Being at the end-of-P2 review meeting, where Heather’s possible future

difficulties were considered, had been valuable for the assistant, who felt she had
definitely contributed, being seen as the main link between Heather and her new
teacher. Because of the longstanding and close relationship they had, the child raised
issues she wouldn’t discuss with others.
The classroom assistant said that she had indeed been worried in case, because
Heather looked and ran differently, the other children might start asking potentially
distressing questions, but they included Heather in everything. “She has lots of
friends”. Neither had increasing embarrassment proved an issue, as she had gradually
become more self-reliant.
The assistant had enjoyed working with Heather and was impressed with her
ability to cope. “I could never have imagined that she could be so independent – she
never complains”. She believed firmly that Heather would continue to flourish but
wondered if her relative immobility might eventually alienate her from friends.
Review Meetings
Informal mid-P3 review Meeting, November 2004
The meeting discussed Heather’s general mobility and how she was coping with
P3, as well as her school shoes and the difficulties her mother had in obtaining them.
The development of her keyboard skills, to compensate for handwriting difficulties,
was also discussed. Heather’s mother had talked to the health visitor about the best
incontinence clothing and changing equipment/procedures. The headteacher would
speak to the physiotherapist about swimming and also riding; Heather should be
encouraged to actively participate in her changing routines and improve her academic
work, where she had been opting in or out, as it suited.
End of P3 Review Meeting, May 2005
It was a long time since the last school visit by an occupational therapist, though
she saw Heather at home. Through her transition to P4, Heather would move from one
end of the building to the other, and there could be personal hygiene issues.
The P3 class teacher said that Heather arrived early and was given “early
finishers” work but, recently, she was completing most tasks within the allocated time
to avoid doing “early finishers”. She had matured considerably and her homework was
greatly improved, as was her handwriting. The result was that the computer was no
longer needed. She was enthusiastic and showed a pride in her work. Overall, she had
had a good year and was a pleasure to teach.
The classroom assistant said that Heather enjoyed school and possessed a great
sense of humour. She was popular with children and staff and continued to gain both
in confidence and independence. Her new shoes had enhanced Heather’s mobility and
667
she was also taking a more active part in her changing procedure. She had many
friends and had recently become part of a small group or gang. Heather’s mother said
that Heather was “Doing really well and I am persevering with her homework”. She
had bought new boots, with Velcro strips to increase Heather’s independence.
The headteacher remarked on Heather’s awkward gait. The consultant surgeon
was considering a further operation, at age ten or twelve. The difference between
Heather’s stature and that of her peers was becoming more marked. Her mother said
that, when Heather did grow taller, she would end up in a wheelchair. This was new,
valuable information for the headteacher.
The P3 teacher said that Heather’s Bambach chair was a success, although Heather
had the option of sitting on a floor cushion during some activities. The Pupil Support
Service (PSS) teacher asked about table height, compared with chair height and was
informed that the special chair could go up and down.
The National Health Service was going to provide the next (larger) pair of boots
for Heather, as well as disposable nappies. “Often they (the parents) experience a lack
of financial support” (Ashdown, 2003, p.162). The mother had been (unnecessarily)
paying for these nappies since Heather was two. The next hospital visit to the
incontinence specialist would not be till November. Current thinking was to go with
self-catheterisation till aged twelve. The headteacher said that the PSS teacher was at
the meeting to ensure Heather received the best equipment and support.
The school’s “quota of adaptations” had been used up, so there would be no
disabled toilet near P4. The existing disabled toilet now had a full door, ensuring
sufficient concealment. Toileting time away from the classroom was still an issue, one
that was about to get worse.
The headteacher had advised the Council that Heather would require special
support for P4 swimming. The PSS teacher explained: “There is a council disabled
swimming club and there should be a swimmer in the water for each disabled child,
including one allocated to Heather”. Heather had already been swimming with her
mother, who would happily accompany her and the assistant during school swimming
trips. The programme would last ten weeks. The other children passed little or no
comment on Heather’s physical condition and the headteacher felt that swimming
would present no additional problems.
The keyboard typing programme had been withdrawn, as Heather’s handwriting
was considerably improved. lthough the P3 teacher thought typing was differentiating
Heather from her peers, the PSS teacher maintained that typing skills were important
in today’s environment. Heather’s mother agreed that Heather loved the computer.
The P4 teacher knew Heather and treated her the same as any other child. The
headteacher told Heather’s mother that, if she had a problem, “we’ll deal with it
straight away”. Heather’s attendance had greatly improved, her general health was
better and, consequently, so was her work. The headteacher discovered that the mother
had never been offered respite care.
The headteacher would compile firm recommendations for Secondary, during P5.
The council would have to be pressurised, since Heather’s prospective secondary
school did not have a complete accessibility strategy. A formal request would be
submitted during P5, jointly by the headteacher and the PSS teacher and this would be
lodged with the council and its Quality Improvement Officer.
The headteacher told the mother she would be delighted with Heather’s school
report. A second assistant had already been introduced to Heather and might be
permanently assigned, to avoid Heather becoming over dependent on one person.
Heather needed to know she “was here to work, not to party”.
668
Last week, Heather suddenly appeared, having changed herself ready for a
physical education lesson, although she expected others to pick up the clothes she had
dropped, which happened at home too. The headteacher had already said to Heather
“you drop it, you pick it up”.
At this point, Heather was invited to join the meeting. A number of questions were
put to her, such as “which is your favourite dinosaur? and “who is your best friend?”
Heather was informed that she would be going swimming, which she already knew.
There had been a suggestion that all P4 pupils should remain in the “small”
playground, which was well surfaced and flat and had traditionally been assigned to
children in the early years. The idea of not “moving on” to the “big” playground held
little appeal for Heather. Her view was accepted by the headteacher.
End of Year School Report
Heather listened and responded to the teacher’s instructions and could speak
clearly and audibly. Her reading was also good and handwriting fairly neat. In
mathematics she took some time to grasp new ideas. Heather became easily
discouraged when the work was difficult but could still offer support to others.
She got on well with other children. Heather enjoyed using the computer to create
simple pictures and was happy when she was creating models out of junk. In
Information Technology, she displayed basic keyboard skills and could create a
document using simple text and graphics. She participated enthusiastically in all drama
activities and also enjoyed music. Physical Education was a favourite subject and she
would engage in simple, competitive situations. Heather “liked P3 a lot”.
Observer’s Comments
Heather appeared to be developing strategies to minimise work. The Classroom

Assistant had been with Heather for a long time and now seemed to be treated as
something of a “servant”. Typing skills tuition and been dropped, which seemed
somewhat injudicious, considering the ubiquitous nature of computers.
The classroom had been laid out to suit Heather. This could disadvantage other
class members, who might find themselves not ideally positioned.
Although the headteacher worried about Heather’s small physical stature, her
mother was glad. She had learned that, for spina bifida sufferers, greater growth
usually meant increased difficulty in walking. It also emerged after the meeting that
the mother did not care if Heather’s classroom assistant were replaced, although she
hadn’t said so during the meeting itself.
“Just like any other child” and “a nice wee girl” were terms widely used by staff.
Would it have been the same if Heather had been a boy rather than a girl and exhibited
a less attractive appearance/personality?
Again demonstrating forward thinking, the headteacher had considered Heather’s
swimming, and the readiness or otherwise of her intended secondary school. The lack
of Occupational Therapy support within the school had also been noted and pressure
brought to bear to achieve more school visits, so far without result. Heather was very
popular and had lots of friends, although, as her differences became more obvious, she
might well find herself alienated from them.
669
Conclusions
Developed over many years, a close and comfortable working relationship

between headteacher and parent had allowed the school to acquire deeper insight into
Heather’s situation. As a result, staff had been aware of and better able to tackle
sensitive issues, which, if not addressed, could have caused problems with Heather’s
inclusion. Moreover, during the three years she had spent in school, none of the staff
had expressed any concerns or reservations about teaching Heather.
“Changing” and toileting breaks were significantly eroding the time available for
lessons. Over 16% of available teaching hours had become occupied by this activity,
with prejudicial effect on Heather’s learning. Her move to P4, where the classroom
was much further away, would only serve to exacerbate the problem. On top of all this,
the parent seemed to feel it necessary to absent Heather from school, during term time,
for two weeks holiday each year.
Believing that Heather was not trying as hard as she might in class, the teacher
devised a strategy of providing “catch up time” for her every morning, before 9
o’clock, so that she might complete any work left unfinished from the day before.
Very soon, catch up time was no longer necessary.
Although the sheer volume and effectiveness of support, which Heather
traditionally received, had undoubtedly been of huge benefit, a potential downside was
now apparent. Over-dependence on the Classroom Assistant and slow development of
self-reliance had become serious issues, which needed to be addressed.
Whilst in many ways supportive and fast acting in responding to Heather’s needs,
the Authority had been very slow in providing a proper level of physical privacy to
accompany her changing activities. To make matters worse, with Heather’s new P4
classroom being at the opposite end of the school from the facilities, she would be
exposed to potential ridicule by older pupils for being “a baby, still in nappies”.
With Heather soon to move into the “big playground”, the janitor recommended its
surface be re-laid, to provide a safer environment. He also pointed out that Heather’s
outdoor bench would have to be moved to this area and that, since it was bolted to the
ground, a council team would need to be involved. This had become a matter of some
urgency.
Rather than representing a solid example of inclusion in action, Heather’s last-
minute involvement in the end of year review meeting seemed no more than a token
gesture. By the time she was allowed in, the important issues had all been raised and
dealt with, whilst questions posed to the child were, in the event, both superficial in
nature and unambitious in scope.
Finally, it appeared that Heather’s inclusion in the everyday work and play of the
class had brought positive benefits to her peers. Her presence could only assist in
promoting greater understanding of the problems others might face, whilst fostering a
wider appreciation of the huge diversity of life.
References
Ashdown, R. (2003) “Policies to support inclusion in the early years”, in Tilstone, C. & Rose,
R. (eds.). Strategies to Promote Inclusive Practice. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Clark, K., Cooper, M., & Ross-Watt, F. (2004). Inclusion: Moving beyond the margins.
REACH: Journal of Special Needs Education in Ireland, 17(2), 104–108.
Cohen, L., & Manion, L. (1994). Research methods in education (4th ed.). London: Routledge.
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Riddell, S., (2000). Inclusion and choice: Mutually exclusive principles in special educational
needs. In F. Armstrong, D. Armstrong, & L. Barton (Eds.), Inclusive education policy,
contexts and comparative perspectives. London: David Fulton.
Ross-Watt, F., (2005). Inclusion in the early years: from rhetoric to reality. Childcare in
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Standards in Scotland’s Schools etc. Act 2000.
United Nations. (1989). UN Convention on the rights of the child. London: UNICEF.
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(SEN) action programme and inclusion”, British Journal of Special Education, 30 (4), 221-
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Competencies of Pre-School Teachers
60
Tatjana Devjak, University of Ljubljana
&
Janez Vogrinec, University of Ljubljana
T
he Faculty of Education of Ljubljana has been modernizing its study
programmes in accordance with »The Bologna Declaration« since October
2003, among which there is also a study programme for male and female
teachers of pre-school children. 1
The study programme for male and female teachers of pre-school children is an
undergraduate programme providing for high professional qualification, which lasts
for three years and six semesters respectively. It ends with the undergraduate thesis.
Until 1984 male and female pre-school teachers received the secondary level
education. That year at the then Academy for Education it was possible to enrol in a
two-year higher level professional »pre-school teacher« programme. However, from
the study year 1994/95 onwards a higher level professional »pre-school education«
programme has been provided at the Faculty of Education. The goals of the present
programme are to train the male and female students to carry out quality education
work with pre-school children, with children in the first grade of a nine-year primary
school, to cooperate with parents and other colleagues and teaching professionals. The
pre-school teachers should acquire knowledge in the following fields: (1) a child and
his education (specialistic knowledge in the field of pedagogy, psychology, sociology,
philosophy, sociology, special pedagogy and health education); (2) theoretical and
1
The Slovenian education system consists of:
1. pre-school education,
2. basic education (single structure of primary and lower secondary education),
3. (upper) secondary education:
- vocational and technical education,
- secondary general education,
4. post-secondary vocational education,
5. higher education:
- undergraduate academic and professional education,
- post-graduate education:
- specialization and master's studies ,
- doctoral studies.
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practical knowledge of individual fields of education (language, social environments,

science, mathematics, movement, dance, music and arts); (3) the care system for
children (school system, public and private kindergartens, legal, social and health
institutions); (4) communication with children and adults (4) scientific contemplations.
(Pre-school education, 1997:11). 1 Evaluations of the present study programme showed
that the prevalent demand in contemporary societies is quite well satisfied, i.e.: »in the
course of their studies the graduates of the pedagogical professions should acquire
general knowledg, skills, they should develop understanding, get acquainted with, and
know the specific (subject-related) field, further, they should get acquainted with and
master the pedagogical processes.«. (Theses for the modernization of study
programmes, 2004). 2
Yet »The Bologna Declaration« adopts somehow different principles, criteria and
platforms to draw up study programmes, as it prioritizes competencies and study
achievements. Medves (2004) states, that competencies are the global objective of
education, in the sense of a synthesis of knowledge as regards knowledge of the
contents, developing understanding and providing information through application of
higher cognitive processes, i.e. knowledge of contents on the one hand, and a synthesis
of skills, abilities and methods of individual branches or areas of expertise,
i.e.procedural knowledge, on the other hand, and last but not least, competencies are a
synthesis of development of interests, motivation, personal response of an individual,
his integrity and social inclusion. Competencies can therefore be described as »the
ability of an individual to activate, use and integrate the accumulated knowledge in
complex, differentiated and unpredictable situations« (Parrenoud, after Svetlik,
2006:4).) Common European Principles for competencies and qualifications of
teachers (Zgaga, 2006) provide platforms for the modernization of study programmes
in the area of education, which are based on four principles and three sets of
competencies. The principles are, as follows: (1) teaching as a highly qualified
profession, which is (2) placed in the context of life-long learning, (3) is mobile and
based on (4) partnership. The three sets of competencies are, as follows: (a)
competencies to work with others, (b) competencies to operate with knowledge,
1
System of pre-school education for children of all ages is relatively well organized in our
country. Sufficient network of public kindergartens has been developed and equal level of
education of pre-school teachers and assistant pre-school teachers for work in creches and other
pre-school institutions has been assured.
2
Pre-school education, offered by pre-school institutions, is not compulsory. It includes
children between the ages of 1 and 6. The curriculum is divided in two cycles (from 1 to 3 and
from 3 to 6). The new curriculum promotes different types of programme such as: day, half-day
and short programmes. There is also possibility of childminders, pre-school education at home
or occasional care of children in their homes. The Curriculum for Pre-school Institutions was
approved by Council of Experts and it defines six areas of activities: movement, language, art,
nature, society and mathematics. The goals set in individual fields of activities provide the
framework for selection of contents and activities by teachers. Private pre-school institutions,
founded in addition to public ones, allow parents a greater choice of forms and methods of
work and educational contents for their children. The Pre-school Institutions Act guarantees
parents the right to choose a programme in a public or private pre-school institution. If children
are ill and cannot go to the pre-school institution, education can be provided at their home. In
the year 2004 altogether 54.515 children attended 278 pre-school institutions, of which 18 were
private without a concession. 59 pre-school institutions included 97 pre-school classes with
children with special needs. In the year 2004 28 pre-school classes were in hospitals.
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technologies and information and (c) competencies to work with society and in the
society. (ibid.)
When modernizing the present study programme for pre-school teachers the
modernization team of the Faculty of Education also takes into account the results of
the Tuning project (Tuning educational structures in Europe), which started in year
2000, when a little fewer than 100 universities (nowadays almost 140 universities) of
the then European Union decided to accept the so called »Bologna challenge« with the
goal of developing the common contemporary methodology supporting a
comprehensive modernization of study programmes. Within the Tuning project nine 1
study fields or disciplines were developed, including the field of »education science«,
comprising the narrower area of teacher education and study courses in the field of
education science. According to Zgaga (2005) the Tuning project is important for the
field of education for two reasons: (1) due to specific and developmental orientations
and needs in the field of study programmes for the education of teachers, pre-school
teachers and other teaching professionals and (2) due to the fact that particularly in
this field there are many experts who have been actively engaged in research of
different aspects of development and modernization of study programmes in
education. The basic concept of the project work is contemporary development of
learning outcomes and categories of generic and subject-related specific competencies,
closely connected with it. The project identified and analyzed the key competencies,
which were consequently verified with special questionnaires in individual interest
groups.
At the Faculty of Education it was also decided to undertake a similar analysis of
every study programme, also of the pre-school education programme with the purpose
of establishing how our key partners, employers (principals, Ministry of Education,
local communities, etc.), ex-graduates (of educational programmes) and university
teachers assess the achieved or desired qualifications of the graduates.
The list of competencies which a future graduate/pre-school teacher of the
modernized pre-school education programme should possess – comprises 20 general
competencies for the graduates of undergraduate professional education study
programme and 15 specific competencies for graduates in the field of education and
schooling, which were drawn up by the modernization team of the Faculty of
Education. 10 specific competencies in the area of pre-school education were added to
these competencies. The suitability of specific competencies for the graduates in the
field of education and schooling and of specific competencies for the graduates in the
field of pre-school education was verified in the empirical research.
Problem Definition
The goal of the empirical research was to state the opinions of the respondents on
the present qualifications of the graduates of the pre-school education ragarding 15
specific competencies in the field of education and schooling and 10 specific
competencies in the field of pre-school education and on the degree to which the future
graduates of pre-school education should be qualified for individual competencies.
In the article the answers to the following researched questions will be provided:
1
Study fields of the Tuning project are, as follows: (1) Business and Administrative Sciences
(2) Education sciences (3) Geology, (4) History (5) Mathematics (6) Physics (7) Chemistry (8)
European Studies and (9) Health care. (Zgaga 2005: 19.)
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(1) in the opinions of the respondents, to what extent have the graduates who
finished the pre-school education study programme in the last ten years on average
developed each individual competence in the field of pre-school education (present
qualifications), (2) in the opinions of the respondents, to what extent should the
graduates of the pre-school education study programme develop each individual
competence in the field of education and schooling (desired qualification), (3) in the
opinions of the respondents at which competencies in the field of education and
schooling and at which competencies in the field of pre-school education there are the
greatest/slightest discrepancies between the present and the desired qualifications of
the graduates of the pre-school education study programme and (4) are there
statistically significant deviations among individual groups of respondents in their
assessment of the present and the desired qualifications of the graduates of the pre-
school education study programme regarding specific competencies in the field of
education and schooling and specific competencies in the field of pre-school
education.
Methodology
Sample of the Respondents
In the research a dedicated sample was used. The questionnaires were returned by
120 respondents. Almost equal share of the respondents (30,6%) had finished
secondary school, (29,7 %) post-secondary vocational school and (27,9 %) had
finished higher professional school. In the research 8 university teachers, 2 university
assistants in 3 respondents who had finished a five-year secondary school for pre-
school teachers participated.
In further statistical evaluation of the results the answers of the respondents who
had finished a five-year secondary school for pre-school teachers were joined with the
answers of the respondents who had finished secondary school for pre-school teachers.
(hereinafter “secondary school for pre-school teachers”); the answers of university
assistants and university teachers were also joined (hereinafter “academics”).
On average the respondents have had 10,1 years of work experience in the field of
pre-school education (standard deviation is 8,3 years), their average age is 30,2 years
(standard deviation is 9,1 years).
The Development of the Research and the Construction of the Questionnaire
The empirical research was conducted in March 2004 and December 2005,
whereby we used the questionnaire compiled of four grading scales, as follows:
• the grading scale with which we were establishing the present

qualifications of the graduates of the pre-school education study
programme for fifteen specific competencies in the field of education and
schooling;
• the grading scale with which we were establishing the desired qualification
of the graduates of the pre-school education study programme for fifteen
specific competencies in the field of education and schooling;
• the grading scale with which we were establishing the present
qualifications of the graduates of the pre-school education study
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programme for ten specific competencies in the field of education and

schooling;
• the grading scale with which we were establishing the desired
qualifications of the graduates of the pre-school education programme for
ten specific competencies in the field of education and schooling.
The list of competencies was drawn up by applying the goals of the existing pre-
school education study programme, Curriculum for kindergartens (1999) and on the
basis of the working materials of the modernization team of the Faculty of Education
in Ljubljana, which is adopting principles and platforms for the modernization of the
study programmes provided at the Faculty of Education.
The respondents assessed the present/desired qualifications of the graduates of the
pre-school education study programme on the basis of a four-point grading scale,
• the grade 1 indicating that the graduates are/should not be trained for the
given competence or are/should be trained for it to a very low degree,
almost zero,
• the grade 2 indicating that the graduates are/should be little trained for the
given competence,
• the grade 3 indicating that the graduates are/should be well qualified for the
given competence, whereas
• the grade 4 indicating that they are/should be best qualified for the given
competence. The competencies with the average grade at least 3 were
considered to have been achieved to a high degree/important, whereas the
competencies with the average grade below 3 were considered to have been
achieved to a low degree/slightly important.
Every mentioned part of the questionnaire is sufficiently reliable on the basis of

Cronbach alfa coefficient (the present qualifications for competencies in education and
schooling: = 0,88, the desired qualifications for competencies in education and
schooling: = 0,88, the present qualifications for competencies of pre-school
education: = 0,89, the desired qualifications for competencies of pre-school
education: = 0,91) and validity (with the first factor 38,83 % variance is explained
in the questionnaire on the present qualifications for competencies in education and
schooling, 37,77 % variance in the qustionnaire on the desired qualifications for
competencies in education and schooling, 50,05 % variance in the questionnaire on the
present qualifications for competencies of pre-school education and 56,60 % variance
in the questionnaire on the desired qualifications for competencies of pre-school
education). Reliability was additionally controlled by means of factor analysis.
According to the principle of regularity rtt≥√h2 the mentioned parts of the
questionnaire reached a good level of reliability (the present qualifications for
competencies in education and schooling: rtt = 0,80, the desired qualifications for
competencies in education and schooling: rtt = 0,79, the present qualifications for
competencies of pre-school education: rtt = 0,79, the desired qualifications for
competencies of pre-school education: rtt = 0,83).
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Statistical Methods
In the empirical research the causal - non-experimental method of pedagogical

research was applied. The data of the questionnaire are processed on the level of
descriptive and inferential statistics, whereby we made use of the following: the
frequency distribution (f, f%) the distribution of attributive variables, the basic
descriptive statistics of numerical variables (mean value measures, dispersion
measures), a one-way variance analysis, Levene test of homogeneity of variances (F-
test), Brown-Forsythe test of equality of arithmetic means (where the assumption on
homogeneity of variances was not fulfilled), Games-Howell test and Tukey test to
establish the differences between two arithmetic means of two groups, further the t-test
to establish statistically significant deviations between two arithmetic means of the
same sample, factor analysis to determine validity (% of the explained variance with
the first factor) and reliability (% of the explained variance with common factors) of
the instrument and Cronbach alfa coefficient as a measurement of the reliability of the
instrument. The data are displayed in a table.
The Present and the Desired Qualifications of the Graduates of the Pre-School
Education Study Programe for Competencies in the Field of Education and Schooling
(table 1)
The respondents evaluate the graduates of the pre-school education study

programme who finished their studies in the last ten years, on average, to be well
trained for specific competencies necessary for professional work in education and
schooling, as the arithmetic means of all the competencies are above average (average
around 66th centile, the value of the competence which scored the lowest average
grade is placed to 53rd centile).
In the opinions of the respondents the graduates of the pre-school education study
programme are highly qualified for (1) the content and field methodology, (2)
collaborate well with parents, (3) understand and know how to apply curricular
theories and general as well as didactic knowledge, (4) are well trained for pedagogical
management of the classrom and/or the group. At the same time these are the very
competencies for which the future graduates of the pre-school education study
programme should be best trained according to respondents. They believe the
graduates of the pre-school education study programme should be best trained for (1)
collaboration with parents, (2) understanding and application of curricular theories and
general as well as possessing didactic knowledge, (3) the knowledge of the content and
field methodology and they should also be well trained for (4) pedagogical
management of the classroom and /or the group. The results show that the
undergraduate professional pre-school education programme has already been
successfully developing the very competencies which are considered to be most
important by the graduates and academics; however, this does not mean, that they do
not need improvement in the course of the modernization of the study programme.
In the opinions of the respondents out of fifteen provided competencies the
graduates of the pre-shool education study programme are the least familiar with the
procedures and principles of counselling work and planning and implementation of
intervention programmes, they do not have enough knowledge on specialistic
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pedagogy to be able to work with children with special needs, they also exhibit a poor
command and understanding of theoretical bases of counselling work. We believe the
stated competencies - with the exception of knowledge on work with children with
special needs – are neither typical nor necessary for the professional work of the pre-
school teacher, though acquaintance with the bases of all the enumerated competencies
is by no means superfluous. Regarding knowledge on work with children with special
needs we believe that pre-school teachers will have to acquire it also in the process of
in-service teacher training and self-education (in connection with concrete cases of
children they will encounter at their work), as it is not possible to learn everything
within the scope of the three-year study programme.
Table 1. Average Grades, Standard Deviations, Ranks, Arithmetic Means Difference,

and T-Test Values between the Present and Desired Qualifications of the Graduates of
the Pre-School Education Study Programme for Specific Competencies in Education
and Schooling, Calculated on the Basis of Answers of all the Respondents
Present Desired
specific
competencies
in education
t - test
and average standard average standard deviation
RANK RANK *
schooling grade deviation grade deviation
(qulification
for ...)
CES 1 3,11 0,54 1 3,72 0,49 3 -0,61 -10,45
CES 2 2,96 0,63 3 3,77 0,43 2 -0,81 -13,70
CES 3 2,79 0,75 5 3,69 0,54 5 -0,90 -12,69
CES 4 2,22 0,73 14 3,50 0,55 12 -1,28 -15,68
CES 5 2,92 0,85 4 3,71 0,53 4 -0,79 -9,78
CES 6 2,63 0,83 8 3,66 0,60 6 -1,03 -13,12
CES 7 2,52 0,71 9 3,59 0,56 8,5 -1,07 -13,39
CES 8 2,45 0,80 12 3,54 0,55 10 -1,09 -13,62
CES 9 3,09 0,87 2 3,84 0,39 1 -0,75 -9,10
CES 10 2,72 0,78 6 3,59 0,53 8,5 -0,87 -12,88
CES 11 2,31 0,78 13 3,36 0,60 14 -1,05 -12,96
CES 12 2,64 0,70 7 3,60 0,59 7 -0,96 -14,12
CES 13 2,12 0,76 15 3,26 0,68 15 -1,14 -14,12
CES 14 2,50 0,80 10,5 3,51 0,58 11 -1,01 -12,57
CES 15 2,50 0,70 10,5 3,41 0,68 13 -0,91 -12,48
* At every competence statistically significant deviations between the present and the desired
qualifications of the graduates of the pre-school education study programme arose (sig = 0,000)
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Legend:
CES 1 - Knowledge of the content and of the field methodology.
CES 2 - Understanding and application of curricular theories and of general and
didactic knowledge.
CES 3 - Interdisciplinary lintegration of contents.
CES 4 - Application of special education knowledge for work with children with
special needs.
CES 5 - Pedagogical management of the classroom and/or a group.
CES 6 - Organization of active and independent learning, training pupils for efficient
learning.
CES 7 - Qualifications for checking and assessing knowledge and achievement of
pupils and providing feedback information.
CES 8 - Communication with experts from different fields of education and schooling.
CES 9 - Collaboration with parents.
CES 10 - Understanding the relationship between the education institution and social
environment – systemic view and approach.
CES 11 - Understanding and knowledge of theoretical grounds for conselling work.
CES 12 - Making the comprehensive assessment of the needs of an individual or a
group, their strong and weak areas, taking into account environmental
factors (physical, social, cultural) by application of appropriate procedures
and instruments
CES13 - Management of procedures and principles of counselling work and planning
and implementation of intervention programmes.
CES 14 - Ability to establish and maintain partnership with other users or groups
(parents, local community, counselling services, economy, etc.).
CES 15 - Pursuing such changes of the system which assume the basic rights and
attend to the basic needs of the user or a group.
The respondents evaluate all the provided competencies to be highly significant

for the future qualifications of the graduates of the pre-school education study
programme. The average grade of the competence, which was assessed as the “least”
significant (“managing procedures and principles of counselling work and planning
and implementation of intervention programmes”) is placed to 82nd centile namely.
Further, we wanted to establish the competencies in the field of education and
schooling at which in the opinions of the respondents the greatest and the slightest
differences between the present and desired qualifications of the graduates of the pre-
school education study programme are observed. By means of the t-test we determined
that at all competencies statistically significant deviations were observed. (sig =
0,000): the greatest deviations were revealed at competencies, which are not related to
pre-school education solely and are ranked among less significant competencies for
the future qualification of the graduates of the pre-school education study programme.
(application of specialistic pedagogical knowledge to be able to work with children
with special needs and managing the procedures and principles of counselling work as
well as planning and implementation of intervention programmes), whereas the
slightest deviations were observed at competencies, for which the respondents believe
that the graduates of the pre-school education study programme have already been best
trained.
In the continuation of the statistical analysis we tried to establish whether among
individual groups of respondents (graduates of post-secondary professional school,
graduates of higher professional school, graduates who finished secondary school for
pre-school teachers and academics) there are statistically significant deviations in their
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school education study programmes for specific competencies in the field of education
and schooling.
Prior to a more detailed interpretation of the obtained results let us draw the
attention to the sample and a relatively small number of respondents. The average
grades of individual competencies for the group of academics were calculated on the
basis of the answers provided by ten respondents. The results obtained this way are by
no means representative for the whole population; they are announced separately for
individual groups despite that fact, because a certain trend of answers has been
established at individual competencies.
Statistically significant deviations among individual groups of respondents arose
at assessing the present qualifications of the graduates of the pre-school education
study programme at four specific competencies in the field of education and schooling:
training for interdisciplinary integration of contents (F = 3,907, g = 3, 99, sig = 0,011),
training for checking and assessing the knowledge and achievements of pupils and
providing feedback information (F = 2,792, g = 3, 94, sig = 0,045), comunication with
experts from different fields of education and schooling (F = 4,360, g = 3, 100, sig =
0,006) and understanding the relationship between the education institution and social
environment – systemic viewpoint and approach (F = 3,749, g = 3, 96, sig = 0,014).
At the qualifications of the graduates for communication with experts from
different education institutions (sig = 0,003) and at their qualifications for checking
and assessing the knowledge and achievements of pupils as well as at providing
feedback information (sig = 0,05) statistically significant deviations arose between the
graduates of higher professional school and the respondents who had finished the
secondary school At both competencies the present qualifications of the graduates
were assessed higher by the respondents who had finished higher professional school.
At the qualifications for the interdisciplinary integration of the contents (sig =
0,026) statistically significant deviations arose between the graduates of higher
professional school and academics. The qualifications of the graduates for the given
competence was on average assessed higher by the graduates of higher professional
school than by the academics. We presume that the academics are more aware of the
necessity of the interdisciplinary integration of contents at work with pre-school
children and of the importance of understanding the relationship between the
kindergarten and its social environment, and also of the drawbacks of the study
programme in relation to the mentioned competencies than the “practitioners” are.
At the competence ˝understanding the relationship between the education
institution and its social environment – systemic viewpoints and approach˝ statistically
significant deviations were observed between the academics and graduates of post-
secondary professional school (sig = 0,05) and between the academics and the
graduates of higher professional school (sig = 0,04). The present qualification of the
graduates for the given competence is assessed to be the lowest by the academics, and
the highest by the graduates of the higher professional school.
At the desired qualifications of the graduates of the pre-school education study
programme for specific competencies in education and schooling statistically
significant deviations were observed at three competencies among different groups of
respondents, i.e.: knowledge of the content and of the field methodology (F = 3,009, g1
= 3, g2 = 82, 165, sig = 0,035), interdisciplinary integration of the contents (F = 2,763,
g1 = 3, g2 = 88, 454, sig = 0,047) and communication with experts form different
education institutions (F = 2,748, g1 = 3, g2 = 70, 761, sig = 0,047).
At the competencies ˝knowledge of the content and of the field methodology˝ (sig
= 0,038) and ˝interdisciplinary integration of the contents˝ (sig = 0,045) statistically
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significant deviations arose between the graduates of the post-secondary professional

school and the respondents who finished secondary school for pre-school teachers. The
latter consider the mentioned competencies to be more important for the graduates of
the pre-school education study programme than they are considered by the graduates
of the post-srcondary professional school.
At the competence ˝communication with experts from different fields of education
and schooling˝ staistically significant deviations arose between the graduates of post-
secondary professional school and the academics. The mentioned competence seems
to be more important for the graduates of post-secondary professional school than for
the academics.
The Present and the Desired Qualifications of the Graduates of the Pre-School
Education Study Programme for Specific Competencies in the Field of Pre-School
Education (table 2)
Table 2. Average Grades, Standard Deviations, Ranks, Arithmetic Means Differences

and T-Test Values between the Present and the Desired Qualifications of the
Graduates of the Pre-School Education Study Programmes for Specific Competencies
in the Field of Pre-School Education, Calculated on the Basis of the Answers Provided
by all the Respondents
present desired
Specific
competencies
in the field of
t–
pre-school average standard average standard deviation
RANK RANK test*
education grade deviation grade deviation
(qualification
for ...)
CPE1 2,92 0,74 8,5 3,71 0,51 10 -0,79 -

12,29
CPE 2 2,92 0,77 8,5 3,77 0,50 8 -0,85 -
12,98
CPE 3 2,81 0,75 10 3,72 0,50 9 -0,91 -
13,21
CPE 4 3,29 0,75 2 3,83 0,40 5,5 -0,54 -7,82
CPE 5 3,03 0,74 6 3,84 0,39 3 -0,81 -

11,30
CPE 6 3,06 0,79 5 3,79 0,51 7 -0,73 -9,07
CPE 7 3,38 0,73 1 3,84 0,39 3 -0,46 -7,04
CPE 8 3,16 0,80 3 3,86 0,37 1 -0,70 -9,41
CPE 9 2,99 0,82 7 3,84 0,43 3 -0,85 -

10,27
CPE 10 3,12 0,80 4 3,83 0,44 5,5 -0,71 -8,83
* At all the comptences staistically significant deviations between the present and the desired
qualification of the graduates of pre-school education arose (sig = 0,000)
Legend:
CPE 1 - Knowledge, critical assessmet and application of theories on childhood,
development and learning at planning, implementation and evaluation of
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education work.
CPE 2 - Knowledge and autonomous implementation of the curriculum for the field of
pre-school education and of the curriculum for the first grade of a nine-year
primary school.
CPE 3 - Knowledge of all the areas of activities in the kindergarten and of the subjects
in the first grade of a nine- year primary school and their (interdisciplinary)
integration in the process of learning.
CPE 4 - Efficient and flexible organization of space and time: arrangement of a
playroom for different activities
and games, places to play and withdraw, selection of didactic materials and
accessories to play, flexible time schedule for activities and transfer among
them.
CPE 5 - Observing and monitoring of achievements, of improvement and of the
development of children.
CPE 6 - Identification of and taking into consideration the individual needs and
differences among children (in personal characteristic features, capabilities,
abilities, cognitive styles, family and socio-cultural environment…) at
education work.
CPE 7 - Providing emotional security to children and encouraging their independence
in relation to their maturity.
CPE 8 - Nurturing curiosity of children, taking into consideration their inner
motivation and interests and promoting their interests, and encouraging
investigative and active learning.
CPE 9 - Pair work with a pre-school teacher assistant, a pre-school teacher or a
teacher, team work within the
professional staff and cooperation with other experts outside the kindergarten.
CPE 10 - Efficient communication with parents, and knowledge and application of
different ways to collaborate with them.
The present qualifications of the graduates for specific competencies in the field of
pre-school education (the average grade of all the enlisted competencies is placed to
77th centile) is assessed much higher than the present qualification of the graduates of
pre-school education for specific comptetences in education and schooling by the
respondents. The highest average grades were awarded to the present qualifications of
the graduates for the following competencies: (1) providing emotional security to
children and encouraging their independence in relation to their maturity, (2) efficient
and flexible organization of space and time: arrangement of the playroom for different
activities and play, places to play and withdraw, selection of didactic materials and
accessories to play, flexible time schedule for activities and the transfer among them,
(3) nurturing curiosity of children, taking into consideration their inner motivation and
interests, promoting interests and encouraging investigative and active learning.
In the opinions of the respondents at present the graduates of pre-school eduation
study programme should be the least qualified for the following specific competencies
in the field of pre-school education: (1) knowledge of all areas of activities in the
kindergarten and of the subjects of the first year of a nine-year primary school and
their (interdisciplinary) integration in the process of learning, (2) knowledge, critical
assessment and application of theories on childhood, development and learning at
planning, implementation and evaluation of education work, (3) knowledge and
autonomous implementation of the curriculum for the field of pre-school education
and of the curriculum for the first grade of a nine-year primary school. Yet the
average grades of these competencies, which were assessed to be the lowest, are still
relatively high (the lowest average grade is placed to 70th centile). It is evident that
among the competencies, which received worse grades are the ones connected with
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changes within the modernization of the education and schooling system – the new
legislation and Curriculum for kindergartens (1999): legal possibility for the pre-
school teachers to work in the first grade of a nine-year primary school (knowledge
and autonomous implementation of the curriculum and covering the subjects of the
nine-year primary school), autonomy of pre-school teachers, greater emphasis on
evaluation of education work, critical assessment and application of pedagogical and
psychological theories.
When asked about the desired qualifications of the graduates of the pre-school
education study programme, the respondents considered all the enumerated
competencies in the field of pre-school education to be very important for the
graduates of the pre-school education study programme. The average grade of all the
specific competencies for the pre-school education is placed around 95th centile. Also
the competencies which were assessed to be the lowest by the respondents
“knowledge, critical evaluation and application of theories on childhood, development
and learning at planning, implementation and evaluation of education work” and
“knowledge of all areas of activities in the kindergarten and subjects of the first year of
a nine-year primary school and their (interdisciplinary) integration in the process of
learning”) were awarded a very high average grade (3,71 and 3,72).
In the opinions of the respondents it is most important for the future graduates of
the pre-school education study programme to nurture curiosity of children, take into
consideration their inner motivation and interests, encourage investigative and active
lerning (average grade is 3, 86), to be able to observe and monitor achievements,
improvement and the development of children; further they should know how to
participate in pair work with a pre-school teacher assistant, a pre-school teacher or a
teacher, they should be capable of team work within professional staff of the
kindergarten and of cooperation with other experts outside the kindergarten; it is also
important that they are able to provide emotional security to children and encourage
their independence in relation to their maturity (the average grades of all three
competencies are equal, i.e. 3,84).
Such results demonstrate that within the modernization of the pre-school
education study programme in accordance with the Bologna process we set ourselves
the goal to develop the very competencies which are of utmost importance for the
education work in a kindergarten in the opinions of both groups, of the academics and
“practicioners”.
Staistically significant deviations between the present and desired qualifications of
the graduates of the pre-school education study programme arose with all the specific
competencies in the field of pre-school education (sig = 0,000). The respondents also
believe that the graduates of the pre-school education study programme should be
better trained for all the specific competencies in the field of pre-school education than
they are now.
The greatest deviations between the present and the desired qualifications were
observed at the following competencies: (1) knowledge of all the areas of activities in
a kindergarten and of the subjects in the first grade of a nine-year primary school and
their (interdisciplinary) integration in the process of learning (2) knowledge and
autonomous implementation of the curriculum for the field of pre-school education
and for the first year of a nine-year primary school and (3) pair work with a pre-
school teacher assistant, a pre-school teacher or a teacher, team within the professional
staff of the kindergarten and cooperation with other experts outside the kindergarten.
The mentioned competencies are largely in accordance with the competencies, for
which the respondents believe that the present graduates are the least qualified.
684
The slightest deviations between the present and the desired qualifications of the
graduates of the pre-school education study programme, which are all also statistically
significant (sig = 0,000), were observed at (1) qualifications of the graduates to
provide emotional security to children and encourage their independence in relation to
thir maturity, (2) qualifications for efficient and flexible organization of space and
time: arrangement of a play room, of places to play and withdraw, selection of didactic
materials and accessories for play, flexible time schedule for activities and transfer
among them and (3) qualifications for nurturing curiosity of children, taking into
consideration their inner motivation and interests, promoting interests and encouraging
investigative and active learning.
In the continuation of the statistical analysis we tried to establish whether among
individual groups of respondents (graduates of post-secondary professtional school,
graduates of higher professional school, graduates who finished secondary school for
pre-school teachers and academics) there are statistically significant deviations in their
school education study programme for specific competencies in the field of education
and schooling and in the field of pre-school education.
At assessing the desired qualifications of the graduates of the pre-school education
study programme for specific competencies in the field of pre-school education no
staistically significant deviations were observed among different groups of
respondents. At this point we would once again like to emphasize that in the opinions
of all the respondents the graduates of the pre-school education study programme
should be highly qualified for all the enumerated specific competencies in the field of
pre-school education.
A one-way variance analysis demonstrated statistically significant deviations in
the assessment of the present qualifications of the graduates of the pre-school
education study programme for specific competencies in the field of pre-school
education at two competencies, namely „efficient and flexible organization of space
and time: arrangement of a playroom for different activities and games, places to play
and withdraw, selection of didactic materials and accessories for play, flexible time
schedule for activities and transfer among them” (F = 3,610, g = 3, 102, sig = 0,0416)
and ˝nurturing curiosity of children, taking into consideration their inner motivation
and interests, promoting interests and fostering investigative and active learning.”(F =
5,774, g = 3, 103, sig = 0,001).
At assessment of the present qualifications of the graduates of the pre-school
education study programme for efficient and flexible organization of the space and
time Turkey’s test showed statistically significant deviations in the answers of the
graduates of post-secondary professional school and academics (sig = 0,045) and in
the answers of the graduates of post-secondary professional school and the
respondents who had finished secondary school (sig = 0,05). The present qualifications
of the graduates of the pre-school education study programme for efficient and flexible
organization of space and time are assessed to be the highest by the graduates of the
post-secondary professional school, and the lowest by the. The results demonstrate that
the academics are more critical to the qualifications of the graduates for this
competence than the practitioners are.
When assessing the present qualifications of the graduates of the pre-school
education study programme for nurturing curiosity of children, taking into
consideration their inner motivation and interests, promoting interests and encouraging
investigative and active learning staistically significant deviations arose between the
academics and other groups of respondents: the graduates of post-secondary
685
professional school (sig = 0,000), the graduates of higher professional school (sig =
0,0013) and the respondents who had finished secondary school for pre-school
teachers. (sig = 0,034). The academics attribute statistically lower significance to the
qualifications of the graduates for the given competence than other groups of
respondents do. The qualifications of the graduates for this competence were assessed
to be the highest by the respondents who had finished post-secondary professional
school. It is evident that the academics express stronger criticism to the present
qualifications of the graduates for this competence than the “practitioners” do.
Conclusion
Although at the recent modernization of the pre-school education study

programme in the study year 1995/96 we set ourselves the goal to provide for quality
training of male and female pre-school teachers, regarding the new so called “Bologna
platforms” for the modernization of the study programmes and the conducted research
on competencies of the pre-school education study programme, it can be concluded,
that the graduates have already achieved a high level of certain general and specific
competencies in the field of pre-school education. Yet the level of achievement is still
not high enough, in other words, the graduates would like to be better qualified for
certain general competencies in the field of education and schooling and for all
specific competencies in the field of pre-school education. Nowadays, each individual,
including the graduate of the pre-school education study programme, should possess
the highest possible level of qualifications, ability and willingness to carry out work
and execute tasks at work in a quality manner, as well as the capability and willingness
to actively participate in the knowledge society. The above mentioned items present a
challenge and responsibility for the creators of the new pre-school education
programme – a challenge to draw up such a study programme that would provide for
the quality training for the necessary and desired competencies and – the responsibility
to draw up such a programme, that would enable transfer among different study
programmes, open up the possibility for further education and training and that would
allow for partnrship relations between the theoretical disciplines and practical training
and work and for active participation of professors, students, employers, parents and
experts from different fields, local community representatives, etc.
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Razdevšek Pučko, C. (2004). Kompetence učiteljev. http://www.pef.uni-lj.si/strani/bologna/
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688
The Development of Primary Catch-Up Curriculum
61
The Development of Primary Catch-Up
Curriculum
Cem Babadogan, Ankara University
P
rimary school catch-up curriculum is one of the components of “Children
Friendly Learning Environments” and its development is a result of needs
determined by Let's Go To School, Girls! (Haydi Kızlar Okula), the girls’
education campaign in Turkey. The aim of Let's Go To School , the girls’
education campaign in Turkey, is to eliminate sex discrimination in primary schools
by schooling 640,000 girls by the end of 2005. However, the results of an intermediary
evaluation of the campaign revealed the fact that local governments fail to maintain
school attendance of the girls aged between 10-14. The reason is lack of necessary
services in terms of adaptation, knowledge and skills to ensure children’s adaptations
to school. In order to solve this problem, the Ministry of National Education (MEB)
planned to design a “Catch-Up Education Curriculum” and apply it nationwide within
the framework of 2005 Annual Work Program in collaboration with United Nations
Children’s Fund UNICEF.
The purpose of this program is to ensure children’s adaptations to educational
system, particularly those of the girls aged between 10-14. The reason why the target
population of the project is out of system varies. Children included in the target
population are grouped as the following: a) Children in prisons (CTE) under
supervision of the Ministry of Justice, b) children in Social Services and Society for
the Protection of Children (SHCEK) and c) children in hospitals. Moreover,
handicapped children, children living or working in streets, children out of primary
school system due to economic or traditional reasons are included in the scope. Given
the variety and learning objectives in the target group in terms of life time experiences,
we understand that it is necessary to examine learning outputs, skills, attitudes and
habits of the group. Therefore, the current primary program needs intensifying in order
to take part in the catch-up curriculum.
The Project Background
The general purpose of the Project called “Towards Good Co-administration,

Protection and Justice for Children” is to provide protective environments for children
689
in connection with laws in the context of inclusion to the European Union and
strengthen the preventive system developed for children to prevent them from being in
connection with laws, as stated in the Convention of Children’s Rights. In this context,
particular goals of the project are divided into sub-projects UNICEF 2006a).
The goal of the first sub-project called “Research and Assessment” is to gather
data about institutions for children protection in the system by conducting various
researches and to strengthen capacities of such institutions.
The goal of the second sub-project called “Development of Children-Centered
Attempts” is to increase communication in families in bad conditions, to develop skills
of adolescents under risk and to design models sensitive to children through pilot
projects to be implemented.
Development of catch-up curriculum is a component of the sub-project called
“Development of Children-Centered Attempts”.
Development of Children-Centered Attempts
Activities in this field focus on three main interventional areas. The first two of
them (Early Childhood Development Strategies Oriented Towards Families With
Children Aged Between 0-6 and Strengthening Capacities of Families with Children
Aged Between 7-18) aim to strengthen family capacities of better care and protection
for children and to attain the goal of improvement in educational system, regarding all
the children’s benefits. It is planned that such activities will be put into practice both in
urban and rural areas and chosen provinces will be included in practice in the light of
the data gathered.
The third interventional area, known as “Development of Catch-Up Educational
System” aims to improve alternative care capacity for children. The goal of this
activity is to develop an intensive catch-up educational program in collaboration with
the Ministry of National Education (MEB) in order to ensure re-inclusion of children
at suitable age but out of school or not enrolled to primary school system.
Catch-up education is a transition program mainly concerned with strengthening
children’s adaptations to school, who are old enough for primary school but who don’t
go to school rather than being an alternative to standard education system. Catch-up
education consists of a flexible program which is individual centered, sensitive to
social sex and suitable for being adapted to every learner’s own speed. This program
presents an effective direction system and develops children’s life abilities. This period
aims to strengthen children’s mechanisms of doping particularly with the help of a
psychosocial support. The main components of these activities are as follows:
9 To develop an intensive catch-up education program for children who are

old enough for primary school but who don’t go to school and children
bearing a risk of having trouble with laws and to provide teachers and
guide-counselors with in-service training.
9 To provide authors of course books with training and to prepare catch-up
education course books for children and teachers in collaboration with
authors, to have agreements in order to test these books in the field,
shape them for final use, and deliver the books.
9 To hire/appoint teachers and school guide-counselors, to provide them
with training on criteria for catch-up education children friendship
learning environments.
690
9 To employ volunteers in activities to convince families regarding school

enrollment and catch-up education.
The project first appeared as a multisectoral EU project under coordination of

General Commandership of Gendarme. UNICEF has the responsibility for activities
like providing technical support to the project, monitoring and writing reports.
Moreover, UNICEF has been authorized to carry out studies in order to ensure
participation of children including adolescents in various phases of the project and to
strengthen partnership with civilian society during the implementation of the project.
The educational component in the project focuses on development of a comprehensive
catch-up education program which is suitable, flexible and sensitive to sex in all
provinces where the number of the children who do not go to school or at least
children who are in connection with laws is the highest, in accordance with the logical
framework of the project and on providing in-service training of teachers, educational
tools and devices.
Catch-up education in primary school education is a second education chance
which is given to the children aged between 10-14 who either quit elementary school
or never enrolled before to catch-up with their peers through an intensive,
individualized curriculum and to come back to the organized education. The expected
effect after catch-up education is contribution to enrollment of all the children at
primary school age at 100%, ensuring attendance of working children at school age
and that of children who have never enrolled, ensuring re-inclusion of those who have
left school to the system. In this context, in learning groups, children in prisons (CTE)
under supervision of the Ministry of Justice, children in Social Services and Society
for the Protection of Children (SHCEK) and those in hospitals, handicapped children,
children living or working in streets, children working in industrial and agricultural
sectors, children out of primary school system due to economic or traditional reasons
are included in the scope (UNICEF, 2006b).
The following items constitute the very basic starting points in the development of
the catch-up education system:
9 Preparation of educational program for catch-up education, course books

and teachers’ in-service training program.
9 An increase in the number of boys and girls who enroll, attend and finish
the program.
9 An increase in the number of boys and girls who are back in the organized
education system.
Attempts Abroad
In this part of the article, catch-up education program samples chosen from
various countries will be presented:
The New School Project (Escuela Nueva) Colombia
This project was designed for all the children deprived of school education. In the
project where a multidimensional program development strategy was applied,
particularly the neglected rural areas were of priority during a teleconference (Vicky
Colbert de Arbodela Escuela Nueva Executive Director (Personal Interaction January
691
19, 2006)). In this attempt where the concept of united class is shaped by modular
approach, a learner-centered model was practiced rather than a classical teacher-
centered model. Through the project aimed at development of basic life skills, it is
desired that nearly 5 million learners will pass onto grade 9 (Escuelanueva, 2006a).
The New United Class Project (Nueva Escuela Unitaria-NEU-Guatemala)
Colombia Escuela Nueva Project was implemented in rural schools. These schools
were the first stipulation envisaged by the strengthening basic education project in
1992. The goal of the project is to increase quality in education and to provide children
in rural areas with the opportunity of equal education. NEU schools aim to develop
active and permanent relations between the school and society, and to change
children’s world with the help of the teachers taking an active part during the process.
The starting point of NEU schools is the following principle; “learn, study and
practice”. It is written in bold on any kind of materials. The NEU Project is trying to
overcome some difficulties. In Guatemala, few children complete their primary
education. Less than 10% of the learners finish Grade 6. Older children have to be at
home during traditional school hours. The fact that schools employ an indifferent
traditional curriculum, one-way teaching and methods based on full memory lead to
truancy or avoidance by learners. Families come to school only for the purpose of
getting information on their children’s marks.
NEU schools are schools consisting of flexible united classes. They are generally
found in rural areas and in places where native people live. There are special teacher’s
guides and educational materials for individual instruction designed for these classes.
The materials are based on modular education system. Modular learning activities can
be followed by small learner groups outside the school.
Furthermore, the following attempts are based on the catch-up education model
carried out in Colombia:
Escola Activa in Brazil, Escula Activa in Panama, Mece Rural in Chile, Aulas
Alternativas in El Salvador, Escuela Interactiva Comunitaria in Mexico, Escuela
Multigrado Innovada in the Dominican Republic, Aprendes in Peru, Escuela Nueva in
Guyana, New School in Uganda and Active School in the Philippines (Escuelanueva,
2006b).
Time-Out Project (The Netherlands)
Catch-up education includes children aged between 5-17 included in struggle with
illiteracy. Those are new comers as immigrants and refugees, those who have
previously left school, children among sailors, Roman-Sinties, nomads originated from
the Netherlands and children in mobile schools and circuses. A large proportion of
learners progress in the system. There are special programs for those who do not want
to go to school and those who have had trouble with laws, whereas there are others
like STOP for children under 12, HALT for children over 12 and Social Rehabilitation
Projects by the Land Forces Commandership as well as the main project. The number
of the learners in the groups ranges from 12 to 17. Learning environments are set up in
a particular classroom in another building outside the school ground or a particular
building at school. The length of courses ranges from six months to three years
(Gulsen, 2006).
Apart from these, when UNICEF website is looked through in details, we can see
that there are catch-up education attempts known as “the second chance” with various
692
contents, particularly for girls at primary school level. In countries like China, Iran,
Georgia, Liberia, Bhutan, Bosnia Herzegovina, Kampuchea, Sri Lanka, Rwanda,
Afghanistan, Mozambique, Palestine and Serbia, there are attempts to have a lot of
children in the school system for various reasons (UNICEF,
2006c/d/e/f/g/h/ı/j/k/l/m/n/o/p). Also, in other countries, private institutions have
started to apply programs previously referred to, as well as public enterprises. There
are special programs being conducted particularly in England and Ireland, which focus
on acquirement of mother-tongue and language teaching (CatchUp, 2006).
Attempts in Turkey
The speech by Pieter’s, Representative of UNICEF in Turkey, at the board

meeting in the Turkish Grand National Assembly reveals the situation of catch-up
education in the world and in Turkey very clearly:
Turkey has developed a program, a system which is considered to be an

example for all the countries in the world and reduced the number of child
workers. To this end, increasing primary education from 5 years to eight
years is a crucial step. Therefore, I believe we should emphasize quality in
education rather than only providing children with a right of education. Our
work is basically to attract girls to school. By 2010, we will have ensured
equality in number of boys and girls at primary schools.
The current figures show that 600,000 girls do not go to school. It does not
necessarily mean that these figures are clean cut, but when we take the
number of such girls into account together with that of boys, we will probably
get a figure of 1,000,000. However, I will not give that very approximate
number as statistics. There are nearly 600,000 girls who do not go to school.
What we should do about catch-up education is reaching families with
children aged between 10 and 14, reaching children included in the range of
age, who do not go to school and designing a catch-up education program for
them, developing materials, training teachers for such education. This
mechanism is in practice in countries like South Africa, Namibia, Mexico,
Brazil, Europe, Canada and America. Countries which suggested foundation
of institutions and settlement of children in such institutions have all failed;
none of them could solve the problem in that way (The Turkish Grand
National Assembly, 2006).
In Turkey, there have been pre- or pilot practices in various provinces and
districts. One of them is the sample of Kadıkoy, Istanbul. In this example, houses were
visited to determine suitable children by the Executive Board of the District and
volunteers from the district, especially in places where the problem is hard. Testing
practices have also been carried out in provinces like Adıyaman, Aydın, Gaziantep,
Izmir, Manisa and Van.
Designing Catch-up Curriculum
As it is known, while designing a program, there should be a draft first. During

that designing period, it is necessary to decide the content of the program, the course
of the content, relations between its components in order to create a meaningful unity.
Starting activities to prepare or develop a program without a design carries a lot of
693
risks like prolonged work, failure to live up to expectations and an inefficient program.
As the main framework of a program comes first while designing an educational
program, it is essential to answer the following four questions, regardless of the
designing approach adopted (Gürkan, 2004):
9 What are the goals?

9 What is the suitable content to achieve such goals?
9 What learning strategies, resources and activities to present the content
determined are suitable for use?
9 What are the most suitable testing and evaluation techniques and tools in
order to assess the results?
Generally, designs of educational programs use three basic models. These are
theme-centered model, child-centered model and problem centered model. While
designing the present program, experience-centered design of children-centered design
and life-conditions design of problem-centered design were taken as models.
Experience-centered design is similar to children-centered design, but it focuses on
the idea that we cannot foresee learners’ needs and interests; therefore we cannot
determine the framework of the educational program according to all learners. That’s
why; this educational program gives us general principles, it is expected from teachers
that they provide learners with the most suitable things in most suitable environments.
Life-conditions design is based on an assumption stating that our society should adapt
itself to changing conditions in life, determine necessary things in education to ensure
such adaptation and those learners should relate topics in the program to their
environment they live in. The most important peculiarity of life-conditions design is
that it encourages learners to learn and to use problem solving skills (Gürkan, 2004).
Developing Catch-Up Educational Program
Developing programs in education is the complete in corporation with exertions

inclining to develop contents and activities prepared to develop and achieve the
objectives of national education and schools through suitable methods, techniques,
tools and equipments both in the school and outside it (Varıs, 1996).
First of all, it is necessary for the group developing the program to determine a
strategy for developing curriculum. These strategies can be mainly grouped into two
categories as approaches giving importance to product and process. The educators,
who welcome the approach giving importance to product, deal with educational
programs as a system and describe it as a complex sum of components planned to
serve a common objective. According to this approach, program developing should be
objective, universal and logical. According to this idea, basic assumption is that
educational objectives can be determined in advance and put forward. As for the
second approach, they are the learner and the process which gain importance, not the
product. Basic assumption in this idea is that the whole results and process of
education can not be foreseen. Developing programmes which is a permanent,
extensive and applied process is of three basic stages. Planning is the first stage of
developing programs and includes forming study groups, preparing study plans, doing
research of determining necessities and deciding how to organize the program
components. The second stage is the application or the practice of the educational
program which has previously prepared. The application of the program is the period
of putting the change into practice. The last one is the assessment stage. This stage is
694
the period of making a judgment about the program’s effectiveness (Babadoğan,

2004).
Before the effort of developing the program projected for a process based strategy,
groups and group leaders were chosen and a working plan was formed. A workshop
was held, giving the groups pre-education. A research on necessities was planned
simultaneously as well. After that, working environments for teams were formed and
working strategies were determined. It was planned to reach a decision on the
following topics in the study to be conducted simultaneously.
9 Determining the children who are out of the system

9 Methods of persuasion
9 Grouping the children
9 Number of learners
9 Place of education
9 Duration of education
9 Hours of education
9 Determining the educators
9 Training the educators
9 Payments for educators
9 Educational program used and its analysis
9 Educational environments used
9 People taking part in except educators
9 Competence assessment
9 Observing the learners after catch-up education
Module Approach
In the workshop mentioned previously, the need to use modular perceptiveness as

in the examples abroad came into being. As it is known,, one of the most significant
efforts in the field of education to masses of people and apply new teaching strategies
to provide a much more effective learning environment. It is obvious that the content
of teaching is divided into years in traditional systems. The most important reason for
the emergence of modular program is to divide the education – teaching period into
basic units to create more flexible structures by putting an end to division of teaching
contents into years.
The process through modular approach when divided into basic sciences in such
an order different from the annual order will be able to make it possible to achieve
some overall objectives which can not be achieved in one way or the other in
traditional system. Accordingly, to increase effectiveness in education; reduce the
costs and provide flexibility to the system make it possible to rearrange the elements of
knowledge and abilities as new elements included for structural dimensions of the
program.
As a result of this, when observed the universally successful initiations of
educational reforms made lately, it is understood that perceptiveness of learner-
centered modular concept was used for all of them (Akgul, 2002). The teams,
according to this, planned their work suitable within the framework of modular
approach.
695
9 Determining the order of importance of acquisition by revising the

currently-used primary school education programs
9 Fixing time and intensity for modules according to work of application
plan
9 Determining the modules
9 Forming relationships and transitions among modules
9 Detailing modules as main and selective
9 Putting acquisition into modules
9 Developing sample modules
9 Making modules systematic according to the application plan
9 Putting finishing touches to modules
9 Asking for the opinions of specialists
Catch-Up Education Modules
There are decrees to make it possible to apply a catch-up curriculum in primary

school education in the laws of education which are in force. According to Elementary
Schools and Education Law, No: 222, it is stated that educational and supplementary
courses can be opened for teaching and educating the children who couldn’t go to
school with their peers in time because of various reasons although they were at the
age of compulsory education and children who didn’t start primary school because
they were itinerant, nomadic, etc. or children who couldn’t continue school regularly.
In addition, in the regulations book of primary school educational institutions,
Article21: “Only those who educated themselves in a special way in the group of
children at the school age” who couldn’t go to school due to the fact that they were
abroad, in prison, there weren’t any schools where they lived and because of their
health problem so that those who gave pause to their education are chosen through an
exam and enrolled on the suitable classes according to their level of knowledge and
their ages. However, one of the objectives stated in the instructions of Ministry of
National Education, Educational and Supplementary Classes and Courses, issued in
the Notification Book, No:2398 in 1994, “… is to arrange the principles concerning
educational and supplementary classes and courses which will be opened for
children’s education, who couldn’t go to school with their peers in time although they
were at the age of compulsory education and those who couldn’t continue primary
school regularly because they were itinerant, nomadic, busy in their jobs.
For this reason in the outline of primary school catch-up curriculum, application
principles concerning elementary school programmes developed and performing the
new programmes in united classes were taken into consideration. Therefore a modular
programme was prepared in the form of ensuring child’s adaptations to organized
education, including his/her level of preparedness. These modules were designed to let
the child improve through with his/her own speed and acquiring basic life skills were
also taken into consideration. For this reason it was planned to give psycho-social
support. An analysis of needs for target group was carried out.
Within the framework of catch-up education the first main module of social
sciences and four sub-modules of its sub-module were formed by selecting the suitable
ones of gainings of 4-5 teaching program in social sciences lesson in life-social
sciences teaching program. In addition, the main module of citizenship 1 and a sub-
module which is its sub-division were formed by arranging and selecting the suitable
ones of the gainings of human rights and citizenship which are the intermediate
696
discipline of 4-5 teaching program in social sciences lesson. The two modules of social
sciences and four sub-modules which are its sub-division were formed by arranging
and selecting the suitable ones of gainings of 6-7 teaching program in social sciences
lesson. Besides, citizenship 2 main module and a sub-module which is the sub-division
were formed by arranging and selecting the suitable ones of the gainings of human
rights and citizenship which are the intermediate discipline of 6-7 teaching program in
social sciences lesson. The first main module of social sciences and the first main
module of citizenship were formed to make the student harmonize with class 7 or 8.
The total period of the program consists of 60 hours, thirty of which is for main
module and the other half of which is for advanced module.
The sub-modules in science and technology modules were shaped in the first four
of seven learning fields. As the other three learning fields consist of basic
understanding, skill, attitude and value that were considered to be acquired in each
module, sub-modules combined to other modules combined to other modules were not
formed. Because of the fact that the gainings in this field necessitate experiences and
acquisitions taking too much to all the contents of technology, it is not possible to deal
with understanding, skill, attitude and value as a different sub-module. There are
seventeen sub-modules in the four main modules of science and technology modules.
Eight of these sub-modules are the compulsory modules including science and
technology program of 4 and 5 classes. Other nine sub-modules are selective modules
including science and technology program of 6 and 7 classes. The total period of the
program consists of twenty-five-hour-compulsory module and thirty-five-hour-
optional module.
In the catch-up education of math instructional program, three modules were
formed by selecting the suitable gainings of 1-5 and 6-8 maths lesson programs. Maths
1 module was mentioned in the teaching module of reading and writing module of
Turkish lesson. The first maths module teaching program was formed from the
gainings of 1, 2 and 3 classes, and the second maths module was formed from the
gaining of 4,5 and 6 classes. The third maths module, which is selective, was formed
by selecting the gainings of 6 and 7 classes in 6-8 teaching program in maths lesson.
The total period of the program consists of thirty-hour-basic module and thirty-hour
advanced module.
In the catch-up education of Turkish program, 1-5 Instructional Program of
Turkish Lesson was formed from the gainings of reading and writing in class 1. After
this module, the other four Turkish modules were formed from the gainings of 1-5 and
6-8 Teaching Program of Turkish Lesson. The fourth Turkish module, which is
selective, was formed by selecting the gainings of 6 and 7 classes in 6-8 Turkish
Lesson Instruction Program. Sub-module names were determined according to
dominant gaining, probable subject dealt with in the module, fields of learning and
literary types. The total period of the program consists of forty hour-basic module and
forty hour- advanced module.
1-8 classes program of Ministry of National Education was taken on the basis of
determining the gainings to take place in psycho-social module. Gainings of psycho-
social in other lessons were determined. Suitable for the content, three main, ten sub
and three selective modules were formed by determining gainings, suitable for the
development of children aged between 10-14 and the psycho-social needs of children
who are out of education. The period given for the application of main and sub-
modules was determined as 47 hour-lesson period. In the event that the child needs,
selective modules may be used. The period given for selective modules is 11 hour-
lesson period. Generally it is targeted in the psycho-social module that students who
697
will newly join the education system will develop positive self-esteem relationships
based on sympathy, trust and respect and therefore become in harmony with their
surroundings.
Conclusion
Developing a program is developing a prepared, published program through

research during application. While preparing the program, the problem occurred
because of application must be taken into consideration. On the other hand, it can be
benefited from research, development and the results of research providing changes
through objectives in student’s behavior. While the current program is being used
during the development of a program, it is benefited from the research available for the
solution of problems occurred during application. To be successful during the period
of developing a program, there is constant need in teachers who are open to changes
and developments, suitable for cooperation, have abilities of group work, willing to
take and fulfill responsibilities, follow innovations in the field of education and
dynamic.
For this reason the number of children who can not benefit from the organized
education is gradually increasing. Catch-up education consists of a supplementary
solution without being an alternative to the present system as in the many other
countries. Therefore, a program including all and possible aspects had to be prepared.
Because every individual who was involved in the system successfully will affect the
next generations positively. The main result of catch-up education is that there is a
great participation in this program. The effort mentioned later is expected to be
directed to standard education system in the middle period. Therefore, it is targeted
that there will be an increase in e-enrollment. The long-term result is that all male and
female children complete their education to cover the Second Millennium Target
universally. For that reason it is targeted to increase the awareness of all the parts
concerning the importance of education.
In addition to direct results of catch-up education mentioned above, it is expected
to create closed results. This application can increase the proportion of enrollment to
middle school education in middle/long period and the proportion of enrollment to
technical education as well. The most important covered expectation is the expectation
that this program will increase the awareness concerning eliminating sex
discrimination in the Third Millennium Target.
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700
The Permanence of Nutrition Education on the Knowledge and
62
The Permanence of Nutrition Education on
the Knowledge and Behaviour of Early
Childhood
Nazan Aktas, Selcuk University
&
Esra Turan, Selcuk University
&
Maide Orcan, Selcuk University
&
Ebru Bayrak, Selcuk University
&
Nadir Celikoz, Selcuk University
&
Nevin Aktas, Ankara University
E
arly childhood development is the physical, mental and social development
during the early years of life and consists of various interventions such as
nutrition, health, mental and social development promotion (Özmert, 2005).
Childhood is one of the most formative periods in human development.
Foundations for every single behavioral habit are strengthened at this stage of
development, which is mostly characterized by learning. Within their internal world of
social learning children profile their norms and values by adopting behavioral models
from their surroundings by reacting to operant and classical conditioning, as well as by
being motivated intrinsically and extrinsically. Next to family, social institutions such
as kindergartens and schools act as an important sphere for living and learning.
Concrete situations are incorporated into the set of experiences, and future action is
based on this set of experiences. Thus, the basis for healthy nutritional behavior in
later years is set in childhood (Wagner, Meusel and Kirch, 2005).
Consumption of a healthy diet by young children is essential to provide for normal
growth and development and to prevent a variety of nutrition-related health problems,
such as anemia, growth retardation, malnutrition, compromised cognitive achievement,
701
obesity, dental caries, and chronic diseases in later life. Children have much to learn
about food and nutrition, for they are not born with a natural ability to choose a
nutritious diet. They learn from familiarity through exposure to numerous foods.
Reaching children at this age is important because it is easier to encourage healthy
habits during initial behavior development than to alter existing behavior (ADA,
1999). The early years are the most important years for nutrition education because it
is during this period that lifetime eating habits are formed. The quality of children’s
nutrition affects their growth and development. Nutrition education is an integral part
of improving the nutritional status of young children and educating them to eat, enjoy,
and ask for foods that meet their needs (Hunsley, 1982). Nutrition education is
essential for preschool children because the quality of their nutrition has a direct
impact on their growth and development as well as their nutritional status throughout
life (Mermelstein, 1990). Learning how to choose and enjoy many different foods in
early childhood can help to provide the foundation for a lifetime of wise food choices
(Farthing, 1987).
A nutrition education program must include creating a positive attitude toward
food, encouraging acceptance of a variety of healthy foods, improving children’s
values and attitudes related to acceptance of a variety of nutritious foods, promoting an
understanding of the relationships between food and health, providing foods that
contain adequate, but not excessive amounts of energy nutrients, fostering the
development of healthy food habits in children, improving parents, teachers,
administrators and food service personnel’s knowledge of the principles and practices
of nutrition, developing, promoting, disseminating and/or evaluating nutrition
education curricula and material (Swadener, 1994).
According to Piagetian theory, nutrition education for this age group should
involve activity-based teaching and teach strategies that encourage interaction with
real world objects (i.e., food). Abstract concepts outside the realm of immediate
experience should not be included in preschool nutrition education since children at
this stage of development cannot observe these concepts and thus find them
incomprehensible. Nutrients may be seen as an abstract concept to preschool age
children (Contento, 1981).
There are several reported methods of conducting preschool nutrition education
programs: preschool nutrition education curriculum in preschool and day care settings
(stories, books, cassettes, videos, cooking, field trips, special visitors, games, posters,
discussions, computer lessons, tasting parties, songs, puzzles, art projects, role playing,
skits and puppets), curriculum for home setting, nutrition education programs for
parents of preschool children (newsletters, workshops, small group meetings and food
fairs), training of teachers and other caregivers, and behavioral interventions on food
preferences. Each of these methods has been effective in changing nutrition
knowledge. The evidence has not been conclusive on food and nutrition behavior and
health status (Swadener, 1994).
The ultimate goal of nutrition education for preschool age children is that they
learn that a well-balanced diet contains a wide variety of foods. Most nutrition
education for preschool age children takes place in the home, preschool, day care
center and through television. However, many children reported that they learn more
about nutrition in the supermarkets than they do at home (Swadener, 1994).
The purpose of this follow-up study is to determine the permanence of the effect
of applied nutrition education on students’ nutritional knowledge and behavior 10
months later.
Material and Method
702
The first study had been executed on a total of 94 children (48 of them were test
group and 46 of them were control group) who were in their pre-school education in
three different schools in Konya city centre and on the upper socio-economic level.
The nutrition education program, which is used by the United States Department of
Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service in its nutrition education researches, has been
applied to the test group children for a period of seven weeks and activities which have
been used in the program, were prepared with guidance of Nutrition Education
Activities Set that was built up by Mayfield (2002).
Recent study, the state of the permanence of the intervention given to students
through applied nutrition education after 10 months and the transformation of such
knowledge into correct nutritional habits are investigated. The study is being
conducted on 38 students because 10 students could not be reached. The permanence
of students’ nutritional knowledge is determined via “Nutritional Knowledge Test”,
while their nutritional habits are determined through a “Questionnaire”. Also, students’
anthropometric measurements are taken.
Nutrition education activities were integrated into sensory development, language
arts, science, dramatic play, art, music, fine and gross motor development and social
studies with stories, books, cassettes, videos, cooking, special visitors, games, posters,
discussions, tasting parties, songs, puzzles, art projects, role playing, skits and puppets
by researchers who work as child development and nutrition education specialists.
The validity and reliability of the “Nutrition Knowledge Testing Tool”, which was
used to determine the students’ level of nutritional knowledge, was conducted by
USDA. Nevertheless, another study of the validity and reliability of the tool was
implemented on high socio-economic level students in the city center of Konya. A
group of 14, of whom six were testing and research methodology experts and eight
were children, contributed in determining the validity and reliability of the tool. The
test, which was corrected in accordance with the feedback from the experts and the
children, was pre-tested on 53 students studying pre-school education institutions in
Konya. While expert views were taken in determining the scope and outward validity
of the test, reliability was determined on the basis of internal-consistency coefficient
and Kuder-Richardson (KR-20) formula was used for the reliability test. According to
the results of the analysis, the reliability coefficient of the test was calculated to be
0.71.
The grading system developed by the Food and Nutrition Service was used in the
analysis of the data. The scoring of the questions in the test varies between 0 and 1.
The correct answers in the information questions were given 1 point while wrong
answers were given 0 point. Therefore, students’ score averages take on a value
between 0.00 and 1.00. The closer they get to 1.00 values, the higher their nutrition
knowledge is.
In the analysis of the data, Frequency, Percentage, Mean, Std. Deviation,
Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test, Paired Samples T-Test and Chi-Square Test were used.
In addition, to compare findings the level of significance was taken as 0.05 for all sub-
problems.
703
Findings
Anthropometric Measurements of Children’s
Of the total 48 children involved in the first study, 23 were girls (47.9 %) and 25
were boys (52.1). The age distribution of the girls ranged from 55 months to 80
months and their age mean was 68.35 months (stand.dev. is 6.52). Likewise, the age
distribution of the boys in the first study ranged from 54 months to 78 months and
their age mean was calculated to be 69.16 months (s.d. 5.39). The follow-up study was
conducted on 38 children, for 10 children who participated in the first study could not
be reached. Of the 38 children who participated in the second study, 19 are boys (50
%) and 19 are girls (50 %). The age distribution of the girls varies between 65 and 90
months and their age mean is 78.84 (s.d. 6.84). On the other hand, the age distribution
of boys varies between 64 and 88 months and their age mean is 79.84 (s.d 5.99).The
distribution of children’s anthropometric measurements are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Anthropometric Measures of Children (Descriptive)

Anthropometric
Gender Test Process N Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max.
Measurement
Post test 19 123,05 5,88 115 133
Height (cm))
Follow-up 19 126,37 6,32 118 136
BOYS
Post test 19 23,16 5,68 15 34

Weight(kg
Follow-up 19 26,42 5,68 18 37
Post test 19 15,09 2,47 11 20
BMI (kg / m2)
Follow-up 19 16,36 2,16 13 20
Post test 19 118,79 5,26 107 126
Height (cm))
Follow-up 19 121,74 5,52 110 129
GİRLS
Post test 19 21,37 3,90 16 33

Weight(kg
Follow-up 19 24,11 3,78 19 35
Post test 19 15,11 2,49 12 24
BMI (kg / m2)
Follow-up 19 16,37 2,14 14 24
According to the findings obtained from the first study, the weight mean of boys
was 23.16 kg. (s.d. 5.68), the height mean was 123.05 cm. (s.d. 5.88) and Body Mass
Indexes (BMI) were 15.09 kg/m2 (s.d. 2.47). According to the results of the second
study, which was conducted after a period of 10 months, the weight mean of the boys
rose with an increase of about 3 kg to 26.42 kg. (s.d. 5.68). Likewise, their height
mean rose with an increase of around 3 cm. to 126.37 cm. (s.d. 6.32) and their BMI
rose to 16.36 kg/m2 (S.D. 22.16), with an increase of 1 kg/m2.
A change was also observed in the girls’ anthropometric measurements in
comparison to the first study. Their weight mean was 21.37 kg. (3.90), their height
mean was 118.79 cm. (s.d. 5.26) and BMI was 15.11 (s.d. 2.49). According to the
results of the second study conducted 10 months later, the girls’ weight mean rose with
an increase of about 3 kg. to 24.11 kg.(s.d. 3.78). Similarly, their height mean rose
with an increase of around 3 cm. to 121.74 cm (s.d. 5.52) and their BMI rose with an
increase of 2 kg/m2 to 16.37 (s.d. 214). Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test was administered
to determine whether this change in the anthropometric measurements of the children
was significant or not and the results were given in Table 2.
704
Table 2. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results for a Comparison of the Change in the
Children’s Anthropometric Measurements
Antropometric Sum of
Gender Test Process N Mean Rank z p
Measurement Ranks
Negative
0 ,00 ,00
Ranks
Height (cm)) Positive Ranks 19 4,061 0,001*
Ties 0 10,00 190,00
Total 19
Negative
0 ,00 ,00
Ranks
BOYS
Weight(kg) Positive Ranks 18 3,828 0,001*

Ties 1 9,50 171,00
Total 19
Negative
0 ,00 ,00
Ranks
2
BMI (kg / m ) Positive Ranks 19 3,824 0,001*
Ties 0 10,00 190,00
Total 19
Negative
0 ,00 ,00
Ranks
Height (cm) Positive Ranks 19 10,00 190,00 3,854 0,001*
Ties 0
Total 19
Negative
0 ,00 ,00
Ranks
GIRLS
Weight(kg Positive Ranks 19 10,00 190,00 3,895 0,001*

Ties 0
Total 19
Negative
0 ,00 ,00
Ranks
2
BMI (kg / m ) Positive Ranks 19 3,823 0,001*
Ties 0 10,00 190,00
Total 19
The differences in the increases in weight, height and BMI of both the boys and
the girls in the first and second studies were found to be significant. Only one of the
boys did not display an increase in weight. The literature on the physical development
of pre-school children, these changes observed within a period of 10 months can be
taken as an indication of a healthy growth (ADA, 1999). This can also be taken as an
indication of the effect of children’s preference for healthy foods as result of the
nutrition education program given to them.
The Permanence of the Children’s Knowledge on Food Groups
An attempt was made to determine to what extent the children’s knowledge of food
groups as a result of the nutrition education given. In Table 3, a comparison of the
permanence of the knowledge given to the children through education on how many
plates from each nutrition group should be consumed is presented in post-test and
follow-up studies.
705
Table 3. The Results of the Dependent T-Test on a Comparison of the Knowledge

Permanence Test Scores of Children Concerning Food Groups
How many plates should we
consume from each food Test Process Χ ss sd t P
Χ 1- Χ 2
groups?
Post test
,79 ,41
(n=38) ,342
CEREALS 37 2.701 0,010*
Follow-up study
,45 ,50
(n=38)
Post test
,79 ,61
(n=38) ,289
MEAT, EGG, LEGUMES 37 2.572 0,014*
Follow-up study
,50 ,41
(n=38)
Post test
,84 ,37
MILK AND MILK (n=38)
,105 37 1.434 0,160
PRODUCTS Follow-up study
,95 ,23
(n=38)
Post test
,37 ,49
(n=38) ,447
VEGETABLES 37 5.473 0,001*
Follow-up study
,82 ,39
(n=38)
Post test
,42 ,50
(n=38) ,395
FRUITS 37 4.093 0,001*
Follow-up study
,82 ,39
(n=38)
Post test
1,79 4,87
(n=38)
FAT AND SUGARS ,789 37 1.000 0,324
Follow-up study
1,00 ,00
(n=38)
(*) indicates that the difference is significant P<0.05
When Table 3 is studied, a change is observed in the knowledge of children in the

post-test and follow-up studies on how many plates should be consumed from each
nutrition group. According to the results of the dependent T-Test, no significant
change was observed in the children’s knowledge on “milk and milk products”
(t=1.434) and "fat and sugars” (t=1.00). In other words, the children’s knowledge in
this regard can be claimed to be permanent. On the other hand, a significant decrease
was observed in the “cereals” (t=2.701) and “meat, eggs and legumes” (t=2.572)
nutrition groups while an increase was observed in their knowledge of “vegetables and
fruits” (t=4.093). Here, the reason for this increase in the knowledge on fruit and
vegetables may be attributed to the permanence of the knowledge gained as well as the
acquisition of new knowledge after the first study.
The Permanence of the Children’s Nutrition Knowledge
The extent of the children’s nutrition knowledge as a result of the nutrition

education provided was studied. Table 4 presents a comparison of the permanence of
the children’s nutrition knowledge.
706
Table 4. The Dependent T-Test Results on a Comparison of the Permanence Scores of

Children's Nutrition Knowledge
Nutrition Knowledge
Questions Test Process Χ ss Χ 1- sd t P
Χ 2
Post test
,95 ,20
Identifying food pyramid (n=38)
(verbally)
,044 37 0.999 0,324
Follow-up
,90 ,23
study (n=38)
Post test
,97 ,16
Identifying food pyramid (n=38)
(non-verbally)
,105 37 1.671 0,103
Follow-up
,87 ,34
study (n=38)
Post test
,95 ,23
(n=38)
Identifying food groups ,447 37 5.473 0,001*
Follow-up
,50 ,51
study (n=38)
Post test
,92 ,27
(n=38)
Selecting variety plate ,053 37 1.000 0,324
Follow-up
,97 ,16
study (n=38)
Post test
1,00 ,00
(n=38)
Naming foods ,000 37 0.000 1,000
Follow-up
1,00 ,00
study (n=38)
Post test
,99 ,03
Selecting companion (n=38)
,032 37 0.229 0,232
foods Follow-up
,96 ,09
study (n=38)
Post test
,98 ,13
(n=38)
Placing foods ,105 37 2.517 0,016*
Follow-up
,87 ,21
study (n=38)
Post test
,90 ,19
(n=38)
Selecting food groups ,193 37 3.764 0,001*
Follow-up
,71 ,27
study (n=38)
Post test
1,00 ,03
Selecting "anytime" (n=38)
,004 37 1.000 0,324
foods Follow-up
1,00 ,00
study (n=38)
Post test
,64 ,27
Reasons for eating (n=38)
,168 37 3.024 0,005*
"anytime" foods Follow-up
,47 ,20
study (n=38)
Post test
,98 ,11
(n=38)
Completing puzzle ,018 37 1.000 0,324
Follow-up
1,00 ,00
study (n=38)
As shall be understood from Table 4, a change was observed in the post-test and
follow-up study on the children's nutrition knowledge. According to the results of the
dependent t-test, no change was observed in the children's knowledge on "Identifying
food pyramid (verbally)" ( t=0.999), "Identifying food pyramid (non-verbally)"
(t=1.671), "Selecting variety plate " (t=1.000), " Naming foods" (t=0.000) , "Selecting
companion foods" (t=0.229) Selecting "anytime" foods (t=1.000), and "Completing
707
puzzle" (t=1.000). In other words, their knowledge in this regard may be considered
permanent.
The Children’s Habits of Snacks Consumption
In the study, the distributions concerning the nutrients the children consume were
also studied. Whether a decrease was observed in the children’s habits of snacks
consumption was investigated. In Table 5, a comparison of the children’s habits of
snacks consumption is presented.
Table 5. The Distribution of the Children’s Habits of Snacks Consumption

HABITS OF SNACKS CONSUMPTION
SNACKS Test Process Decrease Same Total x2 P Meaning
f % f % f %
Post Test 30 78,9 8 21,1 38 100,0
Cake 25,574 0,001 *
Folow-up 8 21,1 30 78,9 38 100,0
Post Test 30 78,9 8 21,1 38 100,0
Sugar 5,846 0,016 *
Folow-up 20 52,6 18 47,4 38 100,0
Post Test 30 78,9 8 21,1 38 100,0
Cips 1,645 0,200 -
Folow-up 25 65,8 13 34,2 38 100,0
Post Test 30 78,9 8 21,1 38 100,0
Cola 1,645 0,200 -
Folow-up 25 65,8 13 34,2 38 100,0
Post Test 30 78,9 8 21,1 38 100,0
Beverage 12,258 0,001 *
Folow-up 15 39,5 23 60,5 38 100,0
In Table 5, while a significant decrease was observed in the children’s

consumption habits of snacks such as “cake” (x2=25.574), “sugar” (x2=5.846) and
“beverages” (x2=12.258), no significant decrease was observed in the consumption of
nutrients such as “chips” (x2=1.645) and “cola” (x2=1.645) despite a slight decrease.
Consequently, it appears that the education provided has reduced the consumption of
certain types of snacks while it increased certain other types. Wrong nutritional habits
in the family and negative effects of peer groups and advertisements on the children’s
nutritional preferences may be cited as reasons for this.
The Children’s Ability to Combine Nutrient with Correct Sources
Lastly, the children’s ability to combine nutrient components with correct nutrient
groups was examined in the study and the results were presented in Figure 1.
As seen in Figure 1, a decrease was observed in the follow-up study in the
children’s ability to combine protein and carbohydrate sources correctly while no
change was observed in their combination of vitamin and mineral sources, which may
be taken to mean that permanence was achieved.
708
Figure 1. Correct Combinations of Nutrient

and Sources
post test
1 follow up
0.9
0.8
0.7 0.89
0.89
0.6 0.82
0.5 0.82
0.4 0.55 0.55
0.53
0.3 0.32
0.2
0.1
0
proteins-sources carbonhydrate-sources vitamins-sources minerals-sources
Conclusion
According to the findings obtained from the post-test and the follow-up study,
significant increases were observed in the children’s height, weight and BMI values
(P<0.01). A change was observed in the children’s knowledge of how many plates
should be consumed from each nutrition group, and according to the results of the
dependent t-test, no significant changes were observed in dairy products (t:1.434) and
butter and sugar (t:1.00).
A change was observed in the children’s knowledge of nutrition as result of the
nutrition education provided. According to the results of the dependent t-test, no
change was observed in the children’s knowledge of nutrition on “Identifying food
pyramid (verbally)” (t=0.999), “Identifying food pyramid (non-verbally)” (t=1.671),
“Selecting variety plate” (t=1.000) and “Completing puzzle” (t=1.000). While a
significant drop was observed in the children’s consumption of snacks such as “cake”
(x2=25.574), “sugar” (x2=5.846) and “beverages” (x2=12.258), no significant change
was observed in their consumption of “chips” (x2=1.645) and “cola” (x2=1.645)
despite a slight decrease. When the results of the post-test and the follow-up study
were compared, it may be said that a decrease occurred in the children’s ability to
match protein and carbohydrate sources correctly while no such change was observed
in their matching of vitamin, mineral and sources, which may be taken to mean that
permanence was achieved.
Children are influenced by their parents’ behavior, imitate their behavior by
learning through observation and take them as models. Nutrition education should be
allocated a special place in the curriculums of pre-school institutions, and the teachers
employed in the implementation of this education should also be given nutrition
education. Parent-teacher-child co-operation should be given priority to render
nutrition education given to children successful and have them transform into
permanent habits. In order for the education given in schools to be supported and
reinforced in the home, families should be informed and their participation in nutrition
education programs. While nutrition education curricula are designed, it is necessary
to take these ideas into consideration and be more child-centered and activity-based.
Parental involvement is probably the most important component in the success of a
709
nutrition education program for preschoolers. Whether the parent is the major recipient
of the program or is presented the program in conjunction with the child, the parents’
involvement is essential for success. Extensive studies should be conducted regarding
nutrition education in early childhood, educational programs based on these studies
should be developed and implemented.
Within the scope of the nutrition plans and policies formed, priority should be
given to nutrition education and institutions of health, agriculture, education, industry
and trade, food industry, academic institutions and non-governmental organizations
should act in co-operation to ensure the sustainability of such educational programs.
References
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Number 8.
Contento, I. "Childrens Thinking About Food and Eating - A Piagetian-Based Study" Journal
of Nutrition Education, Vol. 13, No. 1, Supplement 1981; pp. S86-S90.
Farthing, M.A.C. and M.G. Phillips. "Nutrition Standards in Day-Care Programs for Children:
Technical Support Paper," Journal of the American Dietetic Association, Vol. 87, No. 4,
1987; pp. 504–505.
Hunsley, E. "Iowa Nutriphonics: Final Report." Report submitted to the Food and Nutrition
Service, USDA, under contract 59-3198-9-71, Des Moines, 1982.
Mayfield, B.J. Kid’s Club Nutrition Learning Activites for Young Children. 2002. Noteworty
Creations, Inc. ISBN# 1–883983–08–8.
Mermelstein, N.H. (Editor) (1990). The Implementation of Nutrition Education in Preschools
in Malaysia. Spring Meeting of ASTM. San Francisco. U.S.A
Özmert, N.E. (2005) Erken Çocukluk Gelişiminin Desteklenmesi-I: Beslenme. Çocuk Sağlığı
ve Hastalıkları Dergisi Nisan-Haziran Sayı 2.
Swadener, S.S. (1994) Nutrition Education for Preschool Age Children: A Review Research.
September. Alexandira.U.S.A.
Swadener, S.S. (1995) Nutrition Education for Preschool Children. Journal of Nutrition
Education. Volume 27 Number 6. November-December.
Wagner, N., Meusel, D. and Kirch, W. (2005) Nutrition Education for Children-Result and
Perspectives. Journal of Public Health March Volume 13, Number 2.
710
A Study on the Pre-School Teachers’ Inclusion of Science and Nature
Activities in their Daily Educational Programmes in Turkey
63
A Study on the Pre-School Teachers’
Inclusion of Science and Nature Activities in
their Daily Educational Programmes in
Turkey
&
Hale Kocer Ciftcibasi, Akdeniz University
&
Senay Bulut Peduk, Trakya University
I
t has been stated that scientific studies influence every moment of human life,
that children look into their environment to get information about the world they
live in beginning from the moment they were born, and that they continuously
make inquiries about their environment, trying to get to know and learn about
nature (Şahin 2000, p.2; Martin 2001, p.1; Akgül Macaroğlu 2004, p.7). It is known
that children acquire a lot of concepts, including scientific concepts, in the preschool
period. They use their senses to perceive the world; they try to make their environment
gain meaning by touching, smelling, tasting, hearing and looking at it. Children are
born curious and they want to know about everything surrounding them (Akman et al
2003, p.11). Starting from the moment they start examining their environment,
children take the pleasure in discovering new things. It has been asserted that it will be
possible for children to learn about scientific processes and develop a positive attitude
towards science, given that the natural senses of curiosity of children are supported by
an appropriate method and they are exposed to plenty of sensory experiences and
observation opportunities (Arı and Çelebi-Öncü 2005, p.10). Children need a variety
of scientific experiences. To be succesfull in these areas, children must be intoduced at
an early age to experiences that lead to solid conceptual understandings. In addition,
children need to positive attitudes toward, and an excitement for, science learning.
These positive experiences can be successfully built upon as children proceed through
the educational system. (Henniger 1987, p. 167; Sıraj Blatchford 1991, p.26). In
preschool education, these opportunities are provided for children through science and
nature activities.
711
Science and nature activities enable children to think in multiple dimensions, to

acquire problem solving skills, to develop a sense of curiosity and creativity, and to
discover the world by learning with all their senses through performing and
experiencing (Akgul Macaroglu 2004, p.7). Furthermore, such activities ensure that
the child discovers his surroundings, tries, discusses and uses his manual skills; and
also that the child communicates with his environment, develops independent thinking
and reasoning ability, becomes sensitive to the events taking place in his environment,
becomes curious and open-minded, and acquires attitudes such as not getting
demoralized against realities and difficulties (Dere and Omeroglu 2001, pp.1-2).
Piaget has stated that children always needed experimenting for their mental
development and that such experiences should involve social interaction and physical
activities. At the preoperational stage, children have egocentric thoughts. In order for
this to change in time, children need to find appropriate opportunities in their
interaction with their friends, share their points of view, and listen to their friends.
Science and nature activities provide appropriate opportunities for children to establish
communication with their friends, teacher, and other adults (Akgul Macaroglu 2004,
p.9).
The benefits defined can be obtained by employing the right techniques in science
education, by choosing topics that are of appropriate quality and level for the age,
interest and development conditions of the child and by planning the activities (Akgul
Macaroglu 2004, p.9). One of the most important points affecting the quality of the
education provided in preschool education is the arrangement of the environmental
conditions. In order to increase the quality of the education for the child and the
teacher, the stimulating medium should be arranged according to the interest and needs
of the children (Aktas Arnas et al. 2004). Science and nature education should be the
kind of education which absolutely requires the active participation of children and
have firsthand experience (Akman et al. 2003, p.14). A well-arranged and well-
equipped medium ensures the active participation of children in the activities. When
the environment for the children to feel relaxed and study comfortably is provided and
organized in the best way, children acquire new skills and find a better chance of
improving their abilities. Furthermore, an education atmosphere that is well-equipped
and organized provides comfort for the teacher as well as the child. It has been stated
that the teachers who are not occupied with physical inadequacies can spare more time
for children and can achieve the targets faster and more easily by making room for
more variety of activities (Demiriz et al. 2003, pp.13-15). Children need education
programmes with appropriate techniques and which direct them to appropriate
activities in addition to well-organized education media (Aktas Arnas et al. 2004).
One of the basic principles of preschool education, which takes place in the “2002
Preschool Education Programmes for 36-72-month-old Children (PEP)” published by
the Ministry of National Education-Council of Education Policy is that education
allows children to learn by performing-experiencing and trying with the knowledge
they possess (Anonimous, 2002, p.9). In the features of the same programme, the
importance of the fact that education should not be handled as the teaching of a certain
topic by the teacher or other adults, but it should be realized by making the child
research, examine and experiment has been emphasized (Anonimous 2002, p.12).
Depending on this principle and its features, the science and nature activities in
preschool education programmes include the activities of maintaining a science and
nature center, making collections and albums, growing plants, feeding animals, doing
experiments, keeping educating toys, arranging field trips, inviting guests to the class
and studying mathematics (Aral et al. 2002, pp.129-137; Dere & Omeroglu 2001, p.2).
712
It has been stated that the effective preparation and application of these programmes
usually depend on the quality of the teachers and the techniques used in application (
Aktas Arnas et al. 2004). Teachers are held primarily responsible for the preparation
and application of education programmes (Genç 1997, pp.14-15); and attention has
been drawn to the necessity of their being in a supporting and guiding position,
ensuring the active participation of children (Aktas Arnas et al. 2004). Tsitouridou
(1999), explored teachers' and student teachers' views of the framework of educational
training in the area of science in early-childhood education. Found that scientific
training was necessary to support the preschool curriculum; teachers have different
tendencies in regard to scientific knowledge; and the cohesion between content
knowledge and pedagogical processes is flexible and encourages flexibility in teacher
perceptions.
The undergraduate programmes of higher education institutes that educate
preschool teachers in the departments of preschool education teaching and child
development and education include courses oriented towards preschool education
programmes and the importance and application methods of science activities.
However, in order for the programmes of the teacher education institutes to be
improved, for the problems at work to be determined, for solutions to these problems
to be proposed and for the in-service training programmes to be arranged more
effectively, the present state of the use of such activities by teachers – whether, how
and to what extent – needs to be determined. Thus, this study on the present state of
preschool education teachers’ inclusion of science and nature activities in their
programmes stems from this need.
Method
This piece of research has been aimed at studying the preschool teachers’
inclusion of science and nature activities in their daily educational programs in
Turkey.
The researchers have worked with 151 preschool teachers who work at
kindergartens and private nursery classroom affiliated to the Ministry of National
Education, and private kindergarten. As a means of collecting data, the “Questionnaire
for Teachers about Their Use of Science and Nature Activities”, developed by the
researchers to determine the facts about the present state of the use of science and
nature activities and the teachers’ thoughts about the topic, has been used. The
questionnaire primarily includes questions determining the qualifications of the
teachers themselves, such as the age group they work with, their age, their education
status, the duration they were in the profession and the number of children in their
group. This section is followed by questions evaluating the general condition of
institutions and the present state of the use of teachers’ science and nature activities in
their daily education programmes. The findings has been presented in the form of
frequency distribution.
713
This piece of research has been aimed at studying the preschool teachers’
inclusion of science and nature activities in their daily educational programmes in
Turkey.
In this section, by making use of the data obtained from the questionnaire, the
findings about the teachers themselves and the general condition of the institutions
have been dealt with.
It has been determined that, of the teachers within the scope of the research, 61.6%
work in the six-year-old group, 43.7% work in the four-year-old group, 26.5% work in
the five-year-old group and 9.3% work in the three-year-old group; 54.3% have an
undergraduate degree, 24.5% have graduated from girls vocational school and 21.2%
are graduates of a school of higher education; and 35.1% of the teachers are between
the ages of 36-45, 29.8% are between 26-35, 26.5% are 25 and below, and 8.6% are 46
and above.
Moreover, it has been found that 35.1% of the teachers have 15 and fewer children
in their group, 33.8% have 16-20 children and 31.1% have 21-25 children in their
groups; 32.5% have worked for more than 16 years, 16.6% have worked for 0-3 years,
14.6% have worked for 10-12 years, 13.9% have worked for 4-6 years, 12.6% have
worked for 7-9 years and 9.9% have worked for 13-15 years; 37.7% currently work at
private nursery classroom affiliated to the Ministry of National Education, 27.8% at
kindergartens affiliated to the Ministry of National Education, and 34.4% at private
kindergartens.
The findings regarding the physical facilities for science and nature activities at
preschool education institutions where teachers work show that 96.7% of the schools
have open grounds and 3.3% do not. Oktay (1999, p.196) emphasizes that it is
important to provide a proper size of open grounds for children to enable them to
move around, which is necessary for their development, especially in large cities
where children do not have this opportunity at home. The findings obtained from the
research show that almost all of the preschool education institutions have open
grounds. Although this is a favourable situation, it is also important how these grounds
are used. Oktay (1999, p.196) states that keeping tools and devices which children can
safely and easily use in the open grounds of a school is as important as having the
grounds itself. The research results have shown that the open grounds of schools have
toys for the open area at a rate of 22.6%, earth space at a rate of 20.1%, a lawn at a rate
of 19%, a concrete area at a rate of 17.9%, a sandpit at a rate of 13.1% and a water
pool at a rate of 7.3%.
These results indicate that the preschool education institutions are not convenient
for children to be involved in sand and water activities, which have an important role
in science activities, in a beneficial way. The study findings of Aktas Arnas et al.
(2004) also show that teachers do not make room for sandpits and water pools in their
schools. According to Akman (1994, pp.72-73), materials and medium should be
provided for children to benefit from science and nature activities in preschool
education at the highest level. The required materials can be plants, animals, sand,
stones, seeds, leaves, snow and alike. The fact that there is the medium, open grounds,
where these materials naturally exist, provides opportunity for children to make direct
observations and to use their sense of hearing and touching by enabling the science
and nature activities to get out of the classroom (Akman 1994, pp.72-73). In addition,
preschool children need areas in which they can work and play physically without
disturbing anyone as they have an active nature (Demiriz et al. 2003, p.13). In the light
714
of these findings, the results obtained in the research can be explained in terms of the
lack of awareness of the importance of water and sand works in the development of a
child among teachers and administrators of preschool education institutions, or their
reluctance to build such areas even if they are aware of the fact.
In the open grounds of the preschool education institutions within the research,
plants are grown at a rate of 17.9%, but the rate is 82.1% for grounds on which plants
are not grown. In addition, 86.1% of the teachers have specified that they have a
science and nature center in the group rooms, whereas 13.9% do not. These results
reveal that teachers do not behave consciously in the use of natural facilities. The
finding that the majority of the teachers have a science and nature center can be
compared to the similar finding of Argun (2000) which states that teachers make use
of science and nature center activities more when they prepare their programmes.
According to Dere and Omeroglu (2001) and Aral et al. (2002), the science and nature
center is one of the centers of interest in preschool education institutions, and a place
where children can make observations and conduct experiments. The tools to be used
in this center can be ready. Furthermore, live plants and animals can be kept in the
center. The observations children make in this center and the activities they have
participated in ensure that their communication skills are improved, research is
encouraged, their creativity is increased and their skills to use the tools of science and
nature activities are acquired (Dere and Omeroglu 2001, p.2; Aral et al. 2002, p.100).
Taking this into consideration, not providing a science and nature center, even if at a
rate of 13.9%, is an unfavourable situation.
Of the teachers working at preschool education institutions, a proportion of 51.7%
have stated that they keep and feed animals in their science and nature centers, 37.7%
have stated that there are animals that they want to keep but they cannot, 62.3% have
stated that they bring animals into the class from outside. As for plants, 73.5% have
stated that they grow plants in science and nature center, 17.2% have stated that there
are plants that they want to grow but they cannot, 41.3% have stated that there are
plants they grow on cotton, in water, etc., 40.9% have stated that they grow plants in a
pot, 17.8% grow plants in the garden, 91.4% make observations on plants, and 8.6%
do not make observations. These results confirm that preschool teachers make an
effort to supply the necessary materials to be used in the science and nature center
effectively, and that they cooperate with the families and concerned professionals to
bring in animals to the class. Keeping and feeding animals, growing plants, taking care
of them and observing the changes in them help children become more sensitive to
their environment, to develop positive attitudes to other living things, and to learn
concepts. For this reason, teachers working in the field of preschool education should
make enough room for activities of animal feeding and plant growing.
43.7% of the teachers have expressed that they include science and nature
activities in their daily plans a few days in a week, 27.8% a few days in a month and
14.6% every day. This finding indicates that teachers do not regularly make use of
science and nature activities. It is important to carry out science and nature activities
within the daily plan, integrating into other activities, sparing the required time and at
the required frequency. Even if not performed every day, it is seen important to
include science and nature activities in the daily programmes in view of supporting the
development of children and responding to their interest.
715
Table 1. Distributions Regarding The State of Teachers’ Use of Science and Nature
Activities and Children’s Interest in Science and Nature Activities
The Use of Science and Nature Activities N %
Feeding animals 88 14
Growing plants 141 223
Doing Experiments 140 22.1
Field trips 130 20.5
Collections and albums 124 19.6
Other 10 1.6
Total 633 100.0
Children’s Interest in Science and nature activities N %
Feeding animals 99 15.6
Growing plants 136 21.5
Doing Experiments 140 22.1
Field trips 131 20.7
Collections and albums 120 19
Other 7 11
Total 633 100.0
Table 1 shows that, of science and nature activities, 22.3% of the teachers go in
for the activity of plant growing, 22.1% doing experiments, 20.5% field trips, 19.6%
collections and albums, 14% keeping animals; and 22.1% of children show interest in
doing experiments, 21.5% in plant growing, 20.7% in field trips, 19% in collection and
albums and 15.6% in keeping and feeding animals. When the activities used by the
teachers are compared with the activities the children were interested in, it can be
observed that they match approximately.
Preschool education teachers should place all of the science and nature activities in
their programmes in the direction of the interests of children. Teacher is capable of
maintaining a classroom atmosphere of warmth, acceptance, and teacher is a guide for
children in discovery science (Harlan and Rivkin, 2004, p. 21). Most young preschool
children are naturally inquisitive. They are eager to learn about them-selves and the
world around them. Tasks are approached with enthusiasm and contrary to popular
belief, young children can spend relatively long periods of time concentrating on their
individual interests( Henniger 1987,p.170). Depending on the observation that children
show interest in doing experiments, it can be suggested that the teacher should have
experiments among the scientific activities. This interest of children may be related to
the fact that the experiment results are immediately observed. Doing experiments is
especially important in preschool education. Experiments help children build up
knowledge through the materialization of abstract concepts in addition to developing
scientific processes and help them develop various skills. Yet, this should not mean
that science studies will be limited experiments. Children’s interest in living things
(plant growing, animal keeping) help them see their similarities to and differences
from humans, and to establish the kind of communication that they cannot do with
adults. Collecting things and preparing albums help the materialization of abstract
concepts in addition to providing mathematical concepts (Dere & Omeroglu 2001;
Sahin 2000; Aktas Arnas 2002). Field trips are educational sources which help
children to acquire knowledge directly, make observations, do research and determine
their own interests. The teacher is required to make a good organization prior to and
after such trips which help children to develop reporting skills and become sensitive to
the environment (Dere & Omeroglu 2001; Aktas Arnas 2002). The results of the
research conducted by Aktas Arnas et al. (2004) revealed that teachers make use of
716
science and nature activities very little, and those who do so concentrate on
experiments, trips, observation and watching videos.
Table 2. Distributions Regarding the Attitudes of Teachers Towards Doing

Experiments as a Science and Nature Activity
Where the experiments are done N %
Group room 78 51,7
Garden 73 48,3
Total 151 100.0
Who did the experiment N %
Teacher does, children observe 25 14
Children do 15 8.4
Depending on the exp; either Teacher or children 121 68
Other 17 9.6
Total 178 100.0
Types of experiment N %
Water related experiments 134 16.1
Air related experiments 131 15.7
Light related experiments 108 12.9
Experiment related to discovering motion 103 12.4
Experiment related to Senses 123 14.7
Experiment related with changes in things 105 12.6
Experiment related to colour, shape, size, function 121 14.5
Other 9 1.1
Total 834 100.0
Sources Used At the Planning Stage N %
I do not use a source; I do it myself 13 6
I make use of my own experiences 45 19.5
I make use of books and magazines 136 59
I make use of other teachers’ experiences 29 12.5
Other 7 3
Total 230 100.0
Teacher’s attitude about doing the experiment N %
I first try then do with the children 89 58,9
I first do it with the children and observe the result 20 13,2
I do the experiments that I already know 38 25,2
Other 4 2,6
Total 151 100.0
When Table 2 is examined, it can be seen that 51.7% of the teachers do

experiments in the group room and 48.3% in the garden/open grounds; in 68% of the
experiments the performer can be either the teacher or the child depending on the type
of the experiment, 14% are performed by teachers and 8.4% are performed by
children. Of all the experiments, 16.1% are water related, 15.7% are air related, 14.7%
are related to senses, 14.5% are related to colour, shape, size and functions, 12.9% are
related to light, 12.6%are related to the changes in things and 12.4% are related to
discovering motion. While teachers planned the experiment, 59% made use of books
and magazines, 19.5% their own experiences and 12.5% other teachers’ experiences.
As for the attitudes of teachers towards doing experiments, 58.9% try the experiment
before repeating it in the class, 25.2% do the experiments they had already
experimented before, 13.2% perform the experiments with the children for the first
time. Doing experiments is especially important in preschool education. Experiments
help children build up knowledge through the concepts in addition to developing
scientific processes and help them develop various skills. (Dere & Omeroglu 2001;
717
Sahin 2000; Aktas Arnas 2002). Teachers’ use of both the group room and the open
grounds as experiment spaces may mean that they do not see doing experiments as an
activity that takes place in closed spaces only; additionally, this situation can mean that
they make room for different experiments.
Table 3. Distributions Regarding Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Field Trips as a

Science and Nature Activity
The frequency of making Field Trips N %
Once in every educational term 33 21.9
Twice or three times every eduactional term 69 45.7
Other 44 29.1
No field trips are made 5 3.3
Total 151 100.0
Conditions on which field trip plans are based N %
Consideration of family wishes 87 17.5
Consideration of special days and weeks 125 24.8
Consideration of needs and interests of children 130 25.8
Consideration of wishes of the administration 78 15.5
Consideration of what other teachers have done 79 15.7
Other 5 0.9
Total 504 100.0
Conditions on which the decision of where to make the field trip N %
are based
Preferring the places in a walking distance to the school 111 21.3
Preferring places where there are acquaintances such
as parents and friends 87 16.7
Preferring places where legal processes are not required 96 18.5
Preferring places which appeal to the needs and interests 130 25
of children
Preferring places which do not require getting permission 92 17.7
Other 4 0.8
Total 520 100.0
Actions that strain teachers before a field trip N %
Convincing the parents 20 6.2
Getting permission from parents 34 10.7
Getting permission from the school administration 22 6.8
Procedure of getting permission from national 47 14.6
education directories
National Education Directories not giving permission 17 5.3
Vehicle supply 42 13
Seeing the place to be visited beforehand 27 8.4
Not getting permission from the place to be visited 40 12.4
Planning the trip 13 4
Supplying finances for the trip 42 13
Other 18 5.6
Total 322 100.0
Whether any activities related to the trip is N %
conducted with the children before the field trip or not
Yes, conducted 105 69,5
No activities conducted 41 27,2
No field trips are made 5 3,3
Total 151 100,0
Whether any difficulties experienced N %
during the trip or no t
Difficulties are experienced 45 29,8
No difficulties are experienced 101 66,9
Total 151 100,0
Whether any activities related to the trip is N %
718
conducted with the children after the field trip or not

Yes, conducted 122 80,7
No activities conducted 24 15,8
Total 151 100,0
It has been declared that the majority of experiments are performed by either the
teacher or the child depending on the type of the experiment. However, it is very
important that all the experiments are conducted by children themselves especially for
the children of this period because children in the early childhood learn by actually
performing, not by observing. As a matter of fact, Akman (2003; p.15) has emphasized
the significance of the child’s being active in science studies and asserted that
activities in which the child does not have an active role do not have a meaning in
terms of the child and the education given. The education teachers received or the
source books they use may have influenced them about doing the experiments
themselves. However, it is not possible for children to understand merely by
observation what is going on in an activity of experiment if they are not involved in it.
Another observation is that teachers use different types of experiments at
approximately similar rates, which will help children acquire different aspects of life.
It has been determined that while planning an experiment, teachers usually make use
of books and magazines, their own experiences or other teachers’ experiences. Ayvacı
et al.(2000)’s studies reveal that teachers prefer already-prepared materials rather than
preparing original materials themselves. This study suggests a similar attitude about
planning an experiment. The findings indicate that the majority of the teachers try the
experiment before, which can be assessed as a favourable attitude. According to Şahin
(2000), the experiment planned by the teacher should also be tried before children
perform it. This piece of information supports the research findings.
According to table 3, when the frequency of making trips is examined, it is seen
that 45.7% of the teachers make two or three field trips every educational term. When
a field trip is being planned, 25.8% take the pupils’ needs and 24.8% special days and
weeks into consideration. When determining where to make the trip, 25% prefer places
which appeal to the needs and interests, 21.3% prefer places in the walking distance to
school, 18.5% prefer places where legal processes are not required, 17.7% prefer
places where the place to be visited will not cause problems in getting permission and
16.7% prefer places where there are acquaintances such as parents or friends. As for
the actions that strain the teachers before a field trip, it has been stated that 14.6% have
difficulty in getting permission from the national education directorates, 13% in
vehicle and money supply, 12.4% in getting permission from the place to be visited,
10.2% in getting permission from the parents, 8.4% in seeing the place to be visited
beforehand, 6.8% in getting permission from the school administration and at least 4%
in planning the trip. 69.5% of the teachers are involved in activities about the trip,
69.9% do not experience difficulties during the trip and 80.7% carry out after-trip
activities with children. 3.3% of the teachers have claimed that they do not make field
trips.
Field trips are of great importance to children. Field trips affect children in getting
to know their environments. As Sahin (2000) has also stated, the beginning of science
and nature activities are the natural world. By means of field trips, children find a
chance to use more senses of perceptions and all the senses are stimulated. For a good
trip, an important point is to determine where to go. It is suggested that closer places to
the school are preferred, the teacher sees the place beforehand, the necessary
719
precautions are taken and written permission from the parents are taken. It is necessary
to make a trip plan, which includes the trip date, departure time, things to take with,
time to get back, what to observe during the trip; also to make explanations about the
trip beforehand, and to decide what will be the after-trip activity. It has been asserted
that it is important to carry out such activities regualrly (Sahin 2000, p.49; Aktas Arnas
2002, p.5) Both teachers’ planning field trips twice or three times in an educational
term and their choosing places that are close to school and attract children’s attention
are two imperative findings. The difficulties experienced, on the other hand, especially
the difficulty of getting permission from the national education directorate, is thought
to be discouraging for teachers in carrying out such applications. By looking at the fact
that teachers carry out activities with children before and after the trip, it can be stated
that they plan trips by taking the trip planning criteria into consideration and that they
do not think this is difficult for them.
When Table 4 is examined, it can be seen that at a rate of 29.1%, teachers have
children make four or more collections and albums in an educational year, whereas 6%
did not do so at all. 35% of the teachers take into consideration the interests of children
in making collections and albums while 24.8% consider the compatibility with the
yearly plan. In 27.1% of the activities, materials for collections and albums are brought
from outside the school, and teachers and children pick them together, in 17.3%,
parents bring the materials which are picked by teachers and children together and in
13.2%, teachers bring the materials and children pick. As for the methods used in
making collections and albums, in 38% of the activities, children are left free to pick in
the guidance of the teacher, in 33.9%, the teacher shows the children and they perform
and finally, in 28.1% of the activities, the teacher presents examples and children do
the similar.
Making collections and albums as a science and nature activity is an effective way
of making the abstract concepts concrete for children. Children are actively involved
in these activities which help them discover their area of interests. Furthermore, such
activities develop the relations of children with each other and their teacher (Sahin
2000, pp.38-39). Teachers’ enabling children to make collections and albums twice,
three times and mostly four times in an educational year is a good opportunity to
benefit them. The attitude of teachers in taking into consideration the interests of
children in collecting items and album making can be evaluated as favourable. When
the methods of obtaining materials is considered, it can be suggested that giving the
child responsibility and making the choices together will support the creativity of the
child strongly. Some of the teachers’ getting help from the parents and giving the
parents an opportunity to be helpful with activities is a method seen positive.
According to Akman (1994; p.63), the teacher’s leaving the child free in his choices
through guidance can support the improvement of children’s creativity. In the use of
the method where teachers exemplify and ask the children to do similar work, it is
thought that the benefit will be limited to helping the child to gain manual skills.
720
Table 4. Distributions Regarding Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Collecting Items and

Album Making as a Science and Nature Activity
Frequency of collection and album making activities N %
in an educational year
Once 30 19.9
Twice 34 22.5
Three times 34 22.5
Four and more 44 29.1
No application 9 6
Total 151 100.0
Conditions teachers take into consideration N %
İn making collections and albums
Teachers’ using their own sources 52 16.6
Taking children’s interest into consideration 110 35
Taking into consideration the possibilities of 71 22.6
children’s reaching sources
Taking into consideration the compatibility 78 24.8
with the yearly plan
Other 3 1
Total 314 100.0
Means of providing materials in making collections N %
and albums
Teacher collects materials and gives children 29 7.8
Teacher introduces materials and child picks 49 13.2
Children bring materials from outside school and 100 27.1
Teacher and children pick together
Parents bring materials and teacher and children pick together 64 17.3
Teacher and children search and find in school 52 14.1
Teacher and children search and pick in and out of school 76 20.5
Total 370 100.0
Methods used in making collections and albums N %
Teacher shows children, and they do 75 33.9
Teacher provides example, children do the similar 62 28.1
Children are free in Teacher’s guidance 84 38
Total 221 100.0
Recommendations
This piece of research has been conducted with the aim of studying preschool
teachers’ inclusion of science and nature activities in their daily educational
programmes. The following recommendations can be made depending on the results
obtained in the research.
• When educational materials and physical facilities in preschool education

institutions are at adequate levels, the science and nature activities are
affected positively. However, children should be introduced to these
positive conditions, and in this matter, teachers bear a great responsibility.
• When the teacher plans the science and nature activities, she should
remember that children should participate in them by performing and
experiencing.
• Teachers can plan and apply the science and nature activities by also
integrating them into other activities.
721
• For family participation activities, science and nature activities can be

utilized.
• In response to the demands of teachers, the procedure of getting permission
from the national education directorates can be accelerated; or the
permission authority can be left to the principal of the school.
• In schools which educate teachers for preschool education institutions, it
can be ensured that experts in the area of science and nature activities teach
and help students get experiences in the field.
• In-service training courses can be arranged for the teachers working in the
field.
• Measurement tools to determine to what extent teachers make use of
science and nature activities can be developed.
• The methods and techniques that teachers use in activities can be
investigated.
• A data collecting tool in order to determine the interests of children can be
developed and teachers can use these tools to plan activities in the direction
of children’s interests.
• As part of the science and nature activities, work for mathematical
activities can be started.
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İstanbul.
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Aktaş Arnas, Y., Erden, Ş., Aslan,D.ve Cömertpay, B.2004. Okul Öncesi Öğretmenlerin
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Bakanlığı Talim Ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı. Ya-Pa Yayın Pazarlana Sanayi Ve Ticaret
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Kök Yayıncılık. Ankara.
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Etkinliklerindeki Yeterliliklerinin Belirlenmesi. ww.fedu.metu.edu.tr/ufbmekb/bkitabı/
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723
724
Lifelong Learning
725
726
Population Ageing, Education and Mortality: The Case of Slovenia
64
Population Ageing, Education and
Mortality: The Case of Slovenia
Ziga Cepar, University of Primorska
&
Trunk Sirca Nada, University of Primorska
P
opulation ageing is unprecedented, without parallel in the history of humanity.
Increases in the proportions of older persons (60 years or older) are being
accompanied by declines in the proportions of the young (under age 15). By
2050, the number of older persons in the world will exceed the number of the
young for the first time in history. Moreover, by 1998 this historic reversal in relative
proportions of the young and old had already taken place in the more developed
regions.
Population ageing is pervasive, a global phenomenon affecting every man, woman
and child. The steady increase of older age groups in national populations, both in
absolute numbers and in relation to the working-age populations, has a direct bearing
on the intergenerational and intragenerational equity and solidarity that are the
foundations of society.
Population ageing is profound, having major consequences and implications for
many facets of human life. In the economic area, population ageing will have an
impact on economic growth, savings, investment and consumption, labour markets,
pensions, taxation and intergenerational transfers. In the social sphere, population
ageing effects health and health care, family composition and living arrangements,
housing and migration. In the political arena, population ageing can influence voting
patterns and representation.
Population ageing is enduring. During the twentieth century the proportion of
older persons continued to rise, and this trend is expected to continue into the twenty-
first century. For example, the proportion of older persons – in the whole world – was
8 per cent in 1950 and 10 per cent in 2000, and is projected to reach 21 per cent in
2050 (United Nations 2002).
The most significant determinant of a population ageing is the long-run decline in
fertility. If a fertility rate declines below the level of a simple reproduction and stays at
that level for a longer period of time the proportion of elderly people in the whole
population will start to increase. In developed countries a simple reproduction of a
population is assured, if a total fertility rate doesn’t fall below the value of 2.1
727
(Kinsella and Velkoff 2001). Total fertility rate is a long-run indicator of a population
reproduction. It is defined as the number of children, which is delivered on average by
a woman in her fertility period under an assumption that she survives until her 49
birthday, which is the end of fertility period (Hinde 1998, 100). Such values of the
total fertility rates are not assured in any European country any more.
In Slovenia except from the net migrations movements, both fertility and mortality
contribute to the ageing of the Slovenian population. Persistently decreasing fertility
and a steady-stable mortality development which hasn’t started to increase yet together
with in a long run neutral or slightly positive net migration have led to an increase of
the share of elderly and to a decrease of the share of young people in Slovenia. The
percent of young has decreased from around 23.8% in 1974 to a little bit more than
14% in 2005 (Figure 2). On the other hand the share of elderly people has increased
from 10% to 15.5% during the same time period. As we can see, the share of elderly
already exceeded the share of young in the Slovenian population (Čepar and Bojnec
2005).
Figure 1. Share of Population Younger than 15 and Older than 65 or more in

Slovenia, 1974-2005
25
20
Share (%)
15
10
5
Years
0
1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004
% 0-14 % 65 or more
Source: Own calculations on the basis of data obtained from SORS 2005
A similar process of the population ageing is going on in most other European

countries as well as in Australia, North America and in most of the other developed
countries. During the last 50 years a very sharp ageing process occurred in most
countries in the countries covered by the United Nations Economic Commission for
Europe (UNECE). From a figure 2 we can see that in Europe the proportion of the
elderly persons (60 years or more) was only 12% in 1950 and grew up to 20% in 2000.
The absolute number of the elderly increased nearly by 2.5 times. During the same
time the total population grew only by 30%. The proportion of the young under age 15
declined from 26% to 17.5% and their absolute number is recorded also to be by 30
percentage points less, than it was 50 years ago (Klinger 2002).
During the twentieth century the proportion of elderly persons continued to rise,
and this trend is expected to continue into the twenty-first century. For example, the
728
proportion of elderly persons in the world as a whole was 8% in 1950 and 10% in
2000, and is projected to reach 21% in 2050 (Klinger 2002).
Figure 2 Proportion of Population aged 60 and more in Europe, 1950-2050 (%)

40,0
35,0
30,0
25,0
%
20,0
15,0
10,0
5,0
Years
0,0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
% of 60 or more
Source: Own calculations on the basis of data obtained from EUROSTAT 2006.
It seems obvious that the ageing population has significant implications for labour
demand and labour supply. Increasing share of older and decreasing share of younger
people affect the labour market through the demand side by shaping employment
opportunities. The larger and larger old population demand increases for work in these
areas which provide goods and services for elderly such as health care and leisure
services. On another hand the demand for work in areas which provide goods and
services for younger people are decreasing since the share of young people is
decreasing. A typical example where demand for the service is decreased due to
decreasing share of young people and consequently the demand for labour in such area
is decreasing too is education. Different population structures and age groups create
different demands for goods and services and thus different employment opportunities
for their providers.
At the same time changing age composition of the population and consequently
changed age structure of a workforce affects the labour market supply (Leat 1998).
Among many other consequences of an increasing share of old people in a workforce,
the workforce is getting less mobile. Older people are much less prone to changing
jobs and moving from place to place than younger people (Dixon 2003). Lower
mobility of labour means less optimal allocation of labour which further affects
productivity growth and growth of economy in general (Novak 2003).
Research Questions, Data and Methodology
In this paper we want to answer two main questions. The first is how the decreased
share of young people affects demand for education of young people and how it
consequently affects the demand for work employed in education of children on one
hand, and how increased share of older people affects demand for education of adults,
and how it consequently affects the demand for work employed in education of older
729
people. We also want to answer the question what is happening with the work force on
the labour market supply side. We believe that decreasing share of young people is
decreasing demand for education of young people and is consequently decreasing the
demand for work employed in education of children on one hand and that increasing
share of older people is increasing demand for education of adults and is consequently
increasing the demand for work employed in education of older people.
The second question we want to answer is what should be and what is the role of
Europass in solving the problems which arise from structural changes in demand for
work employed in the field of education. We also want to find out what should be and
what is the role of Europass in solving the problems which arise from the features of
the ageing workforce. We will show what is the role and the purpose of Europass in
this respect and where we are on the way to implementing Europass in Slovenia now.
In order to answer the first question we collected from the database of the
Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia (SORS) the time series data on the
absolute number of enrolled persons in primary schools (PRIM), in secondary schools
(SEC) and in the university level (UNI). We also collected data on the number of life
births by year (BR), the number of scholarships granted by year (SC) and the number
of employed in a service sector by year (SE).
We run three different regressions, one for primary schools, one for secondary
schools and one for universities. In the first two cases we use time series data of 26
years (from 1979 to 2004) and in the last case time series data of 25 years (from 1980
to 2004). By the absolute number of enrolled in a chosen level of study we measure
the demand level for the corresponding schooling level. In the first regression
(enrolled in primary schools) we use data on births with a time lag of 7 years (BR-7), in
the second regression (enrolled in secondary schools) we use data on births with a time
lag of 15 years (BR-15) and in the third regression (enrolled in universities) we use data
on births with a time lag of 19 years (BR-19). These time lags correspond to the time
horizon that covers the seven-year time period prior the children were entering into the
compulsory primary education, the time horizon of the eight years at that time that
corresponds to the duration of primary education, and the additional four years that
corresponds to the duration of secondary education. With the number of scholarships
(SC) we measure material conditions for schooling which are more or less under a
government control, but can also be provided by a private sector. With the number of
employed in a service sector (SE) we measure the pace of restructuring of the
economy and technological growth and consequently the demands for higher educated
people.
Therefore, the equation of the first regression function for the primary education is
specified as:
(1) PRIM=α + β1*BR -7.

The regression function for the primary education is specified to be largely
dependent on the demographic factors. The equation of the second
regression function for the secondary education is specified as:
(2) SEC=α + β1*BR -15 + β2*SC.
Besides the demographic factors, the regression function for the secondary
education is also specified by the number of scholarships. Finally, the
equation of the third regression function for the university education is
specified as:
(3) UNI=α + β1*BR -19 + β2*SC + β3*SE.
730
The university education is with the greatest time horizon away from the
birth. Hence some other economic and social factors and conditions rather
than exclusively demographic factors are expected to have impacts on the
choice of the higher and university education.
In order to answer the second question we investigated the Europass and its main
purpose and what is the attitude to Europass, what is acquaintance with Eurpoass, what
is the use of Europass and what are the effects of Europass with special focus on
relevance of Europass for solving the labour market problems arising from population
ageing. We also conducted a small survey about Europass on a sample of 110
Slovenian students on the Faculty of management Koper. We asked them several
questions to find out what acquaintance do they have with Europass and what are their
eventual experiences with Europass. We received 83 questionnaires from students.
Results of the Regression Analysis and Results of the Survey about Europass
Regression Analysis
Below are the results of the three regressions for the three different levels of
education in Slovenia. The estimated equation of the first regression function for the
primary education is:
PRIM=105230.1 + 4.092349*BR -7
(14.36) (14.25)
where t-tests are in the brackets, the number of observations is 26, adjusted R2 is 0.89
and F-test is 203.1. These statistics clearly indicate statistically significant properties
of the estimated regression as well as of individual regression parameters. Moreover,
we can see that there is a very significant association between the numbers of enrolled
in the primary schools in Slovenia and the number of life births seven years ago. From
the t-test we can se that the association is highly significant and from the F-test that the
model as a whole is a good description of a variance for the number of enrolled in the
primary schools. It is quite acceptable since we know that the enrolment into the
primary schools is obligatory and free of fees for each child. However, the parents
have to pay for books as well as for some other indirect costs, which are not covered
by the state or local community. Nevertheless, the demographic factor is the most
significant factor determining the number of enrolled in the primary education. Since
the level of mortality and net migrations in general and among children has been fairly
stable in Slovenia, the level of fertility is the most important determinant of the
number of enrolled in the primary schools.
The estimated equation of the second regression function for the secondary
education is:
SEC=0 + 2.016708*BR -15 + 2.076205*SC

(14.23) (9.02)
where in the brackets are t-tests, the number of observations is 26, adjusted R2 is 0.96
and F-test is 4802. These statistics again very clearly indicate statistically significant
properties of the estimated regression as well as of individual regression parameters.
731
Additionally, this regression is estimated without intercept or constant parameter of the

regression equation. The impact of the life births fifteen years ago on the number of
enrolled in the secondary schools is significant and strong. However there are also
some other factors which determine the level of each year enrolment in the secondary
education. There are some social and economic factors. In our case it is included by
the proxy variable, which is the number of scholarships granted to the pupils. The
greater the number of scholarships granted the higher the number of enrolled. The
association is highly significant.
The estimated equation of the third regression function for the higher and
university education
UNI=-265937.303+ 2.602643315*BR -19 + 2.451976008*SC + 482.057044*SE

(-6.24) (2.26) (2.20) (4.80)
where in the brackets are t-tests, the number of observations is 21, adjusted R2 is 0.93
and F-test is 94.2. These statistics again clearly indicate statistically significant
properties of the estimated regression as well as of individual regression parameters
for a simple description of the number of students in Slovenia.
Unlike as for the primary and secondary schooling there are some significant non-
demographic factors influencing the number of students in the case of the higher and
university education. There are social, macroeconomic, cultural, political and other
factors beside the demographic ones. In our case we included the number of life births
19 years ago, the demand for higher and university educated in the economy which is
measured by the number of employed in the service sector, and the social conditions
which are measured by the number of scholarships available for students. All the
included variables prove to be statistically significant. They have a positive impact on
the number of students. In the preliminary study we included also the number of
student beds available for students who don’t study in their home city but was left out
later. This variable turned out not to be statistically significant which could be
explained by the fact that there is a huge non-recorded black accommodation market
for students, which represents a significant proportion of the whole students’ beds
supply.
The size of older population which needs additional training and education after
finishing its formal education is increasing due to increasing life expectancy at birth as
well as due to some other non-demographic factors (for example faster development of
technology). Therefore the informal forms of education as well as education of adults
are increasing from year to year. This further implies the increase in the number of
“learners” and in the number of “teachers” and other things in the area of life-long
learning. The learning and teaching methods have to adapt to the new reality where
flexibility of time and place where learning is taking place is getting more and more
important. One of the most convenient and more and more popular ways of learning is
e-learning (Lesjak et.al. 2004). The new knowledge which is obtained is an advantage
for the elderly themselves as well as for their working environment (Findeisen 1998).
An important element of national strategy of education should be also identifying and
accepting talented and motivated young people from abroad into secondary and higher
education. The immigration country should train them for later employment in the
immigrant country. It seems that there are less and less already educated immigrants
that are available for export and there is less and less willingness in less developed
countries to educate such people on the expenses of a home country if they are not
going to work in their home country (Malacic 2004).
732
In the table below we can see the increasing trend of the number of employed
persons in education of adults, the increasing trend of the units available for adults as
well as the increasing number of adult learners. The increase in the adult learners is the
cause for the increase of the employed in the education of adults and for the units
available for adult learning. On the tertiary level we estimated the number of adult
learners from the number of part time students. Since the share of young part time
students in the whole number of part time students in Slovenia is around 20%, we
estimated the number of all adult learners on the tertiary level as 80% of all part time
students.
Table 1. Adult Education

School Employed persons Number of units Number of scholars
year
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Tertiary
school school school school school school education
(80% of
the part
time
students)
1991/92 245 1966 81 306 1460 7457 2182
1992/93 285 1949 110 320 1785 7370 2376
1993/94 288 2005 107 322 1695 7517 6009
1994/95 272 1952 110 344 1655 8460 7531
1995/96 245 2263 90 390 1204 9617 7962
1996/97 330 2229 141 426 2202 10891 10682
1997/98 366 2372 153 628 2291 14968 12433
1998/99 349 3099 145 760 2137 16562 16334
1999/00 - 3692 - 792 - 19449 17089
2000/01 397 4096 154 848 2153 20879 17924
2001/02 437 4461 168 926 2190 21438 18336
2002/03 428 4103 167 903 2272 22928 18021
Source: Statistical Yearbook 2004, Republic of Slovenia
Since labour force in getting older and older is among others also getting less and
less mobile. Older people are less likely to move from place to place because they
have already established their own families which keep them in one place. On another
hand the remuneration system in many firms motivates workers to stay in one job for a
longer time. Once workers have remained with an employer for a sufficient time to
gain the benefits of tenure or seniority-based pay systems, they face higher costs of
leaving. This is another reason why older people are less likely to move from one job
to another (Groot and Verberne 1997).
In order to increase the mobility of the aging workforce we need to keep their
knowledge up to date which will result in an increase of lifelong learning and informal
education within it (Trunk and Sulcic 2005). On another hand we should try to make
the existing knowledge, skills and other competences more transparent and
comparable between different places and different countries. This is a purpose of the
Europass though. Europass brings together into a single framework several existing
tools for the transparency of diplomas, certificates and competences. Helping citizens
to better communicate and present their qualifications and skills throughout Europe,
Europass will promote both occupational mobility, between countries as well as across
sectors, and mobility for learning purposes.
Europass consists of five documents, available in all official EU languages. The
First is Europass CV which is the backbone of the Europass portfolio. It is an
733
improved version of the common European CV that was defined in the

Recommendation of the Commission in March 2002 and which has already been
downloaded more than 2 million times. The second document is Europass Mobility
which records in a common format experiences of transnational mobility for learning
purposes, so that the achievements of such experiences are easier to communicate. It
was issued to about 100 000 persons. The third document Europass Diploma
Supplement records the holder’s educational record. It is provided by the same
establishment that issues the diploma and should in principle be provided to all new
higher education graduates from 2005. The fourth document is Europass Certificate
Supplement. This is a supplement to a vocational education and training certificate,
clarifying the professional qualifications of all individuals holding such qualifications.
The last Europass Language Portfolio is a document in which citizens can record their
linguistic skills and cultural expertise. It was developed by the Council of Europe and
is based on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages that is
becoming the European standard to identify the level of language skills (European
Commission, Education and Training 2006).
Below we present the results of the survey about Europass in which we tried to
find out how well do students know it, what do the expect from it, what experiences do
they already have with it.
Survey about Europass
From 110 questionnaires distributed among the student of Faculty of management

Koper we received 83 filled in questionnaires. There are 26.5% of male and 73.5% of
female responders who are between 18 and 22 years old students of the first year at the
Faculty of management Koper.
To the first question whether they have already heard for Europass or not 20.5% of
the responders answered “yes” and 79.5% answered “no”.
Table 2. Answers to the question: Have you ever heard for Europass?
Answer Number of answers (f) Relative frequency (f%)
Yes 17 20,5
No 66 79,5
Source: Own calculations on the basis of data obtained from the survey
Even smaller number of students has ever seen any of the five Europass
documents. Only 9.6% of them have seen any of them which is though 47.1% of those
who ever heard for it.
Table 3. Answers to the Question: Have you already seen any of the five Europass
Documents?
Yes 8 9.6
No 75 90.4
Students that have already heard for Europass know best the Europass CV of all
the Europass documents. As shown in the table below students had to estimate their
knowledge of each particular Europass document on for-grade scale. The numbers in
the table represent relative frequencies of each grade at some particular Europass
document. The average grade of knowledge of Europass documents on the four-grade
734
scale is highest for CV (3.2) and lowest for language portfolio (1.6). In fact, more than
half of those who know Europass CV know it very well and only 3.2% hardly knows
it. Certificate supplement is the second best known Europass document (average grade
2.4% on the four-grade scale). The other three documents have a similarly low average
grade. However the average grades at all document are still very low with an exception
of a CV.
Table 4. Answers to the Question: How Well do you Know Each Particular Europass
Document?
Europass documents 4-know it very 3 2 1-hardly Average
well know it grade
CV 53.0 17.6 23.5 5.9 3.2
Mobility 2.8 13.9 36.1 47.2 1.7
Diploma Supplement 5.9 14.7 41.2 38.2 1.9
Certificate Supplement 14.7 32.4 26.5 26.4 2.4
Language Portfolio 4.8 0.0 47.6 47.6 1.6
On the question how well do they know one of the main goals of Europass, which
is to enhance transparency of skills and competences and to increase mobility of
student and labour, the majority which is almost 60% doesn’t know those goals at all.
Only around 7% of the responders know the goals ‘quite good’ (they estimated their
knowledge with a grade 4 on the five-grade scale) and around 23% of the students
know it ‘good’ (they estimated their knowledge with a grade 3 on a five-grade scale).
Table 5 Answers to the Question: How Well do you Know one of the Main Goals of
Europass?
5-know it very well 0 0.0
4 6 7.2
3 19 22.9
2 10 12.1
1-don’t know it at all 48 57.8
Total 83 100.0
Relative frequencies in the table below show us relative frequencies of different

opinions (grades) of students about usefulness of Europass document for different
stakeholders. On a five-grade scale they had to estimate how useful they think
Europass document would be for those who are looking for a job, for those who are
recruiting new workers and for those who want to continue with their study on another
university or at another level of education at home or abroad. According to the average
grade given to each particular stakeholder and according to the relative size of grades 5
compared to other grades, responders obviously believe that Europass would be most
useful for job seekers (average grade 3.8), than for employers when deciding whom to
recruit (average grade 3.7) and least for students and other people who want to
continue with their studies (average grade 3.4). However we can see that the grades are
quite high at all groups of stakeholders which probably means that the expected
usefulness of Europass at all levels is quite high.
735
Table 6. Answers to the Question: How Useful would be the use of Europass for Job
Seekers, for Employers and for Learners?
5-very 4 3 2 1-completely Average
useful useless grade
Use of Europass would be 35.0 28.9 21.7 9.6 4.8 3.8
useful for job seekers
Use of Eurpass would be 25.3 32.5 24.1 14.5 3.6 3.6
useful for employers
Use of Europass would be 18.1 30.1 30.1 16.9 4.8 3.4
useful for individuals as
learners (students…)
In order to find out what do students think about the necessity of Europass or some
Europass documents we asked them so more indirect question. We asked them
whether they think that everyone should use the same standardised form of CV with
the same elements and structure or not. The standardised form of CV with the same
elements and structure which is the same for everyone is actually the Europass CV. As
we expected the majority supports the implementation of such CV which is actually
the main feature of the Europass CV. Only around 23% of the responders don’t think
that such CV is necessary.
Table 7. Answers to the Question: Should Everyone use the same Standardised form of
CV with the same Elements and Structure or not?
Yes 64 77.1
No 19 22.9
With the last question we wanted to find out what experiences students, that have
already used Europass, have with any of the Europass document. On a five-grade scale
they had to estimate how much Europass helped them when they were looking for a
job or when they were planning to continue their formal or informal education at any
school or any level at home or abroad. In the table below we can see relative
frequencies of grades which show how helpful was Europass in different life
situations. If it helped them a lot they had to choose grade 5 and if it didn’t help them
at all, they had to choose grade 1. We can se that average grades are quite high in both
cases, meaning that Europass has already proved to be quite useful and helpful. Some
students have already used it to find some student job or part time students to find a
regular job. On another hand some students have already used it when applying for
bridging between different faculties or when applying for some foreign student
exchange.
Table 8. Answers to the Question: Has the use of any Europass Documents already
Helped you when you were Looking for a job or for a Further Education/Study?
Has the use of any of the 5-has 4 3 2 1-hasn’t Average grade of
Europass documents already helped me helped those who used the
helped you when: very much me at all Europass
• you were looking for a job 31.5 22.0 17.5 14.3 14.7 3.4
• you were looking for a
further education/study 29.8 26.6 17.4 19.7 6.5 3.5
736
Conclusions and Implications of Demographic Factors for Education, for Labour

Market in the Field of Education and the Role of Europass in Increasing Mobility
Demand for Education and Demand for Work Employed in the Field of Education
We have found that the demographic and fertility patterns in particular have a
negative impact on the demand for education and consequently a negative impact on
the labour market demand in the field of primary education, but their negative impacts
are partly offset by other factors in the secondary education, and are so far more than
completely offset in the higher and university education.
The most important determinant of the number of enrolled in the primary schools
is fertility. The greater the number of life births seven years ago, the greater the
number of enrolled in the primary schools. The association is fairly significant. Since
the fertility has been declining in Slovenia for quite some time, the number of enrolled
in the primary schools is declining too. As a result there is likely to be lower demand
for those who are employed in the primary schools. The number of classes in the
primary schools is declining and sometimes the number of pupils in a class is getting
reduced in order to keep the same number of classes. Some of the primary schools find
it more and more difficult to fulfil the “number” criteria to become eligible for the
sufficient public financing of their primary education programmes. As a result the
number of stuff employed in the primary schools and kindergartens in Slovenia has
started to decrease since 1996 from 15,443 employed by around 100 persons per year.
In the last years the decrease slowed down due to the increased teacher/pupil ratio and
due to some financing reforms. In kindergartens the absolute number of stuff
employed has been decreasing since 1991 from 6544 by around 50 per year with some
exceptions at the end of nineties.
At the secondary level of education other factors influencing the number of
enrolled are more important than at the primary level. Fertility remains the factor that
has significant impact on the number of enrolled, but also a social dimension such as
the number of scholarships granted to the pupils has significant impact. In reality, the
declining fertility already started to out-weight the positive social policy and other
socio-economic factors. Therefore the number of enrolled in the secondary schools in
Slovenia has started to decline and consequently also the demands for the secondary
school staff since 1999. It decreased from 9,351 in 1999 to 8,051 at the end of 2004.
There are many factors causing changes in the case of the higher and university
education. The number of life-births nineteen years ago is only one determinant for the
higher education and university enrolment. There are some other non-demographic
factors that causes the increasing demands for educated and for human capital, and
thus have impacts on the increasing number of students. There are also many other
socio-economic factors such as a general macroeconomic state of the country, values
and other cultural elements. We employed a proxy variable the number of
scholarships. The participation rate or the relative number of students can increase also
due to the increased technological development which is measured by the number of
employed in the service sector. The greater the technological level of the county the
higher the demand for human capital. The negative trends in fertility so far have been
offset by the positive trends in other variables which push the number of students up.
Therefore the negative effects of demographic changes can be seen only as a declining
rate of growth of the number of students. However if the negative demographic trends
737
persist, we may experience a decline in the number of domestic students soon as well
as some negative pressure on the demand for work in higher education.
Many theories try to explaining how to improve the age structure of population
and consequently the distortions in the labour markets. To reduce the emerging
problem of the ageing population and thus the ageing labour force in general an
increase in net migrations is one solution, which has given mixed results around the
world. An increase in working age activity rates is aimed often to the increase of
female activity rates which are on average lower than those of men, but also to
increase activity rates in the age groups above 60 years and below 20 years. These
depend on the proportion of the population in the full time education for young, and on
the retirement and pension ages as well as on changing attitudes towards both the
provision of training and the employment of the elderly.
It seems there is a mismatch in the education market. Demands for the compulsory
primary education and for the secondary education of children measured by the
number of enrolled are decreasing due to the decline in fertility. As a consequence the
demand for staff employed in the primary and secondary education is declining too.
On the other side, demands for education of adults and demand for several different
forms of life-long learning are increasing. As a result the demand for staff employed in
the education of adults is increasing too. The number of employed in education of
adults has increased by more than 100%. From 2,234 in 1992 to 4,531 in 2002.
Therefore we might think of using the excess resources (employed stuff, building…)
from the education of children to the education of adults and lifelong learning in
general, where the demand for these resources is increasing. This process is similar to
the processes in some other developed countries, where the relative and absolute
number of elderly is increasing both in the whole population and in the labour market
participation. In Slovenia, it is getting more and more important to restructure the
education system to become more flexible and better prepared to integrate life-long
learning in the existing system of formal education. This process of resource
reallocation and education restructuring is consistent with the idea of permanent
education and the growing labour market competition which implies more skills,
upgraded and up to date knowledge and more complex competences.
The Role and Effects of Europass in a New Reality
As we can see from the results of the survey the Europass tool is not enough
known yet. It is hardly being implemented and is not fully integrated and routinely
used in the system of education and labour market. But on another hand expectations
about its effects are quite high. Most of the questioned believe it will help all the
stakeholders in the labour market more efficiently achieve their goals. Job seekers will
find it helpful on their way to find the most appropriate job for them, it will help
personnel department staff to recruit the right people and student will easier continue
their study. Similar conclusions have made those who already have some experiences
with Europass.
Population ageing affected the labour demand side as well as labour supply side.
For the demand side we showed it on the example of education. Lower proportion of
young means lower demand for education of children and lower demand for education
for children means lower demand for labour employed in the production of such
education. The reverse is happening in the field of education of adults. How can
Europass help in such a case? As we found out it matches right job seekers to the right
employer, which means it increases mobility of labour and makes allocation of labour
738
more optimal. Labour as well as some other resources should be allocated from the
education of children to the education of older people on one hand. On another hand
Europass enhances mobility of student which can help to fill in the lack of children by
migrations and foreign student exchange from abroad.
Beside the labour market demand side, there are also problems on the labour
market supply side. We showed that since the workforce is getting older and older, it is
also getting less and less mobile. But lower mobility reduces the optimal allocation of
work which is dangerous for the growth and stability of any economy. Again Europass
can help here to increase or regain the necessary mobility of the workforce by making
competences, knowledge and skills more transparent and more recognisable between
different employers and different countries. Not last it encourages continuous learning
and education as well which can help to increase the necessary overall education level
and thus the overall national human capital.
References
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Slovenia. V: Managing the process of Globalisation in the new and upcoming EU
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6311/1_153-167.pdf.
Trunk Š., N., and V. Sulčič. 2005. Lifelong learning: Case study in higher education in
Slovenia. International Journal of Innovation and Learning, 2, 142-51.
World Population Ageing 1950-2050, Population Division, DESA, United Nations, 2002.
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740
Validation of Non-Formal and Informal Learning at the Level of
65
Validation of Non-Formal and Informal
Learning at the Level of Higher Education:
Stimulating the Lifelong Learning
Doris Gomezelj Omerzel, University of Primorska
&
Katarina Fister, University of Primorska
&
Trunk Sirca Nada, University of Primorska
T
he world today is characterised by rapid changes, globalisation and an ever
increasing complexity in the area of economic and socio-cultural relations.
The objective set by the EU, namely to become, by 2010, the most competitive
and dynamic knowledge-based society in the world, with the capacity for
sustainable economic growth, with a greater number and quality of jobs, and greater
social cohesion, arises from the awareness of the operating conditions existing in
modern society.
In pursuing this objective, education and training systems of the EU Member
States play an important role, taking into account, however, that in their concepts they
should consider, in particular, the following challenges of modern society (Report
from the Education Council to the European Council on the Concrete Future
Objectives of Education and Training Systems, 2001):
1. The nature of the work and related required competencies is changing,

for which reason lifelong learning is beginning to constitute for
individuals the very condition for attaining and retaining employment
and their competitiveness on the labour market. The shock of transition
characteristic of the early 90’s of the previous century temporarily yet
dramatically increased the flows of workers and jobs (Vodopivec,
2004). Employment for the whole period of service has become the
exception rather than the rule. The majority of persons employed,
whether voluntarily or not, change their jobs several times in the course
of their employment (Merkač Skok, 2005). Those employees that
change their jobs should be capable of transferring the knowledge and
741
skills they acquired to new departments, companies or countries. In this

regard, the need arises for the accreditation of NIL. The total pool of
knowledge and experience of an individual should become apparent
and evaluated, irrespective of the manner in which the said knowledge
was obtained (Fister, 2004a, Sušec Praček and Fister, 2004).
2. The demographic structure is changing: thus far, the proportion of adult
persons has never been as great as it is at present (ageing population),
which fact dictates the establishment of education and training systems
adapted to the needs of the adult population.
UNESCO defines 3 forms of education. Formal education is implemented by

formal education institutions within the framework of a hierarchically structured and
systematic education process which leads to the certification of acquired
competencies. Non-formal education constitutes an organised education process taking
place in parallel with the formal education system and usually leads to certification. As
distinct from both forms of education, experience-based learning takes place
spontaneously and individuals are aware of it to a lesser degree; individuals develop
values, skills and knowledge through every-day working and social experience,
especially at the place of work.
The trends indicated above constitute the need for (A Memorandum on Lifelong
Learning, 2000): 1) general attainment of higher levels of education and qualifications
through a high-quality offer of training and education programmes, 2) provision of
knowledge and skills to persons who will comply with the changed requirements for
work and jobs, 3) an increasingly open learning environment and 4) an attractive
education and training system ensuring equal opportunities to different population
groups and contents and education implementation system, respectively, fully adjusted
to their needs and abilities.
The Concept of Accreditation of Non-Formal and Informal Learning
Accreditation of NIL represents one of the key priorities of the EU

(Communication on Lifelong Learning, 2001; White Paper on Youth Policies, 2002;
Copenhagen Declaration, 2002). It constitutes a process of evaluation and
accreditation (certification) of competencies that people develop within various
contexts (EAEA – Common European Principles for Validation on Non-Formal and
In-Formal Learning) and, as such, represents a form of individualisation of education
(EADTU – European Association of Distance Teaching Universities) and a
mechanism for ensuring greater attractiveness of learning for adult education.
Establishment and implementation of the system of validation and accreditation of
NIL constitutes a rather complex process, since it requires the integration of the so
called learning outcomes from different contexts into a single framework. As long as
we do not sensibly validate the skills and competencies acquired outside the
framework of formal education institutions, we cannot speak of the success of the
ambitious concept of lifelong learning (Colardyn and Bjornavold, 2004). It is,
however, also an interdisciplinary process, since it is conditioned by a tight co-
operation between all participants: education institutions implementing the forms of
formal and non-formal education, companies where one of the most common forms of
experience-based learning is taking place, i.e. work-based learning (Avis, 2004), and
individuals being educated and learning in such a manner.
742
Validation and Accreditation of NIL at Higher-Education Level
At the Bergen conference, the following objective was set as one of the four
priority tasks to be realised by 2007: to create all possibilities for as great a flexibility
of higher-education studies as possible, including procedures for the accreditation of
previous education (Bergen, 2005). The same document gives special emphasis to the
fact that all forms of NIL should also be deemed previous education. The accreditation
of the latter is applied reasonably with a view to increasing the possibilities for
enrolment in higher-education programmes, as well as with a view to accrediting parts
of accredited programmes. However, the accreditation of NIL should be understood, in
particular, as efforts invested into adapting the study programmes, work forms and
work methods to the needs existing on the labour market (Trunk - Širca, Lesjak, Sulčič
and Nastav, 2004), since “the education in the centre of the knowledge-based economy
is not knowledge-rich per se.” (OECD, 2003, p. 7).
The Current Situation in Europe
European countries approach the issues under consideration in various ways.

Some of them have already systemically regulated the area of validation and
accreditation of NIL, while others are only examining the possibilities. The concepts
of the system of lifelong learning and validation and accreditation of non-formal and
informal knowledge at the higher-education level vary from one country to another.
Each country takes steps that are in accordance with its system and in doing so, each
country confronts different challenges. Some countries actively encourage validation
by means of adopted legislation and guidelines, while others concede to it, but do not
regulate it. Some countries have the legal basis related thereto at their disposal, others
do not.
Validation and Accreditation of NIL at Higher-Education Level
In general, those countries whose education system is competence based and/or

have a national qualification framework find it easier to implement validation methods
than in countries where these preconditions are not met.
The European situation is presented below through the examples of six country
clusters. Five of them were constructed according to the certain degree of common
solution, which seem to be motivated also by geographical nearness (Bjornavold,
2000), the sixth cluster contain countries that joined the EU in May 2004. Data are
collected from the European inventory on Validation of non-formal and informal
learning, A final report to DG Education & Culture of the European commission,
2005.
Austria and Germany, the Dual System Approach
The German and Austrian approaches are very similar. Through the dual system
the work based learning has been most systematically integrated into the education. In
Austria, all social bodies are closely involved in setting standards in the dual system of
vocational training. But Austrian business culture places great emphasis on degree
certificates and diplomas issued by recognised providers. Other certificates, including
those recognising skills acquired through NIL, tend to be regarded with scepticism. In
743
Germany the methodology approaches are mostly at a developing stage. There is no

legal framework for lifelong learning, but some recent research projects show the
rising awareness of the issue.
Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain, the Mediterranean Approach
In these countries the general attitude towards implementation of the system is

positive, but they also illustrate that the step from intention to implementation is a long
one (Bjornavold, 2000). In Greece there are few systems in use for the validation of
NIL. The profile of validation has been rising on the national policy agenda. An
institution for the accreditation of training structures and curricula as also a framework
law has been established, so we can expect the promotion and establishment of
validation methods in the future. The Italian social and political stakeholders actually
agree regarding the need of validation. There are several interesting practices, but they
remain as local experiences not constituting a real validation model, due to the lack of
national standards regarding qualifications and competencies as also due to the lack of
a procedural and methodological framework useful for comparing different
experience. In Portugal, a new system for the validation of competencies is being set
up at national level by the public sector, which is likely to have a great positive impact
in the country (salary increase, career progression, improvement of contracting
conditions, positive effect on further studies…). The public authorities seemed to be so
much involved, because in the system of validation of NIL they have found a pathway
to the upgrading of the general low educational and certification levels of the
population. European funding has given great impulse to such initiatives, too. There
are several initiatives towards establishing methodologies for validating and
recognising NIL in Spain. The main one is undertaken within the context of the Law
on Qualifications and Vocational Training. The development of the National
Catalogue of Professional Qualifications is being done at present. In Spain, there exists
an important group of the population, which would benefit from the recognition of
competencies that have not been obtained through the traditional formal way.
Finland, Norway 1, Sweden and Denmark, the Nordic Approach
All four countries have taken practical steps through legislation and institutional
initiatives, towards strengthening the link between formal education and training and
learning taking place outside schools. Anyway, the countries have chosen different
approaches and are working according to different schemas (Bjornavold, 2000).
Finland has permanent system and comprehensive national policies in place for
validating NIL. The competence based qualification system has had a strong impact on
validation activities and contributed to a closer co-operation between education and
labour market stakeholders. Although Finland can be regarded as one of the
frontrunners in this field, there is still room for development work. The national
authorities show a commitment to future system development. In Norway a number of
tools for validating non-formal and informal competencies were developed in the nine
experimental labour market orientated projects, but none of the tools has been
developed so far to be materialised into a national standard. Important achievements
have been made in the educational sector and these have been incorporated into
national legislation. However, more needs to be done in transparent national standards
1
Norway is included in our analysis, although it is not an EU member.
744
of practice in both upper secondary and higher education. In Sweden, methods and
systems for validation of competencies form a part of an overall lifelong learning
strategy. The promotion of the process has mainly been the responsibility of the state,
complemented with regional and local initiatives. The Commission on Higher
education Admission mentions validation as one of the key tools when setting out to
increase direct transition to higher education. There is an increasing focus on learning
and developing skills outside the formal education system in Denmark. The present
and future initiatives of the Danish Ministry of education are aiming to promote a
more coherent and systematic practise of recognising non-formal and informal
learning together with formal learning for credit in education and training.
UK, Ireland and the Netherlands, the National Vocational Qualification (NVQ)
Approach
The general acceptance of learning outside formal education and training

institutions as a valid and important pathway to competencies is a basic feature in
these countries. All three countries base their vocational education and training on the
modularised system, a factor which seems to support the rapid and large scale
introduction of methodologies and institutions in the field (Colardyn and Bjornavold,
2004). The identification and validation of NIL in the United Kingdom is based on the
national formal education systems of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.
The Accreditation of Prior Learning (APL) was developed in the early 1990. In
Britain, however, the said procedure is implemented in 2 phases, taking into account
that the final evaluation is in the hands of individual evaluators evaluating candidate
portfolios. In Ireland the area of recognising and validating an NIL is currently
undergoing rapid development. There have been a number of pilot experiences in the
recognition of prior learning. The ongoing research is taking place in the context of
European projects. In the Netherlands, several branches and companies have started
initiatives in the field of validation. The organisations are indeed stimulated by the
national government to implement procedures, but it still remains a matter of free
choice for these organisations to start initiatives and to design procedures. More and
more enterprises have integrated the system in general HRM-policies. This is a sign
that the focus is going to be much more on structural processes instead of incidental
activities. The structural perspective has to be developed.
France, Belgium and Luxembourg, Opening up Diplomas and Certificates
France can be characterised as one of the most advanced European countries in the
area of identification, assessment and recognition of non-formal and informal learning
(Bjornavold, 2000). It has a long tradition. The last 20 years have seen a number of
developments in the fields of validation of NIL; culminating in the adoption of the
2002 Social Modernisation Act. In the field of engineering, for example, individuals
have been able to obtain a Diploma on the basis of professional experience since 1934.
France has put in place a detailed legal framework for the validation of NIL,
implemented mechanisms to oversee the process of certification and developed dense
networks of guidance, assessment and validation centres. The French system of
validation, which is implemented in 3 phases, taking into account that the final
evaluation on the accreditation of experience-based achievements (competencies) for
the purposes of continuation and completion, respectively, of formal education is in
745
the hands of a jury appointed either by regional offices for education or University
Chancellors. In Belgium a number of initiatives have been taken during recent years,
partly influenced by the French experiences. The initiatives have been developed in
the recent years in the context of a wider drive to improve access to lifelong learning.
The development and implementation of methodologies of validation in Luxembourg
are in their early stage. However, certain legislative measures recently adopted have
opened the door to the potential evolution of such methodologies.
Estonia, Lithuania, Cyprus, Malta, Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic
and Latvia, Countries that joined the EU on 1 May 2004 1
Since 1992, Estonia has made constant progress in the gradual establishment of
the education system and related legislation. The University of Tartu, a promoter in
this field, is the first in Estonia to have worked out the system and the procedures for
the accreditation of prior studies and work experience and is now in the
implementation stage. Estonia is in an active position in the development of the
system, tools and procedures. Lithuania is building bridges between formal, non-
formal and informal education. The legal basis is already in place, but methodologies
needs further development. In Cyprus, there is currently no national system or methods
for validation of non – formal and informal learning, but the debate in this area is
lively. In Malta, there still exists a gap between the stated and written policy and the
implementation process, the recognition of NIL is not yet linked to validation and
accreditation. In Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic and Latvia, the
validation of NIL is clearly in a developing stage. There are signs that the concept is
going to be used in the following years, but this has not been made concrete.
The countries, such as, for instance, Great Britain, Ireland, France and Estonia,
which have already introduced the methods and systems for the identification and
validation of knowledge acquired outside the framework of education programmes,
establish that a great proportion of knowledge may be acquired at the place of work, at
home and by means of other activities taking place during leisure time. The skills
acquired outside the framework of the formal education system were and are
indispensable to individuals, companies and the entire society, for which reason the
formal accreditation of competencies acquired in such a manner constitutes a great
challenge and opportunity at the national level.
According to the opinion of the countries which have already introduced such
systems, validation has numerous positive effects, namely: validation provides
motivation to individuals for inclusion in formal education, increases motivation and
interest among employees for participation in offered training and organised education
programmes within a company, shortens the time of studies thus making the said
studies more easily available to individuals who rarely decide to participate in formal
education due to work or other obligations, and decreases the costs to potential
students and education institutions. The accreditation of non-formal education can also
be viewed in the light of increasing the possibilities of employment on the labour
market (Romaniuk and Snart, 2000). Under certain conditions, however, the extensive
introduction of such a system would also result in a greater mobility of labour force
within the EU, since upon the existence of harmonised national systems of
1
Next paragraph will be dedicated to Slovenia.
746
accreditation of non-formal qualifications 1, one of the standards of legal certainty

would be complied with, i.e. compliance with its transparency and predictability.
Slovenia – Present Situation in the Area of Legislation Regulating Validation and

Accreditation of NIL
Thus far, Slovenia has already introduced the system of validation and
accreditation of non-formal education at the level of vocational training (Svetlik,
2000).
The ever increasing and increasingly stricter demands for knowledge in
companies, which are reflected in ever increasing education and other requirements for
the occupation of positions, dictate the introduction of such systems also at the level of
higher education. We are encouraged to proceed in this way also by the Lisbon
Strategy which requires from the EU Member States mutual accreditation of the
formally acquired education. Should Slovenia not introduce the system of validation
and accreditation of NIL at the level of higher education, there is a risk that the
working-age population with rich working experience will leave for other EU Member
States which enable them to gain the validation as well as to obtain a foreign diploma
whereby they can compete in various EU countries, including Slovenia.
The validation of NIL at the level of higher education is provided for also by
Slovenian legislation: Article 35 of the ASHEA (2004) constitutes the basis for its
introduction, while Article 49 of the ASHEA (2004) imposes on the Council for
Higher Education the obligation to determine in detail the criteria for the accreditation
of knowledge and abilities acquired prior to enrolment in the first-level higher
education programme, which to a certain extent was already achieved by the adoption
of the Criteria on Accreditation of Higher Education Institutions and Study
Programmes (Article 9).
The realisation of validation and accreditation of NIL at the level of higher
education, as it is currently outlined in Slovenian legislation, is inconsistent 2, for
which reason a unified framework should be established within which validation for
both, education needs and employment needs, would take place. Recognition and
validation of NIL could shape the significance of the knowledge obtained at the
university. There is a strong request for developing study programmes that would fit
better with the demand, stimulated from the needs of the labour market, of individuals
1 The European Commission designed numerous initiatives relating to the accreditation of non-
formal and experience-based education. These include (OECD Report, 2004): enforcement of
the common list of criteria for the accreditation of non-formal and experience-based education;
the Europass initiative which will bring about a greater transparency of common documents
(diploma and annex thereto, Curriculum Vitae, language certificate, mobility).
2 The Higher Education Act governs the validation and accreditation of non-formal and
experience-based learning at the higher-education level. The National Professional
Qualifications Act, the Rules on Method and Procedure for the Assessment and Award of
National Professional Qualifications, the Rules on Composition of the Commissions for the
Assessment and Verification of National Professional Qualifications and on Method and
Procedure to Grant and Withdraw the Licence, and the Rules Laying Down Detailed Rules for
Qualification Recognition Procedure Relating to Access to Regulated Professions or Regulated
Professionals Activities in the Republic of Slovenia Based on the First and Second General
System Directives for Recognition of Qualifications govern the procedure of validation and
accreditation for the purposes of employment.
747
and of the society in general. This is in contrast to the so far existing education
practice in which high education institutions simply offer a stock of study
programmes, prepared in advance. What should be done by the universities if they
wish to assure their institutional and functional survival? (Jelenc Krašovec in Kump,
2005).
The Role of Employers to Support the Lifelong Learning
In addition to favourable effects, previous experiences indicate certain limitations

to the introduction of the system of validation and accreditation of NIL. Those
countries, which thus far already tried to introduce or have introduced the system of
validation and accreditation of NIL, establish that one of the greatest obstacles they
encountered was ensuring the co-operation of all partners participating in the system of
validation and accreditation, universities, education institutions, individuals and
employers, in particular (Burton, 2005; Everet, Konrad, 2000; Reeve and Gallacher,
2005). The full-involvement of all three groups of participants is necessary in all
stages: from the development of the system, through the stage of its daily operation, to
final evaluation and its improvement. Since the involvement can not be achieved
without sincere motivation for such an approach to formal education, and knowledge
management, the first aim of our long-term project was to explore the knowledge,
attitude and the perceptions of possible positive and negative outcomes of validation
and accreditation of NIL by employers.
We are especially interested in providing answers to the following questions:
• How is the Slovenian labour market prepared to introduce different forms and
ways of lifelong learning in the higher education system and what is its point
of view in this matter?
• What is the number of competencies that employees are able to develop
through non formal and informal learning at the work place?
In order to reach the objectives, we used the following methodology:
• Applied primary research – survey, questionnaire based, of the employers'

position and their motivation, as well as of the measure in which they
already implemented the conception of validation in their business
companies. The questionnaire included also questions on the level (or
development) of the HRM system for training and education of employees.
These data were used as supplement data for the evaluation of the degree of
employer’s motivation to co-operate in the system of validation and
accreditation of NIL. The assumption that underlies this approach is that
the employers who invest in employees' development, training and
education, have higher motivation to participate in the system of validation
and accreditation of NIL (Fister, 2004b; Wood and de Menzes, 1998).
• Secondary research - gathering the information of the amount of
competencies that employees developed through NIL. The data were
gathered from the HRM evidence of the employers.
748
Results and Analysis of the Primary Research
A survey questionnaire has been designed specifically for the target group –
employers. The research was carried out at the end of 2005 and at the beginning of the
year 2006. The sample included 15 employers, 14 of them from the business services,
1 from the manufacturing. The majority (11) of the employers worked in organisations
with more than 50 employees. All the respondents hold the managerial position. In the
following pages, the most important results based on the answers that have been
collected, are presented.
Question 1.The respondents were asked whether their organisation had a
systematic approach to the training and education of the employees. Two answers
were provided in advance, Yes and No, and 13 of respondents answered with Yes.
Question 2.The respondents were asked for how many hours (on average) their
employees took part in the various training programmes during the year 2005. The
following possible answers were given: up to 5 hours, up to 10 hours, up to 20 hours,
up to 30 hours, more than 3o hours. 10 (66 %) respondents answered with up to 30
hours, 3 (20 %) of them answered with up to 20 hours and 2 (14 %) of them answered
with up to 10 hours.
Question 3. We were interested in their methods in following the results of
training programmes. Respondents were able to choose from the answers prepared
beforehand. They could decide for more than one answer. See Figure 1.
Figure 1. Methods for Verifying the Effectiveness of Training Programmes (Survey,

2005)
We verify the effectiveness of training programmes.
with interviews 13
with questionnaires 10
with exams 10
by measuring the prosperity of employees 7
no methods 2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Question 4. The respondents were asked to evaluate the contribution of the

training programmes in achieving the organisation goals and for the business
improvement. Among 3 possible answers, the majority of respondents (13 or 86 %)
answered that it certainly does contribute to the business improvement, 2 (14 %) of
respondents answered that the effects aren’t evident. No one chose the answer that the
training programmes are useless and only expenditure for the organisation.
Question 5. This question included the information from the new Higher education
Act that enables HE institutions to recognise and validate knowledge and skills, gained
through work experience or through other forms of non formal and informal learning.
The respondents were asked to propose standards for the validation of skills and
competences gained on the work place. They could choose more than one answer. See
Figure 2.
749
Figure 2. Standards for Validation of the Knowledge gained at the Work Place
(Survey, 2005)
Possible standards
the purpose of the w ork is comparable to

14
the purpose of the study program
the content of the w ork coincides w ith the
12
study program content
w ork performance 10
w orker's autonomy 3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Question 6. The respondents were asked what percentage of the study programme
should be represented by knowledge and skills gained through work experience. Table
1 shows that more than half of the survey respondents indicated that the percentage
should be up to 50 % of the study program.
Question 7. The respondents were asked to propose standards for the validation of
skills and competences gained through other forms of non formal and informal
learning (seminars, courses etc.).The respondents could choose more than one answer.
See Figure 3.
Table 1. What Percentage of the Study Program should be Replaced with the
Knowledge and Skills Gained through the Work Experience (Survey, 2005)?
Answer 0 % - 10 % 11 % - 30 % 31 % - 50 % 51 % - 60 %
Answers 1 7 5 2
% of answers 6.5 % 46.6 % 33.3 % 13.6 %
Figure 3. Standards for Validation of the Knowledge gained through other Forms of
Non Formal and Informal Learning (Survey, 2005)
Possible standards
the purpose is the same 14

the content coincides w ith the study
14
program content
the extent is the same 14
the competence of the performer 10
only if the formal course is accredited 1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Question 8. The respondents were asked what percentage of the study programme
should be represented by knowledge and skills gained through other forms of non
formal and informal learning. See Table 2.
750
Table 2. What Percentage of the Study Program should be replaced with the
Knowledge and Skills gained through other Forms of Non Formal and Informal
Learning (Survey, 2005)?
Answer 0 % - 10 % 11 % - 30 % 31 % - 40 % 41 % - 50 %
Answers 2 2 3 8
% of answers 13.6 % 13.6 % 20 % 52.8 %
More than half of the employers (52, 8 %) think that the knowledge acquired non-
formally should represent from 41 % to 50 % of the study program.
Question 9. Interviewees were asked whether the implementation of such a system
would motivate their employees for further education. All the respondents agreed that
it would motivate them.
Question 10. We were interested if the implementation of the system would
contribute to a better match between education and labour market needs. All the
respondents answered with yes.
Question 11. The respondents were asked if there is a need for collaboration of the
employers in establishing the standards for validation and the system in general. They
were able to select from the following offered answers:' yes, necessarily; yes, if they
like to; no; I don’t know'. A substantial number (14 or 93 %) of respondents answered
with ' yes, necessarily', only one of them decided for the answer ' yes, if they like to'.
Question 12. The interviewees were asked whether they are familiar with the new
possibilities of the validation of non formal and informal learning in the HE area,
mentioned above. If yes, where did they get the information? The majority, 14 (93.3
%) of them answered with 'No'. Only one said that he had already heard of it from the
media.
Based on the results of the first part of the research we are able to answer the first
research question. In most of the participant organisations the training and educational
system is developed. The employees are taking part in varied seminars and courses and
many methods are developed for verifying the effectiveness of training and education.
Employers apply rather subjective measures for analyzing the effects of training and
education of their employees (questionnaires that measure the satisfaction with a
certain course that is applied soon after completion of the course). This fact is common
in the field of HRM, and is one of the major problems that current HRM initiatives are
trying to resolve (Fister 2004a, 2004b). Measurement of the effects of training and
education could help the development of standards for objective evaluation and
validation of courses, seminars, training and other forms of non-formal education on
the level of higher education.
Even though the number of the organizations included in the study did not allow
for the statistical correlational analysis between the emphasis that the organization put
on education and training of employees and its willingness to participate in the system
of validation and accreditation of learning, the answers confirm the hypothesis. Two
employers that don’t have a systematic approach to training and education of their
employees are less willing to participate in the system and have lower expectations
and a less positive attitude toward it.
Employers mostly recognise knowledge and skills gained through work experience
at the workplace. They agree that standards should be defined for the validation of the
knowledge, skills and competences gained through work experience and through other
751
forms of non formal and informal learning. The comparability of the study programme
and work that the employee is daily performing on the content and purpose dimension,
are for the employers the most important criteria for validation of knowledge gained in
the work environment. The third most frequently chosen criterion for the validation is
worker’s performance. The primary goal of the training and education of employees is
the improvement of their work performance. The three most important standards for
validation of knowledge gained through non-formal learning are the comparability of
the extent, the content and the purpose of seminars, courses, training programmes,
with the study programme. The fourth most important criteria are the competencies of
the performer or performers of the non-formal learning.
Employers agree that the implementation of such an approach to the study on the
level of higher education would support lifelong learning in organizations, through
motivating employees to enter the formal education system or to continue with their
study. Nevertheless the study also shows that employers are not yet aware of the range
of possibilities which are given to all the partners with the new Higher Education Act.
In the future more attention should be given to the promotion of the idea of recognition
and validation of all kinds of knowledge, without regard to where it has been acquired.
Results and Analysis of the Secondary Research
The data for the following chapter were gathered from the HRM evidence of the
15 Slovenian employers, mentioned above. The employee education is certainly the
sphere where education and economy are in close touch. In this chapter we will
analyse the existing possibilities of work place learning.
Workplaces can play a significant role in providing an organised learning process.
We consider work experience and on the job training as very important sources of
learning. We should be aware that the training of employees complements their
knowledge acquired during their formal education. From Figure 4 we can see that the
quantity of hours spent by employees in any kind of courses, organised on the work
place has visibly grown up from the year 2004 to year 2005. The basic finding is that
participation in work place education and training courses and workshops continues to
grow. This growth is probably the consequence of the growth of educational needs,
and at the same time, it is the consequence of the growth of employer’s awareness of
the importance of knowledge, see Figure 4. The average number of hours devoted to
non formal learning at the work place is 73 hours per year for top managers, 48 hours
per year for managers, 60 hours per year for qualified persons and 39 hours par year
for operative workers. In Table 3 are described the kinds of courses that are most
frequently organised by employers. We divided different types of training into 8
groups: management skills (planning, organizing, controlling), ecology, safety and
health at work, quality systems, ICT skills, foreign languages, work-related courses,
leadership skills. Different levels of employees attend different kinds of courses, but
the most frequent type are clearly the specific work – related courses (for example:
courses on work legislation or HRM practices for professional workers in HRM
department, marketing for workers in marketing department, technology in the R&D
departments). Such contents are included in almost all kinds of business study
programmes on the level of higher education and other study programmes in a specific
academic field. This confirms that the content of non-formal education is mostly
comparable with many study programmes at the level of higher education.
752
Figure 4. Hours of Education or Training on the Work Place with regard to the Rank
of Employment (Survey, 2005)
80
70 73
60 74 60
50 48 46 2004
40 39
30 25
20 23 2005
10
0
t t
en en ers ers
em m rk rk
g ge w o o
an
a na al e w
m ma i on tiv
op le
fes
s era
T idd o Op
M Pr
Table 3. Training on the Work Place with regard to the Rank of Employment and Type
of Course (Survey, 2005)
Top Middle Professional Operative
management management workers workers
Management skills 3 % 6% 3% 4%
Ecology 13 % 6% 8% 0%
Safety and health at work 0% 5% 1% 2%
Quality systems 0% 2% 1% 0%
ICT skills 4% 11 % 5% 3%
Foreign languages 8% 26 % 40 % 6%
Work-related courses 37 % 13 % 34 % 83 %
Leadership 34 % 32 % 9% 1%
We can divide all the education and training into two different forms: the courses
that are organised inside the organisation (internal) and that are mostly performed by
employees who are very competent in a certain field, and outside or external courses.
Table 4 indicates that the majority of training courses are available inside the
organisation.
According to the results presented above, we can confirm that not only the settings
of formal education but also the less formal organizational settings contribute to
learning of employees. In the process of learning in the work environment we can
readily identify many contents that are present in formal vocational training, as well as
many non-formal educational courses for job retraining and upgrading.
Table 4. The Relation between Inside and Outside Courses (Survey, 2005)
Top management Middle Professional Operative workers
management workers
External 35 % 4% 32 % 23 %
Internal 65 % 96 % 68 % 77 %
753
Conclusion
The workplace is an important location and source of learning. Employers tend to

offer different types of training, some provided inside the organisation through their
own HR departments, some through external providers. The assumption that the level
of importance that employers place on the development of their employees, is
connected with their willingness to participate in the system of validation and
accreditation of NIL, is still to be empirically tested, but the results of our study clearly
suggest so. The comparability of the study programme and work that the employee is
daily performing or the non-formal course that he/she has attended, are for the
employers the most important criteria for validation of knowledge gained in the work
environment or on non-formal educational courses.
The next partner in the system of validation and accreditation of NIL at the level
of higher education are educational institutions. We expect that their motivation to
cooperate in such a system is lower than the motivation of employers, because various,
frequently individual, interests drive the development, the accreditation and
implementation of study programmes. Of course, this is only a hypothesis that must be
tested.
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756
Chalk and Cheese or Bread and Butter? An Evaluation of Methodological
Issues Arising from Combining Quantitative and Qualitative
Research Methods in a Lifelong Learning Research Project
66
Chalk and Cheese or Bread and Butter? An
Evaluation of Methodological Issues Arising
from Combining Quantitative and
Qualitative Research Methods in a Lifelong
Learning Research Project
Sheila Gaynard, The University of Hull
T
his study is focussed on and uses particular tools to explore women’s
perceptions of their lives and educational experiences. It is a field study and
uses an in depth descriptive approach including survey and case study and a
combination of quantitative and qualitative methods.
At the beginning of this research project the research question was as follows:
What are mature graduate women’s perceptions of their own educational and life
experiences and in what ways do these differ from those of women who graduated as
young adults and those who have never studied for a degree?
Neumann (2000) suggests that, though few social researchers agree with all parts
of an approach and elements from each may be mixed in any research project, each
approach represents different ways of looking at the world and is based on different
starting positions. The three main approaches to research in the social sciences that
have evolved and developed over a period of time based on a major re-evaluation of
social science that began in the 1960s are positivist, interpretive and critical social
science with additional influences from feminist and post-modern research (Neumann,
2000).
Though in the past it was the case that a positivist epistemology implied a research
goal of producing objective knowledge without bias, partiality or personal
involvement, it is now generally accepted that observation and description are
necessarily selective and our perception and understanding must always be partial at
least (Willig, 2001). My background in psychology may suggest a positivist approach
to research but my involvement with the area under investigation and the participants
themselves means that this approach would be inappropriate; I could not be, nor would
wish to be, an objective observer. I am not attempting to make generalisations about
757
how education as a mature student may influence aspects of all women’s lives, but to
explore and understand their recollections and to attempt some critical analysis of the
findings. This is a relatively small descriptive field study, based on the participant’s
own recollections, and what measure of information they are willing or feel able to
share with me, rather than on empirical data gathered from testing or from official
records. The purpose of the research is interpretive in nature and, as such, is more
closely affiliated to interpretive social science research and to feminist research.
This is not to say that there will be no attempt at critical analysis, indeed the
research is producing much information worthy of analysis in the context of other
research as it progresses. Gorelick (1991) suggests that feminist research is often too
closely bound to interpretive social science and thus becomes limited to the
consciousness of those being studied and hence fails to reveal patterns and structures
which may give useful information to researchers. Adopting a more critical approach
may, she suggests, enable feminist researchers to become more assertive in advocating
social change.
One aspect of feminist research particularly relevant in this research project is the
willingness to be flexible in choosing research techniques and crossing boundaries
between academic fields (Neumann, 2000). As a psychologist with many years
experience of working in education and in particular adult education, the methods I
have employed for this research project reflect my academic background. They are a
combination of methods used in lifespan developmental psychology as well as in
feminist and interpretive social research and research in adult education. In lifespan
development researchers attempt to discover how and why people do or do not change
and develop by learning about their lives. Many and varied strategies drawing on
different disciplines are employed for collection and analysing data about the life
course (Sugarman 2001).
Zukas (1993) reported the difficulties of combining the roles of feminist researcher
in psychology and adult education. In considering the forms and purpose of research
in both areas she suggests that the aim of such research should be to deepen and extend
our knowledge of why social life is perceived and experienced in the way it is rather
than searching for causal explanations. Zukas considers that action research is
particularly applicable to research in adult education and that feminist psychologies
concerned with the analysis of discourse and rhetoric are particularly appropriate, not
only in terms of content but also in terms of process. She refers particularly to Belenky
et al’s (1986) work “Women’s ways of knowing” as the most systematic attempt
within psychology and adult education to account for the ways in which women learn
and the conditions for learning. This work is also referred to in Neumann’s (2000)
account of feminist research as inspiring feminist researchers to give a voice to women
and ‘correct the male oriented perspective that has predominated in the development
of social science’ (2000:82).
Feminist researchers do not attempt to be objective or detached and in fact often
interact and collaborate with the people that they are studying, recognising and
acknowledging their own gender and experiences in the process. Datan et al (1987)
suggest that as the method of study moves away from experimentation and towards
exploration a transformation takes place in the researcher from arrogance to humility
(cited in Sugarman, 2001:31).
By using a combination of methods which have been tried and tested in
psychology, interpretive social science, lifespan development and feminist research I
plan to gather rich, detailed and relevant information in order to understand how
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studying for a degree as a mature student influences and is influenced by aspects of

these women’s lives and also how it may influence their perspectives on the future.
In considering the difficulties and benefits of combining quantitative and
qualitative research methods it is essential to recognise how the influence of feminism
has been important in promoting the use of qualitative research in psychology
(Hammersley, 1996). The differences between collecting quantitative and qualitative
data are usually seen in terms of precision, structure and context; quantitative data
being seen as more precise and qualitative data seen as richer and giving more
contextual information. This is not always the case and the interpretation and analysis
of both types of data determines the precision and value. In psychology and sociology
research the data collected using both methods is all fundamentally verbal and is also
only as precise as the method used for analysis and reporting.
“Furthermore, our decisions about what levels of precision, structure and

context are appropriate in relation to any particular study should depend
upon the nature of what we are trying to describe, upon the likely accuracy of
our descriptions, upon our purposes, and upon the resources available to us,
not on ideological commitment to one methodological paradigm or another”
Hammersley (1996:162)
The differences between quantitative and qualitative methods are also often
viewed in terms of gender with women attributed as preferring, and being better at, the
‘softer’ qualitative methods whilst men prefer the more objective, ‘harder’ quantitative
approach (Järviluoma et al., 2003).
Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
This study is designed in three phases; beginning with a survey to gather

quantitative background information leading to a more qualitative means of gathering
detailed information about the participants lives and education through using lifelines
and open questionnaires, culminating in the final very detailed qualitative information
gathering by means of individual, life story interviews. Denzin (1998) refers to using a
combination of methods to look at the same issue as triangulation, as in surveying,
where one research method may be used to verify data gathered by another.
In the case of this research, participants are asked in the questionnaire whether
they consider that their period of study has had any influence on various aspects of
their lives. In the next stage the participants draw lifelines on various aspects of their
lives and then explain the peaks and troughs and inter-relationships. This will not only
help to explain information provided in the questionnaire it will also give the
participants the opportunity to explore further the inter-relationships and the reasons
for their original answers. Thus the purpose of using two different methods is not for
the purpose of verification, as suggested by Denzin, but rather to provide background
information and then to enrich this with more detailed qualitative data. This fits more
comfortably with the social constructionist view that there is no one correct version of
reality, only different versions.
759
“Psychology …has much to gain both from paying more attention to the
subjective… and from considering issues such as reflexivity in qualitative and
quantitative work” Todd et al. (2004:10).
Using more than one method may also facilitate the development of the next stage
of information gathering (Hammersley, 1996). For example, the questionnaire
responses help to determine the structure of the lifelines and accompanying questions,
the information gathered from the lifelines and the linked qualitative questionnaire
responses will form the basis of the life story interviews.
This use of a combination of methods can also be viewed as complimentary,
where the information gathered using the more qualitative methods helps to explain
the causes or reasons for the findings from the quantitative data. Combining
quantitative and qualitative methods through statistical analysis and narrative
interpretations
“…can be a very powerful method of revealing the sources of regularity in

psychological phenomena, combining the virtues of numerical analyses while
avoiding the errors of a blanket and unexamined assumption of a causal
metaphysics” Harré and Crystal, cited in Todd et al., (2004:61).
This methodologically eclectic view of the research process emphasises the

practical nature of research, particularly in lifespan development and education
research.
“In large part, as researchers, we acquire the resources that make up our
methodological orientations from others working in the field, and in this way
we inherit practical methods and philosophical assumptions simultaneously.
……The decisions that have to be taken in research necessarily rely heavily
upon a variety of practical considerations regarding the particular goals of
the research, the resources available, the obstacles faced and so on.”
Hammersley (1996:168).
Ethics
As should always be the case in research involving human participants, ethical

considerations were paramount in the research design. The questionnaire is a postal
one and a covering letter explains the purpose of the research and assures the
participants of confidentiality and the right to withdraw from the research project at
any time. The use of a personal identifier enables tracking but assures anonymity
throughout the research project. Participation in any stage is voluntary and the
completion of one stage does not mean automatic inclusion in the next unless the
participant indicates that they wish to participate further. The departmental ethics
committee at the University of Hull approved the research plans and documents prior
to any contact with participants. The right to withdraw and explanations about not
answering any questions the participant does not feel comfortable with will be
reaffirmed at the beginning of each interview period. I am also aware of the
importance of the relationship between researcher and participant, particularly in the
second and third stages of the project and will endeavour to ensure that the relationship
is one of partnership, sensitivity and respect. In any research situation it must be
760
acknowledged that a hierarchy does exist and that the participants are probably more
aware of this than the researcher.
Research Design – Questionnaires
The quantitative data is gathered by means of a questionnaire, carefully designed

to provide background information and also enable some basic descriptive analysis to
give a picture of similarities and differences within the sample group.
A questionnaire is ‘an important instrument of research, a tool for data collection’
(Oppenheim 1992: 100) and its function is measurement. Careful planning took place
prior to decisions being made about the exact specification of the questionnaire.
The questions were piloted with an opportunity sample of colleagues and mature
women students before final decisions were made about what to include and what to
omit and about the format of the questions and structure of the questionnaire. When
considering the specifications for the questionnaire it was important to take into
account several factors about the research and the participants. The purpose of the
questionnaire is to gather information about women’s educational histories. It was
important to bear in mind that not all of the participants who completed this stage
would participate in later stages of the research project so the questionnaire would be
the only means of gathering information from some participants. Though the primary
motivation for undertaking this research project was an interest in the experiences of
mature women graduates, the questionnaire was designed for completion by traditional
and non-graduates too with plans to draw some comparisons.
The questions are a combination of factual, closed responses: e.g. At what age did
you start school? and qualitative, open questions e.g. Please give reasons for changing
school other than moving on at the usual stages. Oppenheim (1992) recommends that
all questions should begin as open ones and should be closed after careful
consideration of the loss of information through closing the question. Careful piloting
helped to phrase the questions in such a way as to gain maximum information in a
format simple to analyse and quantify. The data has been coded and collected onto a
spreadsheet for analysis. The types of question were varied in order to maintain
interest and to gather the most in depth and readily interpretable data; for example,
multiple-choice questions and rating scales are used. Participants are given writing
space to give more information if they wish, directions as to which sections they can
skip if they are not relevant to them and the questionnaire is kept as brief as possible to
minimise the amount of time taken for completion. The font was selected for ease of
reading and size – the age range of the participants means that many will probably
need reading glasses.
Sampling Plan
This is a descriptive study and the aim is for the sample to be representative of a
specific category of people, women in the Hull area or women who are graduates of
the University of Hull, and not of the population as a whole. Arber (2001) in
discussing sampling in small scale and qualitative research suggests that,
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“ many…research studies focus on very specific sub-groups of the population,

for whom sampling frames are not available… The researchers should
recognise the constraints on interpretation which arise from their method of
sampling, and honestly and clearly note them for their readers.”
Arber (2001:62-63)
This is such a study; the purpose of the questionnaire survey was to gain
background information from a specific sample on which to base the questions for the
final, interview phase of the research project.
The sample for the second, lifelines phase of the study was selected from the
response sample to the questionnaire, in order to have representation from each of the
categories being studied. Participants in the final, interview stage will have completed
questionnaires and lifelines and participated in all three stages of the research project.
Thus the purpose of the study is “less to generalise to a larger population than it is to
gain a deeper understanding of types” Neuman (2000:198).
Neuman suggests that this is acceptable reasoning for using judgemental or
purposive sampling. Arber (2001) recommends stratified sampling in order to target
the specific groups for further, in depth qualitative research. Stratified samples were
selected as being the most appropriate for this study in order to target the required
population.
The stratifications were based on age, gender and graduation. This study is
focused on women aged between 35 and 65 years. The other strata are based on
graduation from the University of Hull; being traditional (aged 18-21 years at the start
of the degree course) and mature (aged over 21 at the start of the degree course); and
also studying either as a full time or part time student. Hull women in the same age
category who had no experience of studying in higher education were also targeted.
In early 2003 175 questionnaires were distributed to women aged 35 – 65 years.
A further 60 questionnaires have since been sent to mature graduates. Though the
overall response rate is only 45% the response rate for part time mature graduates is
74%, this skewed response rate can be explained mainly by the fact that the
questionnaire is more relevant to mature graduates than the other categories and that
most of the part time mature graduates were known to me.
Evaluation and Modification
After almost three years of gathering and analysis of data the decision was taken to
modify the research question to: What are mature graduate women’s perceptions of
their own educational and life experiences?
This modification of the research question came about for two main reasons.
Firstly the response rate for groups other than mature women graduates has been very
disappointing and did not give sufficient information for any significant comparisons
to be drawn. Secondly, the mature women graduates provided the original inspiration
for the project and the data coming from them has raised so many interesting issues
worthy of further exploration that it seemed sensible to focus on this group in the more
detailed investigations of the second and third stages of the research project.
The high return from mature students and some messages included with the
questionnaires have led me to evaluate and reflect on my relationship with the women
who have returned the questionnaires. As the Course Leader of the degree programme
that these students graduated from, they knew me personally. Had they still been
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students I would have been concerned about the balance of power but the notes of
appreciation for my support whilst they were students and also expressing interest in
the research project lead me to believe that the relationship between us is important but
more in terms of them wanting to participate in a project of interest to them rather than
feeling obliged to respond.
Some Preliminary Findings
Figure 1. Data Example from the Questionnaire - Sunshine
• Age 40
• Occupation now teacher of Secondary students with attendance problems
• Working class background
• Started school at age 5

• Secondary modern at age 11
• Good experience of secondary education overall - socially & academically
• Left school with O levels
• Left to get work – clerical job in office
• Parents wanted her to stay on but not to HE

• Not for ‘people like me’
• Various work related courses
• Entered higher education at 31 years old

• Part time degree
• Worked full time while studying
• Children living at home
• Study made a difference to

o Work
o Relationship with family
o Relationship with peers
o Relationship with partner
o Self esteem
o Confidence
o Perceptions of ageing
• Different studying as a mature student – less confident but work harder because its
more important.
Analysis of the data gathered to date has provided some interesting preliminary
findings with regard to these women’s motives for, and consequences of, study in
higher education. These findings include changes in status, the importance of
secondary school experience, the reasons given for entering higher education as a
mature student and the perceived influences of studying for a degree on various
aspects of life.
763
Much of the questionnaire data is qualitative from the open questions; the
information gathered from the closed questions has been interpreted using frequency
tables and percentages. Some attempt was made to undertake a cluster analysis of the
responses to a question about secondary school experience but this gave a distorted
view and was abandoned. When the data has been collected from the next round of
questionnaires it may be useful to use some descriptive statistical analysis of the data
from mature students to highlight any similarities and differences of responses within
this group. The questionnaire broadly answers the research question and suggests
several areas that could be explored in more depth through the later methods of
research. This was the primary aim in starting the project by gathering quantitative
data by means of the questionnaire. See Figure 1 for an example of data collected from
the questionnaire.
This data gives important information about the type of education, work and
family background this participant had. Sunshine indicates that study made a
difference to various aspects of her life but we cannot tell in what ways study
influenced these aspects. We have an impression of her which is like a line drawing.
Research Design – Lifelines
The method of research used in the second stage has been developed and adapted
from a teaching idea suggested by Leonie Sugarman (1994, 2001) for introducing the
study of lifespan development. Participants are asked to draw lifelines on grids, which
represent various aspects of life course development. An open, qualitative
questionnaire accompanies the lifelines and gives the opportunity for a more in depth
explanation of the lifelines the influences that have determined their shape. The
rationale for developing and utilising this method stemmed from my experience of
using the lifeline in teaching lifespan development with mature undergraduates.
Having asked the students to draw their lifelines in classes it became clear that one line
was not enough, there were so many aspects of their lives and not all of the peaks and
troughs coincided. Class discussions and the issues that were raised from the task of
drawing the lifelines led me to believe that this could be developed into a useful
research tool for the purpose of my investigation. The first modification was to have
several separate lifelines for different aspects of life and, following pilot studies with
groups of mature women students, these became ‘health and well-being’,
‘relationships’, ‘education’, ‘work’ and ‘other aspects’. There is also a separate sheet
with a slightly different design for ‘critical life events’. It was also decided that a more
structured format for drawing the lifelines would make the task easier for participants
and the data gathered more readily interpreted for analysis. The five basic lifelines
have a grid format with age in years marked in 5-year intervals along the bottom. The
centre horizontal line represents equilibrium or aspects of life on an even keel, neither
positive nor negative; below the line is negative experience and above the line is
positive experience. The grey horizontal lines represent ratings of how positive or
negative i.e. 1 is good, 2 is better, 3 is better still, 4 is excellent and for the negative
numbers –1 is bad and the others are correspondingly worse to –4 which is terrible.
Participants are asked to label their age now and particular landmark events e.g.
starting or changing schools, marriage, birth of a child, new job, promotion at work,
joining a social group/club etc. From their age now until death represents their
perception of ageing, participants are asked to think carefully about what they feel the
future holds for them in the different aspects of their lives. The purpose of the ‘Critical
764
Life Events’ grid is for participants to draw a more detailed line to show if they have
one or perhaps more periods of their lives that seem to have been very eventful. They
may choose to draw several lines on one grid for this period and use different colours
to draw them to indicate different aspects of life.
There is an accompanying questionnaire provided for completion with the lifelines
to enable participants to reflect upon and explain what has influenced the peaks and
troughs on their lifelines. Analysis of these lifelines will provide a way to look at
complex interactions of different aspects of life and consider some possible causative
factors and perceptions of ageing; it will enable me to explore the details and interpret
further the information gathered from the questionnaires. The lifelines data will also
provide the framework for the life-story interviews, which will form the final phase of
the research project.
A spreadsheet was created with contact details of all 45 participants from the
2003-4 returns who consented to participate further in the research project. Details
were initially mailed to 16 contacts, four from each category, inviting them to come to
the University to complete the lifelines; ten of these were able to come on the arranged
dates.
Of these ten women, one was a traditional graduate, two have studied full time as
mature students, four studied part time as mature students and three left school at 16
and have not experienced higher education. Further contacts were made last summer
and four more lifelines collected so far, all from mature graduates. The first lifelines to
be completed were not all completed fully and the information may not be useable
without the participant there to explain them. More guidance for completion was
needed than had been given in the first session and the later ones were much better. All
the mature graduate participants who volunteered to complete the lifelines will now be
invited to do so. See Figure 2 for an example of data collected using the lifelines.
Clearly the information summarised in Figure 2 builds upon the data gathered
from the questionnaire and shown in Figure 1, providing colour and pattern. The plan
is that the information gathered in the interview will provide shading, texture and
shape giving the whole life story dimension, structure and a more complete form. Each
stage of the research is building on the last providing complementary information and
context for the data
Figure 2. Data Example from the Lifelines - Sunshine
Education
• Good secondary except aged 16
• Gap from 16 to 31
• Very positive experience from 35 to present
• High point graduation – age 37
• Perception of the future to continue with education
Health & well being
• Good during childhood
• Low after birth of both children – one at age 19 one at 21, – post natal depression?
• Low until age 31
• Improving to graduation – except periods of stress at assessment times
• Positive for the future
Work
• Clerical work from leaving school to age 19 – OK
• Left to have children - low period
• Returned part time aged 28 – good experience
765
• Support from employer for further training after graduation

• Promotion aged 32
• Very positive for the future
Relationships
• Good at school to age 16
• Met boyfriend at 16
• Parents did not approve – bad time with them
• Moved in with boyfriend at 17- good time
• Married at 19
• First baby at 19 – high and low
• Second baby at 21 – low
• Relationship with husband low
• Relationships with sons strained
• Age 25 relationship with parents good again
• Friendship at work age 28 good
• Left husband age 31 – relief
• Relationship with sons improved
• Positive outlook for future
Other aspects
• Involvement in charity organisation from age 28
• Good friends – built confidence
• Encouraged to study
• Made good friends on university course
Critical life events
• Meeting boyfriend
• Leaving home
• Having children
• Husband becoming unemployed (age 23)
• Starting work for charity organisation
• Returning to study
• Graduating
• Leaving husband
• Starting new job – new life
Lifeline Questionnaire data
Qualitative data from the open questionnaire revealed that Sunshine was a survivor of
domestic violence which started shortly after the children were born. The physical abuse
stopped when sunshine became a student, though her husband continued to bully her by
destroying her books/computer, burning her work, destroying letters and refusing to permit
her to speak to friends on the telephone. She coped by redirecting mail through her parents
and through the support of work colleagues and fellow students at the University.
She wrote to me when she received the questionnaire and said that she felt that studying
for the degree had enabled her to escape and to provide a secure and stable environment
for her sons who had also begun to abuse her verbally. Their behaviour has also now
changed and they are both planning to go into higher education. The interview is to follow.
766
Research Design – Interviews
As analysis of the data progresses decisions will be taken about which participants
to interview to give more detailed information. It would be wonderful to interview all
of the participants who volunteer but the time constraints simply will not permit this.
Patricia Lunneborg (1994) selected her participants for interview by each woman
differing in some way from the last in terms of age, class, race, marital status, children,
occupation, education background etc. This produced a rich, varied and interesting
range of education life stories and I plan to use the data from the questionnaires and
lifelines to identify a similarly diverse range of participants. Of course the variety
within my original sample will determine the diversity in the final sample to a great
extent and if one particular group, for example women with children living at home,
has a higher representation in the original sample it may be that I decide that they
should have a similar weighting, and hence a stronger voice, in the final interview
sample.
Issues of interest explored through the interviews will include the process of
lifelong learning, the learning experiences of mature women students and the
perceived benefits and difficulties of studying for a degree as a mature student. The
lifelines data will be used as a starting point for the interviews to help to provide a
structure for the life story and exploration through questioning will reveal causative
factors and perceptions. There is a narrative research and life history tradition in
lifespan developmental psychology by Gilligan (1982), Belenky (1986), McAdams
(1997) and also in adult education research Edwards (1993), Lunneborg (1994), Tett
(2000), Crossan, Field, Gallagher and Merrill (2003), Reay (2003).
Through the use of life story interviews and narrative research I hope it will be
possible to explore the constructed meanings and positioning of the participants in
their own interpretations of their education life stories and to identify themes which
have emerged from data collected throughout the process. At the time of writing the
first stage of the research project is nearing its conclusion, I am in the middle of the
second, lifelines stage and the interviewing stage is yet to begin.
Reflections
My own influence in the whole process from decisions taken about research
methodology, responses to the questionnaire, agreement to complete lifelines, how the
lifelines are completed and, most of all, the responses in the interview will be reflected
upon and taken into consideration in the analysis throughout the research.
Järviluoma et al (2003) stress the importance of the researcher positioning
themselves within their study and this self-reflective work being an essential part of
any gender research process. “ The ‘objectivity’ of a study evolves from the explicit
background factors influencing the methodological choices, the perspectives taken, as
well as the selection of the material.” Järviluoma et al (2003:23).
My own education life story is one of leaving Hull to enter University in the
Midlands in the 1970s and realising very quickly that I was in a very tiny minority of
girls from a working class background at University. I became interested in education
whilst studying for my first degree in human psychology and became a teacher. I have
taught the full age spectrum from nursery children through primary, junior high and
767
secondary schools to adults in colleges of further education and the University of Hull
Centre for Lifelong Learning, where I have worked for the last ten years. I have also
taught classes for the University of the Third Age specifically targeted at the over 50s.
I worked for many years as a learning support teacher and have taught basic skills to
adults as well as teaching undergraduates. It was the women undergraduates, mature
part time students juggling the many aspects of their lives, who were the inspiration
for this research project. I have so much respect and admiration for them and wanted
to try to understand how they manage to balance the different aspects of their lives and
how the process of studying for a degree may have changed their perceptions of
themselves and their lives. I returned to Hull after 11 years in the Midlands and have
also attempted the balancing act of working full time, caring for family and studying
part time whilst still trying to keep time and space for ‘self’ without feeling guilty
(Gilligan, 1982). Perhaps if I come to understand better how my participants have
achieved this I may come closer to understanding myself and completing my own
studies. I approach this project with a desire to learn and to understand with great
humility to and admiration, respect and appreciation for the women who are my
participants.
Reflections on the process so far have confirmed my view that combining research
methods has its difficulties but that these are outweighed by the benefits of one method
complimenting and enriching the other; making the process more like bread and butter
than chalk and cheese.
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New Curriculum for Teachers’ Education
67
Martin Misut, Trnava University
W
e meet with changes everyday and everywhere as they are close connected
with progress in society. Education is the area of crucial importance in
today’s fast moving world. To be able to fulfil its highly important role, the
education must follow the needs of society. This is the reason why the
Government of the Slovak Republic pays long-term attention to reforms in education.
“The main goal of the reforms is to transform the traditional schools into a modern
school system for the 21st century, which works with other components of the lifelong
learning system to prepare and continue preparing people for life and work in new
conditions. The ongoing transformation of Slovak education system affects all its
levels: primary and secondary level realized by regional schools as well as higher
education provided by universities and other higher education institutions. The reform
of regional schools was started by the transformation of their administration and
financing. The reform of administration has been implemented as a part of the overall
decentralization and modernization of public administration focused on the
redistribution of powers between the State and the local government. The
decentralization is accompanied also by the transformation of the system of the
financing of regional schools and school facilities. But essential reform of education is
the reform of its contents.” [1]
Faculty of Education of Trnava University (FoE), as institution preparing future
teachers for pre-primary, primary and secondary schools, has to reflect the changes
connected to the reforms at all education levels.
Background
The reform of education is a process that has not been finished yet in Slovakia.
This process is characterized by dynamic changes and turbulences with origins outside
and inside Slovakia. Above all the external reasons originate from adaptation of
Slovakia into EU membership; the internal, result from transformation of Slovakia into
democratic country as well as the development of a society. Faculty of Education of
Trnava University (FoE) has to reflect the changes on all education levels – from
elementary up to higher education. There are two major spheres of educational
771
changes according to educational levels in Slovakia reflected also by existence of two

different educational laws: school and higher education.
Higher education reform is covered by the new Act on Higher Education passed in
2002. The Act, among others, changed the status of higher education institutions from
State budgetary organizations to independent, public, non-profit organizations. The
universities have received high autonomy but also high responsibility for their
decisions. It is important, from the curriculum point of view, that higher education in
the Slovak Republic is based on three levels of study programs. Each study program is
carried out in a field of study. The first level study programs are bachelor study
programs. The standard duration of study for a bachelor study program is a minimum
of three years and a maximum four years. Graduates of bachelor study are awarded
with the academic title of “Bachelor” (in short “Bc”). Bachelor study programs are
directed towards gaining theoretical and practical knowledge based on the current
stage of art and science and towards the ability for their use upon the execution of a
profession, as well as upon continuation in subsequent master study.
The second level study programs are master or engineering study programs. The
standard duration of second level study program is a minimum of one year and a
maximum of three years, so that the total standard duration of study according to the
bachelor study program and the subsequent second level study program in the same or
related field of study is altogether a minimum of five years. Graduates of the second
level study programs are awarded with the academic title of “Master” (in short “Mgr”),
in study programs oriented towards the development of creativity in the field of
engineering works or processes, including economics, with the academic title of
“Engineer” (in short “Ing”), in study programs focused on architecture and urbanism,
with the academic title of “Architect Engineer” (in short “Ing. Arch.”), in artistic study
programs, with the academic title of “Master of art (in short “Mgr. art.”), in study
programs of general human medicine, with the academic title of “Doctor of Medicine”
(in short “MUDr.”), in study programs of human dentistry medicine, with the
academic title of “Doctor of Dentistry Medicine” (in short “MDDr.”) and in study
programs of veterinary medicine, with the academic title of “Doctor of Veterinary
Medicine” (in short “MVDr.).
The third level study programs are PhD study programs. The standard duration of
study for PhD study program is a minimum of three years and a maximum of four
years. Graduates of the PhD study program gain a third level university education and
are awarded with the academic title of “PhD”. PhD study is completed upon the
execution of an academic dissertation exam and defence of a dissertational work.
Situation in the area of school education, from the curriculum point of view, is
different. The contents reform for school education, known as curricular
transformation, together with the preparation of a new Act on School Education, are in
the preparation process nowadays. Since the parliament elections are going to be in
June 2006, it cannot be supposed that new Act on School Education will be approved
in this year though the paragraphed proposal for discussion in the Parliament already
exists. The concept of two-level educational programs design is the essential change,
in comparison to the current status, proposed by new Act. Framework study programs,
based on the cyclically upgraded National Program of Training and Education,
represent the master level of educational program design. Each school, in accordance
with framework study programs, school abilities and requirements of local community,
designs school educational program. This school educational program determines
concrete content, curriculum, and other organisational issues. Above mentioned two-
level education program design allows:
772
o To define more efficient output standards for each education level and area;
o To respect specific condition and local context of education;
o Better specialization of the school also among identical kind of schools;
o To generate the offer of the education according to demands and abilities of
particular pupil;
o To involve teachers directly into education program design for own local
school environment.
The establishment of the Curriculum Board as well as independent experts, which

will approve the accordance of school education program with framework programs, is
basic assumption for this two-level education program design.
The structure of the education system in the Slovak Republic can be seen on the
Figure 1.
Figure 1. The Structure of the Education System in the Slovak Republic
773
There were two original reasons why we started work on the new curriculum
preparation. Firstly, the future teachers had not been skilled enough for ICT
application after their graduation a couple of years before. This situation could be
solved by two ways: firstly by modification of the curriculum and secondly by lifelong
learning activities organized also for less than five year graduates. We decided to
apply both of the possibilities in parallel. It was necessary teachers obtain knowledge
and ICT skills for learning (at the university) and teaching (in their future profession).
Secondly, according to the new Higher Education Act, all higher education institutions
have to prepare and accredit new study programmes. Hence the years 2002 - 2004
were a decisive period for development of new study programmes and their
accreditation. In this process a very significant role was played by the Accreditation
Commission. The Accreditation Commission evaluates the qualification of individual
higher education institutions to carry out study programs justifying the awarding of
academic titles to their graduates, the qualification of non-university institutions to
participate in the execution of PhD study programs, and the qualification of
universities to carry out habilitation proceedings and professor appointment
proceedings. Starting with the academic year 2005/2006 the higher education
institutions may admit the students only to study programmes introduced by the new
Higher Education Act.
ICT in Curriculum Project
Original reason for the curriculum change at FoE was the fact that new teacher
graduates of Trnava University had not been incorporating best-practice uses of
technology into their teaching strategies, although last years the evolution of society is
draw by technologies. Utilization of Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) is characteristic for most of areas in social life for this period. Education is one
of the areas affected by technologies, as well. Implementation of ICT into education
has to go through all educational levels, from pre-primary education up to university
and life-long continuing education. The successful implementation of ICT assumes
that teachers are good prepared for it what means they have to be graduated not only in
technical but in educational aspects of ICT, as well. The idea of ICT teacher’s
competences stimulates research projects that were started at the Faculty of Education
of Trnava University in 2001.
Research Projects
Among others, the KEGA and VEGA research projects related to curriculum
change and oriented onto different aspects of ICT integration into learning started
during last five years.
The KEGA research project with title “Innovation of the teacher training model at
FoE by integration of the new technologies in the context of EÚ countries education
model” started in 2002 year. The primary purpose of this research project was to set
the conditions at the Trnava University so that graduates will be prepared to provide
technology-supported learning opportunities for their students to use technology and
know how that technology can support student learning. The research project was
planned also to provide models for teacher preparation programs to use in
incorporating technology in the teacher preparation process and disseminate these
774
promising practices for preparing tomorrow's teachers to use technology effectively for
improving learning. This goal was refined and ensured by:
• Defining the competences the future teachers should have;

• Adapting the curriculum;
• Providing the professional development to faculty staff in the appropriate
uses of technology in their teaching;
• Teaching the faculty staff to pass these techniques on to the future
teachers being trained by the university.
Research project was originally planned for three years: analysis, literature review
and identification of the ICT competences for teachers in the first research project
year, then development and adaptation of the curriculum. Implementation of the
curriculum together with training of the faculty teachers to redesign prospective
teacher courses in ways that will integrate technology as a model of effective teaching,
while supporting and increasing students’ learning was planned at the last project year.
The plan of the research had to be changed because of the new university act in 2002
that impose the duty to universities to accredit the new curriculum for all study plans.
Knowing this, the first two phases of the project needed to be shortened. Considering
time at disposal it was not possible to make exhaustive exploration through
experiments on ICT competences the classroom teacher has to posses, to be prepared
to empower students with the advantages technology can bring. It was the first
important task that had to be solved, because the competences serve as referent point
for curriculum modification. To be in time, new research strategy has been adopted:
after deep literature review and state-of-the–art analysis we decide to use as
a foundation for our competences the National Education Technology Standards
(NETS) of the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE). [2]
International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) is a nonprofits
professional organization with a worldwide membership of leaders and potential
leaders in educational technology. It is dedicated to providing leadership and service to
improve teaching and learning by advancing the effective use of technology in
elementary, middle school, and secondary education and teacher education. [3]
The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) NETS for Teachers
Project, a US Department of Education, Preparing Tomorrow's Teachers to Use
Technology grant facilitated a series of activities and events resulting in a national
consensus on what teachers should know about and be able to do with technology. The
project will also provide models for teacher preparation programs to use in
incorporating technology in the teacher preparation process and disseminate these
promising practices for preparing tomorrow's teachers to use technology effectively for
improving learning. The primary goal of the NETS Project is to enable stakeholders in
education to develop national standards for the educational uses of technology that
facilitate school improvement in the United States. [4]
ICT Competences for Teachers
Building on the NETS for Students, the ISTE NETS for Teachers (NETS•T),
which focus on pre-service teacher education, define the fundamental concepts,
knowledge, skills, and attitudes for applying technology in educational settings. All
candidates seeking certification or endorsements in teacher preparation should meet
775
these educational technology standards. It is the responsibility of faculty across the

university and at cooperating schools to provide opportunities for teacher candidates to
meet these standards.
The six standards areas with performance indicators listed below are designed to
be general enough to be customized to fit state, university, or district guidelines and
yet specific enough to define the scope of the topic.
• Technology operations and concepts. Teachers demonstrate a sound

understanding of technology operations and concepts.
• Planning and designing learning environments and experiences. Teachers
plan and design effective learning environments and experiences supported
by technology.
• Teaching, learning, and the curriculum. Teachers implement curriculum
plans that include methods and strategies for applying technology to
maximize student learning.
• Assessment and evaluation. Teachers apply technology to facilitate a
variety of effective assessment and evaluation strategies.
• Productivity and professional practice. Teachers use technology to enhance
their productivity and professional practice.
• Social, ethical, legal, and human issues. Teachers understand the social,
ethical, legal, and human issues surrounding the use of technology in
schools and apply those principles in practice.
For details about ISTE NETS•T see [5]. ISTE NETS•T after small adaptation on
to FoE reality became base for projection of the new (adapted) curriculum.
New Curriculum
Saving time with ISTE NETS•T the work on the new curriculum could start in
2003 year. New curriculum, or better said the subjects implementing in it the teachers
ICT competences, is designed on the following principles:
• Flexibility
• Generality
• Three levels structure
Figure 2. The Structure of ICT Implementation in Curriculum
Discipline specific
professional
general
776
First level - general - basic level of ICT competencies enables work with
technologies and e-learning systems and correspondents to NETS for Students. These
knowledge and skills enable future teacher to work and communicate effectively,
retrieve and process information and are assumption for the study at FoE. General
level is guaranteed by department of Informatics.
Second level - professional - covers the common knowledge about the use of ICT
in education especially theoretical principles, methods, and implication of ICT
application in education, modification of education process, advantages and possible
problems related with ICT in teaching, as well as possibilities and forms of students´
advancement evaluation and assessment. This level is characterised by intensive
conjunction of pedagogy and informatics disciplines with prevalence of pedagogy
disciplines. The lecturers have to be experts in ICT use in education, education
technologies, e-learning and well educated in pedagogy, psychology and informatics.
Third level - discipline specific - is about specialities of ICT use in different
disciplines by that students finish theirs professional training. The individuality of
disciplines is substantial in this level, therefore discipline experts and departments are
responsible for it.
Model Implementation
The new curriculum was officially recognised by Accreditation Commission of

Slovak Republic in the first half of 2005. For the first time the new curriculum has
been used in academic year 2005/2006.
As first the teacher candidates gain the ICT skills necessary for study at university
as well as ISTE NETS•T Technology operations and concepts, Social, ethical, legal,
and human issues, partly Productivity and professional practice competences. These
competences are implemented through ICT I, ICT II, and ICT and the Society subjects
as general preparation component of their programs in the first year of study
guaranteed by ICT professionals.
At the second stage, the pre-service teachers are prepared for achievement of ISTE
NETS•T Planning and designing learning environments and experiences, and
Assessment and evaluation competences. Compulsory subject ICT in Education
together with numerous subjects depending on study disciplines as part of professional
education coursework has to ensure that prospective teachers should be able to meet
the above mentioned competences. These subjects are to be taught in the third year of
study at the faculty. At the third level, students have to complete or finalise their
professional education coursework. The courses cover ISTE NETS•T Planning and
Designing Learning Environments and Experiences, Teaching, Learning, and the
curriculum, Assessment and Evaluation, and Productivity and Professional Practice
competences. The core course E-learning is compulsory for all prospective teachers;
other courses at this level are specific to study disciplines and are guaranteed by
different departments depending on study programs. The courses of the third level are
to be taught in the fourth and fifth study year.
The new study plans are gradually replacing current study plans as the students
admitted in 2005/2006 academic year will continue their study. This process will
completely be finished in 2009/2010 academic year. In order not to vast time we
decided to work parallel on new curriculum and the implementation of ICT into
existing study plans supported by the change of the teaching form and innovation of
contents of existing subjects. The aim was to improve the preparation of future
777
teachers for use ICT in their praxis. The adaptation of the existing curriculum could be
made immediately, parallel to designing of new curriculum. Thus the results are seen
earlier in comparison with the implementation of the whole new curriculum because
the process of accreditation and implementation of new curriculum will be finished
after more than six years the decision was made.
As a result of current study plans adaptation, firstly we modified form of subjects
Information and Communication Technology 1 (ICT 1), Information and
Communication Technology 2 (ICT 2). These subjects should ensure achievement of
students’ ICT competencies according to the National Education Technology
Standards (NETS) of the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) for
Students. [6] The subjects ICT 1, ICT 2 are general and common for all students who
are studying at FoE. These subjects ensure students gain basic ICT knowledge and
skills. Subjects ICT 1 and ICT 2 cover basic operations and concepts, social, ethical,
and human issues, technology productivity tools, technology communications tools,
technology research tools. Students are able to use technology tools to enhance
learning, increase productivity, and promote creativity after taking these subjects.
They also know how to use technology to locate, evaluate, and collect information
from a variety of sources, learn to use technology tools to process data and report
results, employ technology in the development of strategies for solving problems in
practice, and to select new information resources solving problems and making
informed decisions.
Secondly some study program specific courses were modified in both: content and
form in the sense that ICT tools as multimedia CDs, software, and Internet became the
object and mean of education. It concerns specific as well as didactics oriented
courses. Subjects coming under some major subjects are the add-ons for these ones.
Education form of these subjects was modified. For example the subjects as Security
and hygiene at work and Environmental training are studied during the bachelor course
“Master of vocational training”. The subjects can be studied on-line or off-line, as
well. Except these subjects there is another one “Toxicology and Safety Work with
Chemistry” that is taught within framework of academic subjects. All of them help to
improve some students’ ICT competences. Subjects “Computer in Chemistry” and
“Computer in Math” have been modified in aspect of their contents. In these subjects
students are going to learn how computers can be used in teaching and teaching
process can be more effective. The students have the possibility to try out the available
educational software and learn how to design suitable educational techniques using e-
learning and considering students’ needs. Teacher adepts practise how to design
curriculum, containing the utilisation of suitable educational software, to increase
activity of students. Students employ different software to obtain, operate, and
evaluate data. Teacher adepts are prepared to utilise technology for assessment and
evaluation. Our students take advantage of information and communication
technologies to increase their efficiency and professional practise.
Curriculum Adaptation on School Education Reform
After finishing work on curriculum due to the new Act on Higher Education, we
had to take into account the contents reform for school education, known as curricular
transformation, together with preparation of an Act on School Education. This reform
is not finished yet though FoE is involved into the reform through some research
projects. Most important one is the project with title: “Curricular transformation of
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general education component in the process of the youth preparation for labour
market.” This project is co-financed from European Social Fund and coordinated by
the State Institution for Education that is the institution governed by Ministry of
Education. The main idea of the project lies in the design of secondary schools general
education component for secondary schools represented by gymnasia, secondary
vocational schools and secondary technical schools. Project is designed as pilot for
approving the incorporated principles. In the project collaborate around fifty all kinds
of secondary schools. Fifteen schools are prepared for experiment.
Second research project with title “Curricular transformation of secondary school
education in mathematics and informatics in accordance with Millennium”
(Millennium is the name for National Program of Training and Education in the
Slovak Republic, approved by the Government in 2001) is granted by KEGA grant
agency. This research project is twined with first one but is more specific oriented on
mathematics and informatics educational content while the first one is concentrating
on general framework for curriculum transformation.
Respecting the concept of the two-level educational programs design, each school,
in accordance with framework study programs, school abilities and requirements of
local community, designs school educational program. This school educational
program determines concrete contents framework, curriculum, and other
organisational issues. The work within the first project is concentrated onto framework
program design. Some instances of school education programs are to be prepared as
the results, as well.
Main principles used in design of framework study program are as follows:
o Central point in education is not the educational content but pupil;

o Education related to real life;
o Do not teach each pupil all things;
o Grant more freedom to schools, parents, and pupils.
Educational content is prepared in the form of educational areas that naturally

integrate current subjects around the real life problems and objects. Each school will
transform educational areas into individual set of educational subjects according to
own specific conditions.
At present (April 2006) the design of framework study programs and educational
areas is in the final phase and national discussion is going to start in May 2006.
It is important to know an answer for the question, if the realisation of school
education reform causes the changes in university training of teachers’ curricula and
what that changes will be. The answer is important not only for universities preparing
future teachers but also is substantial for the reform itself. Realise our responsibility
for future teachers training and thereby responsibility for the success of the whole
reform, we need to reflect all changes caused by reform into curriculum at the FoE.
Even though proposed method of curriculum design through educational areas
does not mean the end of subjects constituted on the base of science disciplines, more
integration of science disciplines, represented in educational areas, through solving of
real life problems will be necessary. To consider the degree of integration and ensure it
in university curriculum is not an elementary task.
Considering the fact that reform of school education as well as both research
projects is not finished yet, it is not possible to give definitive answer about influence
of the education reform on teacher training at universities.
779
Summary
One of the most important tasks of education system is to prepare the next
generation for the knowledge-based society. Universities preparing teachers play
significant role in this duty, as well. Slovakia education system is being transformed to
cope with today’s fast moving world. The reform progress in both spheres: higher
education as well as school education. Faculty of Education of Trnava University has
to reflect the changes on all education levels because the FoE is the higher education
institution preparing future teachers for pre-primary, primary and secondary schools.
The new Act on Higher Education as well as big changes related with information and
communication technology implementation into all spheres of our life enforced the
curriculum adaptation. At the FoE the process of adaptation of the curriculum really
started in 2001 year. Research was needed to recognise the needs of current society,
formally represented by ICT teachers’ competences, as a base for developing the new
curriculum. The ISTE NETS•T competences were after small adaptation on to FoE
reality used for projection of the new (adapted) curriculum. The new curriculum
integrates ICT in three levels representing three phases in teacher preparation for use
of technologies: general, professional and discipline specific. For the first time the new
curriculum is being used in academic year 2005/2006 after finish of accreditation
process.
The other source for the curriculum update is the reform of school education.
Adaptation of the university curricula according to reform goals is one of the key
factors of the school reform in Slovakia. The contents reform for school education,
known as curricular transformation, together with the preparation of a new Act on
School Education are prepared at present. The concept of two-level educational
programs design that put more freedom onto schools and involves teachers directly
into education program design is intended to use therefore the curriculum for teacher’s
training has to reflect this new reality. Participating in reform of school education
through research projects ensures for Faculty of Education of Trnava University all
necessary changes in curriculum will be made without delay. This paper was published
with the support of KEGA grant no. 3/3028/05
References
Education in SR. [online] [cit. 23.4.2006]. URL:http://www.minedu.sk/DIEN/DOC/

20051125_education_in_SR.pdf
Curriculum and Content Area Standards (NETS for Teachers). [online] [cit. 28.5.2004] URL:
http://cnets.iste.org
ISTE - International Society for Technology in Education. [online] [cit. 28.5.2004] URL:
http://www.iste.org/about/.
The NETS Project. [online] [cit. 28.5.2004] URL: http://cnets.iste.org/nets_overview. html
Educational Technology Standards and Performance Indicators for All Teachers [online]
[cit. 28.5.2004] URL: http://cnets.iste.org/teachers/t_stands.html
Curriculum and Content Area Standards (NETS for Students) Technology Foundation
Standards for All Students. [online] [cit. 27.5.2004]. URL: http://cnets.iste.org.
780
Training
and
Education
781
782
Education, Jobs and Skills
68
Charlene du Toit, North-West University
&
Sofia Catherina Steyn, North-West University
&
Charste Coetzee Wolhuter, North-West University
ccording to Steyn, Steyn and De Waal (1998:4) the definition of an
A educational system is that it is a framework for effective education to provide

for the needs of the target group. The educational system, therefore, should be
applicable to the needs of the community. Schooled learners should, after
their school education, be fully able to function and be accommodated in the
workplace and to make use of their acquired skills 1.
A movement towards high academic standards for all learners, “school-after-
work”-education for all learners and a new link between business sectors and the
employment milieu, is of cardinal importance in a developing country and educational
system (Van Tonder, 2003; Anon, 2003; Kok, 2005). According to the private sector
the education system of South Africa is unable to provide learners with appropriate
skills for the current and future economical requirements of the country (Erasmus,
2002:8). The South African community, the education system and the economy can
never be separated from one another. With the school-to-work relationship, it becomes
clear that the economic health of the community is clearly related to the viability of
scholastic education (Weeres & Kerchner, 1996; Kok, 2005).
As it is the goal of all countries to progress, economic progression is vitally
important. Progress is not only of economic importance – it also includes the physical
component of human existence. Progress is a multidimensional process that includes
not only the economical system of a country, but also the effectivity of its education
system. In conclusion it is found that progress is not only a state of mind but a
physical reality that will enable learners, through the education system and the
community, to achieve better lives for themselves (Marshall, 2003). The education
system should work closely together with the public sector to produce learners who
1
Schooled unemployment refers to the situation in which schooled people who have passed
through the educational system, but are unable to find employment. In this study it refers to:
“Schooled unemployment refers to all learners who passed Grade 12 but who are still
unemployed.
783
will be effective in their jobs, and will be able to compete with other world economies.
The education system should induce a national sense of productivity in learners,
including basic economical and productivity principles to enable them to understand
the economy as well as the role that they have to play in an effective economy (Kok,
2005). Thus a standard more relevant to the world of work, is needed. Processes of
learning should be taught in the context of practical places of employment or work
situations with the focus on effectivity in the work place (Marshall, 2003; Kok, 2005).
A focus on the future in learning programmes is needed for the effective
preparation of learners to make sure they will be able to cope with the anticipated
demands of economic growth. Education focusing on career training includes,
amongst others, a close relationship between education and the world of work (Du
Toit, 2005).
Skills that are needed include the following:
• Higher standards in terms of basic skills such as reading, writing and

maths literacy;
• Adaptability;
• Creativity;
• The ability to solve problems;
• Interpersonal skills;
• The ability to learn independently and to
• provide greater impetus for basic responsibility in providing education
and excellent standards to local communities (Barker, 1999:147).
The education system should ensure a smooth passage between school and the
workplace. Learners should understand fully what the goal of the prescribed
curriculum is and what value the knowledge and skills acquired will have (Anon,
2002:6; Mfoloe, 2003; Kok, 2005). In service training and “school-to-workplace”-
initiatives should provide learners with the opportunity for learning and practising
critical skills in order to produce learners who will be responsible citizens, workers
and members of a democratic community (Kok, 2005).
The Need for the Study
According to Spiggle (2001:432) the point of focus in an education system should

be “school-to-workplace” activities, and an integrated link should be formed with
education. Spiggle (2001:436) also states that employers ought to be direct partners in
education to ensure progression in education as well as the workplace. “If the
workforce of the future is to be different to the workforce of the past, schools and
employers must work together to make it so.” (Spiggle, 2001:432).
Miller (2001:25) infers that the education system of teaching and learning should
be in the context of real life application. It is important that job education should be
introduced through the whole curriculum and it should be integrated in all subjects and
on all levels (Miller, 2001:26). The focus should be on human capacity development
that replaces academic need (Miller, 2001:15). Learners should be helped to apply
knowledge to a variety of situations and areas.
The true worth of any education system is seated in preparing the learners to be
able to work and gain better living conditions and in this regard theory should be
integrated with practice/reality, this will bring about that education will provide for the
784
needs of the community. This means that jobs will be filled as they are needed and as
such will focus on economic growth and advancement of all races (Ortfield, 1997).
The paradigm shift from a content-based focus to an integrated program focus holds
many far-reaching implications for educational development (Kok, 2005).
Problem Statement and the Purpose of the Research
The purpose is to determine the connection between education and job

opportunities; to examine interaction between the education system and the
employment market; and to look at the role of the employer in education.
Background Study
The Range and causes of Schooled Unemployment
Education systems world wide have a common goal, namely to provide the job
market with a schooled/educated human resource foundation. In spite of educational
investment the past decades, unemployment still increases (Kok, 2005). 30% of the
world’s potential workforce of 850 million is either unemployed or under-utilized
(Erasmus et al., 2003; Wolhuter, 2003). Barnet (1993:52) and Erasmus (2002; 2003)
predict a technological future in which only a fifth of the world’s workforce will be
used, with a growth of 80% in global unemployment. Schooled unemployment has
increased to such an extent that even educationalists have become despondent about
the value of education (Flude, 2000; Kok, 2005).
The provision of schooled workers is necessary to keep up with economical
stability, and the skills of a country’s workforce, determine its economical success,
and the stability of all relevant sectors (Cabral-Cardoso, 2001:215; Erasmus, 2002).
Education (product) seems to be out of touch with the needs and requirements of the
economy and the workforce (Wolhuter, 2003; Van Tonder, 2003; Gardens, 2003;
Seleoane, 2004; Mecoamere, 2004; Kok, 2005). There is an oversupply of workers
who have an outdated education or skills not relevant to the economic needs of the
country which are ever-changing and technologically advanced (Wolhuter, 2003;
Kok, 2005). By regulating schooled/educated unemployment, learners are protected
from uncertainties of the labour force/workforce/labour market. Learners who leave
school are exposed to the possibility of being unemployed if they do not function
effectively in the working-place. To prevent this, certain demands are made by the
world of work. One of the demands is that knowledge and skills of school-leavers that
have been learnt in school, should be relevant to the changes in the labour market
(Mursak, 1997:256).
The Importance of the Interaction between Education and the World-of-Work
A general implication is that a shift should take place in the essence of work as
well as the skills required of school-leavers (Evans et al.,1998:8-12; Wolhuter, 2003;
Kok, 2005). This emphasizes the importance of formulating clear objectives in
education. In the light of the importance of career-focused educational programmes,
schools play a leading role in the education of school-leavers. It is therefore of utmost
importance that both parties – the employers and the education systems – know what is
785
needed. Direct linking/interaction between education and the labour market/the world
of work is needed. With education linking with the world of work, learners should be
provided with helpful skills they can apply to the labour market so that these will be
used effectively in the world of work. The ideal is that learners be not merely
academically equipped but provided with a variety of skills that will be relevant and
useful in the world of work. The labour market together with more pliable education
could lead to a more balanced provision for the needs of both parties. Therefore:
providing a better equipped, adaptable, versatile, motivated and productive workforce
is of strategic importance to any country (Silverberg et al.,1996:23; Wolhuter, 2003;
Louw, 2004:10; Kok, 2005).
The importance of successful interaction between education and business can be
described as follows: “The development of linked work and training is planned in
relation to the supply of school-leavers for equipping young people with the skills
required by the labour market.” (Jallade, 1983:364).
From this quote it is clear that the partnership and co-operation between schools
and employers is extremely important to equip school-leavers for the world of work
(Berkeley, 1998:260; Mfoloe, 2003; Venter 2003:19). Success is achieved when
employers identify critical skills that can be included in a work-based curriculum with
its goal to equip learners for lifelong employment possibilities.
Advantages as a Result of Linking between Education and the Labour Market/Job

Opportunities
Gorman (1989:21-22) gives the following examples of co-operation between

education and the labour market:
• Visits of teachers and learners to places of work to observe and gather

information;
• Acting out specific tasks;
• Visits and guidance to learners by professional people from the world of
work in specialty fields;
• Guidance on how to act in job interviews;
• Clarifying education about small businesses with the focus on
entrepreneurial skills taught to learners;
• Learners can get job experience by taking holiday vacation jobs;
• Teachers’ involvement in the workplace;
• Involving employers in education;
• Simulating work/jobs in the classroom;
• Financial help and providing recourses to educational facilities.
Benefits for Learners
Healthy interaction between education and businesses holds many advantages for
learners. Effective teaching is a necessity for the world of work and will contribute to
the general stability and development of the community.
Advantages of this so-called interaction for learners are, according to Dekker en
Lemmer (1998:129-131) and Gorman (1989:12-16) the following:
• Job experience, job imitation and simulation;
786
• Visits to businesses and industries;

• Academic knowledge in correlation with the demands of the world of
work;
• Motivating learners to make a success of their chosen careers;
• The use of employers as advisors;
• Combined activities between education and the world of work;
• Combined “school-to-workplace” –projects in accordance with the
curriculum.
Advantages for Educators and Educational Policy Makers
Healthy interaction between education and businesses also hold many advantages
for educators. Better planning and preparation as well as administration will result if
effective communication between these parties can be created. Advantages for
educators are (Gorman, 1989:12-16):
• Attending training courses held by businesses;

• Attending education-based courses held by industries;
• Using additional resources in education;
• Creating and maintaining contact with the world of work;
• Professional assistance of businesses relating to formulating policy and
planning;
• The most recent information regarding the needs of the employment
market is advanced to educators, which enable them to create and
implement purposeful programmes;
• Availability of professional people from the employment market as part-
time or temporary educators and instructors.
Advantages for the Employment Market/World of Work
The interaction between education and the employment market has as an

advantage that more workers with skills, knowledge and higher proficiency are
available for specific jobs (Kok, 2005). Advantages for the employment market
include the following (Gorman, 1989:12-17):
• Effective and well-prepared school leavers who join the employment

market;
• Educational committees who work together with representatives of
businesses and industries;
• The use of facilities, equipment and other resources of schools and
educational institutions;
• Support in implementing new technology;
• Availability of relevant information regarding new developments and
approaches to education.
Expectations of Educationalists/Employers Regarding Each Other
According to Segal (2003:18), Mecoamere (2004:8), Anon (2004), Steyn

(2004:12), Louw (2004:10) and Kok (2005) employers are looking for workers with
787
appropriate skills on a high level of competence who can adapt to changing

technology. Thus interaction and working together between education and the
employment market and the economy is necessary for economical growth and
development. Expectations of educationists/employers in regards to education/
employees, are as follows:
• The world of work should be closely involved in education, both on local

and central levels;
• Learners should be guided in the appropriate direction in accordance with
their skills and the needs of industry;
• More respect for the teaching profession should be shown and the level of
teaching should be trusted;
• There should be better understanding and insight into education with
regard to the problems of extensive multi-culturalism and complexity that
is strongly influenced by a variety of factors e.g. economy, social
diversity, language, etniticity, culture, historical background,
demographics, geography, technology and socio-economical
circumstances.
• That good, continuous and open communication channels between
secondary schools and businesses exist and that industries in South
Africa, will bring about creative ideas;
• The focus should be on creating job opportunities for all school-leavers;
• Education should be more reliant on the world of work to generate
suitable jobs for school-leavers;
• To provide advice regarding content, standards, curricula and additional
advice to learners, educators and parents; and
• That more financial support should be given to the educational system
(Fortuijn, Hoppers & Morgan, 1987:249-255).
The biggest problem is that the educational system does not keep track with the
needs of the economy/world of work. The most successful economies of the 21st
century are focused on learning and so called “learning communities” have been
established (Ashon, 1996:186). The biggest counter of poverty and unemployment is
that countries invest more in human resources and the quality of their educational
systems (Kok, 2005). By focusing on the standard of their work force and their
education system, structures of growth and effective labour use will be brought about
(Blossfeld & Stockmann, 1999:18; Kok, 2005).
Research Design
The Purpose of the Empirical Study
The purpose of the empirical study was to gather data (information) in the KOSH
area (Klerksdorp, Orkney, Stilfontein) and Rustenburg in the North West Province in
South Africa, concerning the relationship between secondary schools and the labour
market/the economy and the role of or involvement in education of employers and
other role players.
788
Research Design
The qualitative method is gaining importance in research. The primary focus of

the qualitative method was to gather facts to form the basis of an event, to understand
and to represent the results in written language (Borg & Gall, 1989:23). For the
purpose of this study the qualitative method of gathering data was used, as well as, to a
lesser extent quantitative methods, namely the questionnaire to form a base for the
creation of an interview schedule.
By means of a structured questionnaire, interviews and a focus group session, data
was gathered about the relation of education and employment opportunities/the
economy, the interaction between the role of education and the employment
market/economy to determine the role of, amongst others, employers in education. The
results gathered by means of the questionnaire, are indicated to:
• Give an overview of the biographical and demographic information of a

respondent and his area of employment;
• Determine the importance of the interaction/relationships/links between
education and the employment possibilities;
• Determine the role of education in the economy and the role of
employers in education; and
• to identify skills that is deemed important by headmasters, deputies and
other participants in the economy/the world of work and to interpret
them.
Population and Representative Sample
For the purpose of this research the target group was chosen purposely, as certain
types of schools in this chosen population (two growth areas in the North West
Province, namely the Klerksdorp district and Rustenburg) are relevant. There were
chosen because they are currently the growth areas of North West. It was decided to
focus on a few strategic businesses in the chosen area, which were easily assessable as
questionnaires could be distributed and collected form respondents personally. In the
selection all schools in the North West Province, as listed by the Department of
Education, were used.
Distribution of Questionnaires
The final questionnaire was personally delivered to the respondents in the target
group, together with a cover letter, as described in the next paragraph. Thirty four
questionnaires were distributed to schools and businesses in Klerksdorp, Orkney,
Stilfontein and Rustenburg. After six weeks the researcher personally collected all the
questionnaires from the schools and businesses. More or less six weeks were given for
the process of distribution, completion and collection of the questionnaires.
Feedback
A total of 34 questionnaires were received back.
789
Data Analysis
Quantative Data (34 questionnaires)
The researcher coded and interpreted the data personally, two other persons
verified the results. Descriptive statistics were used.
Qualitative Data
Data from structured interviews with businessmen, teachers and governing bodies
in the KOSH-are was interpreted.
A Comparison between the Information Gathered from Questionnaires from Schools

and Businesses
In this particular comparison I looked at only a few tables and the information it
contains to point out the differences and similarities between the two role players.
Table 1. The Aim of Teaching and Learning

RESPONSE
SCHOOLS BUSINESSES
% %
Teaching learners the skills necessary for the
economy/employment opportunities 37.5 100.0
To teach learners to become responsible citizens 29.1 0.0
To teach learners basic skills 41.6 0.0
To help learners to become functioning adults 8.3 0.0
Table 1 indicates that businesses need more school-leavers with skills that are
relevant to the employment market/job opportunities. According to respondents from
the employment market/the world of work, this should be the focus and aim of
education.
Table 2. The Quality / Standard of Secondary Education in General

SCHOOLS BUSINESSES
% %
Weak 12.5 10.0
Not up to standard 58.3 70.0
Good 29.1 20.0
Excellent 0 0.0
Total 100.0 100.0
790
Table 2 indicates that majority of respondents (Schools 58.3% and businesses

70%) thinks that education is not up to standard. Both sectors feel it is a problem
(needs urgent attention).
From table 3 it is clear that the majority of respondents from schools (54.16%)
believe those secondary schools, especially from technical, hotel and private schools,
are equipped with relevant skills. The majority of businesses (80%) believe that
secondary school leavers, especially for academically focused government schools, are
neither equipped with relevant skills useful for job opportunities nor with career
focused skills. Both these role players/parties further believe that more career focused
education in secondary South African schools could bring about a decline in
unemployment.
Table 3. Skills and Job Opportunities

SCHOOLS BUSINESSES
QUESTION YES NO YES NO
% % % %
Are secondary learners equipped with relevant skills for
employment? 54.2 45.8 20 80
Are secondary learners equipped with career orientated
skills? 58.3 41.7 20 80
Can apprenticeships equip school learners for employment? 95.8 4.2 90 10
Can career focused education equip learners in secondary
schools with better and more relevant skills? 100.0 0.0 100.0 0.0
Will career - focused education reduce unemployment in
South Africa? 95.8 4.0 90.0 10
Does OBE prepare learners sufficiently for their careers? 16.7 83.3 20.0 80.0
Total: N = 24 N= 10
Table 4. The Role of the Employer in Education

SCHOOLS BUSINESSES
QUESTION YES NO YES NO
% % % %
Is it necessary for schools and businesses to work together? 100.0 0.0 100.0 0.0
Should standards/skills be relevant to the needs of the
economy? 95.8 4.2 100.0 0.0
Is it necessary for businesses/employers to be more involved
in terms of the preparation and creation of school
curriculums? 100.0 0.0 80.0 20.0
Is secondary education aware/sensitive to the needs and
demands of employers? 20.8 83.3 10.0 90.0
Is the integration of theory and practice in school curriculums
important? 95.83 4.16 100 0
From the responses in Table 4 it is clear that the majority of respondents expect
employers to participate more in secondary education in South Africa and also that
secondary education is not sensitive to the needs and demands of employers. It is clear
from the interpretation of the data concerning businesses, that 20% of respondents are
791
not willing to become involved with the planning and creation of school curriculums.
Reasons for this tendency could be that more participation also would mean more
responsibility for the businesses and the work load of managers and personnel
divisions might be increased. This is a shame, as the future of our learners and our
schools is to a great extent in the hands of businesses.
Recommendations
The Importance of Education
More and better education is necessary for the creation/preparation of a dynamic

workforce. Equal opportunities should be established in a fair environment. The focus
is on quality education as well as more education opportunities. The solution for this
problem and the answer to each question is embedded in education.
Educational Needs
The educational needs of learners can be divided into three categories, namely:
• Educational needs that are based on day to day existence;

• Educational needs to help people to assert themselves and to adjust to the
changing needs of the economy and the community; and
• Educational needs relevant to people’s cognitive, non-materialistic,
psychological, religious and social well-being.
Changes in Points of View Concerning the way Education should be Provided
Figure 1. Effective Interaction between Education and Industry / Employment Market
Preparation for Preparation of Improveme Career focused

life school leavers for nt of skills Education
the job environment
/ world of work
Involvement of
Career interest groups /
guidance role players
Effective interaction
between education and
the employment market
Keeping up relevant Lifelong
standards learning /
education
Education Human Future

towards focused focused
Education in interaction entrepreneursh developme education
with the employment ip nt
market
792
The provision of quality and relevant education require changes in all facets of
education. In policy, management, control and teaching content should undergo a shift
in focus from academically driven education to focusing on technology and
preparation for the employment market.
Guidelines for the effective interaction between education and the employment
market is shown schematically in Graph 1
Findings and Conclusions
The following research findings in terms of the research aims were made:
• There is a direct link between education and job opportunities;

• The effectivity of education (secondary education) lies embedded in the
preparation of learners for job opportunities, through merging education
and the employment market, and establishing a significant link between
education and job opportunities;
• School-leavers should have more career - focused skills relevant to job
opportunities;
• Interaction between education and the career market;
• School-leavers and learners should be brought into contact with real life
situations in the employment market/work environment;
• More input from the employment market on the academic field is needed;
• It is necessary for employers to play a bigger role in education, especially
in secondary education, in terms of teaching programmes;
• A direct outcome might be that school-leavers will be more acceptable to
the economy/world of work;
• A closer relationship between education and employers should be
created;
• Employers should be directly involved in the employment market and
therefore know what the aims and needs of the economy/ world of work.
Suggestions
Suggestion 1
Urgent attention should be given to discipline in education, especially in secondary
schools.
Suggestion 2
Urgent attention should be given to the realization of educational aims.
Suggestion 3
The gap should be bridged between the employment market and education.
Suggestion 4
Revising the role of education in the economy and vice versa.
Suggestion 5
There should be continuous interaction between education and the employment
market.
793
Suggestion 6
The importance/worth of any education system is centered on the preparation of
learners for job opportunities and to achieve better living conditions, and in this regard
theory and practice should be integrated.
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Pedagogics in Social Care
69
Berith Nyqvist Cech, University of Karlstad
T
his study is based on some pedagogical work in the Social Care work
concerning persons with learning difficulties. During a ten-year period some
persons with learning difficulties, have, together with me, and through
interactive discussions with each other, reflected over their knowledge of their
own life experiences. They have been ”partners and co-operators” in the exploration of
their life experiences. Starting from these experiences we have worked with problems
of immediate importance to them, from the point of learning more about life, and the
conditions of life, for persons with learning difficulties. This knowledge is used in
meetings together with students training for work in the Social Care, with the intent to
provide them with insight into how life can be for a person with a learning difficulty.
The results showed, for example, that these persons may have experienced the
phenomena of feeling like an outsider, or of feeling exposed, but also experiencing
feelings of pride. This method also empowered them, giving them a “better journey
through life”.
These research-studies are based on a method of empowerment, involving three
groups of persons with learning difficulties (a total of 18 persons). This article is based
mainly on the work carried out together with six persons. We have worked with each
other in different time-spaces as the “group” have changed over time because members
have joined, and have left, the group. Those who have participated in the group for the
shortest period attended for about two years while three of the six members have up-
to-date attended for ten years. The participants include both men (one) and women
(five). My role in these research-circles is that of a researcher.
In this group, the persons with learning difficulties have, together with me, been
reflecting over their own life experiences by way of interactive talks with each other.
They have had the role of “partners and co-operators” in the exploration of their life
experiences (Freire, 1979). Starting from these experiences, we have continued to
work with problems of immediate importance for them (Cech, N., 2001).
This method has also been used together with a group of six elderly persons. In
this case the empowering-process appears to work in a different way from my
experiences in working together with persons with learning difficulties. The question I
ask myself is: “Why is it so?” (Cech, Nyqvist, 2003)
This article is concerned with the question of how research-circles are used as a
pedagogical instrument. This instrument has been used partly to describe how some
797
persons with learning difficulties express themselves with regard to how they
experience life, and living a life, in the community.
There were 18 persons who co-operated and participated in the three different
Alobis-groups (In Swedish Alobis means “Att Leva Och Bo I Samhället” meaning:
“To live a life in the community”). We have worked together for different periods of
time: for the group referred to in this article from one year up to, for some of the
members, soon 10 years. Their ages have varied from 21 - 65 years.
These different influences can also indicate a way of developing contacts with
other persons, not only with persons with learning difficulties. The purpose has been
to share experiences and knowledge about the society one lives in, when one is
regarded as a deviant group, used to living on the fringe of society (Gustavsson, 1998).
Living on the Fringe?
“Being empowered” refers partly to the daily life of some persons, in particular
persons with learning difficulties – but also elderly people. It also concerns a specific
group who met each other, together with a researcher, in order to learn about life, and
about living a life in the community. There are many questions about life about which
you may have no-one to talk to, or to ask, if you are a person with learning difficulties.
Things that are too well-known, or sometimes too difficult to discuss, if you are a
parent or a professional staff-member. But in these research-circles such questions are
both easy to ask, or discuss, just because the participants all have the same need, being
a group wishing to know something about the matter. It can make it easier to answer a
question when in a group requiring an answer.
In this group the persons with learning difficulties, together with me, have been
able, by way of interactive talks, to reflect over their own life and their experiences of
living on the fringe of society. They have had the role of “partners and co-operators”
in the exploration of their life experiences (Freire, 1979). Starting from these
experiences, we have continued to work with problems of immediate importance to
them (Cech, N., 2001).
“Power Belongs to the Group”
Arendt (1998) regards power as something that requires interaction and

understanding between people. Power belongs to the group, and exists only as long as
the group keeps together. The interesting aspect which occurs when marginalized
persons are seen by others as a group, is that they acquire a common “power”, an
opportunity to influence, a kind of “membership”, being seen as citizens of society
(Ericsson, 2002).
In the Alobis-groups it has been the individual group-member who has decided the
goal for action. The persons with learning difficulties attained an opportunity to
interact with other persons with learning difficulties, enabling them to exchange
experiences and knowledge about the community in which they live. But also a chance
to acquire knowledge relevant for the life-situation in which they find themselves – a
knowledge gained by themselves from their own conditions, based on their own
abilities.
798
Participation and Empowerment
Participation and empowerment have been the impelling motives for the working
methods used in the groups (Maguire, 1987). The method for the Alobis-groups, (to
gain participation and empowerment), has been the use of empowerment-strategies,
namely “a power gaining approach” (Forsberg & Hall-Lord, 1994; Freire, 1979). In
this approach lies a belief that the individual can create a life of his own, and that all
persons can be seen as a subject, and not as an object. In the study of the data the
phenomenological approach based on Schutz´s (2001) “every-day-of-life-
phenomenology” was chosen.
The empowerment strategies used in the work with the Alobis-groups were mainly
inspired by Paulo Freire (1979) and his concept of dialogue pedagogics (emancipation,
problem orientation). Even in the work together with persons with learning difficulties
in these research-circles, this pedagogical approach can be seen as a power-giving
instrument, enabling the person to gain from his own everyday experiences
(Schutz,1993). Freire (1979) maintains that pedagogical methods are necessary for the
individual to critically examine, and create, reality.
The Purpose
The purpose of this article is to describe some thoughts regarding how one can
experience life, and living in the community, if one is an adult person with an
intellectual disability. It is also to show how we have made use of a particular research
and pedagogical method in our work. To make visible peoples´ existence (Heidegger,
1993) through their own participation, and their own words, has been the impelling
force in these studies.
The Method
Freire (1979) also recognizes the individual’s ability to achieve power, which
enables him to act, in order to change his life-situation. We have tried to apply this,
inspired by the PAR-method. (Participatory Action Research). In this choice of
method lies implied an ambition that society will gain a greater understanding for a
methodology which is referred to as pedagogical in the field of Social Services.
The knowledge gained in this process has been continuously documented by all in
the group (Levin, 1975, Forsberg & Hall-Lord, 1994). The dialogue is concerned with
having a “democratic” conversation with each other, on equal terms, and providing an
opportunity for mutual reflection and action. The democratic process was not easy to
work with in these groups. As the members had no prior training in this kind of
pedagogical work we needed a long time for each stage of the working process. A
democratic process in education requires time to achieve change (Dewey, 1916).
In our meeting with persons with learning difficulties we have worked in three
groups, inspired by the idea of empowerment as a pedagogical instrument. Through
the empowerment-strategy the person should acquire, or gain, the opportunity to
achieve power from a feeling of pride in themselves (Freire, 1979; Maguire, 1987).
From this feeling comes an awareness over their own conscious experiences,
knowledge and needs as it appears in the research-circle (Levin, 1975). As the
researcher in this group one should be both present, but also withdrawn. In this
799
democratic process every-one is of equal value as a member of the project. It is their

questions that are the research-questions, to which they require an answer. It is
important that the persons with learning difficulties are “included” even in the
research-process concerning their own lives (Krogh & Lindsey, 1999).
Regarding the Results
An example of the results show that these people have experienced the phenomena
of being powerless, and of being exposed. Gradually the method used has empowered
them to attain "a better journey through life" (Swedner, 1996) and given them a greater
feeling of self-esteem.
This article is concerned with the question of how research-circles are used as a
pedagogical instrument. This instrument has been used partly to describe how some
persons with learning difficulties express themselves with regard to how they
experience life, and living in the community. Their communication has changed, and
improved, during their time in the research-circle. Their use of language has also
become better during our time together (Krogh & Lindsey, 1999). The method has also
been used together with a group of elderly. In that case the empowering-process
appears to work in a different way from my experiences from working together with
persons with learning difficulties. The question I ask myself is: “Why is this so?”
(Cech, Nyqvist, 2003).
“Being empowered” is a way of understanding why it can sometimes be more
difficult to claim ones rights as a person with learning difficulties, than for others in
the society. But it also shows the possibility of changing the life-conditions of each
one attending to the research-circle by way of working together as a group – being
empowered by themselves.
The results from the meetings with the persons with learning difficulties have been
collected in 21 narratives, gathered from their time together in the groups. The study
and analysis of these accounts has been carried out within a phenomenological
framework. In addition they have been categorized with the support of Levin´s (1975)
model of change: knowledge, feeling and the action of will. Following this, the group
has sometimes been motivated to also take action with regard to bringing about a
change, or improvement, of their daily life.
The result, which so far can be seen from the work carried out together in that
Alobis-group which met for the longest period of time, has shown a change in their
ability to act, and to take part in the actions in the group. It also shows a change in
their talking more openly to other people whom they meet in their daily lives, and how
they relate with new people. Experience from the research-circle seems to indicate a
greater openness in their talks with each other, a willingness to share life experiences
and reflections, and give each other support in matters of daily life. The result also
shows this way of working as being instructive and supportive for those who are more
quiet and insecure. They have continuously taught each other about their life-
conditions as a group of persons with learning difficulties. The pedagogical value of
these research-circles is also that they are, as the Alobis-group, instructive for visitors
from community whom they invite to provide answers to their own questions. They
also teach the students at the programme of Social Care at Karlstad University how
they want the staff to act in their meetings with them as persons with learning
difficulties.
800
In this process they are learning, from each other, how to take their place - to be
visible - in society. They are learning together, day after day, and slowly finding it
easier to express, or demand, their rights!
An example from parts of our conversations which show how this pedagogical
approach works in relation to our research circles.
One of the members of the group is about to move to new housing, “entirely my
own apartment”, which we recently, after two years work in the research circle, have
been told is finally available. The lady says “It is lovely! But those at home don’t want
me to move”. “And what will you do now”, I ask her. With tears in her eyes she says
that she wants to move. “It is not easy not having a place of my own”, she says. They
are a big family and she will soon be 30 years of age. “It is so cluttered and so much is
going on when I come home from work”. “So what do you want to do?” I ask again.
The others in the group say she must be allowed to move now when she can, and has
found a flat which she thinks she will like. She says she does not know what she
should do, but that she can’t move if her parents don’t agree, it wouldn’t work. “We
must do something to help her”, says one of the group members. But what? According
to law she should be able to move because she is allowed to decide now that she is an
adult. But of course she doesn’t want to go against her parents. One suggestion is to
talk to one of the social care-workers in the Social Welfare office to hear if they can
help the family to decide in such a situation. We decide that that is a good idea and I
am asked to try to find someone who can explain to them what rights, and obligations,
one has in such a situation.
The group is now satisfied with this and so I ask one of the other women how
things are in her home. Has it become quieter at one of the neighbours after we had
talked with her before her last “planning meeting”? “NO” she said! Her mother and
aunt had been to visit last week and it had not been quiet until 3 o’clock in the
morning! There was shouting and noise from the flat over the room where her visitors
were to sleep so it was impossible to get peace. She asks indignantly what she can do
about that. She asks “Who do I talk to?” The group are annoyed over her situation and
also ask themselves who do you talk to about such a problem in the middle of the
night? Their reaction was “And who listens to us anyway?” They ask again what we
can do to help? A man in the group suggests that one could phone the police if it goes
on and they others say this is a good idea. But they say that the police have a lot to do
and only come if one is threatened. “But are there not rules that say it must be quiet
after a certain time in an apartment, otherwise one can be evicted and loose the
apartment!” I asked. Yes, they had heard this but want to know WHO one can talk to
about such things. They think there is some emergency telephone one can ring but no-
one in the group knows how that works.
Then I ask if I should phone the Housing Officer again as she had already
promised to do something but it hasn’t been better. The participants think this is a
good idea and I am asked by them to do so.
One of the men in the group joins in the discussion and says he is also dissatisfied
with his housing situation. He feels that his wishes and habits are not respected neither
in his home or otherwise. He says “The staff think I should take the bus to Färjestad
even though they know I have very little time and that I don’t like taking the bus in the
evening. I have told them I have the right to transport service so that I can use it when
I feel I don’t dare to take the bus. I have it just because there are times when I am
afraid of going by bus. But they don’t listen to me”. He also asked “But who can one
talk to about it?” Then he turns to all of us and tells us how he really dislikes one
particular staff. Several of the others in the group also ask who one can talk to if one
801
doesn’t get on with one of the staff. They say it is just best to keep quiet if one thinks
things are difficult because one never knows who you can talk to about things like that.
The other members of the group are sorry that he has a difficult time and try to
find ways that they together could help him. Again we talk about contacting the
responsible social worker in the area. They say they would all like to meet her as they
are not sure who she is. We agree to invite her to come and meet all of the group and
to talk about these kind of questions. We also discuss trying again to invite a politician
who is responsible for these questions.
This extract is intended to illustrate part of a conversation. It is taken from one of
the meetings and illustrates how we work in the research circles. This example shows
the type of subjects the participants in the circle discuss with each other. These show
the needs and wishes about life which the participants experience “here and now” and
express in the research group. These experiences contain issues regarding why things
in their world are as they are. And they are seeking help from each other because they
know what it is like. In the research circle these issues become therefore topics for
research concerning the life a person with learning difficulties has to live.
These research topics become questions which we together continuously work on
and become the basis for our general “research results”. At the same time these
questions are the “motor” in our working process towards empowerment, i.e. personal
growth through confidence and reliance on ones own abilities. Thus the growth of self
trust, and awareness of ones own abilities - continually created throughout the
pedagogical work of the group in order to find the answers to the questions one bears
as a person with intellectual difficulties.
Final Reflections
A research-circle should be based on a democratic relationship between the

participants. Every-one is as good as every-one else! This has not been so easy to
achieve at the start of each research-circle, each one wanting to excel in front of me –
and the group. Most often there are some among the participants who find it easy to
talk – while others are more shy and quiet. But every-one must be given a chance to be
visible, be seen and heard within the research-circle.
This is a time-consuming and power-stretching ceremony every-time. Even if I try
to see our meetings as democratic, based on a relationship where all were equally
important participants with unique knowledge, we met quite obviously with our own
subjective picture of reality. Mine, and others. We do not know whether we always
understood each other – but by talking all the time with each other we really tried
(intersubjectivity, Schutz, 1993).
In this article I have accounted for the reality as I understood it, from the meetings
with the persons with learning difficulties. That reality was of course influenced by,
amongst other things, previous knowledge gained from experience, both theoretical
and practical studies, relating to both the participants and myself (in-group and out-
group, Schutz, 1993).
They wished to use our time together to, as they expressed it, “becoming visible”.
It was my conviction that the persons with learning difficulties had the ability to
understand events but that their understanding could be different to mine. But we have
listened to each other and we have also tried to understand each other. This
pedagogical process requires time, and patience (Dewey, 1916; Freire, 1979).
802
In this connection it is necessary to argue for a pedagogical approach in the field

of Social Care. Adult persons with learning difficulties can acquire power, they can
learn, and they have the same need for education as anyone else. Their own knowledge
is important in the research about their lives. We have learned together in these
research-circles, in different ways of communication between those participating in the
circle (Maguire, 1987; Krogh & Lindsey, 1999). Also old people need to meet and to
talk things over about their lives, and their knowledge about life! Even here their
knowledge gives rise to questions which they can answer together in the research-
circle. This could be empowering (Freire, 1979)!
Society needs, and requires, that even persons who live their lives on the fringe of
society be able to live a good life.
References
Arendt, H. (1998). Människans villkor. Vita activa. Göteborg: Daidalos.

Heidegger, M. (1993). Varat och tiden. Göteborg: Daidalos.
Cech, N., B. (2001). Pedagogik på social omsorgsgrund för personer med utvecklingsstörning.
Avhandling i pedagogik, Karlstad universitet (2001:4).
Cech, Nyqvist, B. (2003). Empowerment och äldre. Lägesrapport 2003:12. Karlstad universitet.
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: The Free Press.
Ericsson, K. (2002) From Institutional Life to Community Participation. Doktorsavhandling,
Uppsala Universitet.
Forsberg, E. Hall-Lord, M-L. (1994). Från Reform till verklighet – handikappreformens ideal
och verklighet. Centrum för folkhälsoforskning. Landstinget i Värmland. Lägesrapport
1994:1.
Freire, P. (1979). Pedagogik för förtryckta. Stockholm: Gummesson.
Gustavsson, A. (1998). Inifrån utanförskapet. Om att vara annorlunda och delaktig. Stockholm:
Johansson & Skyttmo förlag.
Krogh, K.S. & Lindsey, P.H. (1999). Including People with Disabilities in Research:
Implications for the Field of Augmentative and Alternative Communication. Augmentative
and Alternative Communication, 15; (dec.):222-233.
Levin, G. B. (1975). Crossing Class Lines: Perspective on Social Inequality and Class
Consciousness. Ann Arbor. University of Michigan.
Maguire, P. (1987). Doing Participatory Research – a feminist approach. The Centre for
International Education, School of Education. University of Massachusetts, Amherst,
Massachusetts.
Schûtz, A.(1993). Collected Papers 1 The Problem of Social Reality. Martinus Nijhoff/The
Hauge.
Swedner, H. (1996) Socialt välfärsarbete – en tankeram. Stockholm: Liber.
803
804
Training Special Education Teachers to Work in Inclusive Environments
70
Training Special Education Teachers to
Work in Inclusive Environments
Barry W. Birnbaum, Northeastern Illinois University
&
Effie Papoutsis Kritikos, Northeastern Illinois University
T
his project, a partnership between Northeastern Illinois University and the
Chicago Public Schools (CPS), addresses the extreme shortage of special
education teachers in CPS and in the city of Chicago, through an innovative
field-based program. In this project, individuals with B.S. degrees outside of
education work as full-time interns in CPS serving students with disabilities as they
complete Illinois teacher certification requirements and M.A. degrees in special
education. The project is designed to prepare two cohorts of 25 each over the four-year
grant period.
The first cohort of 25 interns began the project in September, 2001. Interns were
placed and continued to be in special education positions across the city, primarily
serving students with learning disabilities, behavior disorders and mild retardation.
Interns receive a small salary for their teaching responsibilities and attend university
classes on evening and/or weekends. Each semester at least one course is primarily
field-based, with interns completing assignments related to their instructional duties.
Interns receive support from a university supervisor who visits on a weekly or
biweekly basis in year two at their place of employment. The program of study is
based on a “reflect and practice” model. The project met all of its objectives for Year 1
and Year 2 including retaining interns from under-represented groups, a high retention
rate, quality programming, and favorable evaluations of interns by principals, mentors,
and supervisors.
With continued funding, the project moves forward as planned in the original
proposal (with a change to cross categorical coursework as mandated by state
certification-see Project Status). Year 3 activities include placement and training for
Cohort 2.
805
Project Status
All four objectives related to Year 1 and 2 were attained. Those four objectives
included: (1) recruiting a high quality and diverse group of 50 individuals (25 in the
first cohort, 25 in the second cohort) new to the teaching profession; (2) placing them
as full-time interns in the Chicago Public Schools (CPS); (3) providing them with a
high quality preparation program with intensive field-based support from seasoned
professionals and the content knowledge and skills necessary to become effective
teachers; (4) monitoring the progress of interns and providing support after program
completion.
Progress in Meeting Objectives
Objective 1:Recruit a High Quality and Diverse Group of 50 Individuals New to the
Teaching Profession to Participate in the Project.
Advertisement and recruitment for the first cohort began August 1 and September
1, 2001, while recruitment for the second group took place between February and
March, 2003. In collaboration with representatives from Chicago Public Schools,
NEIU advertised in major Chicago newspapers as well as the smaller newspapers
directed at the diverse ethnic communities in Chicago, including the “Chicago
Defender,” news for the African-American community, and “Exito,” news for the
Latino-American community. Advertisement was deemed effective since CPS and
NEIU received almost 900 calls for applications. Potential interns were screened and
selected by representatives of both CPS and NEIU. All candidates were required to
submit a detailed resume; official transcripts showing completion of at least a
bachelor’s degree from an appropriately accredited institution; a minimum 2.75 grade
point average as required by NEIU’s Graduate College; two letters of reference from
professors or employers; evidence of passing the state of Illinois Basic Skills Exam (as
required by the College of Education at NEIU); and a well-written three-page essay
explaining their interest in the program and what personal and professional
qualifications and expertise they would bring to the teaching profession, including
relevant experience with individuals with disabilities.
For each cohort, thirty-five candidates were chosen for interviews. Candidates
were interviewed in small groups by the director, two representatives from CPS, and
two professors from NEIU. Of the potential candidates, 28 were selected to participate
in the program.
In the first cohort, 21 of the 25 individuals continue to participate in the program.
Two of these individuals changed their minds about the program due to personal
issues/commitments (in year 1). Two of the individuals did not meet the appropriate
grade requirements and did not continue at their work sites (in year 2). Interns who
continue in the program maintained at least a B average (3.0/4.0) to remain a student
in good standing in the Graduate College. The interns represent a diverse range of
professional and personal characteristics, including members from groups typically
underrepresented in the teaching profession.
806
Objective 2: Place Interns in Special Education Positions based on the Best Match
between their Characteristics and Requirements for the Job
With the assistance of project staff and CPS personnel, interns obtained substitute
certificates from the Illinois State Board of Education that permitted them to work
with full time teachers. Interns were matched to vacant teaching positions including
interns background and experience, driving time to the assigned school, language
skills (i.e., bilingual skills) of the intern, and specific requests from principals.
Principals also agreed to regular communication with the university field supervisor as
he or she worked to support the interns in the teaching environment.
The majority of placements were in high incidence positions serving students with
learning disabilities and/or behavior disorders, and/or mild mental retardation. Several
interns were placed as teachers in programs for children with autism.
With the assistance of project staff and CPS personnel, most of the candidates
have remained in the same placements for the two years of the program.
Approximately five interns were given new special education assignments within the
building or moved to another school due to school changes. One intern was removed
from her position in a school because difficulties with the school administration could
not be resolved.
Objective 3: Provide Interns with Intensive Field-Based Support and the Content
Knowledge and Skills Necessary to become Effective, Certified Special Educators
using a “Reflect and Practice” Instructional Model
The program is housed in the Department of Special Education, which is fully

accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education and the
North Central Association of Colleges and Schools. In participating in this process, the
Department of Special Education met the stringent standards established by the
Council of Exceptional Children. The program is based upon the current MA in
Learning Disabilities for Initial Certification Students, a program sequence that is
approved by the Illinois State Board of Education, CEC and NCATE. Therefore, the
program includes coursework and clinical experiences in educational foundations,
characteristics of learners with special education needs, assessment, planning and
implementing instruction, collaboration with peers and parents, and professional
development. The same course content existed in the program but also included field
supervision, university coursework with corresponding field-based assignments; and
the use of a cohort format to foster peer support and collaboration.
During Year 1, eight of the nine courses offered to the cohort were taught by
tenure-track faculty (all with doctoral degrees), and one course was taught by a
qualified part-time faculty member (with a master’s degree in special education).
Courses included SPED 404, Survey of the Field of Special Education, EDFN 405,
Development of Educational Thought, SPED 421, Behavior Management, SPED 410,
Identification and Diagnosis of Learning Disabilities, SPED 411, Remediation and
Planning for Children with Learning Disabilities, SPED 465, Consultation and
Collaboration in Special Education. Courses included SPED 409 Educational and
Psychological Measurement and Evaluation in Special Education, SPED 412
Principles of Diagnostic Testing, EDFN 406 Human Development and Learning,
Five out of seven courses offered to the cohort in the second year were taught by
tenure-track faculty (all with doctoral degrees), and two courses were taught by
qualified part-time faculty (one with a master’s degree in special education and one
807
with a doctorate in special education). SPED 418 Practicum I: Learning Disabilities,

SPED 430 Identification of Mental Retardation, SPED 431 Methods of Teaching
Individuals with Mild Mental Retardation, SPED 419 Practicum II: Learning
Disabilities, SPED 420 Characteristics and Assessment of Behavior Disorders and
SPED 413 Seminar in Learning Disabilities. SPED 490, Research Seminar in Special
Education, was also included.
Due to certification changes within the state of Illinois, the Special Education
Department has changed its coursework to cross-categorical studies. In order to meet
certification requirements and stay consistent with the graduate program the following
sequence is planned to replace the old sequence of study:
Initial Certification Graduate Level
Program Sequence:
BLOCK I: FOUNDATIONS, CHARACTERISTICS & FUNDAMENTALS OF

RESEARCH & ASSESSMENT IN SPECIAL EDUCATION – 12
Hours
SPED 500: Research I: Critical Writing & Research in Special Education – 3 hours.
Prerequisites: Acceptance into the graduate program for initial
certification.
SPED 501: The Development & Characteristics of Children & Youths with
Disabilities – 3 hours. Prerequisites: SPED 500
SPED 502: The Development of Cognition, Learning, and Language – 3 hours.
Prerequisites: SPED 500
SPED 503: The Historical, Philosophical, & Legal Foundations of Special
Education – 3 hours. Prerequisites: SPED 500
BLOCK II: FUNDAMENTALS OF ASSESSMENT, COLLABORATION,

TEACHING AND TECHNOLOGY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION – 10
hours
SPED 504: Assessment I: Principles of Educational Assessment in Special

Education – 3 hours. Prerequisites: Block I sequence
SPED 505: Consultation & Collaboration: Special & Regular Education – 3 hours.
Prerequisites: Block I sequence
SPED 506: Technology in Special Education – 3 hours. Prerequisites: Block I
sequence
SPED 507: Internship I: Fundamentals of Teaching – 1 hour. Prerequisites: SPED
504, 505, 506
BLOCK III: CURRICULUM, TEACHING, BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT &

PROGRAMMING IN SPECIAL EDUCATION – 14 hours
SPED 508: Methods I: General Curriculum & Methods in Special Education – 3

hours. Prerequisites: Block II sequence
808
SPED 509: Methods II: Specialized Curriculum & Methods in Special Education
– 3 hours. Prerequisites: SPED 508
SPED 510: Methods III: Strategies of Behavior Management – 3 hours.
Prerequisites: Block II sequence
SPED 511: Alternative Programming & Curriculum in Special Education – 3
hours. Prerequisites: SPED 508 & 509
SPED 512: Internship II: Intermediate Teaching – 2 hours. Prerequisites: SPED
508, 509, 510, 511
BLOCK IV: INTERNSHIP & APPLIED RESEARCH IN SPECIAL

EDUCATION – 9 hours
SPED 513: Assessment II: Applied Diagnostic Testing – 3 hours. Prerequisites:

Block III sequence
SPED 514: Internship III: Applied Teaching in Special Education – 3 hours.
Prerequisites: Block III sequence & SPED 513
SPED 515: Research II: Applied Research Project in Special Education – 3 hours.
Prerequisites: Block III sequence
Total Credit Hours: 45
Objective 4: Monitor the Progress of Interns and Provide Support after Program
Completion
Supervisors conducted classroom observation and gave feedback, provided

instructional support in planning and implementing lessons, assisted with ideas for
classroom and behavior management, and helped the intern to understand and
complete the various paperwork involved in special education, i.e., case study
evaluations, IEPs, and transition plans. Interns met with supervisors on a weekly to
biweekly basis depending on the needs of the intern. Supervisors also communicated
with the interns’ principals about the interns’ progress and close contact with the
course instructors about the field-based assignments. Supervisors’ observations
contributed to a percentage of the students’ grades in several courses.
Furthermore, principals assigned mentors to the interns who worked with them
four hours a week and evaluated their teaching performance as they would for all new
teachers in their schools. Therefore, “reflection-in-action” was promoted and the
professionals had opportunities to problem solve, observe, and reflect on the best
practice within the context of actual teaching situations. Furthermore, they attended
approximately thirty hours of district sponsored professional development sessions
designed to give information to new teachers and develop the mentorship relationship
period.
In January, the director conducted a survey to investigate how the program was
progressing in terms of academics and supervision. Interns reported that although
rigorous the program was going well. The interns noted that the coursework and cohort
were among the most useful tools in their program. Positive comments about the
coursework included learning technology (Blackboard), gaining understanding of
methods for dealing with parents and collaborating with general education teachers,
hands on training in the area of assessment, and practical examples and suggestions for
remediation.
809
In terms of student evaluation, course grades earned by continuing interns were in

the acceptable A and B range. Furthermore, supervisors, mentors, and principals rated
interns in the areas of professional appearance, professional affect with students,
professional affect with other staff and administration, attendance and punctuality,
ability to plan/develop lessons, ability to deliver instruction, ability to maintain
classroom discipline, classroom organization skills, awareness/knowledge of
characteristics of students with special needs, and awareness/knowledge of variety of
instructional strategies/approaches on a likert-type scale. In addition, they reported on
suggestions for NEIU supervisors/professors, overall level of support and other open-
ended questions. A high proportion of the comments regarding the interns were
positive. Supervisors provided additional support to the intern in the problematic area
noted.
How Project Addresses GPRA Performance Indicators and Competitive

Preference
Progress on Objectives 1, 2, 3 and 4 show that GPRA performance indicators have

been met or are in the process of being met. The project has responded to the critical
needs of children with disabilities and their families by placing and retaining 21
interns in unfilled special education teaching positions. The project has utilized high
quality methods and materials in preparing interns, evidenced by the favorable ratings
of interns by their CPS principals and NEIU supervisors. Project staff members have
communicated their findings to CPS administrators to support them in implementing a
similar project with other area universities. The director, university representatives
from area universities, and CPS representatives have held meetings to discuss
successes of programs. Finally, the project anticipates that all 21 remaining interns will
graduate with full teacher certification by the end of Year 2, adding to the teacher pool
of personnel prepared to serve children with disabilities.
The project has also met the competitive preference of recruiting and preparing
individuals from under-represented groups. Of the 21 interns, 11 (52%) are African-
American, 3 (15%) are Latino-American, and 7 (33%) are Anglo-American. The
Anglo-American group includes one bilingual/bicultural intern, Arabic, who can meet
the language needs of the diverse linguistic and cultural student body in the Chicago
schools.
810
COMMENTS FROM STUDENTS REGARDING COURSEWORK (COHORT

1, YEAR 1)
Total Comments: 73
Number Positive: 52 Number Negative: 21
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
Great teachers Needed more time working

Learned to use technology with professionals
Readings were good Terms were difficult
Learned basic assessments Would have liked to have learned
Helped distinguish between levels More practical lessons
and more techniques
Severities of MR
811
812
Integrating and Enhancing Mental Health Courses through Services Learning:
A Case Study
71
Integrating and Enhancing Mental Health
Courses through Services Learning:
A Case Study
Cindy Silitsky, St. Thomas University
&
Larry Treadwell, St. Thomas University
I
f the growing number of articles are any indication, service learning is increasing
in popularity at institutions of higher education, mainly due to its
interdisciplinary nature. Yet, while a service learning component can contribute
to any discipline, it is especially critical in the graduate counseling curriculum
because of its potential for positive impact on students self efficacy, sense of self,
counseling skill sets, multicultural awareness, networking, and interactions with the
community.
“Service combined with learning adds value to each and transforms both” (Honnet
& Poulson, 1998). It is important when adopting service learning to develop a
philosophy. Service learning is not community service, and it is much more than
merely coordinating and organizing student activities with a community based theme
into the curriculum. Service learning, when done properly, is a structured organized
learning process that seeks to meet the needs of, and develop relationships, with the
community; it integrates the academic curriculum into the experience and utilizes a
structured reflective process. Service learning enables students to enhance existing
skills, to develop new ones, and to reflect critically on the learning experience. It
allows those for whom the service was performed to articulate the needs and provide
feedback about the effectiveness of the service.
Research has shown that service learning in the graduate counseling curriculum
benefits the students, the university, and the community. Integrating a service learning
component into individual courses enables students to connect theory with practice
and link the concepts being taught to practical use in the field (Barbee & Scherer,
2003). Because of the nature of service learning and the inherent design of the
projects, a certain level of concern from everyone involved (the community, the
instructor, and especially, the students) is to be expected.
813
The hands on experience provided by service learning helps students understand

course content because it combines theory with direct interaction with clients, in a
process that structures the opportunity to reflect on these learning experiences (Arman
& Scherer, 2002). This hands on experience also has a positive influence on counselor
self efficacy and sense of sense, important components in determining how counseling
students interact with clients. The nature of service learning, connecting theory with
application, has been shown to improve students sense of self and personal growth
(Berson, 1993) and increases a student’s sense of self efficacy. (Barbee & Scherer
,2003; Conrad & Hedin 1991).
In addition to improving self efficacy, service learning also enables students to
enhance existing skills and develop new ones. Service learning provides students with
the opportunity to develop a sense of ownership over their learning process, which
simultaneously provides the opportunity for students to actively demonstrate
leadership in setting course goals, while developing their critical thinking skills
(Crutsinginge, Pooklangara, Tran, Duncan, 2004). Furthermore, if incorporated early
and often throughout the graduate program, the experience provides students with the
ability to make more informed decisions on determining their areas of specialization
(Arman & Scherer, 2002).
Perhaps the most important benefit learned from the literature is that service
learning has a positive impact on multicultural awareness. It introduces cultural
awareness into the graduate counseling curriculum, by increasing students’ knowledge
and examination of cultural biases through direct exposure to diverse ethnic and
cultural groups (Burnett, Hamel, & Long, 2004).
In this article, the context of the university, community, and course, in which this
service learning project took place will be described. Next, a detailed description of
this experience, with outcome data and reflections from graduate students, outcome
data from clients, and community feedback, will be offered, followed by a discussion
contrasting these two experiences. Finally, the article will conclude with implications
for other counseling professors who wish to incorporate service learning into their
coursework and offer suggestions for future projects.
University and Community Context
This private Catholic university is situated in a large urban community in South

Florida. The University is a Hispanic-serving minority institution. International
students from the Caribbean islands, as well as students drawn from neighboring
communities, form the remainder of the school population. Diversity, student success
and service, core values of the University mission, are woven into the essence of the
university and its curriculum. Service learning is a natural extension of the goals of the
counseling program and the mission of the university. The university offers graduate
counseling programs to students earning degrees in marriage and family therapy,
mental health counseling, and school guidance and counseling. The majority of
students are adult learners. Students attend mainly evening courses, juggling family
and employment responsibilities.
Students in these three programs are required to take the same foundation courses,
with each program offering a variety of optional electives and specific required
specialization courses in each area. After all coursework is complete, an internship
with direct client contact hours (number of hours and time commitment varies from
program to program). While most students have employment experiences, the
814
A Case Study
majority of the students have not had any direct client contact as a counselor. None of
the students have experienced this client contact in a formal academic environment,
with critical reflection and supervision.
Group Therapy Course
The course selected for this project, Group Therapies, is required for the mental
health counseling and school guidance program; it is an optional elective for the
marriage and family therapy program; it is typically taken after foundation courses in
the middle to the end of the student’s program of study. The main course objective is
to provide students with basic group therapy techniques and skills, theoretical concepts
and models, ethical and professional guidelines, and knowledge of group processes,
such as group stages and decision- making, in order for students to plan, conduct, and
analyze their own group facilitation experience.
Students learn the fundamental concepts during the first 10 weeks of class and
participate in experiential role-playing and class discussions; they then take an exam to
test their knowledge of the theoretical concepts. The remainder of their grade is based
on their attendance and participation and two assignments related to the service
learning project. Students are required to write a formal group proposal paper, in
which they decide on a group topic appropriate for the population, plan a theme, gather
materials for icebreakers and activities, and make decisions about the structure of the
group. After the project, their final assignment is to write a commentary paper,
reflecting on their experience facilitating the group, their strengths, and skills needing
improvement.
Structure of Project
Over the course of two semesters, (Spring 2004 and Spring 2005), a service
learning project was designed and implemented for a graduate counseling Group
Therapies course. In 2004, the students convened as a group at a local community
agency, described below, for five consecutive weeks, during the regularly scheduled
class time. Students each had the opportunity to observe peers leading single-session
groups, co-facilitate a group with another classmate, and finally lead a group
independently. After the hourly groups each week, the remainder of the class (1 ½
hours) was devoted to reflection by the students, comments from their peers,
supervision suggestions and praise, and strategy sessions to avoid problems in future
group weeks. Each group was self-contained and students were required to “recruit”
adolescents to join their group. Group topics included self-esteem, conflict resolution,
dating relationships, career counseling, bullying, HIV/AIDS, stereotyping, drug use,
peer pressure, divorce, college preparation/study skills. Group members included
children aged 6-12, adolescents aged 12-18, and one parent group.
In 2005, the project was modified. The format of the evening remained the same
(students still met as a group, during class time, followed by reflection and
supervision), but the context was changed to a local private high school. Students
rarely observed their peers leading groups and did not facilitate a group independently;
however, they were able to conduct an on-going group, which allowed them the
opportunity to develop deeper relationships with the clients, observe the stages of a
815
group, link themes across sessions, and see changes in the clients over time. Group
topics included conflict resolution, dating, peer relationships, study skills. Group
members were adolescents, aged 14-18, and one parent group.
In 2004, the agency selected for this project was located approximately 5 minutes
from campus and served children and adolescents from neighboring communities in an
endeavor that linked creativity (singing, dancing, acting) to academic tutoring. In
2005, the private Catholic high school was located approximately 15 minutes from
campus and had a good local reputation for providing quality education to minority
students.
Measures & Data Collection
Although the sample of students and clients from both semesters is not large
enough to produce significant results, students and clients were each given a
quantitative assessment to triangulate the other forms of data collected and provide
objective measurements.
The students completed a Student Post-Assessment of Service Learning, which
was originally designed by Dr. Marsha Turner, Coordinator of Academic Programs,
Director of Service Learning at Florida State University. This tool was modified to
meet the needs of this project; the language was slightly adapted. The instrument
contains 35 items, ranked on a 5 point Likert scale, from strongly disagree to strongly
agree.
The clients completed the Client Satisfaction Questionairre (CSQ-8), which was
also adapted slightly to fit the needs of this population. The CSQ-8 contains 8
questions, with items ranked on a 7 point Likert scale, relating to client satisfaction
with services. This scale has been used with multiple populations, has excellent
internal validity (.86-.94 alphas in various studies), good concurrent validity, and has
been correlated with other outcome variables (Fischer & Corcoran, 1994).
Student perceptions were analyzed for themes from their required reflection
papers. Anonymous course evaluation comments are also provided to illustrate student
experiences. Students in 2004 also decided to write letters to students the following
year and comments expressed mirror the comments provided in the excerpts from the
reflection paper. Clients were given the opportunity to provide in-depth comments
about their experience at the bottom of their survey and that information has been
analyzed for themes, as well. Finally, the community agencies provided written
feedback about their perception and experience and excerpts of those comments are
also provided. Themes were assessed through the constant comparative method
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Findings
Students
Data was gathered from multiple sources, as indicated above. 13 graduate students
were enrolled in the course in 2004; 10 students in 2005, for a total of 23 students. No
student is represented in each sub-category more than once; space precludes the use of
the many excerpts in each category. Excerpts were selected based on their ability to
represent the theme most effectively. The assessment tool and course evaluations were
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A Case Study
anonymous. Of the 35 items on the survey, three questions that assessed the students
perception as to how the project reflected on the university, four questions that
assessed whether the project increased political aspirations, and four miscellaneous
questions have been excluded from the analysis, due to space and relevance. Two main
overarching themes emerged, with sub-categories.
Table 1. Graduate Student Quantitative Data

CATEGORY: Service Learning
Theme: Reflections and Process
Strongly Total
Question: I benefited from my interactions in conversations Agreed
Agreed Respondents
with the class instructor and class mates during the semester
17 4 21
Strongly Total
Question: I had an opportunity to reflect on my service Agreed
Agreed Respondents
activity through writing and group discussion
15 6 21
Theme: Hands on Experience
Strongly Total
Question: The material that I learned in my class was relevant Agreed
Agreed Respondents
to the real world and real life situations
14 9 23
Question: I was able to apply the correct information that I Strongly Total
Agreed
learned in the classroom to my service experiences in the Agreed Respondents
community when it was needed. 12 11 23
Theme: Instructor
Strongly Total
Question: I received adequate preparation from my instructor Agreed
Agreed Respondents
to complete my service activity.
14 7 21
Theme: Community / Social Justice
Question: I have actively involved myself in helping other Strongly Total
Agreed
people during this semester because it is important to play a Agreed Respondents
role in solving social problems. 8 9 17
Strongly Total
Question: As a result of participating in the community Agreed
Agreed Respondents
service activities, I understand the civic responsibilities
associated with being involved in the community where I live.
6 11 17
Question: I had a positive impact on solving community or Strongly Total
Agreed
social problems as a participant in community service this Agreed Respondents
semester. 3 14 17
Strongly Total
Question: My service activity provided a needed service to Agreed
Agreed Respondents
the community.
10 13 23
Question: My interest in solving problems has been Strongly Total
Agreed
developed as a result of participating in community service Agreed Respondents
this semester. 7 7 14
Theme: Perception of Experience
Question: I would encourage other students to participate in Strongly Total
Agreed
these types of courses. Agreed Respondents
817
15 5 20
CATEGORY: Gains of Project
Theme: Personal Growth
Strongly Total
Question: Overall, the service activity has had a positive Agreed
Agreed Respondents
impact on my personal growth.
12 11 23
Theme: Multicultural Competencies
Question: Through my participation this semester, I learned Strongly Total
Agreed
something valuable from people of a social, ethnic, economic, Agreed Respondents
or age group different than my own. 15 8 23
Question: Having participated in service learning this Strongly Total
Agreed
semester, I have grown in my knowledge and acceptance of Agreed Respondents
people of different races and cultures. 10 10 20
Theme: Learning Objectives
Question: I experienced community needs and social Strongly Total
Agreed
problems as they relate to the basic concepts and theories of Agreed Respondents
my studies this semester. 9 13 22
Question: I had the academic learning skills and abilities Strongly Total
Agreed
needed to master all of the content and community issues Agreed Respondents
contained in this course. 11 9 20
Strongly Total
Question: The academic preparation helped me learn from my Agreed
Agreed Respondents
service activity
15 7 22
Strongly Total
Question: The service activity helped me learn the academic Agreed
Agreed Respondents
information.
8 11 19
Theme: Skill Development
Strongly Total
Question: During this semester, I experienced that listening to Agreed
Agreed Respondents
and taking all points of view into consideration are both
important when interacting with other people and when
attempting to solve community or social problems.
15 7 22
Strongly Total
Question: I knew where to find information and how to apply Agreed
Agreed Respondents
it when I needed to take action and accomplish academic or
community based goals and projects this semester.
11 10 21
Question: This semester I communicated effectively in order Strongly Total
Agreed
to work well with others and to get the project done on a Agreed Respondents
number of occasions. 11 9 20
Theme: Career Development
Strongly Total
Question: I have confirmed my career choice, as a result of Agreed
Agreed Respondents
this service learning experience.
9 7 16
Strongly Total
Question: My future career plans have been confirmed as a Agreed
Agreed Respondents
result of participating in this service learning experience.
10 7 17
Strongly Total
Question: I have questioned my choice for a career as a result Disagreed Disagreed
Respondents
of this service learning experience.
4 8 12
* Total Number of Participants N = 23
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A Case Study
SERVICE LEARNING: This main category has five sub-categories.
Reflection and process of service learning: When evaluating the format or process
of the service learning project, students rated the interactions in class and reflections
through writing/discussion as beneficial. See Table 1. Excerpts that support these ideas
include:
The post-session reviews were very helpful. As we sat through the reviews
and I received feedback, I was able to see if everything that I was supposed
to do was done. I had the opportunity to know what I did right, what I did
wrong, and what I might need to consider doing differently. I also realized
that the manner in which the feedback was given was important. The
presentation of the feedback made all the difference in how it was received.
(Angela, 2004)
The post-session reviews were very helpful to me. I had not realized that my
expression and response to one student during the group was construed as a
sarcastic one. This was pointed out to me in the review and I was surprised
by it. Later that evening, I sat down and thought about the session and my
response to that particular member. I processed how my reaction might
have come across. From this experience, I learned that I need to make a
conscious effort to be more aware of my verbal and facial reactions to
clients in the future. (Susie, 2005)
“Hands-on” aspect of service learnin: When evaluating the true to life experience
of this project, students agreed the project was relevant to the real world and could
apply classroom knowledge to the service activity. See Table 1.Supportive comments
from reflection papers include:
I feel these experiences were beneficial because textbooks, exams,

classroom discussions, and role-playing are good, but hands on situation
and experiences is what really prepares future therapists for the real world
of counseling. (Angie, 2004)
I think this was beneficial to have with working with actual clients may be
the most powerful indicator of how successful I will be as a counselor. It
also gives me the opportunity to apply the theoretical principles learned in
the classroom. (Erline, 2005)
Many times, in classes, we have all theory or all notes, but really no
practice of what you are learning. By doing group sessions with regular
people, it gives you a feel for what it is like when you go and do the real
thing out in the community. (Ivette, 2004)
Looking back at this experience, I feel that I finally have real knowledge
about therapy. Nothing I did in the classroom can ever compare to this.
Real experience is genuine and necessary in this profession. If not practiced
while in training, failure will prevail. I would recommend this to anyone
first learning about counseling and psychotherapy. (Dennys, 2004)
Instructor: One survey question evaluated the role of the professor in the project,
to which students agreed they received adequate preparation for the activity. See Table
1. The 2004 course evaluations provide a 4 point Likert scale, with 4 indicating
819
strongly agree, 1 strongly disagree. General rating of the instructor yielded a mean of
3.83; evaluation of the course as a learning experience yielded a 3.83. The qualitative
data reveals that the service learning project helped create a positive relationship
between the instructor and the students. On the course evaluations, students said that
the professor was enthusiastic, knowledgeable, caring, and prepared. The 2005 course
evaluations yielded a general rating of the instructor at a 3.62; evaluation of the course
as a learning experience yielded a 3.50. Comments mirrored statements from the
previous year. Other comments regarding the instructor emerged in the reflection
papers and letters:
I know without your teaching and guidance this group counseling experience
could have been a devastating experience. (Angie, 2004)
Thank you so much for going over and beyond to make these group sessions a
successful one. Please continue to be as assertive you were this semester to
try to continue to have the group therapies course have a hands on real world
experience in being able to facilitate a group. (Monica, 2004)
Community/Social Justice: When evaluating the impact of helping solve

community problems, students agree that the activity provided a needed service to the
community and that their commitment to helping solve social problems increased. See
Table 1. This area was not touched upon much in the paper, as the assignment was to
reflect more on their own and clients experiences. One excerpt describes:
From this experience, I learned that there is a strong need for women
motivational speakers. These young girls did not want to be like Oprah or
Whoopi because they considered them two of the most ugly women. They
did not care that these women had overcome many obstacles and challenges
and, in spite of these obstacles, made it. (Marie, 2004)
Perception of experience: When asked about the student’s perception of the

service learning project, students agreed they would encourage other students to
participate in these types of courses. Every student commented on the useful and
positive nature of this experience in their reflection paper.
GAINS OF THE PROJECT: In this second broad category, six sub-categories
emerged from the data.
Personal Growth: Students agreed the service activity had a positive impact on
their personal growth. Additional support for this finding includes:
I learned some things about myself that I wasn’t aware of. One of the things
I learned was that I had a difficult time dealing with the group when things
appeared to go wrong. At first, I evaluated the session as a total success or
failure. I thought that to be effective, everything had to be perfect. I realized
that groups do not operate on this model. I also learned that I was able to
remain calm and composed even when I felt that things were not going as I
had envisioned. Personally, I feel that it was a growing experience for me.
(Julio, 2004)
Confidence: Although this was not assessed on the survey, many students
commented on the additional confidence they gained through this experience. Excerpts
include:
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A Case Study
When I began this class, I was in a very stressful place. My husband was
still in Iraq and I was embarking on the most challenging semester I would
have. My first thought after learning that I would have to lead two groups
was ‘AHHHHH’. Well, I have arrived! I learned that I could do it. I walked
into a brand new environment and I ran two groups well and I didn’t suffer
from a panic attack. I felt so much anxiety about doing this and I overcame
that anxiety and I did it. I love that feeling of accomplishment; it is what I
look forward to and what keeps me going. (Patricia, 2004)
I feel more confident about facilitating a group. I now feel confident to go
into a school setting and set up group therapy for different topics. I feel that
if I didn’t get the chance to have this experience, I would doubt that I have
enough knowledge and experience to conduct a group successfully in a
school setting. (Sandra, 2005)
Multicultural Competency: When evaluating improved multicultural

competencies, students agreed they learned valuable information from people of
diverse cultures and have grown in their knowledge of people of different cultures. See
Table 1. Additional support includes:
I learned that people are pretty much the same everywhere. I don’t have
much contact with African American students where I work and I really
wasn’t sure how the children in this group would react to my presence as a
white male. I found out quickly that this was not an issue. I was glad to be
accepted into their group and I also felt they had the same concerns and
shared the same experiences as other children I have worked with in my
school. (Julio, 2004).
The site chosen, for me, was a very unfamiliar atmosphere. The first thing
that I noticed as I entered the community center was the cultural
background and the conditions I needed to work with. Although I was
informed earlier of the cultural and social background of this population, I
felt unprepared. The populations I normally work with have a different
background, mainly Hispanic. Their background is similar to mine in the
sense their family values are part of my own. Once I set foot in the center, I
knew this task would be a challenging one. (Dennys, 2004)
Learning Objectives: When academic learning through the project was assessed,
students agreed that the academic preparation helped them conduct the service activity
and that the service activity helped them learn the course material. See Table 1. Most
of the students described their learning from practical experience or personal growth,
rather than “academics”, but several comments did relate specifically to learning
objectives.
I found that leading a group allowed me to learn the concepts behind group
therapy in a more concrete manner. I learned that pre-planning is essential.
(Julio, 2004).
I learned how to write effective plans for the different sessions, how to
relax, and most importantly, how to be myself. (Zae, 2005)
821
Skill Development Students agreed that they were able to view multiple
perspectives, acquire information literacy skills, and utilize effective communication
strategies. See Table 1. Additional support for this finding is indicated through
excerpts:
The group sessions provide a training ground for targeting the population
you plan to serve. Group sessions prepare you for the unexpected.
(Cyclovia, 2004)
My skills have been enhanced. (Susan, 2004)
Career Development: Students agreed that the service learning project helped
shape their career direction. See Table 1. Additional support for this finding is
indicated through excerpts in reflection papers, such as learning about the population
they wish to work with or not work with:
This course has motivated me to continue to pursue a master’s degree in

mental health counseling. (Sharon, 2004)
I learned that I enjoy counseling. Even more than that, I learned that I enjoy
counseling high school students. (Susie, 2005)
This was my first experience doing any type of therapy, which was overall a
great experience, but the one thing that I learned for myself is that in the
future, I do not want to deal with adults, I would like to deal with children
or adolescents. This experience gave me experience I had never had and it
also helped prepare me for my internship, which I’m starting soon.
(Monique, 2005)
Clients
Procedures: Groups were conducted with children, adolescents, and parents, with
an age range from 6 years old to 55. Participants were asked to identify sex and race
on the survey and that information is used to provide context to the qualitative
comments. All 8 questions are ranked on a 7 point Likert scale, with 1 being dis-
satisfied, not helpful, etc. and 7 being satisfied, helpful, etc. 147 clients who attended
the groups during both semesters evaluated the experience on the CSQ-8. The
response rate is 98%, due to the fact that group facilitators distributed the survey at the
end of the group and collected them immediately. The surveys were anonymous. Prior
to the group’s first session, clients signed a consent form, which indicated their desire
to participate in the group and their understanding that this information may be used as
a research project, without identifying information linked to each participant. Group
facilitators did not have any method of identifying each participants’ data.
Quantitative Data: Overall, clients were extremely satisfied with the services they
received and the facilitators. In addition, they indicated they would recommend a
friend and would be willing to attend another group in the future. See Table 2.
Qualitative Data: At the bottom of the CSQ-8, participants were asked to list any
additional opinions or comments about their experience in the group. 40 of the 147
participants made a comment in this section. These open-ended questions were
analyzed qualitatively. Space precludes listing all the comments. The following are
examples to illustrate each category.
Gains: These comments describe the specific benefits clients obtained from their
group experience.
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A Case Study
o This group was great. I learned how you should not judge other people by
how they look. (11 year old Jamaican female, self esteem group)
o The program helped me with my needs and questions. (17 year old
Hispanic female, communication group)
o Helps me know how to talk to my parents. (13 year old French male,
communication skills group)
Positive Experience: These comments depict the positive experience in the group.
o It was a great experience. I had a lot of fun and enjoyed the facilitators’
comments and stories. (18 year old, Asian male, decision making groups)
o I really liked the group. It was interesting. (11 years Black female, friends
group)
o I love this group. I hope they stay forever! (10 year old African American
female, bullying group)
Group Facilitators: Most of the comments described positive aspects of the

facilitators; only two comments were negative.
o Our counselors were cool. (17 year old Asian female, decision making
group)
o It was a great experience and our instructors were very informative and
helpful. (17 year old Hispanic female, communication skills group)
o The person was great who led the group. (11 ½ year old, black female,
stereotype group)
o The leader really kept control of the group, which was a positive. (42 year
old female, parent group)
Table 2. Client Quantitative Data

Question 1: How would you rate the quality of the information you have received?
Likert scale 7 = excellent & 1 = poor
Total # of
Total
7 6 5 Respondents
Percentage
per question
52% 28% 9% 89% 138
Question 2: Did you enjoy the group experience?
Likert scale 7 = Yes, Definitely & 1= Definitely not
Total # of
Total
7 6 5 Respondents
Percentage
per question
64% 14% 14% 92% 135
Question 3: To what extent did the group meet your needs?
Likert scale 7 = met almost all & 1 = met none
Total # of
Total
7 6 5 Respondents
Percentage
per question
39% 29% 18% 86% 127
823
Question 4: If a friend asked you about the group, would you recommend the group you were in?
Likert scale 7 = Yes, Definitely & 1 = Definitely not
Total # of
Total
7 6 5 Respondents
Percentage
per question
59% 22% 14% 95% 138
Question 5: How satisfied are you with the way the facilitators led the group?
Likert scale 7 = Quite satisfied & 1 = Quite dis-satisfied
Total # of
Total
7 6 5 Respondents
Percentage
per question
69% 17% 8% 94% 138
Question 6: Was the information you received helpful for future use in your personal life?
Likert scale 7 = Great Help& 1 = No help at all
Total # of
Total
7 6 5 Respondents
Percentage
per question
59% 19% 14% 92% 135
Question 7: In an overall sense how satisfied are you with the group you attended?
Likert scale 7 = Quite satisfied & 1 = Quite dis-satisfied
Total # of
Total
7 6 5 Respondents
Percentage
per question
61% 24% 9% 94% 138
Question 8: Would you be interested in attending another group in the future?
Likert scale 7 = Yes, Definitely & 1 = Definitely not
Total # of
Total
7 6 5 Respondents
Percentage
per question
54% 16% 12% 82% 122
Future Suggestions: These comments were all made by parents in a parenting

group.
o A need for more parents to know how good the parenting group is. Spread
the word! (Hispanic female, parent group)
o My first group and I enjoyed the experience. I hope my son enjoyed his.
Maybe we can have a group that the kids can also participate along with
parents. (42 year old female, parent group)
Student perceptions of client gains. Students often described in their reflection

papers examples and conversations that occurred that indicated the clients benefited
from this experience.
The group members asked to stay in touch with us, which was further
evidence to me that the experience was a positive one. (Susie, 2005)
I felt that the members benefited from the group experience by the way in
which they showed appreciation for our novice attempts at counseling, as
they completed tasks even they were bored, showed up for meetings after
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A Case Study
school on early release days, and on days when there were no classes that
day. (Erline, 2005)
I feel that the members benefited, that in every session, there was therapeutic
work being accomplished, which was possible because all members were able
to trust the facilitators and each other. One parent always responded very
emotionally when dealing with her son. In the 4’th session, she disclosed to
the group that the last session made her think about the manner in which she
confronts her son. The next time her son pulled a boneheaded stunt, instead of
lashing out, she kept her composure and pointed out to her son the unintended
tragedy that might result because of his actions. He understood, felt remorse,
and promised to be more careful. She noted that by thinking the situation
through, her course of action was more effective than yelling and screaming.
The great thing about this situation is that I recognized she was too emotional
when confronting her son, worked her through it, she was able to recognize
her power of choice in dealing with this confrontation. Therapy works! It was
really special to experience a validation. (Mike, 2005)
Community Organization
Community Agency, 2004: The following is an excerpt from a letter received by

the instructor from the director of the community agency, following the completion of
the project.
We greatly appreciated having your students conduct groups here this year. Our
students loved the program and so did our parents. We would welcome back your
students any time. Thanks again for all the hard work!
Catholic High School, 2005: The following is an excerpt from a letter received by
the instructor from the principal of the high school, following the completion of the
project.
The evaluation reports on the 2005 group sessions conducted by (university)
students leave no doubt that the participants had an excellent experience and are most
enthusiastic that the program continue and be made available to other students and
parents. Our faculty and administration confirm after this semester that the program
has been of great service to our students and their parents and are enthused at the
prospect that it will be available again this coming school year.
Student perceptions of organization: Two survey questions on the student survey
evaluated the role of the agency or community organization in the process. 5 students
strongly agreed, 16 students agreed that they communicated effectively with the
agency and 10 students strongly agreed, 13 students agreed that they received
assistance from the partnering community-based organization. Excerpts include:
The beauty of this experience came from the site and the people involved
with the community center. It was a pleasure in meeting and learning, not
only the children, but also the pleasure of helping the parents. (Julio, 2004).
I found the staff at the school to be helpful, admirable, and interested in
having us there. The first night, the principal came out to welcome us. The
parents I met were caring, down to earth, and pleasant to know. That school
has history and it reminded me of schools in my past. So, in the end, it
turned out to be a great resource for students learning to conduct a group. I
825
sincerely hope we will continue to aid them, for one simple reason, we were
appreciated! (Mike, 2005)
Discussion
Incorporating experiential learning into a community service through a service

learning component was quite effective, from the perspectives of all involved. While
each university and class will face unique challenges and no amount of planning and
preparation can guarantee a successful service learning program (Burns, 1998),
success occurred for many reasons: The format provided opportunities for students to
build clinical skills and self-confidence, enhanced their learning, and helped them gain
multicultural competencies. Clients received a valuable service, at no cost, and the
agency/school was able to partner with another system to provide services.
Although both projects were successful, each format delivered different learning
opportunities: In 2004, students had the opportunity to work with a more diverse
population, had the experience of preparing for two groups, had the opportunity to
observe a live group conducted by their peers, work with a wider range of ages, and
facilitate a group both as a co-therapist and individually. However, in 2005, despite
lacking the observational experience, solo facilitating experience, and opportunity to
facilitate two groups, the students had the opportunity to build longer, more
therapeutic relationships with the clients over time, observe the stages/life cycle of a
group, use continuous skill-building, observe client changes from week to week, and
have a more “true to life” experience. The clients also achieved greater therapeutic
benefits from the richer, more in-depth counselor contact. In terms of course
outcomes, the format of the project in 2005 achieved the course objectives more so
than 2004. Yet, both projects were greatly valued by the students, clients, and
community organizations; thus, both were successful.
Implications & Suggestions for the Future
There are several key components that made these projects successful, in
comparison to other service-learning projects. Practically, students are not burdened
and stressed, with their over-crowded schedules, to find additional time outside of
class to complete this project (Burnett, Hamel, & Long, 204). Having the service-
learning component occur during previously scheduled class time allowed for the
student to experience learning in a safe, structured environment, thereby alleviating
some of the anxiety students may experience by completing a project on their
individual time (Drueth & Drueth-Fewell, 2002). Processing each experience directly
after the groups with the instructor and peers provides validation and support for
ongoing decisions and allows the student to observe (either directly or indirectly) how
other students handled and triumphed over difficult situations. The use of live
supervision and in-depth reflection added to their learning outcomes. Later reflecting
on these experiences in a commentary paper provides the student with the opportunity
to observe one’s own learning process and create rich meaning and insight about the
process.
If other counseling professors wish to integrate service learning into their courses,
this case study provides ample examples as to how these experiences can aid student
learning and provide students with confidence, while simultaneously providing a
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A Case Study
valuable service to people in the community. Suggestions for future projects include
experimenting with service learning components in other core courses such as career
counseling or substance abuse counseling. Another suggestion would be for students to
accrue more hours of direct client contact, as this project only provides for
approximately 5 hours of direct service. One way to achieve this would be to stretch
the course over two semesters, with the second semester devoted solely to a service
learning project.
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Burnett, J.A., Hamel, D., & Long, L. L. (2004, July). Journal of Multicultural Counseling and
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Collaborative Learning in Higher Education
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Karen Clarke, University of Wolverhampton
T
he concept of collaborative learning is not new but may be perceived as
different in higher education. This idea is situated in a socio-cultural approach,
which is rooted in Vygotskian theory. Vygotsky promoted the principle that
intellectual functioning is the product of our social history, and language is the
key mode by which we learn our cultures and through which we organize our verbal
thinking and regulate our actions. ‘It is through the mediation of others that the (child)
undertakes activities… and is rooted in social relations.’ (1932 cited in Daniels, 2001.)
Children learn such higher functioning from interacting with the adults and other
children around them. This method of learning is evident in early years’ settings but
can also be situated in higher education. Engerstrom (Daniels, 2001) has extended this
further with his activity theory and the evolution of ‘communities of practice’. If
higher education is to promote an ethos of social justice through a widening
participation agenda, then the idea of collaborative learning is vital so that we can all
learn from each other. Vygotsky noted that children interacting toward a common goal
tend to regulate each other's actions. Other researchers (e.g., Forman & Cazden, 1986)
have observed that when students work together on complex tasks, they assist each
other in much the same way as adults assist children. In such tasks, dialogue consists
of mutual regulation. Together, through dialogue, they can solve difficult problems
they cannot solve working independently. ‘…the emergence of speech and language
emphasises the original unity of labour actions and social intercourse’. (Engestrom,
1990, p. 7 cited in Daniels, 2100,p.77)
By adopting a Vygotskian approach to teaching and learning, the creation of a
learning environment can be perceived as one where there is a sharing of problems and
one where the students can participate in a process of negotiation and construction of
knowledge. ( Haenen, Schrijnemakers, and Stufkens, cited in Kozulin,Gindis, Ageyev
and Miller,2003) Piotr Galperin in 1982 further developed the socio-cultural approach
to teaching and learning by emphasising the joint process in learning by both teachers
and students working collaboratively. Students enter university with a considerable
amount of concepts gained through previous educational experiences. The concept of
collaboration is firmly embedded in early years’ education, then when children move
to the primary sector, there is less evidence of collaboration especially in a climate of
testing where individual scores matter. In the secondary sector, collaboration is very
829
much viewed as a subject specific activity with some subjects such as science, lending
themselves more to this type of work. The structures of learning in the secondary
sector generally offer less responsibility and opportunities for young people to learn
from each other. There have been several studies which have gathered data from the
pupils, over the last twenty years, that indicate that student/pupil participation in the
teaching, learning and curriculum provides a culture of learning for all (Flutter et al,
1998, cited in Wragg, 2004) Yet these views are ‘rarely elicited and information used’.
(Ruddock and Flutter, cited on Wragg, p. 178, 2004) Consequently, when young
people enter higher education the skills of collaboration for learning that were learned
in the nursery school have to be rediscovered. This rediscovery or building on previous
knowledge is a key factor if the Vygotskian or post-Vygotskian activity theory is to be
used effectively as a collaborative process in higher education.
Effective communication and collaboration are essential skills needed to becoming
a successful learner. It is primarily through dialogue and examining different
perspectives that students become knowledgeable, strategic, self-determined, and
empathetic. Collaborative learning affords students enormous advantages that are not
available from more traditional instruction; a group-whether it is the whole class or a
learning group within the class-can accomplish meaningful learning and solve
problems better than any individual can alone.
Additionally, complex thinking about difficult problems, that impact on the
curriculum, demands multiple ideas about causes, implications, and potential
solutions. In fact, nearly all of the curricular goals on a degree programme are of this
nature. They require multiple ways to represent and solve problems and there are many
perspectives on the different issues. Most UK universities have adopted a modular
structure for their degrees with clearly defined outcomes for the modules and for the
assessment. When using a collaborative methodology for the learning and teaching
process it is even more important that the students know what the desired outcomes for
the session are so that they can participate collectively in achieving them. It is equally
important that the affective, motivational and cognitive values of the knowledge to be
learned are also shared with everyone; a collaborative approach encourages full
participation from the students and the tutor. Collaboration will not succeed as a
learning method if it is not seen that everyone is a learner and everyone has something
to contribute.
In collaborative settings where students are engaged in a thinking curriculum,
everyone learns from everyone else, and no student is deprived of this opportunity of
making contributions and appreciating the contributions of others. Thus, a critical
characteristic of collaborative setting is that students are not segregated according to
supposed ability, achievement, interests, or any other characteristic. Segregation
seriously weakens collaboration and impoverishes the learning by depriving all
students of opportunities to learn from and with each other. Students we might label
unsuccessful in a traditional classroom learn from "brighter" students, but, more
importantly, the so-called brighter students have just as much to learn from their more
average peers. This focus on the collective knowledge and thinking of the group
changes the roles of students and teachers and the way they interact in the classroom.
Collaborative teachers differ in that they invite students to set specific goals within
the framework of what is being taught, provide options for activities that capture
different student interests and goals, and encourage students to assess what they learn.
Secondly, collaborative teachers encourage students' use of their own knowledge,
ensure that students share their knowledge and their learning strategies, treat each
other respectfully, and focus on high levels of understanding. They help students listen
830
to diverse opinions, support knowledge claims with evidence, engage in critical and
creative thinking, and participate in open and meaningful dialogue. Previous studies
(Johnson 1981 cited in Daniels and Edwards, 2004) showed that working together was
more effective than working separately. For instance, discussion of a text as a group
improved students’ recall of the content more that individual analysis. (Danserau,
1985, Slavin and Tanner, 1974, cited in Daniels and Edwards, p.277, 2004)
Successful mediation helps students connect new information to their experiences
and to learning in other areas; this helps students to identify what to do when they
experience a block, and helps them learn how to learn. Above all, the teacher as
mediator, adjusts the level of information and support so as to maximize the students’
ability to take responsibility for learning. Students are organized into heterogeneous
groups with roles such as team leader, encourager, recorder, and spokesperson.
(Cohen, 1982).) Although there is a sharing of information clearly, there are sets of
rules that govern the process. Some of these ‘rules’ are giving all members a chance to
participate, valuing others' comments, and arguing against (or for) ideas rather than
people. Some examples of group functions are: asking for information, clarifying,
summarizing, encouraging, and relieving tension.
Students have to assume new and possibly different roles when participating in
collaborative learning. The major roles are collaborator and active participator. As this
may be a different process for students, it is important to consider the effect that these
different roles may have on the whole process. The first principle is that students have
to set their own goals within the teaching and learning setting. They also have to plan
how they will accomplish these goals within a set timescale i.e. the prescribed time for
that particular topic. Students have to work together to monitor and assess their
progress. However, the diffusion of roles can also present problems that some students
may still not take on as much responsibility as others. In an ideal collaborative setting,
students would also have to plan for future learning. The lecturer, as mediator, helps
the students to fulfil their new roles.
The task of goal setting is a critical process that can help students through their
learning at all stages – before they undertake something, during an activity and
afterwards as a form of reflection. When students collaborate, they should talk about
their goals as this helps them to become more actively involved.
Assessment is usually the tutor’s responsibility but with collaborative learning
assessment is viewed in a much more broader manner. If this is sustained, then
students, from the earliest school years and throughout their lives can evaluate their
own learning. This is an area to be developed further. Collaborative classrooms are
natural places in which to learn self and peer assessment. This will help to foster a
sense of cooperation (as opposed to competition). Ideally, students learn to evaluate
their own learning from their experiences with group discussion. Interestingly, though,
in previous research studies around collaborative learning, (see Daniels and Edwards
p. 276, 2004) although there has been some evidence to suggest that group learning
improves individual assessments, the evidence is not conclusive unless it is a group
assessment task.
Clearly, one aspect of collaborative learning lies in the planning. If collaborative
learning is to be adopted as a means of developing more independent learners, then the
planning process should also be shared and discussed with other staff colleagues.
Indeed, if we expect students to collaborate, we should encourage teachers to do the
same! The collaboration should also be extended to the curriculum management
structures.
831
Collaboration allows students to take control of their own learning. However for
many students and staff this is difficult as students are used to having grades assigned
to their work and expect what they perceive as ‘professional’ feedback. Ideally,
assessment practices should be changed so that they are consistent with collaboration,
with a new view of learning and with a thinking curriculum. There is also difficulty for
some lecturers, as many believe that their role is to transmit knowledge; in part it is
because they are held accountable for teaching discrete skills such as key skills as well
as subject specific knowledge.
Research strongly supports the advantages of cooperative and collaborative
learning over competition and individualized learning in a wide array of learning tasks.
(Johnson and Johnson, 1989) Compared to competitive or individual work,
collaboration leads to higher group and individual achievement, higher-quality
reasoning strategies, more frequent transfer of these from the group to individual
members, more meta-cognition, and more new ideas and solutions to problems. In
addition, students working in collaborative groups tend to be more intrinsically
motivated, intellectually curious, caring of others, and psychologically healthy. That is
not to say that competition and individual work should not be valued and encouraged
where appropriate. For example, competition is appropriate when there can be only
one winner, as in a sports event, and individualistic effort is appropriate when the goal
is personally beneficial and has no influence on the goals of others.
Unfortunately, simply putting students in groups and letting them go is not enough
to attain the outcomes listed above. Indeed, many teachers and schools have failed to
implement cooperation and collaboration because they have not understood that these
skills must be learned and practiced, especially since students are used to working on
their own in competition for grades. At least three conditions must prevail, according
to Johnson and Johnson, if collaboration is to work. Firstly, students must see
themselves as positively interdependent so that they take a personal responsibility for
working to achieve group goals. Secondly, students must engage in considerable face-
to-face interaction in which they help each other, share resources, give constructive
feedback to each other, challenge other members' reasoning and ideas, and thirdly,
students need to keep an open mind, act in a trustworthy manner, and promote a
feeling of safety to reduce anxiety of all members. A tall order, but one that
paradoxically produces independent thinkers who have the necessary collaborative
skills to work effectively within teams.
Design of the Research
The research focussed on two areas: that of discussion in a collaborative manner

i.e. a more equal distribution of pedagogic power, as a means of developing more
analysis, evaluation and reflection in the students’ learning; secondly, whether this
approach to learning had any impact on the student perceptions of the assessment
tasks. Consequently, the research was of a qualitative, interpretivist nature although a
comparison of the previous year’s assessment grades was made to test the hypothesis
proposed by the students’ responses to the questionnaires and focus group interviews.
The research questions were:
1. To what extent did the collaborative group work affect your

understanding of the specific topic?
832
2. To what extent did the discussions in the group assist you in the
assessment task?
Two cohorts of students agreed to take part in the research. The first group, A, (38
students) were second year Combined Award students on the core module for the
Early Childhood Studies degree; the second group, B, were third year students on an
elective module, again on a Combined Awards programme (64 students). The
departure from the usual teaching method of lecture then seminar activities was
explained to the students in the week preceding the two weeks that this different
approach was going to tried. Opportunities were given for the students to express their
thoughts about the research. Students were also informed that if after the first week,
they felt that nothing had been gained, then the research would be discontinued for the
second week. This discussion with the students was an attempt to behave in an ethical
manner, because as the lecturer for these groups, the students could perceive their
participation as a tokenistic gesture of involving them in the research. (Finch and
Mason, cited in Burgess, 1990)
The topic for the first group, A, was language development followed in the second
week by language and thought. All students had previously studied this area in the first
year of their studies. The topic for the second group, B, was the relationship between
spoken language and reading skills for children aged six to seven years and for the
second week, the topic was the relationship between spoken language and written
skills for children. The previous knowledge for these topics was based on students’
experiential learning in addition to the lectures. All students were in a placement and
all had observed the literacy hour as part of the summative assessment.
The teaching sessions are of three hours’ duration. The first twenty minutes of the
collaborative sessions were taken on a whole group basis where the students, through
discussion, decided which particular aspects of the topic they wanted to focus on.
Classroom discourse is a valuable method of assessment (Black and Wilian, cited in
Gardner, 2006) so this was also useful in determining whether the students had
understood this different approach to their learning. Students were asked to form
smaller groups of no more than five to a group. Although they were asked to try to
work with people they had not previously worked with, most of them stayed in their
‘comfort zones’ and worked with their immediate neighbours or in groups with their
friends. Each group was then asked to select one of the issues they had raised in the
first part of the session; each group was given flipchart paper and pens to record their
discussions. For each area of discussion, some areas were suggested that might be used
as starting points to generate the group discussion. This part of the activity was
scheduled for an hour for the group A and one and a half hours for group B, as it was a
larger student cohort. The tutor’s role was to sit in with each smaller group for
approximately ten minutes, listening and only offering suggestions when asked or if
the tutor needed clarification of the points made. At the end of the allocated time, each
group shared their information with the other groups who were asked to comment, ask
for clarification or ask questions of the presenting group. The last part of the session
was for the students to fill in a questionnaire with open-ended questions that asked for
their comments about the procedure and whether they felt it had been beneficial to
them. The questionnaire had previously been piloted on a group of second year
students that the tutor did not teach. This was to try to assess any bias in the questions
and also to determine the clarity of the questions. (Mason, 2002) The flipchart material
was then collated and printed off so that each student had a copy. This was partly
833
because some students expressed concern that they would not have any ‘notes’ from
the sessions but also to reinforce the collaborative nature of the learning.
When the assessment tasks had been completed and graded, ten students, five from
cohort A and five from cohort B, agreed to take part in a focus group interview that
was based on a semi structured discussion format. The focus group discussion centred
on student perceptions about the role of collaborative learning and the relationship to
their understanding of completing the assessment task successfully. The focus group
participants were chosen at random and the discussion lasted for approximately ten
minutes.
Analysis of the Research
After the discussion and explanation of what the research was attempting to
determine, the students from both cohorts took part in the collaborative group work.
Although, Brookfield, (1999) states that silence may mean compliance but not
necessarily willingness. However, all students agreed to take part in the following two
weeks of collaborative learning. This agreement was achieved through a simple voting
system of asking students to write Y for yes or N for no on post-its, all of which were
anonymous. Group A, 38 students returned 30 ‘yes’ post-its (73%) and group B , 64
students returned 58 ‘yes’ post its (81%). There were not any ‘no’ post-its-the
students who did not respond with a ‘yes’ did not complete a post-it. The higher return
came from the third year group who may have assimilated the skills of collaborative
learning through their studies and therefore may have wished to incorporate them into
their learning. Or the higher return may have been because students in their final
degree year are more concerned with the grades and may have thought that this was
another way of trying to achieve the sought after higher grades.
The questionnaires were distributed just before the end of both sessions for both
cohorts of students. There was a 92% (group A, 37/38) and 93% return (group B,
60/64 ). Students were asked to complete the questionnaires and leave them on a table
before leaving the room. Again, the responses were anonymous. The questionnaire
comprised three open questions:
A. What do you think about this approach to learning?

B. What advantages are there?
C. What disadvantages are there?
In response to question A:
From a total of 97 responses, 90 students felt ‘it was effective;’ ‘learned from
other people’s ideas;’ ‘I really enjoyed this way of working’. These comments formed
the basis of the responses. However, 5 students stated that they prefer lectures as ‘they
suit my style of learning’ and ‘the lecturer knows the right answers (sic)’. Two
students stated it ‘was ok but not all the time’. The 7 less positive responses came from
the level 2 cohort which suggests that these students have still to develop a more
independent style of learning. Johnson and Johnson (1989) propose that independent
learning is a precursor to recognising the interdependence, between all interested
parties, of learning.
834
Question B:
All 97 respondents answered this question in a positive mode, even the 7 who did
not respond so positively to question A. Comments such as , ‘good to listen to people’s
ideas in less formal situation;’ ‘working with people we may not have worked with
before;’ ‘using social skills;’ ‘ some of the ideas were useful as I can use them in my
dissertation;’ ‘encourages deeper thought;’ ‘I liked the smaller group work but feel I
learn more in a lecture;’ ‘able to structure the session to meet needs;’ and one that
brought a different dimension;’ I got the chance to assess myself against others and my
self esteem went up as I realised that my thoughts were similar to theirs’. Feurerstein’s
Enrichment Programme (Bentham, cited in Wragg, 2004) if the learning goals and the
reasons for the tasks are understood then, ‘it encourages skills of self-reflection and
awareness of inner thoughts and feelings.’ (P. 83, Wragg,2004). The comment relating
to self esteem was particularly interesting as the research did not focus on this aspect
but pertains to Johnson and Johnson’s (1989) hypothesis that collaborative learning
fosters ‘psychological health’.
Question C:
53 respondents did not complete this section; 19 stated ‘none’; of the remaining
25, the comments were about communication skills such as ; ‘some people didn’t
listen /speak;’ non-participation by some group members;’ and some comments
relating to students’ confidence as independent learners e.g. ‘ not as informative as a
lecture;’ good as in introduction but still want lecture;’ ‘may not get the important
facts.’ However, as two of the aims of the report Higher Education in the 21st Century
(2002) state the following:
• key skills: communication, and learning how to learn;

• cognitive skills, such as an understanding of methodologies or ability in
critical analysis.
It is essential that teaching and learning maximise these opportunities so that

graduates have the necessary skills for entering the employment market. Research
suggests that collaborative learning fosters communication skills, improves meta-
cognitive skills and promotes an ‘intellectually curious mind.’ (Daniels, 2001, Johnson
and Johnson, 1989).
The results from the focus group discussions were that the students unanimously
felt that the collaborative learning sessions had deepened their understanding of the
issues. As a way of trying to establish more validity into this research, I collected and
collated the results for both modules from the relevant year where this research was
conducted and the preceding year where this approach was not used.
Interestingly, there is an improvement that can be seen in tables 1 and 2 although
the ‘D’ grades for both modules, in fact, show that there was no improvement. This
suggests that weaker students may need more time to work in this manner and
assimilate the knowledge. The level 3 difference was significant; the level 2 difference
was not so marked. This could imply that if this approach to learning is to be used
then the groundwork should be laid in level 1 modules. The results from the two
modules are in contrast to the view expounded by Daniels and Edwards who suggest
that it is only group assessment tasks that will benefit from collaborative learning.
835
Table 1. Level 2 Core Module
EY2000 - 2003/4 and 2004/5 results
50
45
40
Number of students
35
30
2004/5
25
2003/4
20
15
10
5
0
F0/
A B C D *E E F M WD
NS
2004/5 16 40 49 27 4 2 5 9 2
2003/4 8 36 47 30 1 1 1 8 4
Grade
Table 2. Level 3 Elective Module
EY3006 - 2003/4 and 2004/5 results
20
18
16
Number of students
14
12
2004/5
10
2003/4
8
6
4
2
0
F0/
A B C D *E E F M WD
NS
2004/5 8 19 16 3 1 5
2003/4 3 10 15 14 2 1
Grade
836
Recommendations
The level 2 students were less confident about collaborative learning and therefore
these concepts could be introduced earlier in their studies; level 1 modules could start
to include some collaborative strategies for students to set their own goals within the
learning framework of the modules.
Any preparatory work, such as specific topic reading could be given in advance
together with an explanation of how collaborative learning works. This needs more
input from lecturers in the planning stages and less at the delivery stage.
A major part of this approach to learning lies in the planning. It is important that
any given reading material relates to the summative assessment so that students can
make the connection with setting the goals and the group discussions. This is
particularly important for weaker students.
Careful thought needs to be given to the summative assessment tasks so that
students are more likely to see the significance of sharing ideas and collaborative
learning.
Finally, we need to revisit those early years’ establishments where ‘best’
collaborative practice has been identified so that we can translate those strategies into
our higher education practice.
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Learners’ Perceptions towards the Innovative and Traditional Learning Methods
73
Learners’ Perceptions towards the
Innovative and Traditional Learning
Methods
Canan Z. Karababa, Ankara University
&
Serkan Celik, Ankara University
O
ver the past fifty years, educational research have developed concrete and
functional outcomes tested under well-manipulated experimental
circumstances. We all, as the teachers, instructional designers, educational
administrators, learners, and parents interested in education, have known the
importance of the innovative issues such as constructivism, learner-centeredness,
interaction, feedback, collaboration, and cooperation in order to get a well-designed
educational environment. All these notions have appeared at the end of some great
efforts by academically devoted people. Respectful scholars investigated, examined,
analyzed, and found out how we should teach or learn. Admittedly, learners are the
main participants of a great part of the educational research in which they have been
treated as the resources to gather data. The critical issue here is that we have rarely
asked our learners’ about their opinions, recommendations or feelings towards the
educational attempts they have been exposed to. Respectively, learners own thoughts
and feelings should not be ignored while seeking for a consensus on the right
instructional model among the stakeholders of the education. This study aimed to
determine learners’ own perceptions towards the latest teaching and learning
approaches and techniques in terms of cooperation and teacher’s attitude. Participants,
as the university students having a language course, were asked about their thoughts,
preferences, and recommendations after a five week concentrated cooperative learning
program. Cooperative learning, here, was utilized as a model for the learners in the
experiment group. The following section will be a literature review on cooperative
learning. After the explanation of methodology followed pre, during and after the
experiment period, and the data analysis process, the findings of the study will be
discussed.
Cooperative Learning
The reason why cooperative learning approaches were chosen as the innovative
learning model is because the research results claim that students completing
841
cooperative learning group tasks tend to have higher academic achievements, higher
self-esteem, greater numbers of positive social skills, fewer stereotypes of individuals
of other races or ethnic groups, and greater comprehension of the content and skills
they are focusing on (Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec, 1993; Slavin, 1991; Stahl and
VanSickle, 1992). On the other hand, the teacher’s role in cooperative learning
includes carefully designing meaningful tasks that require active participation of each
student in the group toward a common end. Cooperative learning teacher is seen as a
"task setter" rather than a sage who has all the answers. As groups work on tasks, the
teachers are supposed to act as a facilitator/coach moving from group to group to
monitor the learning process. They also provide students with on-going feedback and
assessment. Artz and Newman, (1999) define cooperative learning as “small groups of
learners working together as a team to solve a problem, complete a task, or accomplish
a common goal” (p. 448). Johnson and Johnson, (1975) point out that cooperative
learning can be used as a tool to guide and shape learners’ behavior. Cooperative
learning classrooms where collaboration is practised, support students to pursue their
learning in groups of varying size: negotiating, initiating, planning and evaluating
together.
Stahl, (1994) proposes some essential elements of cooperative learning. Defining
objectives on student learning outcome and informing students about the learning
outcomes are the initials of those elements. Task directions should be stated in clear,
precise terms exactly what students are to do, in what order, with what materials, and,
when appropriate, what students are to generate as evidence of their mastery of
targeted content and skills. All the learning outcome objectives of the current study
were explained to the learners. Stahl, (1994) also points out that cooperative learning
groups should be designed in a heterogeneous way. Heterogeneity should depend on
academic abilities, and then on the basis of ethnic backgrounds, race, and gender.
Students should not be allowed to form their learning groups according to friendship.
Group heterogeneity in the current study was established according to the academic
achievements of the learners in the previous semester and gender. One of the other
elements mentioned by the Stahl, (1994) is to make learners believe that they have an
equal opportunity for success. In other words, every student must believe that he or she
has an equal chance of learning the content and abilities, and getting the group
reinforcements for academic success, regardless of the group he or she is in. The
following essential element of the cooperative learning is the positive interdependence.
To obtain a positive interdependence, teachers should design learning tasks so that
students come to believe that they sink or swim together. Learning tasks should make
the learners aware that their access to rewards is as a member of an academic team
wherein all members receive a reward or no member does. Face to face interaction is
another key issue for cooperative learning processes (Stahl, 1994). Cooperative
learning aims to engage students in some interactive abilities as leadership, trust-
building, conflict-management, constructive criticism, encouragement, compromise,
negotiation, and clarifying. As the course teacher, one of the researchers made it clear
for the students that those behaviors are expected of them. In the current study, teacher
also designed the tasks so that students have access to and comprehend the specific
information that they should learn. The other essential element of Stahl, (1994) is the
‘opportunities to complete required information-processing tasks’. According to him,
to be successful, students must complete a number of internal information-processing
tasks, such as comprehending, translating, making connections, assigning meanings,
organizing the data, and assessing the relevancy and uses of the information they
study. He also emphasizes the crucial role of providing the amount of time needed to
842
learn the targeted information and skills. Without students’ spending sufficient time
learning, the academic benefits of cooperative learning will be limited (Stahl 1992). As
one of the important issue in cooperative learning, individual accountability means that
each learner in the group should be held individually responsible and accountable for
doing his or her own share of the assignment and for learning. The last essential
element puts the emphasize on the reflection of how the group members worked
together as a team in such areas as (a) how well they achieved their group goals, (b)
how they helped each other comprehend the content, resources, and task procedures,
(c) how they used positive behaviors and attitudes to enable each individual and the
entire group as a group to be successful, and (d) what they need to do next time to
make their groups even more successful.
Methodology
The methodology followed in the current study included the phases of designing
data collection instrument, gathering and analyzing the data, and the discussing the
results and findings of the study. As the instrument used to collect data, questionnaires
(see Appendix 1: A, B, C, D) were used to survey the currently enrolled students of a
Turkish language course provided by the deanship of the Educational Sciences faculty.
The rationale behind choosing questionnaire as the tool for data gathering was that
questionnaires, as Oppenheim (1993) points out, are research instruments that require
little time or extended writing from the participants. Questionnaires are useful when
data gathered from large populations are being analyzed, and they also help
researchers while making group comparisons. The questionnaire for this study was
constructed on the basis of the notions by which pedagogic objectives can be attained
effectively such as the shift in the role of the teacher as the facilitator or coach,
learner-centeredness and collaborative activities aiming at positive interdependence.
The first draft of the questionnaire was initially prepared in English and then translated
into Turkish by two English instructors. They were then translated back into English
again by two other English instructors. The rationale for such a process was a double
check to ensure that the questionnaire did not have any items that would cause
misunderstandings among the study participants. The Turkish version of the
questionnaire was used to collect data for the study to ensure that every participant,
even the ones who did not know English, understood the questions. In the
questionnaires, there were two types of questions: Likert-scale, and multiple response
questions. The scale includes absolutely agree, agree, don’t have any Idea, don’t
Agree, I don’t Agree at all. This type of scale was used to determine participants’
responses for the statements in the last part of the questionnaire, and aimed to
determine the perceptions of the participants towards issues related to the latest
educational approaches and techniques. For the reliability of the data collection
instrument, researchers have asked the experts for their opinions and then revised the
instrument before conducting a pilot. The questionnaire was revised again and
conducted.
Data Analysis
For the data analysis, first the data were entered and statistical calculations were
made using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 10.0). The data reported
843
were analyzed using descriptive statistical techniques, e.g. frequencies and

percentages. Frequencies of the multiple response questions were calculated to gain a
general view about the perceptions of the participants in the study. For the multiple
response questions SPSS can not provide any alternative analysis techniques. In this
section, results of frequency analysis tests run on questions that were asked to
participants are presented.
Table 1 expresses the students’ perceptions towards the teacher’s attitudes. When
the first two issues are those related to the strictness or authoritarian behavior of the
teacher, frequency and percentages of the students in the experiment group is slightly
lower than the control group. This result may be caused by the classroom environment
during the treatment process which they have never confronted with before. Items 4C
and 4D are related to the teacher’s attitude in terms of approaching the students when
the issue is the information. When we look at the data, it is clear that those who said
teacher should present the information actively are the experiment group students.
Respectively, experiment group students do not prefer teachers to guide learners to
construct their own knowledge. On the other hand, students in both the experiment
group and control group do not appreciate teachers asking questions frequently (Items
4E, 4F and 4G). Surprisingly, both groups of learners expect teachers to criticize their
performance and products. When the issue is in-class reinforcements, students in
experiment group do not prefer to be assessed frequently and been graded by points,
bonuses, pluses or minuses. This result may be explained by the students’ previous
experiences in which presumably they have rarely treated like that. Both groups do not
reveal any different views in terms of how much course materials’ should be used in
the class. However, they all want to use a lot of materials and frequently. For the last
two items of in the table 1, there is a little variance between the students’ views
towards the out-of-class activities and project works. In general nearly half of the
groups approved the idea of assigning out-of-class activities and project works.
However, percentages of the students with a positive attitude towards the assignments
is higher in control group compared to experiment group.
844
Table 1. The Perceptions of Students, towards the Teacher’s Attitudes

F P
A B A B
4A. An Authoritarian teacher and having slightly strict
attitude and being able to command the class is a good teacher. 24 23 70,5 65,7
4B. It is the teacher who is always smiling and never gets
angry with 9 14 26,5 40,0
the students and expects empathy from the students.
4C. It is the teacher who presents all the relevant information (knowledge) 21 19 61,8 54,3
actively until the end of the lesson.
4D. It is the teacher who expects the students to find all the relevant 6 8 17,6 22,9
17 12 50,0 34,3
information until the end of the lesson.
6 2 17,6 5,7
4E. It is the teacher who answer/can answer all the questions.
2 2 5,9 5,7
4F. It is the teacher who always asks question.
4G. It is the teacher who never criticizes.
15 4 44,1 11,4
4H. It is the teacher who doesn’t give points or bonus points in every
lesson at the end of every learning activity.
4 9 11,8 25,7
4I. It is the teacher who gives points or bonus points in every lesson or at
0 6 0 17,1
the end of very learning activity.
11 6 32,4 17,1
4J. It is the teacher who takes examination frequently.
0 1 0 2,9
4K. It is the teacher who doesn’t take examination frequently.
4L. It is the teacher who uses less material in the lesson.
19 22 55,9 62,9
4M. It is the teacher who uses a lot of materials in the lesson (3 Lesson
Books, one Magazine every week).
15 18 44,1 51,4
4N. It is the teacher who gives weekly, monthly assignments, research
topics and projects.
10 7 29,4 20,0
4O. It is the teacher who doesn’t give weekly, monthly assignments,
research topics and projects.
Table 2 expresses the students’ perceptions towards the teacher’s role. The roles
asked of students are the ‘Questioning, Creative, Informative, Instructive, Change
Agent, Facilitative, Guide, Observer’. The roles chosen for the control group are
guide, instructive, and creative. On the other hand the roles chosen by the experiment
group are creative, informative, instructive, and guide. The roles not chosen by the
experiment group are questioning, facilitative, and change agent. This result shows
that neither experiment group nor control group have an upper level understanding of
the teacher in terms of latest educational paradigms. However, it can be derived from
the data that control group tends to prefer more conventional roles compared to
experiment group.
Table 2. The Perceptions of Students, towards the Teacher’s Role

F P
A B A B
5A. Questioning 8 16 23,5 45,7
5B. Creative 25 24 73,5 68,6
5C. Informative 22 19 64,7 54,3
5D. Instructive 24 23 70,6 65,7
2 7 5,9 20,0
5E. Change Agent
17 11 50,0 31,4
5F. Facilitative 26 28 76,5 80,0
5G. Guide 14 20 41,2 57,1
5H. Observer
845
Table 3 expresses students’ opinions towards the Turkish courses during their
secondary education processes. The terms used to express how they define these
courses are boring, entertaining, ordinary, special. The data revealed that both
experiment and control groups defined the course(s) that they had previously as boring
and ordinary with a high ratio (% 73,5 / 65,7 ). This result may be an indicator of
students’ educational habits in terms of interactivity and learner-centeredness.
Table 3. The Opinions of the Students towards the Turkish Courses during their
Secondary Education Processes
F P
A B A B
6A. Boring 15 7 44,1 20,0
6B. Entertaining 7 9 20,6 25,7
6C. Ordinary 10 16 29,4 45,7
6D. Special 2 3 5,9 8,6
Table 4 expresses the features of Turkish courses students had during their
secondary education processes. The students were asked whether the Turkish courses;
was of question-answer type, had mostly grammar written examination, used to write
compositions, mostly the teacher used to talk, mostly the students used to, used to do
group work, had out of school activities, had evaluative techniques except for the
written or oral Examination. It can be revealed from the data that the most checked
issues related to course features by the two groups are had mostly grammar, written
examination, used to write compositions. This result may provide a view to the readers
that how traditional those courses were.
Table 4. Students’ Perceptions towards the Features of Turkish Courses during their
Secondary Education Processes
F P
A B A B
Q7A. Was of Question-Answer Type. 8 14 23,5 40,0
Q7B. Had mostly Grammar Written Examination. 28 22 82,4 62,9
Q7C. Used to write Compositions. 26 28 76,5 80,0
Q7D. Mostly the Teacher used to talk. 16 15 47,1 42,9
Q7E. Mostly the students used to. 3 3 8,8 8,6
Q7F. Used to do Group work. 1 1 2,9 2,9
Q7G. Had out of School activities. 0 2 0 5,7
Q7H. Had Evaluative Techniques except the Written or Oral
Examination. 4 4 11,8 11,4
Table 5 expresses the perceptions of students, towards the statements about some
latest educational approaches and techniques. The first item shown in the table 1 may
be regarded as the key point of this study. The data showed that both groups by which
data were gathered believe that learners can learn better in cooperation. One of the
most striking output of data analysis process is that a great part of the two groups have
shared the ideas that ‘the co-operative learning activities helps the students in gaining
the abilities of leadership, showing confidence, conflict management, constructive
criticism, courage, reconciliation and negotiation’ and ‘the interaction during the time
of group work enhances the social communicative abilities’. Moreover, both groups
share one of the innovative ideas in education that ‘the Information provided to the
846
students about the aim of the lesson will affect the Students’ Success positively’. On
the other hand, students’ perceptions according to the cooperative learning activities
are generally similar. All of the students participating in the study point out that
cooperative learning groups should be formed according to the different levels of
success and different ethnic backgrounds, belief and sex. Respectively, both groups of
the learners share the idea that groups should not be formed of students who are
friends. The issues shared by half of the groups are ‘every student can affect in success
or failure in the same proportion’ and ‘it is unjust for success or failure to be tied to
whole group’s performance’. For the last question related to students’ reactions
towards the peer feedback reveals that the experiment group students are more tolerant
towards the peer feedback. It should be stated that the least percentage have existed on
the issue that ‘the group should be able to express his/ her views without asking for
anybody’s view or permission’.
Table 5. The Perceptions of Students, towards the Statements such as …

F P
A B A B
Q8. Students learn better in cooperation. 29 31 85,3 88,6
Q9. The Information provided to the students about the aim of
the lesson will affect the Students’ Success positively. 31 31 91,2 88,6
Q10. In Group Work the Groups should be formed according
to the different level of success. 22 26 64,7 74,3
Q11. In Group Work should be formed according to different
ethnic background, belief and sex. 18 25 52,9 71,4
Q12. In Group Work, the Groups should be formed of students
who are friendly. 15 12 44,2 34,3
Q13. In Group Work, every Student can affect in Success or
failure in the same proportion. 20 19 58,8 54,3
Q14. In Group Work It is Unjust for Success or Failure to be
tied to whole Group’s Performance. 18 22 53,0 62,8
Q15. The Group should be able to express his/ her views
without asking for anybody’s view or permission. 9 11 26,5 31,5
Q16. The Co-operative Learning Activities helps the Students
in gaining the abilities of Leadership, Showing Confidence, Conflict
Management, Constructive Criticism, Courage, Reconciliation and
Negotiation. 31 30 91,2 85,7
Q17. The Interaction during the time of Group Work enhances
the social communicative abilities. 31 26 91,2 74,3
Q18. How do you feel when your Colleagues comment about your Assignments?
A 10 29,4 B 8 23,5 C 16 47,1

It depends on who I don’t show I appreciate
the friend is 19 54,3 reaction but I 3 8,6 12 34,3
mind
Conclusion
The general view existed at the end of the data analysis is that there is no
significant difference among the participants’ views towards the latest educational
approaches and techniques. This result may depend on the students’ academic
discipline because they all had and have educational courses. Their perceptions might
847
have enlarged and deepened during those course periods. The broader perspective that
the study revealed is that students’ in the experiment group tend to prefer learning
choices which are relevant and similar to their educational experiences compared to
the students in the control group. This result may be seen as the effect of being under
different treatment to their usual habits. This study has showed that an experiment
should be explained to the participants which have a background on the variables
aimed to test. In general, the main output of the current study is that all of the
participants have developed a positive attitude towards the innovative issues related to
education. Whether this development is related to the current study or not, it provides a
meaningful insight to the stakeholders of the education in terms of determining
perceptions of students towards the discussed insights.
References
Johnson, D.W., R. T. Johnson, and E. J. Holubec. Circles Of Learning: Cooperation in the

Classroom, 4th edition. Edina, MN: Interaction Book, 1993.
Slavin, Robert E. Student Team Learning: A Practical Guide to Cooperative Learning.
Washington, DC: National Education Association, 1991. ED 339 518.
Nunan, D. (1988) The learner-centered curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Slavin, Robert E. “Synthesis of Research on Cooperative Learning.” Educational Leadership 48
(February 1991): 71-82. EJ 421 354.
Stahl, Robert J. “A Context for ‘Higher Order Knowledge:’ An Information-Constructivist (IC)
Perspective with Implications for Curriculum and Instruction.” Journal of Structural
Learning 11 (1992): 189-218.
Stahl, Robert J. Cooperative Learning in Social Studies: A Handbook For Teachers. Menlo
Park, CA: Addison-Wesley, 1994.
Stahl, Robert J., and R. L. VanSickle, eds. Cooperative Learning in the Social Studies
Classroom: An Invitation To Social Study. Washington, DC: National Council for the
Social Studies, 1992.
Stahl, Robert J. (1994). “The Essential Elements Of Cooperative Learning in the Classroom.”
Educational Resources Information Center.
848
APPENDIX
ENGLISH VERSION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
QUESTIONNAIRE
This Study has been prepared with the aim to assess the attitudes of the students of
the 2nd Year of the Faculty of Educational Sciences of Ankara University who take
the Course (Turkish Language 2, Text- & Sentence Knowledge) and their attitudes
against the learning activities (Process) and the attitude of the Teaching staff against
the students during the whole process of teaching. Please answer the questions below
and show your attitude against the questions (statements)
QUESTIONS
1. The Type of High School you have Graduated from
A. □ Common High School B. □ Anatolian Teaching High School

C. □ Anatolian / Super High School D. □ Other (Mention) ………………
2. The Income Level of your Family
A. 500 – 1000 YTL approximately

B. 1000 - 1500 YTL approximately
C. 1500 - 2000 YTL approximately
D. 2000 YTL and above
3. Educational Level of the Parents
MOTHER ( Primary □ / High School □ / University □) FATHER ( Primary □ / High

School □ / University □)
4. In your Opinion a Good Teacher Should be:
A. □ An Authoritarian Teacher and having slightly strict attitude and being able to
command the class is a good teacher.
B. □ It is the Teacher who is always smiling and never gets angry with the students
and expects empathy from the students.
C. □ It is the Teacher who present all the relevant information (knowledge) actively
until the end of the lesson.
D. □ It is the Teacher who expects the students to find all the relevant information
until the end of the lesson.
E. □ It is the Teacher who answer/can answer all the questions.
F. □ It is the Teacher who always asks question.
G. □ It is the Teacher who never criticizes.
H. □ It is the Teacher who doesn’t give Points or Bonus Points in every lesson at the
end of every learning activity.
I. □ It is the Teacher who gives Points or Bonus Points in every lesson or at the end of
very learning activity.
J. □ It is the Teacher who takes examination frequently.
K. □ It is the Teacher who doesn’t take examination frequently.
L. □ It is the teacher who uses less material in the lesson.
849
M. □ It is the Teacher who uses a lot of material in the lesson (3 Lesson Books, one
Magazine every week).
N. □ It is the Teacher who gives weekly, Monthly Assignments, Research Topics and
Projects.
O. □ It is the Teacher who doesn’t give weekly, Monthly Assignments, Research
Topics and Projects.
5. With which of the Following Concepts is the Teacher Known.
A. □ Questioning B. □ Creative C. □ Informative D. □ Instructive

E. □ Change Agent F. □ Facilitative G . □ Guide H. □ Observer
6. Your Turkish Lesson During the Middle School Period.
A. □ BORING B. □ ENTERTAINING C. □ ORDINARY D. □

SPECIAL
7. Your Turkish Lesson During The Middle School Period.

A. □ Was of Question-Answer Type.
B. □ Had mostly Grammar Written Examination
C. □ Used to write Compositions.
D. □ Mostly the Teacher used to talk.
E. □ Mostly the students used to.
F. □ Used to do Group work.
G. □ Had out of School activities.
H. □ Had Evaluative Techniques except the Written or Oral Examination.
8. Students Learn better in Cooperation.
A. Absolutely Agree B. Agree C. Don’t have any Idea D. I Don’t Agree E. I

Don’t Agree at all
9. The Information provided to the students about the aim of the lesson will
affect the Students’ Success Positively.

10. In Group Work the Groups should be formed according to the Different
Level of Success.

11. In Group Work should be formed according to different Ethnic Background,

Belief and Sex.

12. In Group Work, the Groups should be formed of Students who are friendly.
850
A. Absolutely Agree B. Agree C. Don’t have any Idea D. I Don’t Agree E.

I Don’t Agree at all
13. In Group Work, every Student can affect in Success or Failure in the same
Proportion.
A. Absolutely Agree B. Agree C. Don’t have any Idea D. I Don’t Agree

E. I Don’t Agree at all
14. In Group Work It is Unjust for Success or Failure to be tied to whole
Group’s Performance.

15. The Group should be able to Express his/ her Views without asking for
Anybody’s View or Permission.

16. The Interaction during the time of Group Work Enhances the Social
Communicative Abilities.

17. The Co-operative Learning Activities helps the Students in gaining the
Abilities of Leadership, Showing Confidence, Conflict Management,
Constructive Criticism, Courage, Reconciliation and Negotiation.

18. How do you feel when your Colleagues comment about your Assignments?
A. Don’t like at all B. It depends on who the friend is C. I don’t show reaction
but I mind D. I appreciate
851
852
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Athens Institute for Education and Research

Selected papers presented at the 8th International Conference

PUBLISHED BY ATHENS INSTITUTE FOR EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

First Published: 2006

Typeset, printed and binding by Theta Co.

43. Exploring Teachers’ Views on Opportunities to Learn in the 463

70. Training Special Education Teachers to Work in Inclusive 805

Mine C. Durmusoglu, Lecturer, Hacettepe University, Turkey

Ahmet Pehlivan, Associate Professor, International Cyprus University

Family and Education

This section consists of 17 papers, which are grouped in three subsections:

Initial Teacher Training

This section includes 12 papers grouped in two subsections: educational

Initiatives and Futures

This section includes 16 papers that elaborate on new policy initiatives

Materials and Methods

The Population and Sample

Data Collection Tools

Mean Standard Mean Standard

Mean Standard Mean Standard

Table 2 suggests that the cooperation point averages of five-year-olds ( X =84.16)

Additionally, pre-school education helps decrease negative behaviors and encourages

Between 2 3.495 361.433 2-3 1.082 187.421

Conclusions and Suggestions

Gökdoğan, A. (1996). Çalışan ve çalışmayan kadınların benlik saygılarının karşılaştırılması.

families with mentally retarded children are disadvantaged in terms of socioeconomic

Findings and Discussion

Table 1. Mothers’ Level of Anxiety Depending on their Children’s Gender, Standard

Dependency and self

Table 2. Mothers’ Level of Anxiety Depending on their Children’s Age, Means( Χ )

Table 4. Mothers’ Level of Anxiety Depending on the Beginning Date of Special

Table 5. Mothers’ Level of Anxiety Depending on the Age of Mother , Means ( Χ ),

Table 6. Mothers’ Level of Anxiety Depending on the Educational Background of

Table 6 indicates that mothers’ educational background does not lead to

Ahmetoğlu, E. Ve Aral, N. 2005. Zihinsel engelli çocukların yaşlarına ve engellerinin

W hile the school readiness has a meaning of preparation to formal education,

Physical Adequacy and Motor Development

Social and Sensory Development

Cognitive Development and Learning Approach

Development of conceptual and mathematic skills is significant in this attribute in

• Do the views of nursery school teachers on school readiness change due

Measures and Procedure

Teacher’s Views about Children’s School Readiness

Views of Parents and Teachers about School Readiness

Teacher 172 13.4128 5.2714

Teacher 165 16.2727 5.0778

Teacher 166 8.7892 3.2358

education period and no guidance is provided, it is determined that such children

The first step to identifying ways to promote readiness is to increase

Aysel Koksal Akyol, Ankara University

programmes and outdoor playgrounds in preschool education institutions (Kalemci

Girls 72 4.25 .75

Educational Girls 4.17 .76

Girls 4.13 .78

Girls 4.21 .68

Girls 4.27 .59

PRESCHOOL EDUCATION INSTITUTION CHOICE

Some recommendations can be made according to the results of the research.

This demonstrates that mastering of classification and seriation operations in the

Effect of the Experimental Conditions: Comparison of Changes in Classification and